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Grasses and forbs were high in protein (> 12%), digestibility (> 55%), and digestible energy (> 2.1 Kcal/g). Ferns and shrubs were lower in protein except during spring when Athyrium felix-femina and Equisetum had protein content greater than 17%. Ferns and shrubs were less digestible (< 46%), and had lower digestible energy (< 1.7 Kcal/g) than grasses and forbs. Regression and correlation analyses were used to investigate relationships between home range size, vegetation types used, vegetation types available, diet, and reproductive success. For highly productive herds, there was no change in calf survival as home range size increased. However, for less productive herds, calf survival decreased and mean calf:cow ratio increased with increasing home range size. Less productive herds could increase home range size to include more forage, but the higher cost of travel and predation risk may have lowered calf survival. Highly productive herds had areas of high quality forage (high protein and digestible energy) within their home range, therefore did not have to increase home range size to provide adequate nutrition. Available marsh, riparian, and pasture in the home range, as well as used and available 2 – 9 year old timber in the home range, were positively related to reproductive success of female elk (P < 0.05). 20 – 24 year old timber used by herds was negatively related to reproductive success (P < 0.05). The amount of grasses, sedges, and forbs in the diet, all forages that were high in protein and digestible energy, were positively related to reproductive success (P < 0.001). Elk herds with home ranges that included riparian, pasture, and some young timber had access to abundant, good nutritional quality forages, allowing for high reproductive success regardless of home range size. Elk herds iv
with home ranges that consisted of expanses of maturing timber did not have access to as much high quality forage, and therefore had lower reproductive success. v
Page 1: DIET, NUTRITION, AND REPRODUCTIVE S
Page 6 and 7: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to th
Page 8 and 9: TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT....
Page 10 and 11: LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 Reprodu
Page 12 and 13: LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1 Study
Page 14 and 15: LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page A
Page 16 and 17: INTRODUCTION Roosevelt elk (Cervus
Page 18 and 19: Similarly, high quality habitat (ve
Page 20 and 21: 5 deficiencies have been reported f
Page 22 and 23: STUDY AREA The Hoko Game Management
Page 24 and 25: acemosa), swordfern (Polystichum mu
Page 26 and 27: 11 independence, I allowed at least
Page 28 and 29: 13 counted calves and cows, one obs
Page 30 and 31: communication). Riparian areas of v
Page 32 and 33: 17 The 28 vegetation types and timb
Page 34 and 35: could indicate forage plant groups
Page 36 and 37: 21 of digestibility was not an exac
Page 38 and 39: used Pearson’s correlation analys
Page 40 and 41: RESULTS Elk Telemetry and Locations
Page 42 and 43: 27 0.8 Calf:cow ratio Calf:cow rati
Page 44 and 45: Five of the nine herds used vegetat
Page 46 and 47: Table 3. Vegetation groups used les
Page 48 and 49: 33 Table 4. Results of Mann-Whitney
Page 50 and 51: 35 summer months. Shrub consumption
Page 52 and 53: Table 6. Differences in median fora
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39 80 March/April Total grass (%) 6
Page 56 and 57:
Nutritional Analysis of Forage Plan
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IVDMD (%) IVDMD (%) IVDMD (%) 80 60
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DE (Kcal/g) DE (Kcal/g) DE (Kcal/g)
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0.6 47 0.5 Calf survival (%) Mean c
Page 64 and 65:
Table 7. Summary of principal compo
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Table 8. Summary of multiple regres
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Table 10. Summary of multiple regre
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Birthrate was negatively related to
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DISCUSSION Highly productive herds
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consumption of evergreen shrubs, wi
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61 Therefore, low percentages of gr
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63 been able to gain adequate weigh
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65 survival but few calves overall,
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2004), highly nutritious forage pla
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egardless of home range size. There
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71 However, it is possible to have
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73 Cook, J. G., B. K. Johnson, R. C
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75 Hudson, R. J. and J. Z. Adamczew
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Phillips, G. E. and A. W. Alldredge
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APPENDICES 79
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Appendix A. Vegetation types and st
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Appendix C. Coefficient of Associat
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Appendix E. Percentage of each vege
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Appendix F. Diet of nine elk herds
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Page 106 and 107:
Page 108 and 109:
Page 110 and 111:
Page 112 and 113:
Appendix G. Total percentage of nin
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99 Appendix I. Multiple regression
Page 116 and 117:
101 Appendix K. Correlations betwee
Page 118 and 119:
Appendix M. Multiple regression ana
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