2011 • NYS Psychologist - New York State Psychological Association

THE OFFICAL JOURNAL OF
N Y S
Psychologist
Special issue of the NYSPA Notebook
THE NEW YORK STATE
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION
FALL, 2011
VOL XXIII / NO.2
Women’s Issues Across
the Spectrum
Fall 2011

NYS: Psychologist: Vol. XXIII Issue 2
Table of Contents
WOMEN’S ISSUES ACROSS THE SPECTRUM
Yoga Therapy: Road to Resiliency, Helping Women,
Men, and Children Heal in the Wake of Terrorist Attacks—Revisited
Mercedes A. McCormick & Oksana
Ostrovskaya
1
Women and Obesity: Biological /Psychological Fac- Artemis Pipinelli 5
Doing Our Best for New York’s Children: Custody Nancy S. Erikson & Chris S. O’Sullivan 9
Exploring Human Sexuality for Women with Intellectu- Sharon M. McLennon & Laura Palmer 13
Reconceptualizing Gender: Changing Views of Wom- Gwendolyn L. Gerber 18
Addressing Intimate Partner Violence on College Cam- Vanessa M. Bing 25
Contributions of New York, Women Psychologists Florence L. Denmark & John D. Hogan 28
AWARDS
Allen V. Williams, Jr. Memorial Award Barbara Fontana 32
Presidential Awards Valerie Abel, William Barr, Peter Kanaris 33
NYSPA Distinguished Service Awards Chris Allen, Leonard Davidman, Leah Klungness 33
Sidney A. Orgel Memorial Award Frank Corigliano 34
The Beacon Award for Advocacy Marianne Jackson 33
Grace Lauro Awards
Martha Agresta, Jessica Houser, Amber Kraft
Nemeth, Iskra Smiljanic
34
NYSPA Notebook ~ Vol. XXIII, No. 2 ~ Fall 2011
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Copyright 2011. All rights reserved.

NYS: Psychologist: Vol. XXIII Issue 2
Editor
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Richard Juman, PsyD
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John Northman, PhD
NYSPA Council of Representatives
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Alan Barnett, PhD
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Leonard Davidman, PhD
James Dean, PhD
Antoinette Deluca, PsyD
Bernard Frankel, PhD
Gwen Gerber, PhD
Carol Goldberg, PhD
Franklin Goldberg, PhD
Shepard Goldberg, PhD
Peter Kanaris, PhD
Harriette Kaley, PhD
John Kelly, PhD
Ann Kurz, PhD
Arlene Landes, PsyD
Deborah Lazarus, PhD
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Nadine Lindner, PhD
Rita Perlin, PhD
Dinelia Rosa, PhD
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Jamie Cullis

Yoga Therapy: Road to Resiliency
Helping Women, Men, and Children Heal in the
Wake of Terrorist Attacks—Revisited
Mercedes A. McCormick, PhD, RYT and Oksana Ostrovskaya, MA
Pace University, New York City, New York
Today psychologists are being encouraged to practice clinically
using an integrative health model. An integrative health model
incorporates traditional and alternative health tools and techniques
to reduce psychological discomfort. This is the tenth year
anniversary of the most horrific terrorist attack in our nation's history-
9/11 -The World Trade Center Attack. The purpose of this
article is to fold: first, to revisit interventions used to help 9-11 victims
heal shortly after the 9/11 attack; and second, to discuss and
demonstrate the integrative alternative technique- Yoga Therapy.
A decade ago Yoga Therapy was implemented as an effective
stress-reducing tool to help people heal and recover from the 9/11
traumatic event. Post-traumatic symptoms in adults and children
are described. Consultative, experiential, and practical use of Yoga
therapy techniques for traumatized women, men and children
are given. Participants were mental health practitioners, educators,
mothers, fathers, and children in the New York–New Jersey
Metro Area who were affected by the 9/11 attacks. Yoga therapy
techniques were reported by participants to help to reduce anxiety
and depressive symptoms and to increase positive thoughts and
behaviors in a safe, supportive environment. Thus Yoga therapy is
experienced as an effective stress-reducing vehicle that provides
time and structure for individuals to improve psychological integration
and adaptation.
Keywords: Post-traumatic symptoms, Yoga therapy, Stress reduction
The horrific events of the terrorist attacks of 9/11 awakened
the entire country to the uncertainty and fragility of human life and
the tentative safety of our existence. In the aftermath of this calamity,
many people are experiencing frustration in their healing
process.
The yogic perspective recognizes that each individual’s response
to traumatic stress is unique. On the Yoga path individuals
become aware of normal responses to abnormal events, and Yoga
is the vehicle that brings awareness of disharmony between
body and mind. Individuals recognize negative thoughts, feelings,
and behaviors that are detours on the road to wholeness. They
become resilient in dealing with stress and restore balance between
body and mind as they move toward the destination of experiencing
their true nature (Epstein, 1998).
Meditation, Breathwork, and Movement are the fuels to bring
relief from intense body sensations and strong emotional feelings.
Meditation helps to clear the mind of distractions and to bring a
person into the present moment. Breathwork enables the individual
to become open and recognize body sensations. Movement
through âsanas (yoga postures) releases emotional tension in the
body and mind; this process supports the individual in becoming
flexible in handling trauma. This threefold practice of Yoga thus
transports practitioners into the direct experience of personal
wholeness.
A decade ago I provided information, structure, and support
to help people become more aware and resilient in dealing with
their unique responses to terrorism and trauma. Within this context
I will describe my consultative, experiential, and practical efforts
as a psychologist in implementing Yoga therapy techniques
for mental health practitioners, women, men, children, and families.
An adult's reaction to traumatic events is different than a
child’s. An adult’s reaction is based on his or her physical and
mental health and how he or she has negotiated other losses and
traumas in life. When an adult witnesses an event such as 9/11
the immediate normal protective reactions are shock and denial.
Other reactions may include extreme behaviors, feelings of anxiety,
nightmares, and flashbacks immediately following the event.
As the initial shock subsides, reactions vary from one person to
another (Van der Kolk, McFarlene, & Weisaeth, 1996).
The symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder may be
displayed over time. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, (1994) an adult’s reactions
are divided into three categories: re-experiencing (via intrusive
thoughts or nightmares of the event), avoidance (through
efforts to avoid thoughts, feelings, activities, people, or places
reminiscent of the event), and increased arousal (characterized by
difficulty sleeping, irritability, exaggerated feelings of not being
safe, or being startled) (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders, 1994).
A youth’s physical and emotional responses to trauma interact
with variables such as age, life experiences, temperament,
family, and other individuals. Being younger, being female, having
a family member exposed to the World Trade Center attack, having
personal physical exposure to 9/11, and having prior exposure
to trauma were factors found to increase negative reactions to
trauma (New York State Psychiatric Institute, 2002).
Young people who undergo traumatic events often experience
fears, sleep problems including nightmares, increased physical
complaints or illness, avoidance, anger, increased aggression,
shame, anxious attachment, problems in attention and concen —
————————————————————————————-
Mercedes A. McCormick, PhD, is a licensed psychologist in New York
State. She received her doctorate degree in Family and Marriage Therapy
from Seton Hall University in NJ and MS in School Psychology at Pace
University, NYC. She is certified as a school psychologist in the states of
New York and New Jersey. She work as a school psychologist for twentyeight
years in an urban school district in NJ. She is trained in yoga therapy
and mindfulness mediation. In addition, she is the MA Coordinator of the
MA program in Psychology at Pace University and teaches in the Pace
Department Psychology Department. Mercedes is the Chapter Adviser for
Psi Chi. She is a recent Past-Chair of the Psychology Section of the New
York Academy of Sciences as well as serving as President of NYSPA
Division of Women's Issues (2012). She is currently the VP of Eastern
Region of Psi Chi, International Honor Society of Psychology and is the
President -elect of APA Div. 52 International Psychology. She has received
distinguished awards and recently APA Division 1 status as a Fellow.
She has written about alternative techniques in helping others heal
after traumatic events and creativity. She is a mentor that continues to
strive to teach and mentor others to learn and solve life challenges presented
to them. She currently writes about time management, mentoring
and shared leadership for students.
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Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall 2011 • NYS Psychologist

tration, shame, anxious attachment, problems in attention and
concentration, and learning difficulties (Nader, 2001).
Over time, traumatic symptoms in children and youth may
linger on and cause disruption in students’ daily functioning. These
ongoing difficulties may manifest in the inability to do usual
activities, problems with schoolwork, loss of interest and poor
concentration, and increased anger and having aggressive outbursts.
Withdrawal from friends, school, sports, and favorite activities
is the key signal of emotional distress. Specific trauma impressions
may translate into patterns of action and thought that
affect choices, quality of life, and behaviors (Saigh, 1989).
Yoga therapy is a valuable tool to be considered when working
with trauma victims of all ages. I utilized a Yoga therapy
framework in developing the workshop “Helping Children and
Teachers Heal in the Aftermath of Trauma.” The latter was presented
to members of the Child Study Teams of the Department
of Special Education in Jersey City, New Jersey. Jersey City is
located across the Hudson River from the site of the World Trade
Center Attacks.
Overview of the Workshop for Adults
1. Opening—Participants were presented the main purposes
of the workshop: to explore and observe post-traumatic reactions
in themselves and in students, to identify how participants and
students coped with the 9/11 attacks, and to expand their way of
managing traumatic stress through meditation, breathwork, and
movement techniques in themselves and students.
Participants then shared their experience of the 9/11 terrorist
attacks. Several members admitted the need to restore a feeling
of control and security in themselves and their students after this
traumatic event.
2. Breathwork—Abdominal breathing and a guided meditation
about feeling safe and secure were introduced. Participants experienced
“riding the breath,” relaxing, and welcoming and identifying
body sensations (Schiffmann, 1996).
3. Movement/Awareness of Emotions-Chair Yoga was practiced
to further explore body sensations and to discover emotional
blocks associated with stress. The following postures were utilized:
seated twist in a chair; exercises for the neck, eyes, shoulders,
wrists, fingers, and arms; seated cat lifts and rolls; seated
lateral bends; knees-to-chest pose; another spinal twist; and relaxation.
A body scan was incorporated at the start of relaxation
( Clampett & Peal, 2000).
4. Expression—Participants were requested to share the
parts of their body that hold stress and encouraged to label and
identify the emotions and thoughts experienced. Anger, fear, sadness,
uncertainty, and lack of control were revealed (McCormick,
1995).
5. Sharing-Participants were requested to talk about their
experiences: How did you hear about the attack? Where were
you? What did you do? They were encouraged to discuss
thoughts, feelings, and reactions openly and to discuss the impact
of the horrific event on their work with school-aged children. They
were asked to discuss ways they manage stress (Le Page, 1994).
The participants shared their reactions. They mentioned
physical symptoms of anxiety, such as rapid heart beat and rapid
breathing, headaches, and stomach problems for a period after
the attack. Uncertainty about the future and suspicion that an attack
might occur again also were common reactions.
Participants mentioned that a few of their students lost a
loved one in the attack. Other students were said to have watched
the attacks from the classroom window. Participants described
students’ traumatic responses, which included crying spells, emotional
outbursts, and a change in regular school attendance. Other
students displayed a decrease in concentration and attention and
lower school grades subsequent to the event.
6. Guided Meditation-The purpose of the culminating meditation
was to bring participants into a state of safety and peace.
They were requested to sit comfortably in their chair, place both
feet on floor, and feel their back upright against the chair. They
were then guided in a body scan, asking them to follow and feel
their breath in each part of their body—chest, belly, legs, feet,
toes, calves, thighs, etc. Participants were guided to release tension
from their head to their toes.
As the participants released tension, they were requested to
allow an image of safety and peace to appear to them—it could
take the form of a person, an animal, a place, a word, etc. As the
image became part of their awareness, they were encouraged to
let questions, fears, desires go out to their image of safety.
Participants were then encouraged to continue to follow their
breath as the image became clearer and to feel quietness within
them. They were requested to listen within. They were asked:
“What is the image telling you about your safety and peace?”
Time was given for participants to enter a state of safety and
peace, and an atmosphere of quietness was provided.
At the conclusion of the meditation, participants were reminded
that this information permeated each cell of their body, that the
image of safety and peace was within them and could be call upon
when needed. They were requested to give thanks to themselves
for the image that came to them this day.
7. Relaxation-Sitting yoga-nidrâ (learning to relax consciously
where sleep is not regarded as relaxation.
8. Closing-Chair yoga-mudrâ closed the session to seal in the
benefits of practice. The affirmation “I am safe and in control” followed.
Om was chanted with hands placed near the heart in namaste.
Outcome
Workshop evaluations were positive. Relief and gratitude
were among the strongest expressions. Overall, Yoga was recognized
as a practical means to handle stress. Participants indicated
that their feelings of peace and stillness could likely be carried
over into daily activities.
Group Session with Children
Another group therapy session was held with groups of children
and families who were directly influenced by the 9/11 attacks
through Project HART—Healing and Recovery after Trauma—via
the University of Dentistry and Medicine in New Jersey. The Project’s
format focused on creative expression to release emotional
blocks associated with traumatic stress (Cohen, Berlinger, &
March, 2000).
Yoga therapy techniques were presented in the children’s
groups. Children were given an exercise to contact and experience
prâna. They then moved into Yoga postures (tree, frog,
mountain, cobra) to develop body awareness. This was followed
by a guided meditation about dinosaurs and survival. Children let
go of tension as they acted out the meditation script. Art activities
were next introduced, and their drawings depicted the letting go of
sad and angry feelings associated with the event (Laraque, D. et
al., 2004).
The energy of prâna flows through all parts of our beings—it
is the conscious and healing aspect of all of us. The children were
requested to access the energy of prâna through their physical
bodies and to direct the prâna to an area of their body that needed
attention/healing.
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Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall 2011 • NYS Psychologist

They were requested to find a comfortable seated position in
a chair, to keep their spine as straight as possible, and to shake
their hands as if trying to shake a “bug” off their body. Next the
children placed their hands palms up on their knees or thighs.
They closed their eyes and took long, deep breaths, as if they
were blowing out the candles on a birthday cake. They were
asked to feel the breath flowing in their bodies and to observe
how their body was feeling.
After a few minutes the children were guided to focus upon
their hands and to imagine that they were breathing through their
fingertips. They were directed to focus more on the tips of their
fingers as they began to feel the vibration of the breath (prâna)
flowing in and out. As they continued to concentrate on the prâna/
energy flowing into their hands and becoming weightless, the children
were encouraged to allow their hands to slowly float up from
their knees. They were reminded to keep focus on the feelings/
sensations in their hands and their breath as their hands began to
move.
After a few moments the children moved their hands towards
their face. Keeping their hands 1-2 inches away from their face,
they allowed their hands to move gently around their face, head,
and neck, giving their aura a prânic bath. Next the children were
asked to let their hands flow to an area of the body that needed
attention/healing. It was observed that children placed their hands
on their heart, forehead, and even the knees.
At the conclusion of the exercise, children discussed what
accessing prâna felt like for them. They revealed that heat and an
electrical pull were felt in their hands and facial features. Their
sensations varied from scary, weird, jerky, and shaky to sleepy
and calm. Two children were not able to experience the flow of
prâna. One child noticed that prâna did not flow evenly in his body
(Migdow, 1999).
Dinosaur imagery was used because dinosaurs are popular
with children. They learn about dinosaurs in school and through
the media. Dinosaurs’ huge body size, which includes long arms
and legs and large mouth, facial, and torso features fascinate
them. Children like to imitate dinosaurs’ squawking sounds and to
dramatize their fearlessness, especially lumbering through a forest
looking for food to survive.
The guided meditation was selected to provide a safe, enjoyable
opportunity for the children to explore their imagination about
being a dinosaur, and how their body felt after being a dinosaur,
and to stimulate the children’s potential to develop relaxation techniques,
especially under stress.
Outcome
Workshop feedback and observations were used to determine
the outcomes of the workshops. All age groups presented
an increase in awareness about physical and emotional responses
to trauma. Adults expressed better control and the feeling of
resiliency in accepting traumatic events. Children were more
spontaneous after participating in creative expressive and movement
activities (Wiener, 1999).
Conclusion
Yoga therapy can help people of all ages to heal after traumatic
events. It encourages the exploration of thoughts, feelings,
body sensations, and behaviors related to traumatic events in a
safe, supportive environment, recharging and healing the body
and mind and helping to restore it to a condition of harmony and
balance. Thus, Yoga Therapy can thus be an effective stressreducing
technique that provides the individual/s time and structure
for psychological integration and adaptation. Furthermore, I
encourage psychologists to utilized Yoga Therapy to help their
patients deal with symptoms of chronic Post-Traumatic Stress
Disorder (Neria, Y. et al., 2010; DiGrande et al., 2008). In closing,
Yoga Therapy is fitting to be a useful tool for psychologists who
continue to help the survivors of 9/11 and for others suffering from
PSTD, for example our military men and women returning from
Afghanistan and Iraq Wars.
Additional Workshops
Child Study Teams of the Department of Special Education. ( 2002)
Psychological First-Aid for Post-Traumatic Stress Reactions: Helping
Children and Teachers Heal. Psychological Intervention in the Aftermath
of Trauma. New Jersey.
New York State Psychological Association (2002-2004). Committee
on Disaster Relief.
Seton Hall University, South Orange, NJ (2003). Psychology and Spirituality.
University of Dentistry and Medicine. (2002, Winter). Healing and
Recovery after Trauma—Project Hart. Led groups of children and
families in the county of Hudson in the communities of Bayonne, Hoboken,
and Jersey City.
REFERENCE
Adams, R. E., & Boscarino, J. A. (2006). Predictors of PTSD and delayed
PTSD after disaster: The impact of exposure and psychosocial resources.
Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 194, 485 – 493.
Agronic, G., Stueve, A., Vargo, S., & O’Donnell, L. (2007). New York City
young adults’ psychological reactions to 9/11: findings from the reach
for health longitudinal study. Journal of the American Academy of
Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 79-90.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual
of mental disorders (4 th ed.). Washington, D.C: Author.
Brown, R., & Gerbarg, P. (2005). Sudarshan Kriya yoga breathing in the
treatment of stress, anxiety, and depression: Part II – clinical applications
and guidelines. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary
Medicine, 4, 711-717.
Citizens’ Committee for Children of New York, Inc. (2002). Children and
Crisis: NYC’s Response After 9/11. New York: Belden Russonello &
Stewart.
Chen, H., Chung, H., Chen, T., & Fang, L. (2003). The emotional distress
in a community after the terrorist attack on the World Trade Center.
Community Mental Health Journal, 39, 157-165.
Clampett, C., & Peal, A. (2000). Therapeutic yoga training manual. Santa
Barbara, CA.
Cohen, J. A., Berlinger L., & March J. S. (2000). Treatment of children and
adolescents. In E. B. Foa, T. M. Keane, & M. J. Friedman (Eds.),
Effective Treatments for PTSD: Practice Guidelines from the International
Society for Traumatic Stress Studies. New York: Guildford.
DiGrande, L., Perrin, M., & Thorpe, L. (2008). Posttraumatic stress symptoms,
PTSD, and risk factors among lower Manhattan residents 2-3
Years after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. Journal of Traumatic
Stress, 3, 264-273.
Epstein, M. (1998). Going to Pieces without Falling Apart. New York:
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Galea, S., Resnick, H., & Ahern J. (2002). Mental health needs in New
York State following the September 11 th attacks. Journal of Consulting
& Clinical Psychology, 79, 322-331.
Laraque, D., Boscarino, J., & Battista, A. (2004). Reactions and needs of
Tristate-area pediatricians after the events of September 11 th : implications
for children’s mental health services. Pediatrics, 113, 1357-
1366.
Le Page, J. (1994). Integrative yoga therapy manual. Santa Barbara, Calif.:
Joseph Le Page.
McCormick, M. (1995). Family issues and outcomes of adjustment to spinal
cord injury. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Seton Hall University,
NJ.
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Migdow, J. (1999). Prana yoga teacher’s manual. New York.
Nader, K. (2001). Treatment methods for childhood trauma. In J. P. Wilson,
J. Lindy, & M. Friedman (Eds.), Core Treatment Approaches for
PTSD. New York: Guildford Press.
Neria, Y., Olfson, M., & Gameroff, M. (2010). Long-term course of probable
PTSD after the 9/11 attacks: a study in urban primary care. Journal
of Traumatic Stress, 4, 474-482.
New York Public Schools, Columbia University School of Public Health &
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Precin, P. (2006). Healing 9/11: Creative Programming by Occupational
Therapists. Mental Health, 21, 3-4.
Raphael, K., Janal, M., & Nayak, S. (2004). Comorbidity of PTSD symptoms
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Rosen, C., Tiet, Q., Cavella, S., & Finney, J. (2005). Chronic PTSD patients’
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Saigh, P. A. (1989). The validity of the posttraumatic stress disorder classification
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189-192.
Schiffmann, E. (1996). Yoga: The Spirit and Practice of Moving into Stillness.
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Silver, R.C., Poulin, M., Holman, E.A., McIntosh, D.N., & Pizzaro, J.
(2006). Coping with a National Trauma: A nationwide longitudinal
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Techniques in Clinical Practice. Washington, D.C.: APA.
NYSPA’S 75th Annual Convention
“The Illumination of Human Experience: How Psychology
and Art Help Us Understand Ourselves”
The 2012 New York State Psychological Association Convention will explore the interplay between
psychology and art by providing a forum for psychologists and artists to cross defined
boundaries between disciplines and explore, from any angle, the ingredients of personhood.
Great artists are not content to entertain- they aspire to foster, through their craft, an enhanced
understanding of the human condition. In this way they share a tradition with the field of psychology,
whose practitioners strive on different scales to accomplish similar goals to filter individual,
community, cultural and global experience into a product that shines a light on humanity and,
often, provides healing through insight and kinship.
June 8-12, 2012
The Saratoga Hilton
Downtown
Saratoga Springs, New York
For more information, please visit us on
the web at www.nyspa.org. Registration
will be open in late January 2012.
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Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall 2011 • NYS Psychologist

Women and Obesity: Biological / Psychological Factors and
Bariatric Evaluations
Artemis Pipinelli, PhD
The Technical Career Institutes
Abstract: This article will review Biological/ Psychological Factors
on obesity for women and men and cover relevant health and
medical conditions and bariatric evaluations. Obesity is one of the
nation’s fastest growing and most troubling health problems according
to world health organization. During the past 20 years
there has been a dramatic increase in obesity in the United States
that has detrimental effects in the health both females and males.
According to a million women study and other studies studying the
relationship between obesity and health related factors, It was
found that the is an association between obesity and diabetes 2
mellitus, cancer, pregnancy complications, osteoarthritis, asthma,
musculoskeletal pains and other health related problems.
Keywords: Obesity, Bariatric Evaluations, Biological and Psychological
Factors
Introduction
According to the world health organization the prevalence of
world obesity has doubled since 1980. In 2008 the estimation of
people being overweight increased to 1.5 billion adults and among
them there were 300 million obese women and 200 million obese
men (World Health Organization, 2011). Also, among nonpregnant
women ages 20- 39, twenty-six percent were overweight
and 29% were obese (WHO, 2011).
Women and Obesity
When women and men are obese it means that they have
high proportion of body fat, however overweight refers to the body
weight; it does not mean body fat. Obesity is a condition in which
the natural energy reserve, stored in the fatty tissue of humans
and other mammals, is increased to a point where it is associated
with certain health conditions or increased mortality (O’Brien et
al., 2005).
Health professionals use Body Mass Index (BMI), a mass
measure, to classify a person’s weight as healthy, overweight, or
obese. Body Mass index (BMI) describes body weight relative to
height and is correlated with total body fat content in most adults.
Metabolic syndrome (Grahovac et al., 2011; Grundy et al., 2005;
Lakka & Laaksonen, 2007; Lichtenstein et al., 2006) is a group of
risk factors that can result in different health problems: stroke,
type 2 diabetes and coronary heart disease. Women with excess
body fat around the waist and abnormal cholesterol and sugar
level, are increasing the risk of cardiovascular disease and type
diabetes 2 mellitus. The Metabolic Syndrome has implications on
abnormal glucose, metabolism, diabetes, dyslipidemia, and increased
blood pressure all increased the risk of having heart disease
and stroke (Kulie, Slattengren, Redmer, Counts, Eglash and
Schrager, 2011; Banks et al., 1999).
The US Centers for Disease Control estimated that there
were 112,000 excess deaths in the year 2000 from obesity-related
diseases. Using Centers for Disease Control data, have predicted
that female and male teens entering adulthood with a BMI more
than 40 have their life expectancy reduced by up to 8 years for
females and 13 years for males (O’Brien et al., 2005).
Obesity is one of the nation’s fastest –growing and most troubling
health problems. During the past 20 years there has been a
dramatic increase in obesity in the United States. Persons with a
BMI more than 40 may be eligible for bariatric (weight loss) surgery.
Banks et al., (1999) in the million women study the largest
study of its kind that took place in Great Britain, tracked a million
women between 50-64 years of age for five years. The study
found that a high body mass was an indicator of all types of cancers.
The risk of cancer was three fold with a 10 point increase in
the body mass index. According to investigators 6000 women
between 50 and 60 are diagnosed with cancer each year. Nearly
50% of the cases pertaining to cancer of the womb and throat
were found to be associated with obesity. The risk of ovarian cancer,
kidney cancer, cancer of the pancreas, multiple myeloma and
leukemia, increased with being obese, 45,037 new cancers were
diagnosed and 17,203 women succumbed to the cancer during
the period, the study revealed. In particular having excess abdominal
fat, both intraperitoneal, intra-abdominal, as well as subcutaneous
abdominal fat is associated with a metabolic constellation
of abnormalities, which has been called the metabolic syndrome
(WHO, 2011). Kulie, Slattengren, Redmer, Counts, Eglash
and Schrager (2011) reported that the relationship between obesity
and related health factors such as diabetes 2 mellitus, pregnancy
complications, osteoarthritis, asthma, skeletomuscular pains
and cancer in women. Obese women with endometrial, ovarian,
cervical and breast cancer have decrease survival because of
later screening and lesser response to treatment (Kulie et al,
2011). A recent investigation that was presented at the 79 th European
Atherosclerosis Society (EAS) Congress shows obesity as
an inflammatory biomarker and cause of heart disease. The results
of this study show that with every 8.8 pound increase in BMI
there was 52 percent increase in having ischemic heart disease
(Nordestgaard, 2011). Other related conditions that effect women’s
health related to obesity are low back pain and osteoarthritis,
infertility; including polycystic ovary syndrome relating to multiple
endocrine mechanisms meaning increase in the circulating insulin
levels (Kulie at al, 2011). Also, among obese pregnant women
there is the risk of Cesarean section, length of stay after delivery
and use of services, fetal abnormalities increases as BMI increases.
Maternal obesity is associated to shorter time in breastfeeding
(Kulie et al, 2011).
Etiology of Obesity
Genetic predisposition plays a role in gaining weight faster than
other people. Weight gain and loss relates to the metabolic Rate,
the rate that our body burns calories while at rest. When the metabolic
rate of an individual is slow she/he gains weight easily. The
pathogenesis of the metabolic syndrome involves the combination
of genetic and environmental factors. The degree of genetic and
environmental influences on the workings of the metabolic syn
——————————————————————————
Dr. Artemis Pipinelli, PhD, a Walden University graduate 2005, is an adjunct
assistant professor for The Technical Career Institutes, College of
New York teaching at the Human Services department. Prior she was
teaching at Lehman College, Hunter and the CUNY system. She is an
active member of NYSPA, past president of the Independent Practice
Division, and member of APA serving in the Div 52 aging, membership
and mentorship committee. She has presented numerous papers and
presentations nationally and internationally.
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Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall 2011 • NYS Psychologist

drome may differ in diverse populations (Jermendy, Littvay, Steinbach,
Jermendy, Tarnoki, Tarnoki, Metneki and Osztovits, 2011).
In a twin study researchers studying the heritability of the risk
factors characteristic of the metabolic syndrome on 101 (63
monozygotic and 38 dizygotic) adult twin pairs found that genetic
factors have significant influence on waist circumference and
blood pressure values while environmental factors had effect on
the cholesterol levels, triglycerides and glucose values of the candidate
(Jermendy et al. 2011). Consequently, those hereditary
factors may explain why some people have slower metabolic
rates than others.
Although substantial progress is made in understanding the
physiology of metabolic syndrome, the pathophysiology of abdominal
obesity still remains unclear. This is because of the mutations
of the candidate’s gene that seems to be the result of interplay
between genes in families. So, the search is focused on families
with the genetic risk of developing abdominal obesity (Groop,
2000). According to set point theory (Weinsler, Hunter, Heini, Goran
& Sell,1998) the brain regulates body weight around a genetic
predetermined level or set point. When weight gain and loss occurs,
the brain adjusts a basic metabolic rate to keep body weight
around its set point. It seems that this mechanism may have protected
our ancestors to ensure energy during the times of starvation,
famines and difficult times (Coleman, 1979). Since obese
women and men have more fat cells than average women and
men they feel hungry sooner than those with fewer fat cells. Thus,
heredity and excessive eating in childhood may play a role in the
amount of fat cells we have but still pathophysiological events
play the greater factor (Groop, 2000).
In conclusion obesity causes multiple diseases in many organ
systems in the body. Actually, almost every organ system we
have is impaired by having excess body fat.
Psychological factors related to obesity include emotional
states for excessive eating and environmental cues of food can
trigger hunger craving for food even when we are not hungry.
Also, anger (at self- others or society) can make people eat more.
Fear for gaining weight of becoming fat is another factor. low self
esteem, anxiety and depression. Other factors are:body Dimorphic
Disorder, social Stigmatization, crisis and stressful events in
life and guilt or anxiety about personal appearance. Disordered
eating refers to abnormal eating patterns and is difficult to classify
using criteria of DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2000). According to Toth &
Schwartz (2006) restrictive dieting, binging and purging are all
common and types of disordered eating. In addition, changes in
eating patterns can occur because of illness, depression, guilt,
anxiety, crisis and stressful events in life (loss of job) guilt and
anxiety about perceptions about appearance. The above authors
suggest that new eating disorders should be added to DSM such
as binge-eating and night eating syndrome.
Prochaska and DiClemente's (1982) offers a model of
change (transtheoretical) model, that most likely will be helpful in
working with people with obesity problems.
It seems to this author that in maintenance phase the individual
that has gone through the program of weight loss or bariatric
surgery is trying to maintain the healthy behaviors. Finally in the
termination phase is to resolve the issues related to food and validate
the very difficult work that he/she has accomplished during
the action phase.
Other treatment procedure for obesity includes the Roux-en-
Y gastric bypass, stapled gastroplasty, and adjustable gastric
banding, all of which are designed to reduce stomach size and
control calorie intake. Although complication rates of almost 40%
over a 180-day period have been reported, substantial health benefits
are common, including excess weight loss of up to 70% and
resolution of diabetes in 77% of patients. Over 200,000 procedures
are performed annually, and almost $1 billion was spent on
such surgeries in 2002. However, only 0.6% of eligible adults underwent
a procedure, suggesting a huge untapped market. In
early 1985, Dr. Dag Hallberg applied for a patent for the Swedish
Adjustable Gastric Band (SAGB) within Scandinavian countries. In
late March, Dr. Hallberg presented his idea of the "balloon band"
at the Swedish Surgical Society and started to use the SAGB in a
controlled series of 50 procedures. During this time, laparoscopic
surgery was not common and Dr. Hallberg and his assistant, Dr.
Peter Forsell, started performing the open technique to implant
the SAGB. In 1992, Dr. Forsell was in contact with different surgeons
in Switzerland, Italy and Germany who began to implant
the SAGB with the laparoscopic technique. Dr. Forsell fully owned
the patent at this time. In 1994, Dr. Forsell presented the SAGB at
an international workshop for bariatric surgery in Sweden, and
from then on, the SAGB started to be implanted laparoscopically.
During this time, the SAGB was manufactured by a Swedish company,
ATOS Medical. Laparoscopic Adjustable Gastric Banding,
or (LAGB), is a form of restrictive weight loss surgery (bariatrics)
designed for obesity patients with a body mass index (BMI) of 40
or greater - or between 35 – 40 with those who have comorbidities
that are known to improve with weight loss.
Pharmacological Treatment for Obesity
One of the drugs to treat obesity is Oleylethanolamide (OEA),
Sibutramine, Orlistat and Dexfenflu an SSRI’s (Serotonin
Reuptake Inhibitors). Researchers from University of California,
Irvine’s College of medicine lead by pharmacology professor Dr.
Piomelli found a chemical that naturally exists in the body and can
be proved effective in the treatment of obesity it is call OEA-
Oleylethanolamide, a regulator of eating behavior. So this chemical
was found to make rats to eat less and consequently there
was a decrease in their weight gain (Cristol, 2002). According to
Dr. Piomelli “This suggested that OEA is an important regulator of
eating behavior and could be used as a tool to design new antiobesity
medicines” and the assumption is because the OEA did
not affect the nervous system of the rats would be appropriate for
humans since it does not causes side effects as other drugs
(O’Brien et al., 2005; Mayer & Walsh, 1998).
Bariatric Evaluations
Walfish,Vance and Fabricatore, (2007) conducted a study
among 103 mental health professionals who had done psychological
evaluations for bariatric surgery. The measures by 103 psychologists
were:
-MMPI-2, Beck Depression Inventory
-Millon Behavioral Medicine Diagnostic
-Personality Assessment Inventory
-Eating Disorder Inventory
-Clinical Interview
-Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory
-Beck Anxiety Inventory
-Weight and Lifestyle Inventory
-Quality of Life Inventory
-Millon Behavioral Health Inventory
-Shipley Institute of Living Scale
-Mini mental Status Examination
According to (Walfish,Vance & Fabricatore, 2007), MMPI-2
was used by most psychologists doing bariatric evaluations. It
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Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall 2011 • NYS Psychologist

seems that the validity scales is part of the appeal of the MMPI-2.
Those scales can detect overly defensive or otherwise unreliable
response sets. This is important because some of the participants
can fake good meaning they want to minimize any emotional difficulties
they may be experiencing in life.
Who should be delay or deny bariatric surgery: According to
(Walfish,Vance & Fabricatore, 2007), the most common reason
they recommended to delay or deny the surgery was significant
psychopathology (psychosis or bipolar disorder), untreated or
undertreated depression, lack of understanding about the risks
and postoperative requirements of the surgery, active eating disorder,
and active substance abuse questionable ability to comply
with a post-surgical regimen, chaotic lifestyle or significant situational
stressors, unrealistic expectations about weight loss or
postoperative life, unsupportive or conflictual family environment,
and cognitive impairment (Walfish et al., 2007).
Who should be considered for Bariatric surgery? a) a patient
who has medical, physical or psychosocial problems associated
with their obesity, b) a patient who have made prolonged but not
successful efforts to relieve those problems by non-surgical
means and c)when serious comorbidities between obesity and
diabetes 2 mellitus , are present.
Pre-Surgical Psychological Assessments of Bariatric Surgery:
(American Society for Bariatric Surgery 2004), Eating Attitudes
and Behaviors,
Binge Eating Scale (BES), Binge Eating Questionnaire
(BEQ), Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ), Eating Inventory
(EI), Questionnaire on Eating and Weight Patterns-
Revised (QEWP-R), Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire
(EDE-Q), Eating Disorder Inventory - 2 (EDI-2), Eating Disorder
Symptom Checklist (EDI-SC)
Weight and Lifestyle inventory (WALI), Suggestions for Pre-
Surgical Psychological
Psychological Assessments of Bariatric Surgery
(Walfish,Vance & Fabricatore, 2007)
Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV, Biosocial History,
Eating Attitudes Test-Eating Disorders, Mental Status Exam, ,
The Burns Anxiety Inventory,Personality And Psychopathology,
Basic Personality Inventory (BPI), Personality Assessment Inventory
(PAI), - Axis I, Clinical Version (SCID-I:CV), Beck Depression
Inventory-II (BDI-II), Beck Anxiety Inventory
(BAI), Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory - 2 (MMPI-
2), Millon Behavioral Medicine Diagnostic (MBMD), Rosenberg
Self-Esteem Scale (SES)(RSE), Symptom Checklist 90 -R (SCL-
90-R), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Eating Expectancy
Questionnaire, Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2
(MMPI-2), Multidimensional Health Locus of Control (MHLC)
Scales, Shipley Institute of Living Scale, Spielberger State-Trait
Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI), Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety
Inventory (STAI), and Weight and Lifestyle Inventory (WALI).
Health Related Quality of Life Assessment (Walfish,Vance &
Fabricatore, 2007).
Quality of Life Questionnaire (QLQ), Quality of Life Inventory
(QOLI), Impact of Weight on Quality of Life (IWQOL), Impact of
Weight on Quality of Life (IWQOL-Lite), Impact of Weight on
Quality of Life-Kids (IWQOL-Kids), OMS 36-item Short Form
Health Survey (SF-36), Moorehead-Ardelt Quality of life Questionnaire
(M-A QoLQ), Moorehead-Ardelt Quality of life Questionnaire
II (M-A QoLQ II).
After bariatric surgery measures: Bariatric Analysis and Reporting
Outcome System (BAROS), Assessment Batteries,VA
Bariatric Surgery Workgroup 2007,Alcohol Use Disorder Testcore
(AUDIT-C), Drug Abuse Screening Test (DASTC), Millon
Behavioral Medicine Diagnostic (MBMD), Multidimensional Health
Locus of Control (MHLC), Questionnaire on Weight and Eating
Patterns-Revised (QEWP-R).
Conclusion
In conclusion, obesity epidemic in the US and Worldwide has
multifactorial causes and is linked to serious health consequences
for women and men. The financial cost of obesity is about 100
billion (CDC, 2006) and because of that cost the situation is urgent
to take action. Health insurers should provide enhanced coverage
for obesity prevention and treatment. Psychologists,
healthcare providers, educators, legislators, and social advocates
should make a dedicated effort to deal with the urgent problem of
obesity. Also, the weight loss industry must offer affordable programs
for women and men who need to take care of their weight
and general health.
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Doing Our Best for New York’s Children: Custody Evaluations
When Domestic Violence is Alleged
Nancy S. Erickson, MA
New York City
Chris S. O’Sullivan, PhD
New York City
Psychologists are often appointed by courts to conduct custody
evaluations in cases that appear to be going to trial. It is estimated
that domestic violence is implicated in over half of such disputed
custody cases. Sometimes the evaluator recommends custody
to the alleged abuser, usually the father, and often evaluators
recommend liberal visitation to the abuser. The court order or
settlement typically follows the recommendation. Three recent
studies point to evaluators’ lack of knowledge of domestic violence,
especially of indicators of ongoing risk to the victim and
children, and evaluators’ belief that mothers make false allegations
of domestic violence as the source of these recommendations.
The studies support the conclusion that domestic violence
training for custody evaluators is crucial.
Key words: Child custody; domestic violence; custody evaluators;
domestic violence training; best interest standard.
The Unthinkable Does Happen
A few years ago, a woman who had fled from her abusive
husband walked into a Legal Services office. A Family Court
judge had granted him custody of their child. She had been fired
from her job for extensive absences due to court appearances. In
treatment for PTSD and depression, she was advised by her
therapist to take time to recover – particularly from the trauma of
losing her child – before seeking work. The mother told the attorney,
“He said if I ever left him, he would make sure I never got
anything from the court. I was ready to lose everything, but I didn’t
know that included my child.”
The attorney read the custody evaluation; it recommended
custody to the father. The father’s abuse of the mother and the
impact on the mother and child were ignored. The mother was
viewed as a less suitable candidate for custody because she was
on medication for depression. The custody evaluator made no
connection between her psychological status and the abuse she
had suffered, despite notations in her medical records. This case
is not unique: courts can and do award custody to perpetrators of
domestic violence on the recommendation of evaluators (Inter-
American Commission on Human Rights, 2007; Wissink v. Wissink,
2002).
The Role of Custody Evaluators in Courts’ Dangerous Decisions
When parents with children divorce or separate and cannot
come to an agreement about custody and visitation, courts must
decide for them. All state statutes require the court to use the
“best interests of the child” standard (Brandt & Ferrin, 2009). It is
well established by research and acknowledged in statutes that
childhood exposure to domestic violence has life-long deleterious
effects on social, emotional and cognitive development (Wolfe,
Crooks, Lee, McIntyre-Smith and Jaffe, 2003). Furthermore,
granting custody or unsupervised visitation to a perpetrator of
domestic violence can be dangerous to a child because of an
increased risk of child abuse (Herrenkohl, Sousa, Tajima, Herrenkohl,
& Moylan, 2008), and unsupervised transfers can be dangerous
to the victimized parent. Therefore, all states but one have
adopted statutes requiring consideration of domestic violence in
child custody and visitation decisions (Brandt & Ferrin, 2009).
New York enacted a statute in 1996 that made domestic violence
the only factor the court must consider in determining the child’s
best interest.
Despite legislatures’ concern about the impact of domestic
violence on children, courts continue to grant custody or unsupervised
visitation to parents (usually fathers) who have abused the
other parent (Neustein & Lesher, 2005; Rosen & O’Sullivan,
2005). A factor contributing to courts’ failure to recognize domestic
violence or to respond to it adequately is the appointment of
custody evaluators -- usually psychologists, psychiatrists, or social
workers. Custody evaluators are viewed as neutral “experts” who
can assist the court in determining the best interests of the child.
Their reports strongly influence judicial decisions (Kunin, Ebbesen
& Konecni, 1992; Davis, O’Sullivan, Susser & Fields, 2011). Judges
are also aware that, once the evaluator has submitted the report,
parents often settle the case along the lines suggested by
the evaluator (Baerger, Galatzer-Levy, Gould & Nye, 2002). Davis,
et al. (2011) found that settlement agreements adhere even
more closely to evaluators’ recommendations than court orders
following trials.
The Expertise of Custody Evaluators
Expert testimony usually takes the form of opinion, which is
admissible only if relevant, reliable, and helpful to the judge or
jury. (Witnesses are not generally permitted to testify as to their
opinions, only to facts.) The Supreme Court’s decision in Daubert
—————————————————————————————
Nancy S. Erickson (J.D. Brooklyn Law School, LL.M. Yale Law School,
M.A. Forensic Psychology John Jay College of Criminal Justice) is an
attorney in private practice and a consultant on issues relating to law and
psychology, particularly child custody evaluations and domestic violence.
For over ten years, she was a professor of law. She has also been an
attorney for the City of New York, for the National Center on Women and
Family Law, and for a Legal Services program in Brooklyn, representing
low income clients – primarily battered women – in divorce and other family
cases. She has written books and articles on family law, including domestic
violence, child support, custody, marital property, attorneys for
children, custody evaluations, and adoption.
Chris S. O’Sullivan, PhD, is a social psychologist who has been conducting
research on domestic violence and the courts for 15 years, primarily
with funding from the US Department of Justice. She has conducted four
studies on visitation and custody decisions, including the influences on
and consequences of those decisions. She has also investigated the
effectiveness of batterer programs in reducing reoffending, “no drop” prosecution
policies, domestic violence risk assessment, domestic violence
court practices nationally, and sexual assault revictimization, and has
consulted on human trafficking research. She is coordinator of two OVW
grants to Spring Valley, NY, one to develop training for local domestic
violence court personnel and the other a multicultural domestic violence
initiative and domestic violence court.
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Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall 2011 • NYS Psychologist

(1993), positioning trial judges as gatekeepers against expert
testimony that is insufficiently empirical, has reverberated through
both the legal and mental health professions (Emery, Otto, &
O’Donohue, 2005; Kelly & Ramsey, 2009; Krause & Sales, 2000;
Tippins & Wittman, 2005).
Appointment of a psychological expert witness would seem to
be beneficial to the court’s attempt to assess parenting capacity
and the child’s best interest. Because it has been estimated that
domestic violence is confirmed in over half of cases that go to
custody evaluators (Haselschwerdt, Hardesty & Hans, 2011), custody
evaluators should be familiar with the empirical literature on
domestic violence as it pertains to children and parenting to qualify
as expert. Recent studies have found, however, that custody
evaluators vary widely in their knowledge of intimate partner violence
and that many are ill-informed (Hardesty, 2010; O’Sullivan,
2010; Saunders, 2010). Custody evaluators often do not recognize
domestic violence; when they do, many do not take it into
account as the law prescribes, do not understand the risks to the
victimized parent and child, and are not aware of the impact on
the victimized parent’s ability to care for the child or the implications
for the perpetrator’s parenting.
Mental health professionals who seek to conduct custody evaluations
for courts are not required to demonstrate knowledge of
domestic violence or its impact on the victim or children, however.
Only California requires training in domestic violence for custody
evaluators (Report of the Matrimonial Commission, 2006). New
York’s First and Second Judicial Departments, which include New
York City, Long Island, and Westchester, maintain a panel of
mental health professionals from which judges are permitted to
appoint custody evaluators, but knowledge of domestic violence is
not a criterion for being admitted to the panel.
Where and Why Custody Evaluators Err in Domestic Violence
Cases
Ill-informed custody evaluators often share with non-experts
prevalent biases and myths about domestic violence allegations
(Dallam & Silberg, 2006; Haselschwerdt, et al., 2011). Some of
the myths are: (1) a history of battering is irrelevant to parenting;
(2) the allegations are often false; (3) child sexual abuse allegations
in the context of custody disputes are highly suspect; (4)
abusers are overtly pathological; (5) a normal person would not
tolerate abuse; (6) parents who object to unsupervised visits by
the other parent are uncooperative and should not get custody;
and (7) “parental alienation” is a validated pathology, particularly
of mothers.
Another problem is that many custody evaluators misuse
psychological tests in evaluating parenting abilities in the face of
domestic violence allegations. The MMPI is most commonly used:
a 2008 survey found that 97% of custody evaluators use the
MMPI-2 (Ackerman & Pritzl, 2011). Custody evaluators have
sometimes misinterpreted MMPI and MMPI-2 data, “diagnosing”
battered women with serious psychopathologies when, in fact,
they suffer from depression and anxiety, or even PTSD, caused
by the abuse (Erickson, 2005; Morrell & Rubin, 2001; Rosewater,
1988). Most batterers evince no pathology on psychological tests
(Holtzworth-Munroe & Stuart, 1994); there is no diagnostic test of
perpetration of domestic violence or profile of perpetrators (APA,
1996; Craig, 2001; Otto & Collins, 1995).
A study of custody evaluators in 2003 was the first survey to
ask evaluators specifically about their practices in cases involving
allegations of domestic violence (Bow & Boxer, 2003). The authors
concluded that evaluators use appropriate methods to investigate
these cases. A subsequent study that reviewed what
custody evaluators actually do, as opposed to what they claim to
do, reached the opposite conclusion, however. Logan and colleagues
found that “evaluators do not appear to investigate the
Page 10
nature or extent of domestic violence … and … do not explore
domestic violence as a way of attending to the child’s safety interests”
(Logan, Walker, Jordan, & Horvath, 2002, p.735). Notably,
Ackerman and Pritzl’s [2011] survey that “updated” two earlier
surveys of custody evaluators did not mention domestic violence.
The Office on Violence Against Women (OVW) of the US
Department of Justice (USDOJ) has determined that flawed custody
and visitation decisions in American courts are a matter of
grave concern. OVW has supported Safe Haven visitation programs
and other special projects to protect women who share
children with their abusers. In 2007, the National Institute of Justice
(NIJ), the research arm of the USDOJ, solicited research proposals
on custody evaluations, parental alienation and friendly
parent biases against battered mothers. Three of the proposed
studies (two funded by NIJ) were completed in 2010.
Hardesty and Hans (2010) of the University of Illinois conducted
an online survey of custody evaluators in 48 states; 74% of the
603 respondents said they had received training or education on
domestic violence within the last three years. The survey presented
a vignette in three segments, varying the severity of the domestic
violence, the demeanor of the mother/alleged victim
(hostile or pleasant), whether there was documentation of the
abuse, and whether the father counter-charged parental alienation.
Respondents were asked whether they would lean toward
recommending custody to the mother or the father or joint custody
and their rationale, and the extent to which they believed the
mother’s allegations.
Before the domestic violence allegations were introduced, the
majority leaned toward joint custody; after they were introduced,
the majority leaned toward granting custody to the mother – especially
if she was presented as pleasant. The evaluators were five
times more likely to believe her allegations when she was described
positively and five times more likely to lean toward granting
the father sole custody if the mother was described as hostile.
Documentation of the abuse did not increase the credibility of the
mother’s allegations of abuse, but the lack of documentation decreased
her credibility, and the effect of the mother’s demeanor
remained significant. The investigators concluded that, although
the allegations of domestic violence did influence the evaluators
to grant the mother physical custody, the mother’s demeanor influenced
her believability more than characteristics of the abuse.
They recommend universal training requirements that emphasize
understanding the context of abuse and provide skills to weigh
“friendly parent” presentations when there is domestic violence.
They also espouse use of research-based risk assessments to
help evaluators focus on the characteristics of the domestic violence
and discourage reliance on such biased indicators as the
mother’s demeanor.
Daniel Saunders and colleagues at the University of Michigan
School of Social Work also conducted a multi-state survey and
utilized vignettes, but they included a wider range of professionals
(Saunders, 2010). The primary research question was whether
custody evaluators and other professionals involved in custody
disputes believe that allegations of domestic violence are false,
and to what extent the belief was related to five factors: training
on domestic violence, decisions on custody and evaluation in the
vignettes, belief that allegations of child abuse are false, belief in
so-called “parental alienation,” and endorsement of patriarchal
norms as measured by the Modern Sexism Scale. Of the 1,197
respondents, 465 were custody evaluators; others were judges,
attorneys, and DV program workers including advocates, attorneys
and program directors. Custody evaluators were most often
psychologists (52%) and social workers (24%).
Of the four types of respondents, the custody evaluators
were most likely to believe that mothers make false allegations of
domestic violence, followed by private attorneys and then judges
Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall 2011 • NYS Psychologist

– unless the judges had taken steps to learn about domestic violence
or were women, when they had the lowest estimations.
Custody evaluators and judges were least likely to believe that
fathers make false allegations of domestic violence. Belief in false
allegations of domestic violence was strongly related to beliefs
that domestic violence is not important in custody and visitation
decisions, that mothers alienate children from fathers, and that
reluctance of victims to co-parent harms children. Acquisition of
knowledge about domestic violence (attending lectures or workshops,
reading books and articles, reviewing websites, etc.) was
associated with support of victims. In particular, knowledge of
danger assessment resulted in more frequent recommendations
of sole custody for victims. Acquisition of knowledge about children’s
exposure to domestic violence was associated with more
frequent recommendations for supervised visitation.
Implications of the study are that custody evaluators most need to
learn about post-separation violence and assessing dangerousness.
They also need to understand the problems that can arise
from granting joint legal custody to abusers even when the victim
has sole physical custody. Finally, the authors conclude that evaluators
need to understand the limits of psychological testing to
assess for domestic violence and to assess mental health of victims.
The third study reviewed custody evaluations in a sample of
69 custody cases heard in New York City Family and Supreme
Courts (O’Sullivan, 2010). The primary outcome variables in this
study were the safety of the parenting plan for the mother and
child in (1) the evaluators’ recommendation and (2) the court outcome
(either by a decision of the court following trial or by settlement
agreement between the parents). Parenting plan safety was
a composite of a number of variables with a range from unsafe to
most safe, such as frequent or infrequent transfer of the children
between the parents, unsupervised versus third party transfer,
and unsupervised overnight visits versus visits at a supervised
visitation center.
The evaluators’ recommendations were followed in both settlements
and court decisions, with no significant difference between
the evaluators’ recommended plans and the plans in settlements
and court orders in overall safety. The strongest influence
on the evaluators’ recommendations, and therefore on the outcome
of the case, was the evaluator’s familiarity with empirically
established risk factors for ongoing abuse and potential lethality.
The evaluator’s general knowledge of domestic violence and use
of a power and control model also significantly predicted the safety
of the parenting plan. Surprisingly, the severity of the abuse
and the thoroughness of the evaluator’s investigation (e.g., conducting
collateral interviews or reviewing criminal records) had no
relationship to the safety of the parenting plan.
The study showed that what the evaluator brings to the case
has more influence on the family’s fate than the facts of the case.
There was little consistency across evaluators; therefore, it is logically
impossible that the best interests of the child are being
served in all cases. In particular, the evaluator’s knowledge of
ongoing risks to the mother and children was most likely to determine
custody and visitation outcomes. The researchers recommend
that evaluators be screened for knowledge of domestic violence
and that training of custody evaluators be required.
Lack of Available Training
The lack of training in domestic violence among custody evaluators
could be expected given the absence of required courses
on this topic in graduate programs and the dearth of such courses
in curricula (APA, 1996, p. 13; Pope & Feldman-Summers, 1992;
Zorza, 1996). Bow and Boxer (2003) found that almost 70% of
their survey respondents had taken no graduate courses covering
domestic violence. A mental health professional seeking training
in domestic violence would find few opportunities in New York.
The Appellate Divisions occasionally offer programs in domestic
violence to the mental health professionals on the panel. The
Forensic Division of the New York State Psychological Association
is attempting to contribute to the education of psychologists
about domestic violence, and offered programs on custody evaluations
in cases involving domestic violence in 2007 and 2010.
For someone who wishes to become truly knowledgeable in this
field, those programs can be only an introduction. Saunders
(2010) found, however, that professional consultations and reading
books and websites about domestic violence also had a
measurably positive effect on custody evaluators’ hypothetical
recommendations. Viewing films and videos did not.
Conclusion
Allegations of domestic violence are likely to be a component
of about half the cases for which courts order custody evaluations.
Consequently, it is incumbent on custody evaluators to learn
about domestic violence and its effects on victims and children. If
evaluation of California’s required training finds that participants
benefitted, New York should adopt such requirements. Meanwhile,
New York custody evaluators must take the initiative to
seek opportunities for learning about domestic violence. Otherwise,
the courts will continue to fail often in their mandate to make
custody and visitation orders that are in the “best interests of the
child.” The children of New York State deserve better – they deserve
the best we can give them.
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Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall 2011 • NYS Psychologist

Exploring Human Sexuality for
Women with Intellectual Disabilities
Sharon M. McLennon, MSEd., CRC, LMHC
Laura Palmer, PhD
This literary review will focus on discussing the significance of
sexuality, intimacy, and establishment of meaningful relationships
for women with intellectual disabilities. Women with intellectual
disabilities should have the same individual rights in this country,
including having access to health information about their sexual
reproductive system. Knowing about the inner workings of their
reproductive organs, the ways that sexually transmitted diseases
are spread, information regarding sexual intercourse, and responsibilities
and procedures regarding the use of birth control are
critical to their health and safety. This article will present the challenges
that women with intellectual disabilities might encounter
when exploring their sexuality. Treatment recommendations will
be discuss to assist those professionals who work with this population.
Key Words: women; sexuality; intimacy; intellectual disabilities;
reproductive health; marginalized group
INTRODUCTION
As human beings, we try to evaluate our individual purpose and
meaning for our existence. This task could be accomplished by finding
satisfaction in one’s occupational choices, having and raising
children, maintaining loving relationships with significant others and
family members, etc. For most people, the satisfaction in life could
be defined by the quality of their loving relationships. Many individuals
depend on these relationships with significant others to bring
them romantic comfort, companionship, intellectual stimulation, sexual
satisfaction and a sense of connection. A healthy sexual identity
contributes to a person’s sense of individual worth and their sense of
being valued and appreciated in their romantic relationships.
It was stated by Vansteenwegen, Jans and Revell (2003) that
a woman with a disability can experience difficulties in demonstrating
her sexuality and having sexual satisfaction due to the
implications of her disability as well as societal view on the impact
of the disability. Their research ascertained that approximately
95% of individuals without disabilities are engaging in sexual activity.
When examining the same statistics pertaining to individuals
with disabilities, only 50% of Individuals with Disabilities are sexually
active. Obviously, there is an issue of definition and degree
of disability to be considered when exploring the importance of
sexuality to one’s sense of identity. All people are biologically created
for their sexuality, including those who have disabilities.
Sweeney (2007), Anderson (2000), and Heyman & Huckle
(1995) suggested that parents of a person with an intellectual
disability (ID) might have some preconceived notions that might
include the following stereotypic thoughts:
1. People with ID are childlike in nature, or even considered
perpetual children and not true sexual beings like their peers
without disabilities.
2. People with ID do not really view their sexuality as a critical
issue in their life.
3. People with ID are not given the same credence like their non
-disabled peers when considering their sexual expression.
4. People with ID are considered asexual.
5. People with ID are sexually impulsive.
6. People with ID are not fully responsible for their sexual behaviors
and, if taught about it, might sexually act out.
7. Bodies of people who have ID do not sexually mature like
their counterparts without disabilities.
8. People with ID would be unable to fully or partially comprehend
cultural rules regarding acceptable, public, sexual behavior.
9. People with ID would be unable to deal with or tolerate the
complexities of sexual relationships.
10. People with ID overall, would not be accepted by society in a
sexual relationship.
These present preconceived notions regarding women with
ID are damaging and further cause the transfer of incorrect sexual
knowledge for this referent group.
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
American history demonstrates a very difficult sexual development
and exploration period for women with ID. This troublesome time in
American culture was known as the Eugenics Movement. According
to Landman (1932) eugenics is defined as “A science of human
betterment. It is concerned with the study of being wellborn
______________________________________________
Sharon Melisse McLennon, MSEd., CRC, LMHC has been a Certified
Rehabilitation Counselor for over 13 years and is a New York State licensed
Mental Health Counselor. She is a Rehabilitation Consultant at the
Shield Institute for Clinical Services in Bayside, New York where she
works with individuals with intellectual disabilities. She is a fifth-year doctoral
candidate in the Counseling Psychology program At Seton Hall University
in South Orange, New Jersey. Ms. McLennon’s research areas
include disability and sexuality. She wrote an article titled “The Pursuit of
Happiness: the Aspect of Disability in Graduate Education” published in
the New Jersey Psychologist in 2007. Ms. McLennon has received numerous
awards for her research endeavors and academic scholarship including
the American Psychological Association’s Division 22, Rehabilitation
Psychology, Research Poster Award of the Year for her research on employment
needs for persons with Traumatic Brain Injury presented at the
San Diego annual convention in 2010, the graduate education award from
the Lighthouse International and from the American Council for the Blind
in 2008.
Laura Palmer, Ph.D. is an Associate Professor in the department of
Counseling Psychology at Seton Hall University in South Orange, New
Jersey. Dr. Palmer is the chair of the Professional Psychology and Family
Therapy Department and Training Director of the doctoral program in
Counseling Psychology in the College of Education and Human Services
at Seton Hall University. She maintains a private practice where she works
with children and elderly adults. Dr. Palmer’s research interest is in the
areas of neuropsychology, sexual abuse and trauma.
Page 13
Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall 2011 • NYS Psychologist

with all the social agencies that may improve or impair physically,
mentally the racial qualities of future generations” (Landman,
1932, p. 3). The eugenics movement’s psychological imperative
was to breed or create superior human beings. This movement
believed in the strength of the influence of genetics and ignored
the importance of the nurturing process. This movement examined
the fecundity of all human beings and extensively looked to
preserve a strong, genetic pool to eliminate all inherited defects.
The elimination of such defects as blindness, deafness, physically
impaired, mental illness, intellectual deficiencies, and criminality,
were controlled by utilizing methods such as mandatory birth control
(involuntary sterilization and complete hysterectomies), regulated
immigration procedures, and laws regarding marriage
(Landman, 1932).
Philosophers and promoters for eugenics believed that during
this time, the American culture needed to have a society which
consisted of intelligent and strong people. As the industrial revolution
came into existence, promoters of eugenics further believed
that the society needed intelligent, physically powerful, superior
beings to run and operate all machinery, carry-out all financial
affairs of a newly developing economy, and take care of the overall
governmental powers as this country launched itself as a super
power. The social outcasts and “defectives” were certainly not
capable of managing such a triumph. Therefore, in order for this
society to satisfy its objectives, all “defectives” needed to be exterminated.
Convictions held by the eugenics movement closely
align with thoughts of Social Darwinism. Social Darwinism states
that the best suited individuals (physically, emotionally, and mentally)
will survive and prosper in this society. These cogitations
regarding individuals being genetically, physically and mentally
superior in order to lead the race were highly regarded during the
eugenic movement (Landman, 1932; Nelson et al., 1999).
During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, numerous
Women with ID were committed into mental Institutions
usually for the duration of their life span (Kempton & Kahn, 1991).
Additionally, these women were involuntarily sterilized. This action
occurred because people without disabilities believed that Women
with ID were thought as inferior beings, dependent, incapable of
having or raising children, and further unable to make appropriate
choices regarding their sexuality and the utilization of their reproductive
organs. Such women were characterized by society as
“feeble-minded,” “idiots,” “morons,” “or imbeciles.” In addition,
people without disabilities were convicted in their thinking that
allowing Women with ID to engage in sexual activity could further
lead to reproductive utilization and this might precipitate increase
levels of sexuality. Further, having Women with ID engage in sexual
activity could additionally lead to the continual transfer of abnormal
genes to their possible offspring. This would result in a
population burden with inferior and undesirable individuals
(Dotson, Stinson, & Christian, 2003; Landman, 1932; Nelson et
al., 1999; Robitscher, 1973).
Page 14
The eugenic sterilization process was executed on innocent
women with ID. For the most part, they were unwilling participants.
These women with ID were persuaded or forced to have
this medical procedure done. State laws initiated and passed by
people without disabilities caused for the further demoralization of
women with ID. These women were not afforded the same rights,
privileges, innate comfort ability as women without disabilities.
Unfortunately, a woman with an ID could not express her sexual
wishes, wants and desires of her womanhood based on her disability
status. Legislators without disabilities believed that women
with ID would have biologically defective children and/or not be
suitably fit for child rearing obligations (Landman, 1932; Nelson et
al., 1999; Robitscher, 1973). Unfortunately, historical sexual impressions
for this referent group continue to inform us how arduous
it is for women with ID in the past and now in the present.
These women continue to struggle with understanding their sexual
identity because of their disability.
SEXUAL CONCEPTUALIZATION
Sexuality is the innate process by which the person has a combined
individual, emotional and physical completeness of self. Sexuality
could be further defined as the complete composition of one’s
being. These features include physical, spiritual, emotional, and psychological.
Sexuality encompasses feelings and/or emotions regarding
a particular person and their feelings about us as relating to our
specific gender roles in being a man or woman (Anderson, 2000;
Chilman, 1990).
This is further supported by the definition of sexuality described
by Coleman (2002). He mentioned that, according to the Human
Sexuality Program at the University of Minnesota, sexuality is defined
as “In a broadest sense the psychic energy which finds
physical and emotional expression in the desire for contact,
warmth, tenderness, and love” (Coleman, 2002, p.5). According to
Anderson (2000) elements of sexuality consist of the following:
(a) Sensuality
This refers to the individual comprehension of one’s physical
body, sexual memory, mental fantasy, and orgasm (Anderson,
2000). Mackelprang (1993) indicated that People with ID have the
ability to experience sexual urges by using all their remaining
functional senses. Therefore, this disability group needs to be
instructed by parents, educators, and service providers that human
sexual processes such as the menstruation cycle, male or
female ejaculation, and/or nocturnal emissions are normal sexual
processes that occur in all human beings. These biological processes
are innate in all and are not clear, delineated, manifestations
of the person’s disability (Kewman, Warschausky, Engel and
Warzak, 1997).
(b) Identity
This refers to the specific gender (either being male or female)
and to the specific gender roles that the individual elects to orchestrate
in her professional work setting, in her family, in her residential
communities, in her personal romantic and/or platonic relationships,
etc. This concept of identity includes one’s sexual orientation
(Anderson, 2000; Chilman, 1990). Chilman views the stage of female
adolescence as a time for the developing teen to discover
certain humanistic traits such as intimacy, nurturance, autonomy
and affiliation. She thinks that these traits have a primary focus for
the establishment of a healthy sexuality. Additionally, good sexual
health for teens is grounded on a foundation which consists of
self-esteem and respect in one’s self (Chilman).
For a woman with ID, societal ignorance thinks and believes
that she is not cognizant of gender roles and differing aspects of the
sexes. However, female adolescents’ with ID are very aware of
physical differences between male and female anatomy especially in
the secondary school setting. Female teenagers with intellectual
disabilities are very curious about body differences especially during
the stages of puberty and young adult development. Because of
their intellectual processing, they may not always be readily able to
precisely articulate the sexual feelings occurring in their body. Nevertheless,
despite their intellectual disability status, they do experience
feelings of arousal and attraction which consists of both physical
and emotional levels of sexuality (Anderson, 2000).
(c) Intimacy
This refers to the emotional nexus and the overwhelming feelings
of love and lust that usually occur in most sexual entanglements
(Anderson, 2000). For female teenagers with ID, Matich-Maroney,
Boyle and Crocker (2005) emphasized that these teenagers do
exhibit intensified emotions and feelings regarding romantic relationships.
They experience feelings of attraction and desire towards
members of the opposite sex. Also, the authors indicated
Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall 2011 • NYS Psychologist

that some researchers in sexuality and disability studies have
begun to analyze the frequent occurrence of teens with ID encountering
intimate feelings of attraction and desire towards members
of the same gender (Matich-Maroney et al., 2005)
(d) Reproduction
This refers to having the ability to produce genetic offspring
(Anderson, 2000; Chilman, 1990). Female teenagers with ID can
experience all physical stages of life. This includes the stage of puberty.
Puberty is a physical life stage that comprises a myriad of
physiological and physical changes which take place in boys and
girls. This stage usually begins to occur during the ages of 10
through 18. This process insures that the female adolescent’s body
is biologically equipped to reproduce offspring. This process is also
considered psychological in nature and the person will have emotional
feelings that they may find arduous to discern (Anderson,
2000).
According to Ellis (2004), this reproductive process is defined as
Timing and tempo of pubertal development. He stated that pubertal
timing is having varying levels of physical and sexual maturation.
Pubertal development is the process by which the adrenal glands
(adrenarche) and the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis
(gonadarche) grow, develop and regulate female reproductive hormones.
Basically, adrenarche and gonadarche primary function is to
cause for the heightened secretion of sex steroids during the pubertal
phase of female development. Some examples of physiological
changes noted by the presence of adrenal androgens are indicated
by the establishment of pubic hair, change in vocal pitch, expansion
of skeletal growth, rising levels of oil on the skin, and body odor
(Ellis).
More specifically, Ellis (2004) articulates that gonadarche initiates
with the reactivation of pulsatile secretion of gonadotropinreleasing
hormone and it is produced by neurons in the hypothalamus.
It precipitates the anterior pituitary gland to produce significant
gonadotropins for example, luteinizing hormone and folliclestimulating
hormone. The production of these hormones affects several
processes, for instance, ovarian follicular maturation, increased
production of ovarian steroid hormones, formation of secondary sexual
characteristics, implementation of the menstrual cycle, subcutaneous
fat deposition, and widening of the pelvis (Ellis).
Additionally, based on the biological development and maturation,
it is clear that women with ID are able and biologically equip to
reproduce offspring. According to Levy, Perhats, Nash-Johnson &
Weller (1992), the risk for unwanted pregnancies is very high for
this disability group compared to their peers without disabilities
and these women are at higher risk for being recipients of unwanted
sexually transmitted diseases and even victims of sexual
abuse (Sweeney, 2007).
(e) Sexualization
This refers to having overwhelming sexual aggression and control
which could lead to sexual violence for instance, rape, incest,
and sexual abuse (Anderson, 2000).
Women with ID may depend on care providers to assist them
with completing some activities of daily living. Because of this dependence,
there is a higher incidence of repeated acts of sexual
abuse. According to Sobsey and Doe (1991), their research findings
revealed that 83 percent of women with ID had been sexually
assaulted. Out of those women, approximately 50 percent of them
had been sexually assaulted at least ten times. Even more disturbing
and tragic is the fact that some types of cognitive disabilities
can prevent a victim from verbally reporting the act. These
victims might have difficulty coming up with the correct vernacular
to fully describe the act in question. Further, the person may find it
hard to physically run away from the perpetrator, or even to physically
fight off the assailant (Sobsey & Doe). Petersilia (2000) stated
that people with intellectual disabilities long for societal acceptance.
Because of their need for acceptance, it can really
cause members of this group to engage in the process of acquiescing
in behavior that they typically might not do. These individuals
might experience feelings of trepidation regarding the lost of
social contact. Further, these individuals might experience feelings
of lost in overall control of their daily functioning. With having
such feelings of lost of control and power, these individuals might
participate in situations that are very harmful to them. The bottom
line is that people with I D, for the most part, are dependent on
their care providers or guardians for lodging, food, clothing, transportation,
and basically for all social involvement with the general
public. The level of dependence is very overwhelming for any
person. In this case, for a person withID, it is even greater
(Petersilia; Tilley, 1998; Burke, Bedard& Ludwig, 1998).
When denying a woman with ID sexual knowledge (sexual acceptance,
the ability to have sexual touching, demonstrating of hugs
and kisses, learning about one’s body and how it functions sexually,
learning about proper reproductive health including the transmission
of diseases, etc.) , the end result could lead to unavoidable poor
overall health, pain, loneliness or low self-esteem or even a combination
of all these features. Therefore, these women might grow up
with inaccurate sexual conceptualizations regarding her personal
worth as a sexual being. She might acquire convictions that promote
that sex is not for her, sex is only for those who are beautiful
(persons without disabilities), sex is only for those with perfect bodies,
or even that sex is only for those who can think and process
their thoughts well (Webster, 1994).
TREATMENT REMEDIES
As a society, we should enable all people with ID to express
their true personality including their sexuality. Sexuality is a natural
process and this process should be experienced by all members
including members with disabilities. In order to successfully
accomplish this goal of sexual equality for women with ID, specific
precautions must be in place for this process to occur. For example,
precise instructions regarding the consequences of sexual
activity should be part of lesson plans implemented by parents
and service providers for teens with ID. Cornelius, Chipouras,
Makas and Daniels (1982) discussed how it was necessary for
sexual instruction to be coupled with social skills training. People
with ID need to be aware of all social graces and expectations
regarding exhibiting sexuality in public arenas. The different nuances
relating to sexuality should be presented. The social milieus
regarding dating norms, proper sexual hygiene, and understanding
one’s body should be reviewed.
Wolfe & Blanchett (2000) mentioned that notably helpful sexual
information more often is not given to this group at any age
due to preconceived notions listed in the beginning section of this
literary review. Nonetheless, accurate age appropriate information
should be made available to these teens during their early years
of sexual development and also should match their level of cognitive
comprehension. They further suggest that when discussing
sexual topics with younger children, topic like the differentiation
between public and private places should be broached. Then address
the more extensive physical, emotional, psychological, and
environmental transformations that occur in children who are experiencing
the advanced stages of sexual development.
Anderson (2000) advocated that, if meaningful sexual change
regarding people with ID is going to occur, there must be a coordinated
partnership between the individual in question along with
family members and service providers. This means that both parties
must be open to dealing with the sexuality and moral values
of female teens. For this to happen, one must be willing to alter
their convictions, morals, values pertaining to the sexuality of persons
with ID.
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Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall 2011 • NYS Psychologist

Parents are the true gatekeepers regarding if a female teen
with ID can have the opportunity to learn the proper facts about
her sexuality. Parents are given the responsibility to raise and
educate their child with a disability in the best way possible. This
is why it is crucial for these parents to be equipped to do so.
Therefore, with accurate knowledge and fortitude the teen with ID
will be able to develop a healthy self-image which incorporates
increased self-esteem and independence as she blossoms into a
young adult woman.
Parents should be aware that they should not make every
decision regarding sexual activity for their daughter. They must be
mindful that their daughter could develop varying sexual values
and norms different from their own. In addition, this essential
point should be adhered to by service providers and educators
who work with this population. Teens might defined themselves as
gay, lesbian, bisexual or transgender and might want to engage in
sexual activity that occurs within these groups. Further, young
teens might be interested in non traditional sexual positions and
sexual implements that their parents or educator might not even
be aware of or find offending. Regardless, this sexual information
should be given to the teen in hopes that she will have the correct
information to make a more comfortable and safe decision regarding
her sexual expression.
Additionally, the work conducted by Bredehoft (2001) further
bolsters the importance for parents to teach their young teen
about their sexuality. He was able to assemble a developmental
framework which reviews the life span pertaining to family life and
educational needs. This instructional framework incorporates skill
building techniques to better address the following objectives:
1. Insuring responsible sexual practice, choices and behavior;
2. Providing for communication development and enhancement
between parent and teenager;
3. Addressing the child’s needs across numerous stages of
development;
4. Dealing with needs during the period of adolescents;
5. Providing incentives and tolerating tiresome obligations of
parenthood;
6. Comprehending adult roles which consist of marital and
parental requirements;
7. Advocating for the imperativeness of teaching social skills
to teens which contains the aspects of independence,
environmental safety, proper decision making, dealing
with family conflict and conflict resolution;
8. Dealing with a society that has adopted a diverse plethora
of parenting options, such as single-parenting, stepparenting,
adoption, and caretaking of children or siblings
with disabilities and
9. Presenting all options and choices in relationships.
To further supplement these instructional sessions, for service
providers, educators and parents, there are certain recommended
instructional tools that might be utilized when teaching a
person with ID about their sexuality. Anderson (2000) and Kewman
et al. (1997) mentioned the following materials could be
utilized in developing a good repertoire of sex educational tools:
1. “Circles” developed by Marklyn Champagne and Leslie
Walker Jlierch:
This instructional tool is a three-part series which consists
of videos, curricula, photos, a wall chart, and a discussion
guide. This instructional format confronts aspects
of intimacy, relationships, and sexual abuse prevention.
2. “Life Horizons” developed by Winifred Kernpton:
This instructional tool is a two-part curriculum that contains
full-color, in-the-flesh slides and facilitator manuals.
This instructional format deals with addressing aspects of
anatomy, puberty, hygiene, reproduction, contraception,
sexual transmitted infections, and HIV/AIDS. The second
part of this instructional tool deals with topics relating to
self-esteem, moral considerations, legal issues, dating
issues, marriage, and parenthood.
3. Effie Dolls developed by Jim Jackson:
The Effie dolls could be used to ascertain if a person with
ID was sexually abused.
4. Certain books, for instance, the Facts of Life book:
This book is a pop-up book about reproduction. Another
book is called Sex Education for the Developmentally
Disabled. This book has no words and it is a compilation
of sketches. These sketches are utilized for depicting
one’s educational base regarding anatomy, gender, intimacy,
and sexual intercourse.
PROFESSIONAL IMPLICATIONS
To summarize, I thought that this quote says it the best,
“Sexuality is a God-given birthright that no illness or disability can
remove from a human being, but the non-disabled population denies
people with MR/DD this right when looking only at the disabilities.
Love itself may be the greatest life force, the most potent
aphrodisiac.” (Anderson, 2000, p. 59).
First, as service providers, we must fully appreciate and understand
that women with ID must be taught about sexual topics.
These topics should include, but are not limited to: romantic love,
platonic love, conception, contraception, and sexually transmitted
infections. The academic instruction regarding sexuality should
consist of having the required information in order to make healthy
and safe choices. These individuals should learn about the consequences
of engaging in premarital sex which could lead to pregnancy,
acquiring sexually transmitted infections, and the risk factors
of sexual exploitation.
Second, these women with ID should know that masturbation
could be a healthy way of exhibiting their sexuality. However, the
woman must be told that at certain times, this sexual behavior
could be inappropriate when done in a public setting or done very
compulsively.
Third, if the principles of human sexuality are not taught, this
person most likely will learn about their sexual development
through some other medium. In most cases, such a medium
would be television. People with ID spend a significant amount of
time watching television. This is not the most appropriate way in
which they should learn about their sexual identity.
Fourth, it is critical to teach sex education to women with ID.
According to Anderson (2000) and Kewman et al. (1997), this
disability group is three to four times more likely to be sexually
abused or assaulted than their female peers without disabilities.
Finally, for most people talking openly about sexual topics
can be arduous in nature. So consider having this discussion with
a person with ID. This could be quite overwhelming. Sweeney
(2007) recommends early sexual education and preparation for
this population. Repetitive practice coupled with an enthusiastic
attitude from parents and/or care providers will allow for the reduction
in awkwardness related to this subject matter.
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REFERENCES
Anderson, O. H. (2000). Doing what comes naturally: Dispelling myths and
fallacies about sexuality and People with Developmental Disabilities.
New York, NY: Hightide Press.
Bredehoft, D. J. (2001). The framework for life span family life education
revisited and revised. Family Journal, 9, 134-139.
Burke, L., Bedard, C., & Ludwig, S. (1998). Dealing with sexual abuse of
adults with a developmental disability who also have impaired communication:
Supportive procedures for detection, disclosure and
follow-up. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 7, 79-92.
Chilman, C. S. (1990). Promoting healthy adolescent sexuality. Family
Relations, 39, 123-132.
Coleman, E. (2002). Sexuality and Developmental Disabilities: The Rights
For Sexual Health. In D. Griffiths, D. Richards, P. Fedoroff, &S. L.
Watson (Ed.), Ethical dilemmas: Sexuality and developmental disabilities
(pp. 5–10). Kingston, NY: NADD Press.
Dotson, L. A., Stinson, J. & Christian, L. A. (2003). “People tell me I can’t
have sex”: Women with Disabilities share their personal perspectives
on health care, sexuality, and reproductive rights. In M. E. Banks & E.
Kaschak (Eds.) Women with visible and invisible disabilities: Multiple
intersections, multiple issues, multiple therapies (pp. 195- 209). New
York: The Haworth Press.
Ellis, B. J. (2004). Timing of pubertal maturation in girls: An integrated life
history approach. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 920-958.
Heyman, B., & Huckle, S. (1995). Sexuality as a perceived hazard in the
lives of adults with learning difficulties. Disability & Society, 10, 139-
155.
Kempton, W., & Kahn, E. ( 1991). Sexuality and People with Intellectual
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Kewman,D., Warschausky, S., Engel, L. and Warzak, W. (1997). Sexual
development of children and adolescence. In Marca L. Sipski and
Craig J. Alexander (ed.), Sexual functioning in People With Disabilities
and chronic illnesses, A helping professional (pp. 355–378).
Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publishers, Inc.
Landman, J. (1932). Human sterilization: The history of the sterilization
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Levy, S., Perhats, C., Nash-Johnson, M., & Weller, J. (1992). Reducing
the risk in teens who are very young and those with mental retardation.
Mental Retardation, 30, 195-203.
Mackelprang, R. W. (1993). A holistic social work approach to providing
sexuality education and counseling for Persons with Severe Disabilities.
In R, W. Mackelparng & D. Valentine (Ed.), Sexuality and disability
A guide for human service practitioners (pp. 63-87). Binghamton,
NY: The Haworth Press, Inc.
Manuel, J. C., Balkrishnan, R., Camacho, F., Paterson Smith, B., & Koman,
L. A. (2003). Factors associated with self-esteem in preadolescents
and adolescents with cerebral palsy. Journal of Adolescent
Health, 32, 456-458.
Matich-Maroney, J., Boyle, P., S. & Crocker, M., M., (2005). The psychosexual
assessment & treatment continuum: A tool for conceptualizing
the range of sexuality-related issues and support needs of Individuals
with Developmental Disabilities. Mental Health Aspects of Developmental
Disabilities, 8(3), 77-90.
Nelson, R. M., Botkin, J. R., Levetown, M., Moseley, K. L., Truman, J. T.,
& Wilfond, B. S. (1999). Sterilization of minors with developmental
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Petersilia, J. ( 2000). Invisible victims. Human Rights, 27, 9-12.
Robitscher, J. (1973). Eugenic sterilization. Springfield, IL: Charles C.
Thomas.
Sobsey, D., & Doe, T. (1991). "Patterns of sexual abuse and assault".
Journal of Sexuality and Disability, 9(3), 243-259.
Sweeney, L. (2007). Human sexuality education for students with special
needs. Electronic Journal of Human Sexuality, 10 Retrieved November
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of Women with a Physical Disability: A Comparative Study. Sexuality
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Webster-Kidd, S. (1994). A personal essay on sexuality and integration:
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TASH Newsletter, 26(5), 5-7.
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Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall 2011 • NYS Psychologist

Reconceptualizing Gender: Changing Views of
Women’s and Men’s Personalities
Gwendolyn L. Gerber, PhD
John Jay College of Criminal Justice, The City University of New York
Major changes have taken place over the past several decades in
the way gender is conceptualized The traditional view held that
men and women had inherently different personality traits because
of genetic differences or differences in their early socialization
experiences. The newer vision of gender and personality
focuses on the situational factors that underlie what appear to be
gender differences in personality. Men have higher status than
women and, as a result, engage in different behaviors and appear
to have different personalty traits. Men are thus perceived as
having the instrumental or assertive traits associated with high
status, and women are perceived as having the expressive or
accommodating traits associated with low status. Changing
views of gender and personality are discussed in terms of the
instrumental and expressive traits that have been the focus of
most theory and research and other less-researched genderstereotyped
personality traits.
Keywords: Gender and personality, Gender stereotypes, Status
and personality traits
The past several decades have seen a major transformation
in the way gender is conceptualized. Longstanding assumptions
about gender have been challenged, including the belief that
women and men have different personality traits. Most people
believe that women have more expressive or accommodating
traits and men have more instrumental or assertive traits. They
assume these personality differences stem from genetic differences
or differences in the way women and men are socialized in
their early years. However, research has shown that these apparent
gender differences in personality can be explained by the
difference in men’s and women’s status. Men have higher status
than women and, as a result, engage in different behaviors and
appear to have different personality traits. Men are perceived as
having the instrumental traits associated with high status, and
women are perceived as having the expressive traits associated
with low status. When women and men have equal status, however,
these gender differences disappear and their apparent personality
traits are essentially the same. This paper discusses the
changing views of gender and personality in terms of the instrumental
and expressive traits and other less-researched genderstereotyped
traits.
Research on Gender and Personality
Research has played a crucial role in changing the way we
look at women’s and men’s personalities. This research, which
began in the late 1960s and early 1970s, tested some of the
longstanding beliefs about personality and gender and found that
many of these beliefs were not supported. Most of the theory and
research focused on the socially desirable instrumental and expressive
traits. The instrumental traits are associated with men
and include characteristics such as being assertive, decisive, and
independent; the expressive traits are associated with women
and include characteristics such as being warm, helpful to others,
and concerned about other people (Bem, 1974; Spence,
Helmreich, & Stapp, 1975--see Table 1). Not only were the stereotypes
about the personality traits of the “typical female” and
“typical male” found to be different; in addition, when people described
their own personalities, similar differences were found.
Most of this research was carried out in the United States, but
comparable stereotypes have been found in other countries
(Williams & Best, 1982/1990). There are some slight differences
between cultures, but basically women are believed to be more
expressive and men to be more instrumental.
One of the assumptions that people made about individual
personality was that the instrumental and expressive traits were
inversely related. In other words, since men were high on the
instrumental traits, it was assumed that they would always be low
on the expressive traits. Women, who were high on the expressive
traits, were assumed to always be low on the instrumental
traits. However, research found that this assumption was incorrect–the
instrumental and expressive traits were essentially uncorrelated
within individual personality. Individuals, both male
and female, could be high on both the expressive and instrumental
traits. They also could be low on both traits–with all of the
other variations in between (Spence, Deaux, & Helmreich, 1985).
This new conceptualization was very freeing for women. It
meant that a woman who embarked on a high-status profession
like medicine or law, could act in a more instrumental, assertive
way without fearing this would lessen her expressiveness and
make her less “feminine.” To give an example from another occupation,
women police officers are very high on the instrumental
traits–as high as men police officers (Gerber, 2001). But women
officers are equally as high on the expressive traits as are nonpolice
women (Lester, Granau, & Wondrack, 1982).
In working with patients, this new conceptualization was very
helpful. Sometimes a woman patient would verbalize the concern
that if she embarked on a high-status profession–for example, if
she wanted to obtain a Ph.D. in psychology, she would need to
be more instrumental or assertive. Women often feared that this
would mean they would become less expressive and less
“feminine.” It was reassuring for them to hear that these traits
——————————————–——————————————-
Gwendolyn L. Gerber, Ph.D. is Professor of Psychology at John Jay College
of Criminal Justice and the Graduate Center of the City University of
New York. She has published widely, including a book, "Women and Men
Police Officers: Status, Gender, and Personality." Her research interests
include gender issues and gender stereotyping, police psychology, and
sexual assault.
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Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall 2011 • NYS Psychologist

were unrelated, and their increased instrumentality need have no women from achieving these goals.
effect on their expressiveness. But if, as research had shown,
men and women were not fundamentally different in their personalities
and both could possess instrumental as well as expressive
traits, the question then became: Why were women’s personalities
generally perceived as more expressive and men’s personalities
more instrumental? Perhaps, it was reasoned, the gendertyped
traits were associated with greater mental health. In other
words, perhaps women who characterized themselves as high in
expressiveness were psychologically healthier than those who did
not, and perhaps men who characterized themselves as high in
instrumentality were healthier than those who were low on these
traits.
This belief was held by many people in the larger culture. A
study conducted in 1970 found that this belief was shared by
mental health professionals as well–including psychologists, psychiatrists,
and social workers (Broverman, Broverman, Clarkson,
Rosenkrantz, & Vogel, 1970). Clinicians were asked to describe
a “mature, healthy, socially competent adult woman,” a healthy
man, and a healthy adult person (gender unspecified) on the gender-stereotyped
personality traits The traits associated with a
healthy man were similar to those of a healthy adult–both were
described as high on the instrumental traits. By contrast, a psychologically
healthy woman was described as high on the expressive
traits. This finding was especially startling when the stereotypic
traits that clinicians associated with a healthy woman were
examined. The authors of the study wrote that their findings reflected
“a powerful, negative assessment of women....[C]
linicians...[were] more likely to suggest that healthy women differ
from healthy men by being more submissive, less independent,
less adventurous, more easily influenced, less aggressive, less
competitive, having their feelings more easily hurt, being more
emotional,...less objective, and disliking math and science.” They
concluded by saying, “This constellation seems a most unusual
way of describing any mature, healthy individual” (Broverman et
al., 1970, p. 5).
This study served as a major wake-up call for the mental
health community. On the one hand, many therapists were trying
to respond to the changes in women’s roles that were starting to
take place in the larger society. Betty Friedan’s book, The Feminine
Mystique, had been published in 1963 and described the
vague and unnamed dissatisfaction that many American women
were experiencing–a feeling of being trapped within lives that
centered exclusively on husband, children, and home.
Following the publication of Friedan’s book, women started
to move into the workplace and therapists tried to encourage
this expansion of women’s roles. However, what the study
demonstrated was that clinicians themselves were caught up in
the same gender stereotypes as the rest of society. They too
believed that the healthy adult woman was characterized by traits
that would prevent her from moving out into the workplace–
especially into high-status occupations. They believed that, in
order to be mentally healthy, a woman should be more expressive.
However, “expressiveness,” as measured by Rosenkrantz
and Vogel included characteristics like submissiveness, indecisiveness,
and lack of independence that would actually prevent
This research challenged the “prescriptive” stereotypes for
women--the traits society prescribes that women must exhibit in
order to be considered truly “feminine” (Spence et al., 1985). Not
only did society postulate that the genders differed in their personality
traits, it also demanded that women should be more expressive
and men should be more instrumental. These prescriptions
then become internalized and women–and men–both try to
live up to these ideals.
This led to further questions about the relation of the instrumental
and expressive traits to women’s and men’s self-esteem.
Contrary to popular belief, the instrumental traits were found to be
associated with self-esteem for both genders (Whitley, 1983). By
contrast, the expressive traits bore little or no relation to selfesteem–again,
for both genders. Instead, the expressive traits
were found to facilitate satisfaction in relationships with others.
For example, in marriage, the husband’s satisfaction in the relationship
was related to the strength of the wife’s expressive traits,
and the wife’s satisfaction in the relationship was related to the
strength of the husband’s expressive traits (Antill, 1983). In other
words, it was beneficial for relationships for men and women both
to manifest expressive traits. The benefits of the expressive traits
were not restricted to personal relationships like marriage. These
traits were found to facilitate cohesiveness In other types of
groups as well–including groups in highly masculine-typed settings,
like the military (Weber, Rosen, & Weisbrod, 2000).
Current View of Gender and Personality
Traditional approaches to gender and personality had held
that men and women were inherently different in their personality
traits–these gender-stereotyped traits were determined by genetics
or early socialization experiences and remained fixed throughout
an individual’s life span. The newer vision of gender and personality
focuses on the situational factors that underlie what appear
to be gender differences in personality. This approach focuses
on the status and power differences between the genders
and how these lead to apparent differences in personality. In a
recently published paper, I reviewed studies to determine whether
status and power differences could explain why women and men
appear to have different personality traits (Gerber, 2009). The
traits that I examined reflected broad aspects of instrumentality
and expressiveness, and included the instrumental, expressive,
dominating, submissive, and complaining traits.
According to the status explanation of personality, status
differences between the genders can account for two components
of gender stereotyping: (1) the belief that women and men have
different personality traits–in other words the stereotypes that
people hold in which women are stereotyped as being more expressive
and men are stereotyped as being more instrumental,
and (2) the differences in the way that men and women describe
their own personality traits in which women describe themselves
as more expressive and men describe themselves as more instrumental.
Status refers to a person’s prestige or relative standing within
a social group. For example, a person who has higher education
than another has more status. Gender also functions as a status
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Table 1
Gender-Stereotyped Personality Traits
Personality Traits Definition .
Instrumental
Expressive
Dominating
Complaining
Submissive
Socially desirable, self-assertive or goal-oriented characteristics that are associated with men,
for example decisive, active, independent
Socially desirable, interpersonally oriented, communal or accommodating characteristics that are
associated with women for example, helpful to others, aware of others’ feelings, warm.
Socially undesirable, instrumental or dominating characteristics that are associated with men, for
example, dictatorial, arrogant, egotistical
Socially undesirable attributes such as complaining and nagging that are associated with
women, example, complains, nags.
Socially undesirable characteristics reflecting submissiveness and a lack of sense of self that are
associated with women, for example, subordinates self to others, servile.
characteristic because men generally have higher status than
women. Status and power are often, although not always, related
and an individual who has higher status in a relationship, usually
has more power. Power is defined as an individual’s ability to
influence or control another person.
The belief that women and men have different personality
traits can be explained by the difference in their status and power.
Within families, men generally have higher status than women
and make more of the decisions (Steil, 1997). Within organizations
as well, men usually have higher status and hold positions
with more prestige and more power in comparison to women
(Hollander & Offermann, 1990). In the university community, for
example, men more often hold the rank of professor, while women
more often are in lower-status positions, such as lecturer or
assistant professor.
According to the status explanation of gender stereotyping,
because men have higher status than women it only appears that
they have different personality traits. However, when women and
men have equal status, they would manifest essentially the same
personality attributes. To determine whether status underlies the
apparent gender differences in personality, it is necessary to examine
situations in which women and men have equal status.
This can be done within organizations by comparing men and
women who hold the same position or rank in order to determine
whether they describe themselves as having the same personality
traits.
Most of this research focused on the socially desirable instrumental
and expressive traits. The instrumental traits were found
to be associated with high status and power, and the expressive
traits were associated with low status and power for both genders
(Gerber, 2009). However, there are other gender-stereotyped
traits that are socially undesirable for both genders. These include
the dominating or dictatorial traits that are associated with
men, and the complaining and submissive traits that are associated
with women (Spence, Helmreich, & Holahan, 1979). The status
explanation of gender stereotyping was able to account for
gender differences on these undesirable traits as well.
Dominating Traits
The dominating traits refer to socially undesirable, selfcentered
attributes that are used to achieve an individual’s goals,
regardless of the wishes of others (Spence et al. 1979--see Table
1). People associate these traits with men, but research has
shown that they are associated with status and power, regardless
of gender. For example, in a study of police officers who worked
together as partners, the more experienced, high-status officer in
each partnership perceived him- or herself as having somewhat
more dominating traits than did the less experienced, low-status
officer (Gerber, 2001).
Generally, individuals who are high on the dominating traits
are perceived as competent–a quality that’s associated with high
status. However, along with this increased competence, these
traits are associated with a variety of adverse consequences for
both genders. People who are domineering often suffer from
interpersonal difficulties, poor psychological well-being, and low
self-esteem (Helgeson & Fritz, 1999; Spence et al., 1979).
Although the dominating traits are most frequently associated
with high status and interpersonal competence, they sometimes
can be associated with low status, depending on the situational
context. For example, astronauts have to be able to live together
on a space station for extended periods of time, so for them the
ability to cooperate with others is important. In a sample of astronauts,
the dominating traits, which reflect a unilateral use of power,
were associated with lower status. Those astronauts who
were high on the dominating traits were ranked lower by their
peers on leadership and interpersonal competence (Rose,
Helmreich, Fogg, & McFadden, 1993).
Submissive Traits
The submissive traits involve submission to another person
through characteristics such as servility and the subordination of
oneself to others (Spence et al., 1979–see Table 1). Although
women are stereotyped as being more submissive than men,
research has shown that these traits are associated with low status
for both genders. In a work setting, for example, individuals of
both genders reported that when they interacted with higher status
supervisors, they were more submissive than when they interacted
with people of equal or lower status (Moskowitz, Suh, &
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Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall 2011 • NYS Psychologist

Desaulniers, 1994). In a military setting as well, submissiveness
was associated with lower status. Male and female soldiers who
were in lower ranking positions described themselves as having
more submissive traits (Rosen, Weber, & Martin, 2000).
Paradoxically, these traits are not always associated with
lower status and less power. Sometimes the submissive traits
can enable low-status individuals to increase their power and influence.
By manifesting submissive traits and appearing to be
subservient, low-status individuals can reassure others that they
are not trying to take over the leadership role, and this allows
them to gain more influence because they do not threaten the
high-status partner’s control (Gerber, 2001).
Within the New York Police Department, for example, the
officers with the very lowest status are the less experienced women
officers who work with a more experienced female partner.
These women officers have very low status because they are
viewed as less competent than their senior partner and, in addition,
they are in an all-female police team, which has the lowest
status in comparison to all-male and male-female teams. When
these low-status female officers described themselves as being
high in submissiveness, they generally described themselves as
being high in dominance as well. Female officers who were high
on both traits were evaluated by their supervisor as having more
leadership ability and as being more competent in their work
(Gerber, 2001).
The problem with the submissive traits is that they are associated
with adverse consequences for both genders, including depression,
low self-esteem, and other psychological and physical
problems (Helgeson & Fritz, 1998; Spence et al., 1979). However,
the submissive traits can sometimes be associated with more
positive evaluations in work situations. For example, astronauts
are expected to work cooperatively with one another, and those
who were higher in submissiveness were rated as more competent
by their peers (Rose, Fogg, Helmreich, & McFadden, 1994).
Individuals who suffer from excess submissiveness can
sometimes gain benefits by manifesting these traits. Such individuals
often have difficulty with the positive self-assertion reflected
in the instrumental traits. By devoting themselves entirely to others
and neglecting the self, they can gain influence by creating
relationships in which others become dependent on them (Fritz &
Helgeson, 1998). The problem is that negating the self can result
in depression with an accompanying loss of self-esteem.
Complaining Traits
The complaining traits include characteristics such as complaining
and nagging and are most frequently associated with
women (Spence et al., 1979--see Table 1). However, research
has found that these traits are related to status, not gender
(Gerber, 2009). When men are in low-status positions, they also
are characterized by more complaining traits. These traits can be
functional for low-status individuals because they allow them to
exercise influence in an indirect way. At the same time as lowstatus
individuals attempt to increase their influence, they
acknowledge that the other person has the right to make the final
decision. Because of this, the high-status person need not feel
threatened in his or her leadership role.
The previously discussed study with police partners illustrated
how the complaining traits can be effective for low-status persons.
When a man and a woman work together as partners, the
man has more status than the woman. This is because the police
department is a highly masculine-typed setting and the man is
always expected to take charge--even when the woman has more
job experience. One way a woman officer is able to gain more
influence is by complaining. Research found that in male-female
police teams, the woman described herself as having more complaining
traits than the man–and her male partner perceived her
as complaining more than him as well (Gerber, 2001). Complaining
appeared to serve an important function for both officers in
these male-female teams. Women officers, who sometimes had
more experience than their male partner, were able to gain greater
influence over the decisions in the partnership. In addition, the
woman officer’s complaining traits were positively correlated with
both officers’ evaluations of their work competence. In other
words, the more the female officer complained, the more competent
both she and her male partner saw themselves in their work.
The Gender-Stereotyped Traits in Different Cultures and
Changes over Time
Most studies of gender differences have been conducted in
the United States. However, research from other countries shows
that these gender differences in personality are found in other
societies as well. A major study of gender differences in the traits
ascribed to men and women in the U.S. and 24 other countries
found that many of the traits that were consistently associated
with women were similar to the expressiveness that is characteristic
of low status roles, and many of the traits that were associated
with men were similar to the instrumentality that is characteristic
of high status roles (Williams & Best, 1982/1990). These findings
can be explained by the status and power differences between
the genders that are found across cultures. A universal pattern
across societies is one in which men have more status and power
than women (Eagly, Wood, & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2004). Although
some societies are more egalitarian than others, all of the
gender hierarchies across cultures favor men.
If status and power differences between the genders underlie
the differences in personality traits that can be observed across
cultures, then we would expect that, as women’s status in relation
to men increases, the ways that men and women describe their
own personality traits would also change. Consistent with this
argument, as women’s status increased throughout the 1970s to
the 1990s in the U.S., women’s assertiveness increased so that
recent samples show no gender difference (Twenge, 2001). This
increased assertiveness in women’s self-concepts may reflect, in
part, the success of the women’s movement in encouraging women
to strive for higher status educational and occupational roles.
By contrast, women’s and men’s expressiveness scores have
shown little change over time. The gender difference in the expressive
traits in which women are more expressive than men has
remained substantial (Twenge, 1997). This may reflect the lower
value placed on the expressive traits in comparison to the instrumental
traits. But there is another explanation, which has to do
with power. As girls and women have been “encouraged to become
more assertive, to stand up for their own legitimate
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Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall 2011 • NYS Psychologist

ights,...and to aim high in their vocational aspirations,” they have
gained in status (Spence & Buckner, 2000, p. 59). Although
women’s status has increased over the decades, the power relationship
between the genders, particularly in intimate relationships
such as marriage, has shown relatively little change (Steil,
1997). Some research has found that the expressive traits are
related to power (Saragovi, Aube, Koestner, & Zuroff, 2002).
Thus, the absence of change in expressiveness may reflect the
greater power that men still have in comparison to women, both
in occupational settings and in intimate relationships and marriage.
Implications for Psychotherapy
In addition to the socially desirable instrumental and expressive
traits, there are other less-researched gender-stereotyped
personality traits that are socially undesirable–the dominating,
submissive and complaining traits. The status approach to gender
stereotyping can explain how all of these traits become linked
with gender. Because men have higher status than women, the
instrumentally oriented (instrumental and dominating) traits become
associated with men and the expressively oriented
(expressive, submissive and complaining) traits become associated
with women. However, as research has shown, the instrumentally
oriented traits characterize high-status individuals and
the expressively oriented traits characterize low-status individuals,
regardless of gender.
The socially desirable instrumental and expressive traits
continue to be prescriptive for women and men and are linked
with female and male gender identity. The effect of these widely
shared cultural prescriptions for men’s and women’s behaviors is
to promote the enactment of relationships in which men have
more status and power than women. The task for psychotherapy
and for psychotherapists is to help women and men develop
ways of defining their respective gender identities which are not
dependent on culturally expected differences in status and power.
The instrumental and expressive traits are valuable for both
genders, and the challenge is to enable people to move beyond
conventional expectations for men’s and women’s behaviors and
personality traits so as to realize their own individual potential.
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45, 145-155.
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Rosenkrantz, P. S., & Vogel, S. R. (1970). Sex-role stereotypes
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Eagly, A. H., Wood, W., & Johannesen-Schmidt, M. C. (2004b).
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of gender (2 nd ed., pp. 269-295). New York: Guilford Press.
Gerber, G. L. (2001). Woman and men police officers: Status,
gender, and personality. Westport, CT: Praeger.
Gerber, G. L. (2009). Status and the gender stereotyped personality
traits: Toward an integration. Sex Roles, 61, 297-316.
Friedan, B. (1963). The feminine mystique. New York: Norton.
Fritz, H. L., & Helgeson, V. S. (1998). Distinctions of unmitigated
communion from communion: Self-neglect and over involvement
with others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
75, 121-140.
Helgeson, V. S., & Fritz, H. L. (1998). A theory of unmitigated
communion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2,
173-183.
Helgeson, V. S., & Fritz, H. L. (1999). Unmitigated agency and
unmitigated communion: Distinctions from agency and communion.
Journal of Research in Personality, 33, 131-158.
Hollander, E. P., & Offerman, L. R. (1990). Power and leadership
in organizations: Relationships in transition. American Psychologist,
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Lester, D., Granau, F., & Wondrack, K. (1982). The personality
and attitudes of female police officers: Needs, androgyny,
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Administration, 10, 357-360.
Moskowitz, D. S., Suh, E. J., & Desaulniers, J. (1994). Situational
influences on gender differences in agency and communion.
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(1994). Psychological predictors of astronaut effectiveness.
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(1993). Assessments of astronaut effectiveness. Aviation,
Space, and Environmental Medicine, 64, 789-794.
Rosen, L. N., Weber, J. P., & Martin, L. (2000). Gender-related
personal attributes and psychological adjustment among
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Saragovi, C., Aube, J., Koestner, R., & Zuroff, D. (2002). Traits,
motives, and depressive styles as reflections of agency and
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563-577.
Spence, J. T., & Buckner, C. E. (2000). Instrumental and expressive
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and femininity and their relationships to self-reports of neu-
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otic and acting out behaviors. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 37, 1673-1682.
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Addressing Intimate Partner Violence on College
Campuses: Strategies and Opportunities
Vanessa M. Bing, PhD
LaGuardia Community College, City University of New York
Intimate partner violence (IPV) represents a pattern of coercive
and abusive behavior in a relationship where one partner attempts
to gain control over another intimate partner. Intimate partner
violence largely affects women and is a global public health concern.
College women are part of the national statistics, although
less is known about this population as the phenomenon is largely
under studied. The City University of New York has recently taken
an important move in addressing the problem of intimate partner
violence by passing a resolution for each of its campus school
to develop a policy addressing intimate partner violence on campus.
It is recommended that U.S. colleges and universities similarly
take proactive measures to create structures, policies and
procedures for addressing IPV and undertake research to understand
the nature and scope of this problem on college campuses.
Keywords: intimate partner violence, abuse, gender violence, college
dating
Intimate partner violence (hereinafter IPV) is broadly defined
as violence occurring between persons who have a current or
former dating, marital or co-habiting relationship, with someone of
the same- or opposite-sex. Such violence, frequently referred to
as domestic violence, can represent a pattern of coercive and
abusive behavior in a relationship when one partner attempts to
gain or maintain control over another intimate partner. This abuse
can be physical, sexual, emotional, economic or psychological in
nature. Even when there are no acts of physical violence, the
threat of violence is present and abolishes one’s sense of safety
and security in the relationship. Although men are also victims of
partner abuse, findings from the Bureau of Justice Statistics’ National
Crime Victimization Survey show women are at significantly
greater risk of IPV (Tjaden and Thoennes, 2000). Indeed, the
overwhelming majority of reported victims are women.
In the United States, violence against women is a significant
problem. This violence perpetrated by intimates constitutes 20 -
25% of violent crimes against women (Rennison, 2003; Tjaden
and Thoennes, 2000). The highest rate of intimate partner violence
occurs among women ages 16 – 24 (U.S. Department of
Justice, 2003; 2009), and there are estimates that some 32% of
college students are victims of intimate partner violence (Feminist
Majority Foundation, 2005). However, girls as young as age 12
have been counted among those victimized by intimates with females,
aged 12 and older, reporting approximately 552,000 nonfatal
violent victimizations (rape/sexual assault) by an intimate
partner in 2008 (Catalano, Smith, Snyder & Rand, 2009). The
Centers for Disease Control and National Institute of Justice report
nearly 5 million incidents of IPV occurring each year among
women 18 and older, and IPV results in nearly two million injuries
and over 2000 deaths nationwide. Intimate partner violence or
domestic violence in particular has become one of the most serious
public health and criminal justice issues, with one of every
four U.S. women being physically assaulted or raped by an intimate
partner (Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000).
The State of New York Office for the Prevention of Domestic
Violence reports equally staggering numbers in their Domestic
Violence Dashboard Project Data (2008) noting approximately
450,000 domestic violence incidents are reported to police
departments annually, and 50% of females aged 16 and older
who were victims of homicide were killed by an intimate partner.
Similarly, a report from the New York City Department of Health
and Mental Hygiene (2008) supports these state and national
statistics, citing nearly half of fatal violence against women to be a
result of IPV. In 2005 alone, nearly 4,000 New York City women
were treated in emergency departments for injuries due to intimate
partner violence. Anonymous surveys conducted between
2004 - 2005 revealed an estimated 69,000 New York City women
aged 18 and older reported fearing an intimate partner; and 49%
of women killed by an intimate partner had a prior domestic incident
report in the system. These figures are compelling and paint
a critical portrait of women being victimized in New York City as
well as throughout the state. Students attending colleges in New
York City and New York State are part of these statistics. Yet,
little attention is typically given to college students who experience
these issues.
Consequences and Effects of IPV
Women who are victimized by their intimate partners face
serious physical and psychological injuries, the costs of which
cannot be adequately measured. These women suffer from a
number of clinical syndromes including depression, generalized
anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Additionally,
these women may experience a plethora of other conditions including
chemical dependency, substance abuse, somatic and
medical symptoms, negative health behaviors, and changes to
health service utilization (World Health Organization, 2000). IPV
victims may feel suicidal, homicidal and/or blame themselves for
the abuse. Intimate partner violence is also repetitive, with twothirds
of victims reporting multiple incidents of abuse by their intimate
partner. In one survey, half of all women reported victimization
by the same partner from two to nine times (Carr & Ward,
2006). These repeated experiences of abuse may lead to a retraumatization
of the victim and heightened PTSD or other stress
responses.
Relationship Violence and the College Student
Much of the research on violence in college students has
examined the problem of sexual violence, specifically rape and
sexual assault (e.g. Belknap & Erez (1995), American College
Health Association (2005)) finding that 15 - 25% of college women
—————————————————————————————
Dr. Vanessa Bing is a licensed clinical psychologist and an Associate
Professor of Psychology in the Social Science Department at LaGuardia
Community College of the City University of New York. She also holds the
position of Faculty Mentor/Director of LaGuardia’s Women’s Center, and
previously served as Director of the Women’s Center at Borough of Manhattan
Community College, CUNY. As a licensed practitioner, Dr. Bing has
worked in a variety of educational and clinical settings. Immediately prior
to joining the faculty at LaGuardia, Dr. Bing was a supervising psychologist
at the University Counseling Center at New York University where she
was also a member of the adjunct faculty in the M.A. Counseling Program
in the Department of Applied Psychology at the Steinhardt School. Dr.
Bing has published a number of articles addressing minority and gender
issues in psychology and clinical practice, and has lectured extensively on
the issue of trauma and domestic violence. Dr. Bing’s current research
interest focuses on the experience of intimate partner violence in women
attending urban colleges, and the impact of partner violence on student
retention.
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Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall 2011 • NYS Psychologist

are projected to be victims of an attempted or completed rape
during their college careers. College students who experience
intimate partner violence (as distinct from the sexual violence of
rape and sexual assault) are, by and large, an under studied and
under represented group. This is significant given the fact that
people in the traditional 16 - 24 -year old college age group are at
greatest risk for experiencing IPV. For many students, college
provides the first opportunity for experiencing a real adult relationship
and therefore increases the chance for the possibility of experiencing
an unhealthy or negative one.
Students who experience IPV will struggle with issues similar
to those of non-college attending adults and adolescents. However,
for many college students there may be the added shame,
stigma or embarrassment of being in such a relationship. The
presumption of being “too smart” (as exemplified by their enrollment
in college) to be in such a toxic relationship may add to the
student’s unwillingness to disclose this fact. The student is then
likely to experience depression, anxiety, substance use/abuse,
which can only compromise their ability to function effectively as a
student. Loss of concentration, the inability to complete assignments,
and missing/skipping classes are a few behaviors that
may result.
Stories on the Frontline
The stories of IPV among college students are as varied as
the students who live these experiences. At the City University of
New York (CUNY), where this author has taught and counseled
student survivors of intimate partner violence for over ten years,
many women survivors of IPV have shared stories of hope, pain,
and significant loss. A majority of students attending the City University
of New York are first-generation college students from
immigrant backgrounds seeking to better their lives. Many are
representative of poor, working-class and minority groups, and
single-parents who look to education as their way out of poverty.
For a number of the female students attending CUNY’s colleges,
the issue of intimate partner violence is a major concern. These
students frequently seek assistance in managing the myriad of
issues related to their IPV from their campus Counseling Centers,
or Women’s Centers which are often the first stop because of
their perceived sensitivity to women’s concerns.
Juanita, a 24-year old Puerto Rican female sought assistance
from the Women’s Center to deal with her abusive boyfriend, the
father of her seven-year old daughter. Juanita claimed that she
believed that her boyfriend was “going to kill me.” Her boyfriend
expressed his anger with her for never being around. Juanita
acknowledged that her boyfriend resented her attending college,
feeling that she “thinks she’s better than him” and was developing
a “big head.” Juanita resided alone with her daughter and expressed
anxiety and trepidation in going home each night, fearing
that her boyfriend would be waiting for her and that they would
have some altercation. When asked why she had not gone to
the police, Juanita responded that she thought that they would not
help her. Moreover, she sympathized with her boyfriend and was
concerned about the implications of his not being able to see his
daughter if he were sent to jail. Juanita never once showed any
concern about the potentially violent situation her daughter might
be placed in if her boyfriend’s anger continued to escalate, and
needed to be educated to the potential dangers of her ongoing
abuse.
Elena, an undocumented resident, sought assistance from
the Women’s Center, presenting in a very agitated state. She
reported being physically and emotionally abused by her partner
with whom she lived. She indicated that she wanted to leave the
relationship and had told her partner so. He in turn proceeded to
threaten her with deportation. Fearful of being sent back to her
home country and being unable to pursue her educational studies,
Elena was inconsolable. She feared that she would need to
remain in this toxic relationship in order to earn her degree, or
return home only to suffer potentially greater abuses there.
Aurelia, a nursing student reported that her boyfriend began
stalking her after she attempted to sever the relationship. He
sent text messages incessantly, advising her that he would pick
her up after class and that she should not make any plans to
hang out with any of her friends. The boyfriend too would phone
her at home, make unannounced visits to her home, and phone
members of her family with whom he had ingratiated himself.
Aurelia expressed feeling “suffocated” and “trapped,” and believed
that she could not get away from this situation. She believed
there was nothing to do.
Each of these stories reveals part of the experience of college
women dealing with the experience of intimate partner
abuse. Some of these women struggled with the norms of their
culture, which dictated submissive behaviors and compliance on
their part, imposing no sanctions on the abusive behaviors perpetrated
by their male partners, while others simply did not fully
grasp the nature of their abuses. What many women students
frequently experience is the negative consequence of stepping
out of the gendered norms of their native culture, particularly
when this is contrary to its teachings. While much of what they
learn in college encourages their independence, critical thinking,
and risk-taking, these ideas move many of these women away
from traditional stereotypes and encourage the development of
newly defined roles and patterns of assertive behavior. Sadly,
these women are often confronted with negative responses to
such efforts of growth and assertion. The challenge then is being
able to educate these women about the nature of their experience
with their partners without compromising their safety, and allowing
them to embrace the growth the comes with their developing identities.
Doing so may encourage more students to report the violence,
seek appropriate help, and maintain their student status.
Many students approach the campus-based Women’s Center
seeking a vast array of services that may include housing assistance,
personal counseling, and legal advice. With regard to
their experiences of IPV, women have reported being stalked,
beaten and threatened by their boyfriends, husbands, and brothers
and needing counseling to help manage the many feelings
arising from these events. Others have sought out information
regarding housing and public shelters in order to escape the violence
they experience at home. Additionally, many seek legal
IPV at the City University of New York
advice concerning their rights when the father of their child(ren) is
physically violent, as well as information regarding what rights are
guaranteed to the victim when a restraining order is obtained.
The following stories exemplify the types of concerns that are
currently being presented at CUNY’s Women’s Centers:
Page 26
At the City University of New York (CUNY), the nation’s largest
urban public university, growing attention has been given to
the problem of intimate partner violence. At its June 2010 meeting,
the Board of Trustees of CUNY adopted a resolution mandating
that IPV and domestic violence, stalking, and sexual assault
among its student population be addressed on each of its campuses
(CUNY Newswire, 2010). This policy recognizes the experience
of IPV in the lives of students and represents a significant
step in identifying specific efforts and strategies towards addressing
and ameliorating the problem of IPV.
Women’s Centers, located at ten of the CUNY colleges, have
had as its primary mission to empower and educate women students
about intimate partner violence and other concerns impacting
women. The Centers provide direct services (i.e. one on one
or group counseling) as well as information, advocacy and referrals.
The CUNY Women’s Centers work together through the
Council of Women’s Centers, the umbrella organization comprised
of the 10 campus centers, so that their collective voices
Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall 2011 • NYS Psychologist

can be heard, and to help shape policy related to IPV, sexual assault
and other gender related matters throughout CUNY.
Creating a Methodology for Addressing IPV on Campus:
Recommendations
The emotional and psychological effects of relationship violence
can be pervasive and longstanding. For students experiencing
such abuse, their academic futures may be in jeopardy. For
this reason, it is imperative for college campuses to be proactive
in their efforts to address intimate partner violence. A campuswide
coordinated response is needed to address IPV and to educate
the campus community of its inherent dangers. Any such
model should be designed to: 1) educate the college community
about the nature and scope of intimate partner violence; 2) offer
training to key personnel (e.g. counseling, health service providers,
public safety, academic advisors) to respond to student complaints
of IPV; 3) provide campus-based support services to students
in need; and 4) to establish clear standards and a unified,
campus-wide protocol to address IPV that will be put into effect
and enforced.
Educating Students, Educators, Student Support Personnel
and Administrators
In order to prevent occurrences of partner violence, students
need to be aware of what constitutes abusive and coercive behaviors
in relationships and the specific norms of racially and culturally
diverse groups that promote or sanction gender violence. In
order to foster this type of learning, counseling and student affairs/
student support personnel may want to promote a “healthy relationship
campaign” that provides clear definitions and culturally
sensitive examples of the elements of productive relationships
and those of corrosive relationships. Using forums such as new
student orientations, freshmen seminars, and encouraging student
programming among diverse student groups, fraternities,
sororities and clubs is a good start. Such activities should specifically
highlight national statistics of IPV so that students can understand
that they are not alone; identify cultural definitions of intimate
partner violence, noting how they are colored and shaped by
personal experiences, familial background, and racial/ethnic heritage;
explore how cultural pressures to conform to gender role
expectations create opportunities for abuse; and clearly describe
the signs of an abusive personality.
College faculty, staff and administrators, like students, are
frequently unaware of the problem of intimate partner violence.
As such, professional development, faculty support and support
staff training should be made available to educate all members of
the college community. Colleges should develop task forces to
study the problem of IPV on campus and make use of Women’s
Centers that can provide training, workshops and presentations
on issues of partner abuse. Specialized training should be made
available to counseling professionals in learning to identify the
presence of intimate partner violence and treating student victims.
Male students should be actively encouraged to act as allies to
support the eradication of violence against women through their
participation in men’s organizations or other student groups that
encourage advocacy and activism. Faculty too should become
involved and encourage their students’ participation in workshops,
campus-wide presentations, and town-hall summits that address
partner violence. Faculty can bring their classes to such events
and create class assignments attached to them. Encouraging
students to write about and research what they have learned at
such forums can be invaluable. As part of routine health screenings
at college health centers, health center personnel should ask
about the presence of partner violence (just as one would about
alcohol or drug use). Student volunteerism at women’s shelters
should be encouraged so that students may learn, first hand, the
impact of partner and family violence. Finally, academic administrators
should be encouraged to look at the problem of IPV as a
possible cause for student attrition and develop research strategies
to examine the relationship between partner/family violence
and student retention.
Conclusion
Academia, still considered an ivory tower, is not immune to
societal problems. Violence perpetrated against women can be
found on many college campuses. Commuter college students
who experience partner violence at home bring these real world
problems with them into the classroom. Similarly, students living
on campus bring personal lifestyle choices and behaviors into
their new living quarters. Academia cannot afford to ignore these
substantial issues that have every possibility of impacting their
students. Moreover, as colleges become more and more culturally
diverse, our students will bring with them norms from their cultures
and societies that may denigrate women by our standards,
and encourage abusive behaviors. Women students are being
raped, stalked, threatened and violated in a variety of ways, in
their homes and in their relationships. As they attempt to develop
newly defined roles, they risk being confronted with negative responses
to their efforts. Husbands, boyfriends, and lovers who
resent their partner’s efforts toward autonomy and movement
from culturally defined roles may feel incited to violence in order to
restore the order and balance of power in the relationship. Thus,
college counselors, mental health practitioners, and other health
care professionals can take a lead role in addressing a public
health concern and enhancing the experiences of all of our students.
Unless we take an active role in creating policies and procedures
to help students manage these experiences in their lives
and help to cultivate a level of understanding of what constitutes
healthy and appropriate relationships, we will continue to fail
where it matters – in the creation of a civil, peaceful and respectful
society.
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Catalano, S, Smith, E. , Snyder, H., & Rand, M. (2009). Female Victims of
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Rennison, C. M. (2003). Intimate partner violence, 1993-2001. Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Tjaden, P. & Thoennes, N. (2000). Extent, nature and consequences of
intimate partner violence: Findings from the National Violence against
Women Survey. Washington, DC: National Institutes of Justice.
U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics (2009, September).
Female victims of violence. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics (2003, February).
Intimate partner violence, 1993-2001. Washington, DC: U.S. Depart-
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Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall 2011 • NYS Psychologist

Contributions of New York, Women Psychologists
Florence L. Denmark, PhD
Pace University
John D. Hogan, PhD
St. John’s University
Women have made significant contributions to psychology in New
York City and New York State beginning in the pioneer days of
psychology. In fact, New York became, and remains, a mecca for
women psychologists. Whether honing their psychological expertise
in one of New York’s top notch schools, or bringing a fresh
perspective from out-of-state, this group’s amazing efforts bridged
the gender gap, and in many cases, accomplished it in the face of
adversity. This article documents the contributions of some of
these women.
One of the earliest female psychologists in New York, Margaret
Floy Washburn (1871-1939), faced many gender barriers
during her life. After completing her undergraduate education at
Vassar College, she was denied regular admission to Columbia
University for graduate work because of her gender. Later admitted
into Cornell University, Washburn went on to complete the
first Ph.D. degree ever awarded to a woman in psychology
(1894). While at Cornell University, Washburn worked closely
with Edward B. Titchener, a renowned experimental psychologist
and student of Wundt, who became her formal mentor. Despite
Washburn’s notable work in animal psychology, Titchener chose
not to admit her into his Society of Experimental Psychologists,
one of the most important psychology “networking” organizations
of that time. In fact, Titchener excluded all women from membership.
Nevertheless, Washburn went on to become the second
female president of the American Psychological Association
(APA, 1921), as well as being the second woman ever to be selected
for membership in the highly selective National Academy of
Science (1931). In 1925 Washburn was named one of four editors
of the American Journal of Psychology. She held a faculty
position at Vassar College for most of her long career.
Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847-1930), another early woman
psychologist who faced sexism throughout her life, was denied a
career in linguistics and physics because women were not allowed
to enter most observatories or laboratories at the time.
Instead she used mathematics and psychology to extensively
study optics, color vision, and binocular vision at Johns Hopkins
University in 1882. Initially she was not awarded a doctoral degree
despite her work there, due to gender restrictions. However,
decades later, in 1926, her doctoral work was at last acknowledged,
and she was awarded a Ph.D. In the mean time, she held
a position as a part-time lecturer at Columbia University, starting
in 1910. Ladd-Franklin was an active feminist, promoting women’s
achievement of graduate education, economic independence,
and the right to vote. She addressed Titchener, directly
criticizing his policy on excluding women from his Society of Experimental
Psychologists, yet she was never granted membership.
Naomi Norsworthy (1877-1916) is probably the least known
name in this list, primarily due to her early death at age 39, but
she was nonetheless a psychologist of great accomplishment.
Born in New York City in 1877, Norsworthy expressed an early
interest in teaching and enrolled in the New Jersey State Normal
School at Trenton at age 15. By the time she was 18, she had
graduated from the state school and was teaching a third-grade
class in Morristown, New Jersey. After three years there, she
acted on her strong desire for further education and enrolled in
Page 28
Teachers College of Columbia University from which she graduated
with a bachelor of science degree in 1901. Still not satisfied,
she continued on to graduate work at Teachers College, graduating
with a Ph.D. in 1904. Her dissertation focused on mental
deficiency in children.
Norsworthy was hired to teach at Teachers College, the first
woman faculty member there. Her male students were frequently
resentful that they were being taught by a woman, but her
knowledge and ability consistently won them over. She presented
the results of her dissertation research in 1904 at a meeting of the
New York branch of the American Psychological Association. Her
presentation was the first made by a woman at the branch meeting.
Norsworthy remained at Teachers College for 16 years,
teaching at both the graduate and undergraduate levels. She was
working on a book on child psychology at the time of her death
from cancer. The book was completed by a colleague and published
two years after her death.
Karen Horney (1885-1952) grew up in Germany and originally
pursued a medical degree in neuropsychiatry. Soon after,
she experienced the birth of her first child and loss of her mother,
which brought on a bout of depression and led Horney to psychoanalysis.
Horney began seeing a psychoanalyst to combat her
depression, and developed a strong appreciation for this approach.
Horney joined the Berlin Psychoanalytic Society and
began employing psychoanalysis in her own practice. Then in
1930, Horney came to Brooklyn where she became increasingly
critical of Freud’s traditional approach to psychoanalysis, openly
criticizing its male centered views. She pointed out that cultural
factors strongly influence the stereotypic sex roles appointed to
men and women. She also posited that it is equally plausible for
men to experience “womb envy” as it is for women to experience
“penis envy” (Freud’s concept).
____________________________________________________
Florence L. Denmark, PhD, is Distinguished Professor Emerita in Residence
at Pace University. She received her doctorate in social psychology
from the University of Pennsylvania She is past-president of several
divisions of NYSPA, as well as serving as president of NYSPA itself. She
has written on a variety of issues, but with particular emphasis on issues
of women and gender. In addition to her presidency of NYSPA, she has
been president of the Eastern Psychological Association, Psi Chi, the
National (now international) Honor Society in Psychology, the International
Council of Psychologists, and the American Psychological Association.
Among numerous awards, in 2011, she received APA’s highest honor, the
Award for Outstanding Lifetime Contributions to Psychology.
John D. Hogan, PhD, is Professor of Psychology at St. John’s University.
He received his doctorate in developmental psychology from Ohio State
University. His areas of special interest are the history of psychology,
developmental psychology, and international psychology. He is the coauthor/co-editor
of three books and more than 200 chapters, articles, book
reviews and encyclopedia entries, and has made more than 150 presentations
at professional meetings. He is currently a section editor for the
American Psychology. In 2010, he served as president of the Society for
General Psychology (APA Div.1). In 2011, he will complete his term as
president of APA Division 52 — International Psychology.
In 1937, Horney published The Neurotic Personality of Our
Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall 2011 • NYS Psychologist

Time, which outlined a theory of personality development and
neurosis that did not vary based on gender, but instead on parentchild
relationships and the repression of hostility. Many traditional
Freudians were not accepting of her theories and in 1941 Horney
resigned from the New York Psychoanalytic Society. In turn, she
established the Association for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis
and the American Institute for Psychoanalysis, both in New
York that same year.
Another early woman in psychology was Leta Stetter Hollingworth
(1886-1939). Upon moving to New York from Nebraska,
she discovered she was not able to pursue a teaching career
because married women were prohibited from teaching at the
time. Instead she went back to school, earning her Ph.D. in education
from Columbia University in 1916 and eventually became a
research associate there. Her research challenged many of the
myths concerning gender differences. For example, she refuted
the variability hypothesis, a belief that since there were more incidents
of male prominence, as well as more male institutionalization,
there must be more variation in the male brain. She also
disproved the menstruation hypothesis, demonstrating that women’s
monthly cyclical phases did not affect their mental or motor
performance.
Hollingworth had strong clinical interests, particularly in mental
testing and treatment, establishing the Classification Clinic for
Adolescents at Bellevue Hospital. She made contributions to the
ethical standards at the time, in the burgeoning field of clinical
psychology. She felt strongly that both mentally retarded and
gifted children should be given a special education. She advocated,
researched and published in this area. Her consideration of
environmental influences on both adolescent and gender development
came at a time when biological variables were of primary
concern by most researchers. Because her contributions to psychology
came early in the twentieth century, many of Hollingworth’s
contributions were never professionally recognized.
Mary Cover Jones (1896-1987) was born in Pennsylvania
and attended Vassar for her undergraduate education. Inspired
by a lecture on conditioning, given by John B. Watson, Jones
pursued a psychology Ph.D. from Columbia University and completed
the degree in 1926. Informally supervised by Watson,
Jones conducted pioneering research on deconditioning fear in a
young boy who had a strong fear of rabbits. This research, conducted
in the early 1920s, is considered to be the earliest recorded
case of systematic desensitization.
Jones’ other work in New York City included psychological
testing, research on group intelligence tests, teaching emotionally
disturbed children in the public schools, and overseeing research
at Columbia’s Institute of Child Welfare. Soon after the completion
of her Ph.D., Mary and her husband, Harold Jones (also a
psychologist), and two children, moved to California where Jones
was instrumental in setting up a nursery school at Berkeley.
While at Berkeley, Jones participated in the Oakland Growth
Study which followed adolescents’ personality development and
maturation, providing informative findings to the field of developmental
psychology. Differences in personality and coping strategies
were found among males and females depending on their
onset of maturation. Jones also identified certain personality
traits in adolescence that correlate with drinking problems later in
life. In addition to her useful research contributions, Jones was
known to be an interesting and supportive professor. By the end
of her career Jones had authored more than 70 publications and,
along with her husband, produced the first ever, educational television
course in developmental psychology. She was elected
president of APA Division 7, Developmental Psychology, and received
the G. Stanley Hall Award, the highest honor given by the
division.
Lois Murphy (1902-2003) was raised in a highly intellectual
environment by parents who instilled in her a love for learning.
She took somewhat of a circuitous route to becoming a psychologist,
first studying economics at Vassar University and then theology
at Union Theological Seminary. She taught comparative religion
at Sarah Lawrence College for seven years before turning
her interests toward psychology. She and her husband, psychologist
Gardner Murphy, wrote Experimental Social Psychology,
her first publication, in 1931. Due to the inspiration from raising
her own two children, Murphy began to study child development,
authoring her second book, Social Behavior and Child Personality.
She then became involved in projective methods and
their use in the study of young children’s personalities. She
taught a course on human life and child development at Banks
Street College for Teachers.
Eventually, Murphy decided to pursue a Ph.D. at Teachers
College while simultaneously conducting research on the development
of sympathy in preschoolers. She was awarded her doctoral
degree in 1937. The value of her work was not recognized
until years later. From this, she went on to study children’s methods
of coping. Her books published on preschool children integrated
a developmental and psychoanalytic perspective. She
also applied her interest in preschoolers, mobilizing resources for
parents where she saw great need. In line with these interests,
Murphy had a strong involvement in the Head Start movement on
the national, state and local levels.
Towards the end of her career, Murphy worked to better integrate
child development and psychoanalysis, through participating
in seminars, presenting at conferences, consulting on prosocial
research projects, and as a guest scientist at the National Institute
of Health’s Center for Child Health and Development.
Anne Anastasi (1908-2001) was born, raised and remained
in New York her whole life. Growing up she received a combination
of public schooling and private tutoring. At fifteen she opted
to skip high school and go directly to Barnard College, the women’s
college of Columbia University. Even more impressively, she
completed her Ph.D. degree in psychology from Columbia in only
two years, finishing it in 1930 at age 21. Her interest in psychology
was sparked by the influence of Harry Hollingsworth, with
whom she took a course in developmental psychology, and from
her reading of an article by statistician Charles Spearman.
Anastasi held faculty positions at three colleges in New York:
Barnard, Queens College (where she founded their psychology
department), and eventually Fordham University. Throughout,
Anastasi conducted research and published several texts in the
areas of psychological testing and differential psychology. In
1970 she was the third woman to become president of the American
Psychological Association. She was also honored with the
Gold Medal Award for Life Achievement in the Application, Practice
and Science of Psychology.
Mary Henle (1913-2007) earned her masters degree from
Smith College in 1935, where she felt very supported and encouraged
as a woman psychologist. Working with Kurt Koffka, an
influential Gestalt Psychologist and professor at Smith, she developed
a lifelong appreciation for Gestalt psychology. For her doctoral
degree in 1939, Henle attended Bryn Mawr College, and
studied at Swarthmore for her postdoctoral fellowship.
Despite her acceptance and support during her years spent
in school, Henle faced discrimination during her career, feeling
that some doors were closed to her as a Jewish woman. She
held a professorship at the New School for Social Research,
where she felt very happy and intellectually stimulated. Henle
conducted empirical work in the areas of perception, human motivation,
human rationality, and thinking and logic. Towards the
end of her career, Henle worked to correct the misunderstandings
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Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall 2011 • NYS Psychologist

of Gestalt psychology, which she believed would be better appreciated
after the strong wave of cognitive psychology had passed.
Virginia Staudt Sexton (1916-1997) was born and raised in
New York City. She completed her undergraduate degree at
Hunter College, in 1936; received a Ph.D. in experimental psychology
at Fordham University, in 1946; and sought postdoctoral
training in both neuroanatomy from Columbia University, and in
clinical psychology from the New York State Psychiatric Institute.
Sexton was known throughout her career as an inspirational
teacher and mentor, holding positions at several schools. In her
first position at Notre Dame College of Staten Island, Sexton established
the psychology program, set up a psychology laboratory,
and headed the department. Her next position was at Hunter College,
in the Bronx (later Lehman College), from which she retired
as Professor Emerita. Unfortunately, she faced sexism when she
first started at Hunter, in the form of heavier course loads given to
her because she was a woman. She was able to overcome this
climate of discrimination and worked to prevent other women from
encountering the same experience. Finally, Sexton served as the
Distinguished Research Professor of Psychology at St. John’s
University, until her retirement in 1990.
Sexton published at length, authoring books and articles on
the psychology of religion, women’s issues, humanistic psychology,
and the history of psychology with both a national and international
focus. Very active politically, Sexton was elected president
of the International Council of Psychologists, four APA divisions,
the American Catholic Psychological Association, National Psi
Chi, the New York State Psychological Association (NYSPA), and
the Eastern Psychological Association. For her involvement and
influence in the field, Sexton was awarded the Gold Medal of the
New York Academy of Sciences in 1982, and NYSPA’s Margaret
Floy Washburn Award and Allen V. Williams Jr. Memorial Award.
Mamie Phipps Clark (1917-1983) received her MA degree in
developmental psychology from Howard University in 1939. During
this time she began her studies of the racial identification of
Negro children. She earned her Ph.D. from Columbia University
in 1943, at a time when there were no female graduate faculty,
only two other women in the graduate class, and no other black
students in the program. With the collaboration of her husband,
Kenneth Clark, Mamie continued her research on the development
of identity in Negro children, finding that at age three these
children become aware of their racial identity and begin to acquire
a negative self-image. The Clarks’ studies demonstrated that it
was society’s negative views of their race that influenced the children’s
identification. These findings were later used as part of a
“social science statement” presented in a case supporting school
desegregation and submitted to the United States Supreme Court,
which ruled in favor of school desegregation in the 1954 court
case of Brown v. the Board of Education.
Despite the magnitude of her contributions, Clark still found it
difficult to obtain a position in psychology at different points
throughout her career because of the negative attitudes existing at
the time. In the face of the racism and sexism she experienced,
Clark relied on the strong support of her husband and children.
Eventually she was hired by a private agency to administer
psychological tests, but while there Clark also provided psychological
services for young homeless girls and advocated for their
psychological needs. Then, in 1946, Clark and her husband
founded the Northside Center for Child Development, the first
child guidance center offering full psychological services in Harlem
at the time. While working at the Northside Center, she discovered
that many children were inappropriately being referred to
classes for the mentally retarded. Upon testing these children,
she fought for their proper placement, bringing publicity and respect
to the center. Throughout her career, Clark continued to
advocate for the psychological needs of minority groups in New
Page 30
York City.
Ethel Tobach (1921 - ), born in Ukraine, she emigrated to the
United States, with her family, to avoid political conflict there. She
attended Hunter College where she helped to disprove genetic
determinism and uncovered the institutionalized racism and sexism
which had used this faulty theory for support. She completed
her Ph.D. from New York University in 1957. A social activist, as
well as a teacher and researcher, Tobach used her psychological
research to contribute to social policy and peace-building. Her
research advanced the fields of genetics, and evolutionary and
comparative psychology. Tobach developed her research through
her positions at the American Museum of Natural History, the City
University of New York, and New York University School of Medicine.
Throughout her career, Tobach was highly active in professional
organizations such as the APA, and she was one of the
founders of the organization, Psychologists for Social Action.
Because of her facilitative contributions to public policy, nuclear
disarmament and peace building, Tobach was awarded the American
Psychological Foundation’s Gold Medal in Public Interest
Award.
Florence L. Denmark (1932 - ) is an internationally recognized
scholar who is probably best known for her work in the psychology
of women and, more recently, for her work in aging. A
Pennsylvania native, she came to New York City after receiving
her doctorate in psychology from the University of Pennsylvania in
1958. She taught at Queens College before moving to Hunter
College, CUNY, where she was chair of the Psychology Department
and Thomas Hunter Professor of Psychology. Later she
accepted a position as the Robert Scott Pace Distinguished Professor
of Psychology at Pace University where she now holds the
title Distinguished Professor Emerita in Residence.
Denmark attributes much of her success to the encouragement
and achievement orientation she received from her family.
In addition, early in her career she was fortunate to come under
the influence of several important mentors, including Mary
Reuder and Virginia Staudt Sexton. Because she found female
mentors to be scarce, she has made it a point to serve as an active
mentor ever since, and has encouraged others to do so.
In addition to her influential writing on the psychology of women,
Denmark has published on such topics as leadership, minority
concerns, urban life, and women in the history of psychology.
She has served as president of many psychology organizations,
including Psi Chi, the (now) International Honor Society in
Psychology; the New York State Psychological Association; the
Eastern Psychological Association; and the International Council
of Psychologists; and as vice-president of the New York Academy
of Sciences. In 1980, she served as president of the American
Psychological Association.
Denmark has received many honors for her work, including
six honorary doctorates, the Gold Medal for Life Achievement in
Psychology in the Public Interest, the Distinguished Contributions
to Education and Training Award, and the Distinguished Contributions
to the International Advancement of Psychology Award. At
the 2011 annual convention of the APA she was presented with
their highest honor, the Award for Outstanding Lifetime Contributions
to Psychology.
Beverly Greene (1950 - ) received her doctorate in clinical
psychology from Adelphi University in 1983. Although she originally
worked in public mental health, she is known today as a
leading author in the areas of sexual minorities and women of
color. She is presently an esteemed professor at St. John’s University,
where she was awarded the 2008 Outstanding Faculty
Achievement Medal. Through her broad publications, Greene has
created an awareness of the ways in which discrimination and
poverty effect marginalized populations and the construction of
Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall 2011 • NYS Psychologist

identity. In 2007, Greene was honored with the Distinguished
Career Award from the Association for Women in Psychology.
Common accomplishments emerge among these talented,
hard working women. Many shared a politically responsible, socially
conscious outlook, backed by an appreciation for research
and a desire to share knowledge and inspire younger generations.
These New York women have had quite an influence on
psychology’s history, over the past century, as more and more
women enter psychology and work in New York, they will continue
to have an impact on the discipline.
REFERENCES:
American Psychological Foundation Staff. (2003, July/August). Public
Interest Award: Ethel Tobach, PhD. Monitor on Psychology: American
Psychological Association, 34(7), 94. Retrieved September 2,
2008, from http://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug03/apfnews.html
Christine Ladd-Franklin. (2007). In PlanetMath Encyclopedia. [Web].
Mravinci. Retrieved July 31, 2008, from http://planetmath.org/
encyclopediaChristineLaddFranklin.html
Dewsbury, D. A. Ethel Tobach. Founders of the Animal Behavior Society:
Founders and friends at the 1984 ABS meeting in Cheney, WA.
Retrieved September 25, 2008, from
Hogan, J. D. (1998). Obituary: Virginia Staudt Sexton (1916-1997). American
Psychologist, 53(10), 1155-1156.
Lawson, R. B., Graham, J. E., & Baker, K. M. (2007). A history of psychology:
Globalization, ideas, and applications. Upper Saddle River:
Pearson - Prentice Hall.
O’Connell, A. N., & Russo, F. R. (1983). Models of achievement: Reflections
of eminent women in psychology. New York: Columbia University
Press.
Scarborough, E., & Furumoto, L. (1989). Untold Lives: The first generation
of American women psychologists. New York: Columbia University
Press.
Stevens, G. & Gardner, S. (1982). The women of psychology: Volume II:
Expansion and refinement. Cambridge: Schenkman Publishing Company,
Inc.
Washburn, Margaret Floy (1871-1939). (2001). In Gale Encyclopedia of
Psychology, 2nd ed. [Web]. Gale Group. Retrieved July 31, 2008,
from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2699/is?0003/ai?
2699000353/print:tag=artBody;col1
Call for Arcles for 2012 NYS Authors
The NYS Psychologist is indexed in APA’s PsycInfo and
is circulated worldwide.
right to edit all copy. The final decision to publish an article rests
with the editorial board.
Theme. Current issues, trends and research in psychology.
Article may be theoretical, empirical and applied, on all aspects of
psychology and the future of psychology. All articles must be referenced.
Manuscript preparation. Authors should prepare manuscripts
according to the Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (5th ed.). Manuscripts should be no
more than 12 double-spaced pages including references, 250
words on a page, with at least a one-inch margin on all sides of
the paper, and with typeface no smaller than 12 points. Abstract
and keywords. All manuscripts must include an abstract containing
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paper and a brief biography related to your expertise and/or topic
of approximately 120 words. After the abstract, please supply up
to five or six key words. References. References should be
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All copy must be double-spaced and instructions on preparing
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the Manual.
Editorial policy. All manuscripts are first reviewed by the
Editor-in-Chief to determine if they are appropriate for this journal.
We do not accept opinion pieces. All manuscripts are peer reviewed.
Authors are required to obtain and provide to NYSPA
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Manuscript submission. To be considered for 2011 publication,
please send submissions electronically. Suggested editorial
changes are communicated electronically. Two hard copies
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E-mail manuscripts to Diane Fisher, dfisher@nyspa.org.
The electronic file should be prepared accurately, consistently and
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Paragraphs should be formatted the same way throughout.
Deadline for submission is May 1, 2012
NYS Psychologist is the official journal of the New York State
Psychological Association and, as such, contains archival documents.
It also published articles on current issues in psychology
as well as empirical, theoretical, and practice articles based on
broad aspects of psychology. Statements contained in the NYS
Psychologist are the personal view of the authors and do not constitute
NYSPA policy unless so indicated.
NYSPA reserves the right to edit all copy. The NYS Psychologist is indexed
in APA’s PsychInfo.
Copyright and permissions. Those who wish to reuse NYSPA-copy righted
materials must secure from NYSPA and the author written permission
to reproduce a journal article in full or journal text of more than 500 words.
Page 31
Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall 2011 • NYS Psychologist

Allen V. Williams, Jr. Memorial Award
The Allen V. Williams Jr. Memorial Award, NYSPA's highest honor,
is awarded annually by NYSPA's Council of Representatives to
a psychologist who has contributed significantly to the progression
of psychology and/or has made a unique contribution to the New
York State Psychological Association.
Dr. Barbara Fontana was the Allen V. Williams Jr. Memorial
Award 2011 honoree. Dr. Fontana's award was presented by Dr.
Laurence Baker
Citation: Barbara Fontana, PhD
Dr. Fontana was on Council for six years as a
representative of Suffolk. She was the first
Member-at-Large to the Executive Committee
from Council. She has been on the Finance
Committee. She just finished working on the
revamp as a member of the Committee on the
Referral Service. One of the important and
famous things about her, since 2007 she has
been co-chair of the Committee for Psychotherapy Practice, CPP,
which is NYSPA's attempt, with varying degrees of desperation
depending upon the weather, to make psychotherapy practice a
viable business as well as a useful and valuable service, among
other things. She is secretary of NYSPA, which is quite a job and
one she does phenomenally well. And upon the recent resignation
of NYSPA's treasurer, Barbara in a demonstration of questionable
judgment volunteered to fill in as treasurer. So she is now secretary
and treasurer, maintaining two demanding jobs at once. In
addition to NYSPA, Dr. Fontana is a member-at-large on the
board of the Suffolk County Psychological Association and its past
president and current coordinator of its mentoring program. She
has been part of a peer supervision group for almost 20 years,
with other private practice people. She is a volunteer at the Pre-
Cana program at her church for 10 years. She stated that among
her passions are photography and kayaking. She has been a trustee
for a rural cemetery that is an historic landmark for 10 years.
I am deeply honored to be this year's recipient of the Allen V.
Williams Award and to have been nominated with Jerry Grodin
and Richard Wexler, who are outstanding psychologists and leaders.
As I have looked back on many years as a psychologist, I
asked myself why I feel so active within my profession, and I think
of some of the right lessons that my parents taught me. One is
that you can accomplish anything if you are determined and you
try hard enough, and another is that it is really important to be
reliable and dependable. Secondly, the importance of giving back
to your community by volunteering and by mentoring others, and
the last and the most important one for me, which I learned from
my dad: to treat everyone with lots of kindness.
I have done many things within NYSPA, but the most part of
my work on the Committee on Psychotherapy Practice, has been
advocating for the many psychologists who want to continue to
provide psychotherapy. I hope that as we actually face the challenges
that will come with prosperity from HDO and medical
homes. We will not abandon psychotherapy as one of our profession's
core activities. As Dr. Jonathan Shepard told us yesterday,
psycho-therapy works. I believe that if we can work together in an
atmosphere of trust and respect, we can find the way for psychologists
to earn a decent living while providing psychotherapy. I
also believe that we can develop ways to establish opportunities
for psychologists to do both of these things in the future, and thirdly
I believe that if we work together, we can also get psychologists
fairer terms in healthcare. Before I close, I would like to just thank
a few people. I thank Council for selecting me for this honor.
When I heard it, I was actually speechless and as most of you
know that that doesn't happen very often. I would like thank Dianne
Polowczyk for believing in me and asking me to co-chair
CPP. I certainly never would have done it if Dianne had not. I
would like to thank George Northrup, Jerry, and Dianne who have
served with me on CPP since the beginning. You have been great
people to work with and I treasure your friendship. I would like to
thank the Suffolk County Psychological Association because that
has been my professional home with wonderful colleagues for me
over the last 30 years. And last but not least I would like to thank
my children, Gina and David, for being here today and for what
you have all been to my life. I would also like to invite each of you
if you have not gotten the dashboard/bumper sticker for your car,
do so. This is a CPP project and each of the divisions contributed
$25 to make this happen, so thank you to all and take it each of us
and let us spread the word that, so that everyone wants to talk to
a psychologist. Thank you.
Past awardees since the establishment of the Allen V. Williams,
Jr. Memorial Award in 1980 are:
2010 Larry Baker
2009 Gayle Berg
2008 June Feder
2007 Max Heinrich
2006 Sharon Brennan
2005 JoanneLifshin
2004 Franklin H. Goldberg
2003 Barbara Cowen
2002 Michael J. Sullivan
2001 Sandra E. Tars
2000 Lester Schad
1999 George Stricker
1998 David Nevin
1997 John D. Hogan
1996 John Northman
1995 Leonore Loeb Adler
1994 Florence Denmark
1993 Harry Sands
1992 Richard Cohen
1991 Sidney (Bud) Orgel
1990 Joseph Zubin
1989 Ted Reiss
1988 Reuben Silver
1987 Ruth Ochroch
1986 Virginia Staudt Sexton
1985 Helena Mallay Lesk
1984 Howard Cohen
1983 Justin P. Carey
1982 Milton Theaman
1981 Samuel Pearlman
1980 Doris K. Miller
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Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall 2011 • NYS Psychologist

Presidential Award
Dr. Donna Rasin-Waters, president of NYSPA (2011) presented awards to the following recipients for their tremendous contributions
to the association:
Valerie Abel, PhD Peter Kanaris, PhD William Barr, PhD
NYSPA Distinguished Service Awards
NYSPA's Awards Committee each year selects psychologists who have given exemplary service to the New York State Psychological
Association and acknowledge NYSPA's appreciation for their outstanding performances and contributions.
Citation: Chris Allen, PhD
Dr. Allen is on NYSPA's Council of Representative as well as a representative of Central New York Psychological
Association. She is on the Task Force on Representation as well as the Bylaws Task Force, which appears at
times to be a permanent assignment with an endless task. She has been an Executive Committee member-atlarge,
was on the Committee on Strategic Planning and has been a past president of her regional. She is in private
practice and has an executive coaching business. She is an adjunct faculty member at Syracuse University, and is
at Upstate Medical University where she supervises residents. She has a wonderful husband, two kids and three
cats.
Citation: Lenny Davidman, PhD
Dr. Davidman is a member-at-large on the Executive Committee. He is treasurer of the Manhattan Psych Association.
He is NYSPA's unofficial media watchdog and critic. He is on the PLANY board. He is, since 1977, at the Metropolitan
Hospital Center, where he was chief psychologist. Since 1978, at New York Medical College, he is an
assistant professor. He has been a swimming instructor for a while, and he was a taxi driver. He was a waiter during
the NYSPA convention at the Concord Hotel when he was 17, which has to be roughly 100 years ago. And at
the other end of it he is being trained in terrorism counter-surveillance by a professional Jewish security agency.
Citation: Leah Klungness, PhD
Dr. Klingness has been intricate in bringing NYSPA into the social media arena. She has been focused on social
networking, specifically on Twitter, where her account is said to have more followers than APA's.
Sidney A. (Bud) Orgel Memorial Award
The Sidney A. (Bud) Orgel Memorial Award was established in 2005 to honor an early career psychologist. The honoree for 2011
was Frank Corigliano. The award was presented by the Chair of the Awards Committee, Dr. Laurence Baker at NYSPA's Annual
Convention, 2011.
Citation: Frank Corigliano, PhD
Dr. Corigliano completed his internship at the Friends Hospital in Philadelphia, which is the oldest private psychiatric
hospital in the United States. He was on the Convention and Marketing committees. He is now active with the
Clinical Division. He was representative of NOFP to Council, and president of NOFP. His biggest NYSPA-related
work now is with the Extern-ship Fair. He is obviously an up and coming psychologist even before he is officially
called a psychologist.
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Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall 2011 • NYS Psychologist

The Beacon Award for Advocacy
The Beacon Award for Advocacy recipient is chosen by NYSPA's Awards Committee in recognition of leadership and/or advocacy in
establishing a guiding light for the profession of psychology. This award was presented to honoree Dr. Marianne Jackson at the 2011
Annual Convention by Dr. Larry Baker, chair of NYSPA's Award Committee.
Citation: Marianne Jackson, PhD
Dr. Jackson is one of the highly principled members of NYSPA and greater society. She does things on the basis
of what she really believes to be right, and is well known for that. She is a fighter for social issues and she
serves sometimes as a social conscience for all of us. She is running for president of the Brooklyn Psychological
Association. Marianne is a clinical psychologist in private practice in Brooklyn. She got postdoc training at the
Postgraduate Center. She is former president of NYSPA. She founded NYSPA's Health Care Committee in
2000. She has been involved in the Division of Women's Issues, and Social Issues, and the Editorial Policies
Committee. She is a member of Physicians for a National Health Program and the New York Coalition Against Torture. She is interested
in getting things done, not just in talking about them, and that does tend to differentiate her from some of us.
Grace Lauro Awards
The recipients of the Grace Lauro Award are chosen by the Independent Practice Division in collaboration with the Academic Division,
for recognition of a student’s scholarly research.
Amber Kraft Nemeth, MA
The City College, City University of New York (CUNY)
The Effects of Early Maternal Interpersonal Violence Exposure on Children’s Behavior: Examining Mechanisms of Maternal Aggression
and Affect Dysregulation
Jessica R. Houser, MA
Long Island University
Eating in Response to Negative Emotion: Implications for Mood Repair and Select Working Memory Functions
Iskra Smiljanic, MA
The City College, City University of New York (CUNY)
Eating in Response to Negative Emotion: Implications for Mood Repair and Select Working Memory Functions
Martha M. Agresta, MA
Derner Institute for Advanced Psychological Studies, Adelphi University
Women Who Use Pornography: Healthy Sexual Outlet or Re-experiencing of Trauma?
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For more information about advertising, please contact Kathryn Ohanian, kohanian@nyspa.org or (800) 732-
3993. Online classifieds are available on our website at www. nyspa.org.
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Vol. XXIII No. 2 • Fall 2011 • NYS Psychologist

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