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LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1 Study area of Roosevelt elk diet and reproductive success, Hoko Game Management Unit, Washington, 2001. Star indicates location of Hoko GMU within Washington. Polygons represent timber harvest within study area since 1976.................................................................................................................8 2 Number of cows seen and calf:cow ratio for elk herd number 9, Hoko GMU, Washington, June – December 2001. Equation for line was: y = 0.82 + (- 3.65*number of cows). ...........................................................................................27 3 Percentage used and available riparian, marsh, and pasture vegetation categories for nine elk herds, Hoko GMU, Washington, March – December 2001. Pasture available to herd 3 was less than 0.1% of the home range..............32 4 Mean percentage of each forage class in diets of nine elk herds, Hoko GMU, Washington, March 2001 – February 2002. All forage classes were significantly different (P < 0.005) between sampling periods except Juncus spp. G. shallon was included to show contribution to mean shrub percentage from November – February. Error bars = ± 1 SE. .................................................34 5 Correlations of relative percentages of grass and shrub in the diet of nine elk herds during three sampling periods in 2001, Hoko GMU, Washington. Squares represent highly productive herds. Triangles represent less productive herds......................................................................................................38 6 Correlations of relative percentages of grass and G. shallon in the diet of nine elk herds during two sampling periods in 2001, Hoko GMU, Washington. Squares represent highly productive herds. Triangles represent less productive herds...............................................................................................39 7 Correlations of relative percentages of two diet constituents for nine elk herds during two sampling periods in 2001, Hoko GMU, Washington. Squares represent highly productive herds. Triangles represent less productive herds......................................................................................................40 8 Mean crude protein content (%) for 21 elk forage plant species from March 2001 – February 2002. Means are dry-weight values. Range of protein values was within 1% of mean. Forage class: FE = fern, GR = grass, SR = sedge/rush, FO = forb, SH = shrub, CO = conifer..................................................42 xii
LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED) 9 Mean percentage in-vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) for 21 elk forage plant species from March 2001 – February 2002. Means are dry-weight values. Range of digestibility values was within 5 % of mean. Forage class: FE = fern, GR = grass, SR = sedge/rush, FO = forb, SH = shrub, CO = conifer. ....................................................................................................................43 10 Mean gross available energy (GAE) for 21 elk forage plant species from March 2001 – February 2002. Means are reported as ash-free values. Standard error ranged from 0.01 – 0.03. Forage class: FE = fern, GR = grass, SR = sedge/rush, FO = forb, SH = shrub, CO = conifer...............................44 11 Mean digestable energy (DE) for 21 elk forage plant species from March 2001 - February 2002. Means are reported on an ash-free, dry-weight basis. Standard error ranged from 0.003 - 0.009. Forage class: FE = forbs, GR = grasses, SR = sedge/rush, FO = forbs, SH = shrubs, CO = confers........................45 12 Mean calf:cow ratio, calf survival, and home range size of nine elk herds, Hoko GMU, Washington, 2001. Squares represent highly productive herds, with mean calf:cow r 2 = 0.81, P = 0.04, and calf survival r 2 = 0.006, P > 0.05. Triangles represent less productive herds, with mean calf:cow r 2 = 0.35, P > 0.05, and calf survival r 2 = 0.86, P > 0.05. .............................................47 13 Correlations of mean percentage shrub in the diet of nine elk herds and percent 2 – 9 year old timber or 20 – 24 year old timber available in the home range, Hoko GMU, Washington, 2001. Squares represent highly productive herds, triangles represent less productive herds....................................48 14 Regressions of reproductive success (December calf:cow R 2 = 0.65, P = 0.009, Mean calf:cow R 2 = 0.5, P = 0.03, Productivity index R 2 = 0.76, P = 0.002) and mean percent grass in the diet of nine elk herds, March – December 2001, Hoko GMU, Washington. Regression of birthrate was not significant (R 2 = 0.37, P = 0.08, y = 0.31+0.007*mean grass)...............................56 Page xiii
Page 1: DIET, NUTRITION, AND REPRODUCTIVE S
Page 4 and 5: Grasses and forbs were high in prot
Page 6 and 7: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to th
Page 8 and 9: TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT....
Page 10 and 11: LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 Reprodu
Page 14 and 15: LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page A
Page 16 and 17: INTRODUCTION Roosevelt elk (Cervus
Page 18 and 19: Similarly, high quality habitat (ve
Page 20 and 21: 5 deficiencies have been reported f
Page 22 and 23: STUDY AREA The Hoko Game Management
Page 24 and 25: acemosa), swordfern (Polystichum mu
Page 26 and 27: 11 independence, I allowed at least
Page 28 and 29: 13 counted calves and cows, one obs
Page 30 and 31: communication). Riparian areas of v
Page 32 and 33: 17 The 28 vegetation types and timb
Page 34 and 35: could indicate forage plant groups
Page 36 and 37: 21 of digestibility was not an exac
Page 38 and 39: used Pearson’s correlation analys
Page 40 and 41: RESULTS Elk Telemetry and Locations
Page 42 and 43: 27 0.8 Calf:cow ratio Calf:cow rati
Page 44 and 45: Five of the nine herds used vegetat
Page 46 and 47: Table 3. Vegetation groups used les
Page 48 and 49: 33 Table 4. Results of Mann-Whitney
Page 50 and 51: 35 summer months. Shrub consumption
Page 52 and 53: Table 6. Differences in median fora
Page 54 and 55: 39 80 March/April Total grass (%) 6
Page 56 and 57: Nutritional Analysis of Forage Plan
Page 58 and 59: IVDMD (%) IVDMD (%) IVDMD (%) 80 60
Page 60 and 61: DE (Kcal/g) DE (Kcal/g) DE (Kcal/g)
Page 62 and 63:
0.6 47 0.5 Calf survival (%) Mean c
Page 64 and 65:
Table 7. Summary of principal compo
Page 66 and 67:
Table 8. Summary of multiple regres
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Table 10. Summary of multiple regre
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Birthrate was negatively related to
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DISCUSSION Highly productive herds
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consumption of evergreen shrubs, wi
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61 Therefore, low percentages of gr
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63 been able to gain adequate weigh
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65 survival but few calves overall,
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2004), highly nutritious forage pla
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egardless of home range size. There
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71 However, it is possible to have
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73 Cook, J. G., B. K. Johnson, R. C
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75 Hudson, R. J. and J. Z. Adamczew
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Phillips, G. E. and A. W. Alldredge
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APPENDICES 79
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Appendix A. Vegetation types and st
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Appendix C. Coefficient of Associat
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Appendix E. Percentage of each vege
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Appendix F. Diet of nine elk herds
Page 104 and 105:
Page 106 and 107:
Page 108 and 109:
Page 110 and 111:
Page 112 and 113:
Appendix G. Total percentage of nin
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99 Appendix I. Multiple regression
Page 116 and 117:
101 Appendix K. Correlations betwee
Page 118 and 119:
Appendix M. Multiple regression ana
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