ights,...and to aim high in their vocational aspirations,” they have gained in status (Spence & Buckner, 2000, p. 59). Although women’s status has increased over the decades, the power relationship between the genders, particularly in intimate relationships such as marriage, has shown relatively little change (Steil, 1997). Some research has found that the expressive traits are related to power (Saragovi, Aube, Koestner, & Zuroff, 2002). Thus, the absence of change in expressiveness may reflect the greater power that men still have in comparison to women, both in occupational settings and in intimate relationships and marriage. Implications for Psychotherapy In addition to the socially desirable instrumental and expressive traits, there are other less-researched gender-stereotyped personality traits that are socially undesirable–the dominating, submissive and complaining traits. The status approach to gender stereotyping can explain how all of these traits become linked with gender. Because men have higher status than women, the instrumentally oriented (instrumental and dominating) traits become associated with men and the expressively oriented (expressive, submissive and complaining) traits become associated with women. However, as research has shown, the instrumentally oriented traits characterize high-status individuals and the expressively oriented traits characterize low-status individuals, regardless of gender. The socially desirable instrumental and expressive traits continue to be prescriptive for women and men and are linked with female and male gender identity. The effect of these widely shared cultural prescriptions for men’s and women’s behaviors is to promote the enactment of relationships in which men have more status and power than women. The task for psychotherapy and for psychotherapists is to help women and men develop ways of defining their respective gender identities which are not dependent on culturally expected differences in status and power. The instrumental and expressive traits are valuable for both genders, and the challenge is to enable people to move beyond conventional expectations for men’s and women’s behaviors and personality traits so as to realize their own individual potential. REFERENCES Antill, J. K. (1983). Sex role complementarity versus similarity in married couples. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 145-155. Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155- 162. Broverman, I. K., Broverman, D. M., Clarkson, F. E., Rosenkrantz, P. S., & Vogel, S. R. (1970). Sex-role stereotypes and clinical judgments of mental health. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 34, 1-7. Eagly, A. H., Wood, W., & Johannesen-Schmidt, M. C. (2004b). Social role theory of sex differences and similarities: Implications for the partner preferences of women and men. In A. H. Eagly, A. E. Beall, & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), The psychology Page 22 of gender (2 nd ed., pp. 269-295). <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong>: Guilford Press. Gerber, G. L. (2001). Woman and men police officers: Status, gender, and personality. Westport, CT: Praeger. Gerber, G. L. (2009). Status and the gender stereotyped personality traits: Toward an integration. Sex Roles, 61, 297-316. Friedan, B. (1963). The feminine mystique. <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong>: Norton. Fritz, H. L., & Helgeson, V. S. (1998). Distinctions of unmitigated communion from communion: Self-neglect and over involvement with others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 121-140. Helgeson, V. S., & Fritz, H. L. (1998). A theory of unmitigated communion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2, 173-183. Helgeson, V. S., & Fritz, H. L. (1999). Unmitigated agency and unmitigated communion: Distinctions from agency and communion. Journal of Research in Personality, 33, 131-158. Hollander, E. P., & Offerman, L. R. (1990). Power and leadership in organizations: Relationships in transition. American <strong>Psychologist</strong>, 45, 179-189. Lester, D., Granau, F., & Wondrack, K. (1982). The personality and attitudes of female police officers: Needs, androgyny, and attitudes toward rape. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 10, 357-360. Moskowitz, D. S., Suh, E. J., & Desaulniers, J. (1994). Situational influences on gender differences in agency and communion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 753-761. Rose, R. M., Fogg, L. F., Helmreich, R. L., & McFadden, T. J. (1994). <strong>Psychological</strong> predictors of astronaut effectiveness. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 65, 910-915. Rose, R. M., Helmreich, R. L., Fogg, L., & McFadden, T. J. (1993). Assessments of astronaut effectiveness. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 64, 789-794. Rosen, L. N., Weber, J. P., & Martin, L. (2000). Gender-related personal attributes and psychological adjustment among U.S. Army soldiers. Military Medicine, 165, 54-59. Saragovi, C., Aube, J., Koestner, R., & Zuroff, D. (2002). Traits, motives, and depressive styles as reflections of agency and communion. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 563-577. Spence, J. T., & Buckner, C. E. (2000). Instrumental and expressive traits, trait stereotypes, and sexist attitudes: What do they signify? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24, 44-62. Spence, J. T., Deaux, K., & Helmreich, R. L. (1985 ). Sex roles in contemporary American society. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology: Special fields and applications (Vol. II, 3 rd ed., pp. 149-178). <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong>: Random House. Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R. L. & Holahan, C. K. (1979). Negative and positive components of psychological masculinity and femininity and their relationships to self-reports of neu- Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall <strong>2011</strong> • <strong>NYS</strong> <strong>Psychologist</strong>
otic and acting out behaviors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1673-1682. Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R. L., & Stapp, J. (1975). Ratings of self and peers on sex-role attributes and their relation to selfesteem and conceptions of masculinity and femininity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 29-39. Steil, J. M. (1997). Marital equality: Its relationship to the wellbeing of husbands and wives. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Twenge, J. M. (2001). Changes in women’s assertiveness in response to status and roles: A cross-temporal meta-analysis, 1931-1993. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 133-145. Twenge, J. M. (1997). Changes in masculine and feminine traits over time: A meta-analysis. Sex Roles, 36, 305-325. Weber, J. P., Rosen, L. N., & Weisbrod, C. (2000). Gender-based personality traits and military cohesion. Military Medicine, 165(4), iii, 297. Whitley, B. E. (1984). Sex-role orientation and psychological wellbeing: Two meta-analyses. Sex Roles, 12, 207-225. Williams, J. E., & Best, D. L. (1982/1990). Measuring sex stereotypes: A thirty-nation study (Rev.ed., 1990). <strong>New</strong>bury Park, CA: Sage. Page 23 Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall <strong>2011</strong> • <strong>NYS</strong> <strong>Psychologist</strong>
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