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11 independence, I allowed at least 24 hours between successive locations for each collared elk (Swihart and Slade 1985, Grenier et al. 1990). To estimate telemetry error I conducted blind tests in the field. Each field technician located a hidden test collar using the same methods used for locating collared elk. Each technician completed between 15 and 20 test locations. Actual test collar location and triangulated test collar location (in UTM) were plotted in a GIS. I measured error distance (in m) between actual and triangulated points, and used the average as a measure of location error for radio-located elk (Zimmerman and Powell 1995). To identify elk herds, I used a coefficient of association (CA) to quantify associations between individual radio-collared elk (Cole 1949, Galea 1990). CA values were calculated for each possible collared elk pair using the formula: CA = 2h / (a + b) where h was the number of locations when elk a and b were found together, a was the total number of locations for animal a, b was the total number of locations for animal b. The resulting CA values represented a percentage of locations where each elk was located with any other elk. CA values ranged from 0 (no association) to 1 (perfect association). To minimize spatial pseudoreplication, elk were considered to be associated if CA was greater than or equal to 0.5. Associated elk were considered to belong to a single herd. Duplicate locations for elk of one herd on a given day were used only once in analysis. For all subsequent data collection and analyses (reproductive success, herd home range, diet, forage), the herd represented the sampling unit regardless of the
12 number of radio-collared or associated elk in the herd. All elk seen with radio-collared elk were also considered part of the same herd. When a collared elk was located by telemetry and at least one elk was observed, I recorded that location as a visually-confirmed location. For each visual location, time, location, number of animals seen, herd composition (number of cows, calves, yearling males, bulls), vegetation type (meadow, roadside, riparian, timber harvest and stand age, Appendix A), and elk activity (foraging, bedded, walking/running) were recorded. When elk were seen foraging I used 8 X 42 binoculars to observe plant species and plant part consumed (flowers, leaves, bark, twigs, entire plant) by elk (15 min to 1.5 hr observations). After elk moved away from the foraging location, I visited the exact site where the elk had been seen and recorded additional plant species present. All elk locations were determined during daylight hours. Reproductive Success Calf:cow ratios were used to quantify reproductive success of elk herds for analytical comparisons with diet and vegetation use. I determined calf:cow ratios from herd composition counts for June through December 2001. Elk cows typically give birth from mid-May to the end of June (Franklin et al. 1975). Dense spring vegetation can make seeing calves difficult, particularly when animals lay down. Therefore, I used helicopter surveys beginning in May 2001 to maximize the chance of counting all calves. Helicopter surveys occurred once a month from the last week of May 2001 through August 2001. The helicopter surveys were conducted by three observers: one observer
Page 1: DIET, NUTRITION, AND REPRODUCTIVE S
Page 4 and 5: Grasses and forbs were high in prot
Page 6 and 7: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to th
Page 8 and 9: TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT....
Page 10 and 11: LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 Reprodu
Page 12 and 13: LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1 Study
Page 14 and 15: LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page A
Page 16 and 17: INTRODUCTION Roosevelt elk (Cervus
Page 18 and 19: Similarly, high quality habitat (ve
Page 20 and 21: 5 deficiencies have been reported f
Page 22 and 23: STUDY AREA The Hoko Game Management
Page 24 and 25: acemosa), swordfern (Polystichum mu
Page 28 and 29: 13 counted calves and cows, one obs
Page 30 and 31: communication). Riparian areas of v
Page 32 and 33: 17 The 28 vegetation types and timb
Page 34 and 35: could indicate forage plant groups
Page 36 and 37: 21 of digestibility was not an exac
Page 38 and 39: used Pearson’s correlation analys
Page 40 and 41: RESULTS Elk Telemetry and Locations
Page 42 and 43: 27 0.8 Calf:cow ratio Calf:cow rati
Page 44 and 45: Five of the nine herds used vegetat
Page 46 and 47: Table 3. Vegetation groups used les
Page 48 and 49: 33 Table 4. Results of Mann-Whitney
Page 50 and 51: 35 summer months. Shrub consumption
Page 52 and 53: Table 6. Differences in median fora
Page 54 and 55: 39 80 March/April Total grass (%) 6
Page 56 and 57: Nutritional Analysis of Forage Plan
Page 58 and 59: IVDMD (%) IVDMD (%) IVDMD (%) 80 60
Page 60 and 61: DE (Kcal/g) DE (Kcal/g) DE (Kcal/g)
Page 62 and 63: 0.6 47 0.5 Calf survival (%) Mean c
Page 64 and 65: Table 7. Summary of principal compo
Page 66 and 67: Table 8. Summary of multiple regres
Page 68 and 69: Table 10. Summary of multiple regre
Page 70 and 71: Birthrate was negatively related to
Page 72 and 73: DISCUSSION Highly productive herds
Page 74 and 75: consumption of evergreen shrubs, wi
Page 76 and 77:
61 Therefore, low percentages of gr
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63 been able to gain adequate weigh
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65 survival but few calves overall,
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2004), highly nutritious forage pla
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egardless of home range size. There
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71 However, it is possible to have
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73 Cook, J. G., B. K. Johnson, R. C
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75 Hudson, R. J. and J. Z. Adamczew
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Phillips, G. E. and A. W. Alldredge
Page 94 and 95:
APPENDICES 79
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Appendix A. Vegetation types and st
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Appendix C. Coefficient of Associat
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Appendix E. Percentage of each vege
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Appendix F. Diet of nine elk herds
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Page 106 and 107:
Page 108 and 109:
Page 110 and 111:
Page 112 and 113:
Appendix G. Total percentage of nin
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99 Appendix I. Multiple regression
Page 116 and 117:
101 Appendix K. Correlations betwee
Page 118 and 119:
Appendix M. Multiple regression ana
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