teaching - Earth Science Teachers' Association

teaching 

EARTH 

SCIENCES 

Journal of the EARTH SCIENCE TEACHERS’ ASSOCIATION 

Volume 27 ● Number 2, 2002 ● ISSN 0957-8005 

www.esta-uk.org

th Science 

ache 

Earth Science 

Activities and 

Earthquakes 

Response to the 

Science and 

inquiry into the 

Kingston 2001 

Book Reviews 

Websearch 

Browne 

Teaching Earth Sciences: Guide for Authors 

The Editor welcomes articles of any length and nature and on any topic related to 

Earth science education from cradle to grave. Please inspect back copies of TES, 

from Issue 26(3) onwards, to become familiar with the journal house-style. 

Three paper copies of major articles are requested. Please use double line spacing 

and A4 paper and please use SI units throughout, except where this is inappropriate 

(in which case please include a conversion table). The first paragraph of each 

major article should not have a subheading but should either introduce the reader 

to the context of the article or should provide an overview to stimulate interest. This 

is not an abstract in the formal sense. Subsequent paragraphs should be grouped 

under sub-headings. 

Text 

Please also supply the full text on disk or as an email attachment: Microsoft Word 

is the most convenient, but any widely-used wordprocessor is acceptable. 

References 

Please use the following examples as models 

(1) Articles 

Mayer, V. (1995) Using the Earth system for integrating the science curriculum. 

Science Education, 79(4), pp. 375-391. 

(2) Books 

McPhee, J. (1986 ) Rising from the Plains. New York: Fraux, Giroux & Strauss. 

(3) Chapters in books 

Duschl, R.A. & Smith, M.J. (2001) Earth Science. In Jere Brophy (ed), Subject- 

Specific Instructional Methods and Activities, Advances in Research on Teaching. Volume 8, 

pp. 269-290. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science. 

To Advertise in 


EARTH 

SCIENCES 


EARTH 

SCIENCES 



Your President 

Introduced 

Martin Whiteley 

Thinking Geology: 

Activities to Develop 

Thinking Ski ls in 

Geology Teaching 

Recovering the 

Leaning Tower of Pisa 

Demonstrations: 

House of Commons 

Technology Commi tee 

Science Cu riculum for 

14 - 19 year olds 

Se ting up a local 

group - West Wales 

Geology Teachers’ 

Network 

Highlights from the 

post-16 ‘bring and 

share’ session a the 

ESTA Conference, 

ESTA Conference 

update 

News and Resources 

www.esta-uk.org 



Telephone 

Roger Trend 

01392 264768 


EARTH 

SCIENCES 

rth Science 

chers’ Asso 


Creationism and 

Evolution: 

Questions in the 

Classroom 

Institute of Biology 

Chemistry on the 

High Street 

Peter Kenne t 




Fossils and Time 

Mike Tuke 

Beyond Petroleum: 

Business and 

The Environment in 

the 21st Century John 

Using Foam Rubber in 

an Aquarium To 

Simulate Plate- 

Tectonic And Glacial 

Phenomena 

John Wheeler 

Dorset and East 

Devon Coast: 

World Heritage Site 


Update 

New ESTA Members 

Websearch 


(including ESTA AGM) 

Figures 

Prepared artwork must be of high quality and submitted on paper and disk. Handdrawn 

and hand-labelled diagrams are not normally acceptable, although in some 

circumstances this is appropriate. Each figure must be submitted as a separate file. 

Photographs 

Please submit colour or black-and-white photographs as originals. They are also 

welcomed in digital form on disk or as email attachments: .jpeg format is to be preferred. 

Please use one file for each photograph. 

Copyright 

There are no copyright restrictions on original material published in Teaching Earth 

Sciences if it is required for use in the classroom or lecture room. Copyright material 

reproduced in TES by permission of other publications rests with the original 

publisher. Permission must be sought from the Editor to reproduce original material 

from Teaching Earth Sciences in other publications and appropriate acknowledgement 

must be given. 

All articles submitted should be original unless indicted otherwise and should 

contain the author’s full name, title and address (and email address where relevant). 

They should be sent to the Editor, 

Dr Roger Trend 

School of Education 

University of Exeter 

Exeter EX1 2LU 

UK 

Tel 01392 264768 

Email R.D.Trend@exeter.ac.uk 

Editor 

WHERE IS PEST? 

PEST is printed as the 

centre 4 pages in 

Teaching Earth Sciences.




TEACHING EARTH SCIENCES ● Volume 27 ● Number 2, 2002 


EARTH 

SCIENCES 

Teaching Earth Sciences is published quarterly by 

the Earth Science Teachers’ Association. ESTA 

aims to encourage and support the teaching of 

Earth Sciences, whether as a single subject or as 

part of science or geography courses. 

Full membership is £25.00; student and retired 

membership £12.50. 

Registered Charity No. 1005331 

Editor 

Dr. Roger Trend 

School of Education 

University of Exeter 

Exeter EX1 2LU 

Tel: 01392 264768 

Email: R.D.Trend@exeter.ac.uk 

Advertising 

Vacancy 

Reviews Editor 

Dr. Denis Bates 

Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences 

University of Wales 

Aberystwyth 

Dyfed SY23 3DB 

Tel: 01970 622639 

Email: deb@aber.ac.uk 

Council Officers 

President 


Barrisdale Limited 

Bedford 

Chairman 

Geraint Owen 

Department of Geography 

University of Swansea 

Singleton Park 

Swansea SA2 8PP 

Secretary 

Dr. Dawn Windley 

Thomas Rotherham College 

Moorgate, Rotherham 

South Yorkshire 

Membership Secretary 

Owain Thomas 

PO Box 10, Narberth 

Pembrokeshire SA67 7YE 

Treasurer 

Geoff Hunter 

6 Harborne Road 

Tackley, Kidlington 

Oxon OX5 3BL 

Contributions to future issues of Teaching Earth 

Sciences will be welcomed and should be 

addressed to the Editor. 

Opinions and comments in this issue are the 

personal views of the authors and do not 

necessarily represent the views of the Association. 

Designed by Character Design 

Highridge, Wrigglebrook Lane, Kingsthorne 

Hereford HR2 8AW 

CONTENTS 

38 Editorial 

39 From the ESTA President 


39 From the ESTA Chair 

Geraint Owen 

41 Geohazards, Climate Change and You 

Alan Forster 

48 Avalanching Grains: The Makse Cell Experiment 

Trevor Elliott 

49 Rock ‘N Roll – Oscillatory Waves and the 

Formation of Wave Produced Ripples 


51 Simple Apparatus for Simulating of Seismic 

Waves and its use with Students 

Masakazu Goto 

54 “I want an earthquake” 

Peter Kennett 

57 ESTA Diary 

58 ESTA Conference Issues 

Peter Kennett 

59 New ESTA Members 

59 Letter to the Editor 

60 Websearch 

61 Reviews 

62 News and Resources 


EARTH 

SCIENCES 

Visit our website at www.esta-uk.org 

FRONT COVER PHOTO: Peter Kennett, 

with Aconcagua behind 

(see “I Want an Earthquake”) 

BACK COVER: From Cueva del MilOdon, 

near Punta Natales 

(see “I Want an Earthquake”) 

37 www.esta-uk.org


Editorial – Small Tremors 

What a pity it didn’t happen a week earlier! I 

am talking, of course, about the Dudley 

Earthquake which occurred in the late 

hours of Sunday, Sept 22nd 2002, just before midnight. 

A week earlier the exceptionally stimulating ESTA 

Annual Conference had been in full swing at the headquarters 

of the British Geological Survey at Keyworth, 

Nottingham. One of the reasons that the conference 

was recognised as being so rewarding for all concerned 

was that many BGS colleagues contributed so much to 

the 3-day event. Of course, many other non-BGS colleagues 

also contributed to the success of the conference, 

but I want to make a link between the BGS input, 

the earthquake a week later and the importance of geoscience 

education across the board. (I don’t think there 

is a causal relationship between the earthquake and the 

ESTA conference at BGS, although at least one rather 

obscure website contains the suggestion that BGS 

arranged the earthquake to publicise its Open Day on 

September 28th!) 

A single damaged chimney becomes “chimneys 

crashed” which in turn becomes “hundreds of 

chimneys were destroyed across the region” 

The earthquake focus was estimated to be at a depth 

of 9.7 km, with the epicentre on the western edge of the 

West Midlands town of Dudley. The Applied and Environmental 

Geophysics Research Group at Keele University 

have posted some useful background data on 

their website. 

The magnitude was 4.8ML and an earthquake of 

this magnitude, or more, occurs in Britain, on average, 

every decade. By UK standards, damage was significant, 

amounting to minor structural damage such as a 

few dislodged chimneys in Brick Kiln Lane (and 

beyond) and slight damage to Dudley Castle. According 

to a Dudley newspaper, the Express and Star, there 

was probably one victim: Dennis Ransford of Walsall 

broke his foot while trying to check on his cat after the 

tremors. It seems he tripped on his way downstairs 

while checking up on his pet Lucy a few seconds after 

the earthquake tremors. Mr Ransford is quoted in the 

newspaper as saying “She is a very timid cat and doesn’t 

like thunder or anything like that, so I thought I’d 

better see how she was. I was still half asleep as I was 

walking and managed to trip on the last step and injure 

my foot.” He is pictured in plaster. 

A week earlier at the ESTA Conference Roger Musson 

of BGS was giving a scholarly, informative, entertaining 

and lavishly-illustrated talk about the processes 

by which UK earthquakes, ancient and modern, are 

investigated using various types of historical evidence. 

He made the point that newspapers have always been 

sources of unreliable data because of their tendency to 

exaggerate and sensationalise. A single damaged chimney 

becomes “chimneys crashed” which in turn 

becomes “hundreds of chimneys were destroyed across 

the region” and so forth. Perhaps readers may wish to 

send him (or the Editor) examples of such headlines for 

the Dudley event? Has any reader seen a “Quake Devastates 

West Midlands Town!” headline yet? The Mirror 

managed “Small Tremor Rocks Nation”. 

Alan Forster of BGS also contributed to the success 

of the Conference through his session on geohazards 

and climate change, reminding us that, for example, 

the famous Colchester Earthquake of 1884 had a magnitude 

of a mere 4.6ML. In his article for TES (see 

page 41 of this issue) he points out that Britain is definitely 

not an aseismic area so earthquake hazard 

potential should be taken into account by developers, 

especially if the structures are sensitive ones such as 

chemical plants or major bridges. Of course, he doesn’t 

mention fences at zoos, but Dudley provides a 

good example where earthquake damage could have 

resulted in herds of antelope and prides of lions chasing 

down Dudley High Street (or even around the 

Wrens Nest)! More interesting headlines there! Incidentally, 

no-one appears to have noticed or reported 

any strange animal behaviour in the zoo immediately 

prior to the earthquake, but perhaps people and animals 

were asleep! See the (very slight!) impact of the 

earthquake on Dudley Zoo at their website. 

Another highlight of the Conference was the talk by 

BGS Executive Director, David Falvey, who addressed 

the role of geoscience for society at large. Geohazards 

were on his agenda, of course, and his talk set the tone 

for the fruitful and continuing link between ESTA and 

BGS. Education remains at the centre of ESTA’s role 

and participation at the Conference on such a scale by 

BGS colleagues not only encourages ESTA members to 

even more effective action in education, but also gives 

them the tools to do the job. The focus on geohazards 

in one context or another clearly reflected the Conference 

theme of “New Perspectives on the Past” and the 

earthquake of the following week merely serves to 

remind us that, going backwards, the past starts now. 

Roger Trend 

References 

Applied and Environmental Geophysics Research 

Group, Keele University, website: 

http://www.esci.keele.ac.uk/geophysics/html/dudley_e 

arthquake.html 

impact of the earthquake on Dudley Zoo, website: 

http://www.safaripark.co.uk/news/newsitem.asp 


38


From the ESTA President 

Having just returned from our Annual Course 

and Conference at Keyworth I feel confident 

that ESTA continues to serve a valuable role in 

Earth science education. The consensus from attendees 

was that we had gained much from our hosts at the 

British Geological Survey, both in terms of their unrivalled 

facilities and the fascinating topics they discussed 

with us. And certainly there was benefit from teachers 

sharing their ideas and experiences through workshops 

and fieldwork. So everything in the ESTA garden is 

lovely... or is it? 

After dinner on the opening evening of Conference 

I said a few words of welcome to everybody and made 

the point that the long term future of ESTA lay in its 

ability to attract new blood. Not just to inflate membership 

numbers, but more importantly, to reflect and 

embrace those changes that current educational initiatives 

demand of us. Gone are the days of geology being 

taught in splendid isolation, gone is the specialist 

teacher working solely with small groups of highly 

motivated sixth-formers and gone is the flexibility to 

impart much about the wealth of Earth science that falls 

outside the curriculum. Whatever reservations we may 

have about this situation, it is, by and large, the status quo 

and ESTA must respond accordingly. 

In my talk I mentioned two partnership programmes 

that have recently started to address just such changes. 

First, the creation of the Earth Science Education Unit 

(ESEU) at Keele University with a remit to provide inservice 

training for Key Stage 3 & 4 teachers. Aimed at 

the generalist science teacher faced with the daunting 

task of explaining plate tectonics or perhaps the rock 

cycle, the ESEU improves teachers’ knowledge and 

offers practical advice and resources for the harassed 

and bewildered! In this case generous industrial sponsorship 

oils the wheels, allowing the ESEU to provide a 

countrywide service if and when demand dictates. But 

why such largesse? Quite simply it’s because the oil 

industry believes that its long-term future is best served 

by educating youngsters today about the realities of the 

Earth and the conflicting claims made upon it. After all, 

it is only by providing the current generation with a 

sound scientific framework that we can reasonably 

expect them to make informed decisions in the future. 

Here then is the basis for the partnership – educationalists 

and the oil industry with a shared objective. 

The second partnership that I touched on was the 

Joint Earth Science Education Initiative (JESEI). Still in 

its formative stages, this is collaboration between geologists 

and their fellow scientists, chemists, physicists 

and biologists who may be required to teach beyond 

their core discipline in various parts of the Earth science 

National Curriculum. The emphasis here is on producing 

resources and methodologies that have immediate 

application in the classroom, utilising much of the 

standard laboratory equipment generally available in 

schools. Far from being seen as a threat to ‘pure’ science, 

the JESEI is an outstanding example of how Earth 

science plays a pivotal role in the contemporary, inclusive 

Earth-system approach to learning. 

So, with such initiatives underway and more in the 

pipeline, why should I express any concern in my opening 

paragraph? The Conference reinforced my growing 

opinion that if we can better harness the collective 

enthusiasm, talent and dedication of ESTA members 

we can make even more of a difference. Quite how we 

are going to achieve that is the issue, but you will detect 

in my comments and those of the incoming Chair, 

Geraint Owen, a desire to understand what our members 

want from ESTA and how we can move towards 

being a more proactive and influential organisation. 

In conclusion, let me thank everybody who worked 

so hard to make the Keyworth Conference such a success. 

Hopefully, in years to come, we will be able to look 

back on it as an inflection point towards a more 

enlivened and effective ESTA. 


From the ESTA Chair: What 

does ESTA mean to you? 

Ihave just returned from an 

enjoyable and stimulating 

weekend at the ESTA Annual 

Course and Conference, hosted 

this year by the British Geological 

Survey, with accommodation at 

the University of Nottingham. 

The Annual General Meeting on 

Saturday afternoon approved my 

appointment as ESTA Chair for 

the next 2 years. It’s far too early 

yet to say how comfortable or otherwise 

that Chair will prove to be, 

but I take it over in good shape 

from my predecessor, Ian Thomas, 

whom I thank heartily on behalf of 

all ESTA members for passing on a 

vibrant Association that is increasing 

in numbers for the first time in 

many years. Thank-you, Ian. 

This period of changeover is a 

good opportunity to consider what 

ESTA means to its members, and 

what it does for them. Of course, I 

can only speak from my own experience. 

But I hope you will take a 

few moments after reading this to 

consider what you think ESTA 

stands for and where you would 

like it to go, and share your views 

with other members, by writing to 

the journal, or by writing or emailing 

to myself or any member of 

Council. Ordinary ESTA members 

volunteer to spend time on ESTA 

Council, steering ESTA in the 

direction that is in the best interests 

of Earth science education, but to 

do that successfully we need to be 

aware of the views of all ESTA 

members. So let us know your 

views. And here are some points for 

you to think about. 

ESTA exists to advance education 

by the teaching of Earth sciences. 

That’s what our Rules say. 

But how do we achieve this? Are we 

Cont. on page 40 

39 www.esta-uk.org


going about it in the best possible way? Is there more 

we could be doing? I see ESTA as having two core functions 

that address this overall objective. The first is to 

serve its members, to keep them informed of developments 

in the Earth sciences and in the world of teaching, 

to share with them practical ideas to improve their 

teaching, and to provide them with a forum to share 

their own ideas with like-minded individuals. These 

aims are achieved through the Annual Course and 

Conference, through the production and promotion of 

teaching materials, and through the pages of Teaching 

Earth Sciences – and for many members this is perhaps 

the only tangible benefit they feel they receive from 

ESTA. But is there more that ESTA could do to serve its 

members? Should ESTA try and host more meetings 

than just the Annual Course and Conference? What 

kind of meetings? Where? Could you organise one? 

And are you satisfied with the journal as it is now? Are 

there additional kinds of articles you would like to see 

in it? Could you write up some of your own experiences, 

ideas or opinions for its pages? Are there other 

aids to your teaching that you feel ESTA could provide 

or point you towards? 

And while considering the benefits of ESTA membership, 

who exactly are ESTA’s members? Traditionally 

the Association has catered primarily for teachers, at 

all levels, who have trained as Earth scientists and who 

teach Earth science. But in recent years ESTA, now in 

conjunction with the Earth Science Education Unit, 

has also reached out to teachers who aren’t Earth scientists, 

but who teach Earth science. How can we encourage 

more of these people to become ESTA members 

and share with all of us their particular experiences of 

teaching? Recent years have also seen a decline in membership 

amongst teachers in Higher Education. Why? 

What can we do to encourage these people back into the 

ESTA fold? They are an important group, who not only 

stand to benefit in their own teaching from being part 

of ESTA, but who have so much to share with other 

Earth science teachers through their position at the 

“cutting edge” of the subject. 

The second core function of ESTA is perhaps less 

obvious to many members, but it is certainly no less 

important. This is ESTA’s activity and efforts in the 

field of education policy. In the past, ESTA could perhaps 

be criticised for too often reacting to initiatives, 

sometimes too late and sometimes ineffectually, 

although this was usually due to factors outside ESTA’s 

control. But ESTA has learnt much from its experiences, 

and, as Martin Whiteley so clearly outlined in his 

Presidential Address at the ESTA Conference, we now 

see the way forward in terms of partnerships with other, 

often larger and more influential bodies – other subject 

associations, the oil industry, government departments 

and agencies, exam boards, the Geological Society, and, 

particularly since the recent Conference, the Geological 

Survey. But there is still a need to build up more and 

stronger partnerships, particularly with geographers 

and in Scotland. Could you help? Do you have ideas or 

experience about working with other groups to further 

the interests of Earth science? Let us know. Although 

this aspect of ESTA’s work impacts less on many members 

than do member benefits, ESTA has a crucial and 

vital role to play if we want our young people to be educated 

and informed to a high standard about Earth science 

and its role in society. 

In both these functions – member benefits and education 

policy – ESTA relies entirely on the voluntary 

efforts of its members. ESTA has no paid officers. The 

wisdom or otherwise of this arrangement is another 

debate, but it is my opinion that it lends a distinctive, 

positive and friendly atmosphere of enthusiasm and 

energy to the Association that may be lacking in some 

other, larger bodies. ESTA exists to serve its members, 

but it could not exist at all without the enthusiasm and 

efforts of those members. Please spend a few moments 

to think about what ESTA does for you. Are you satisfied? 

Why not? What more would you like to get out of 

ESTA? And what more might you be able to put in to 

ESTA? Please, put pen to paper, or finger(s) to keyboard, 

and let someone on ESTA Council know what 

you think, so that we can all be confident that the Association 

moves forward in the right direction. 

Finally, back to the Annual Course and Conference. 

You can read more about it elsewhere in the journal, 

and Roger Trend and Chris King have been twisting 

arms to ensure that as many as possible of the workshops 

are written up and appear in future issues. Being 

at the headquarters of the British Geological Survey 

really made this year’s event something special, hearing 

from professional geologists about how the subject is 

responding to the information and communication 

revolution and how they see Earth science contributing 

to key issues and problems facing society today, from 

preparing for earthquakes to understanding and tackling 

global change. Next September the Conference 

moves to Manchester University – once again, a place 

that’s easy to get to, with fascinating geology on its 

doorstep, and a long tradition of teaching and research 

in Earth science. The Conference dates are 12th to 14th 

September 2003. Put them in your diary now, and I 

hope to see even more members at another stimulating 

Course and Conference in a year’s time! 

Geraint Owen 

Department of Geography 

University of Swansea 

Singleton Park 

Swansea SA2 8PP 


40


Geohazards, Climate Change and You 

ALAN FORSTER 

This paper will first look at what geohazards are and how they affect the people in Great Britain, 

both directly and indirectly. It will then consider how climate has changed in the past, what might 

have caused the changes and how it might change in the future. Lastly it will consider how climate 

change may affect the geohazards that we, and our descendents, will have to face as a 

consequence of those changes. 

WHAT ARE GEOHAZARDS? 

In dealing with hazards it is beneficial to define some 

key terms. A hazard is an event that has the potential to 

do harm and so a geological event that has the potential 

to do harm, such as a volcanic eruption, is a geohazard. 

In order to assess such a hazard it is necessary to know 

how big it is and how often it happens. Risk is a term 

that describes the probability and magnitude, or value, 

of the harm or loss that may occur as a result of a hazard. 

No matter how big a hazardous might be if it is 

going to cause no damage then there is no risk. An overhanging 

cliff in a remote uninhabited island is a hazard 

but there is no risk if there is no possibility of damage 

to persons or property. 

Volcanism 

Fortunately the inhabitants of Great Britain have never 

directly experienced the impact of a volcanic eruption, 

for example the eruption of the Mount St Helens Volcano 

in 1980, because the last eruption was in the Tertiary 

some 40 million years ago. However, we have 

inherited some dramatic scenery in Northern Ireland 

and Western Scotland. At that time the situation would 

have been very different from today with high volumes 

of lava erupting from vents and fissures as can be seen 

on Hawaii or Iceland at the present time. 

Although the direct hazard from volcanoes may be 

insignificant the indirect hazard may be one that we 

should consider more seriously. The nearest active volcanoes 

to Britain are in Iceland and in Italy approximately 

2000 and 1500 km away respectively. These may 

seem safe distances but in 1783-4 the eruption of Laki in 

Iceland gave rise to the largest outpouring of flood 

basalts in recorded history with lava fountains, reaching 

heights of 800 to 1400m, (Fig 1) that injected gas and 

dust high into the atmosphere. Great devastation and 

loss of life were experienced on the island and an extensive 

area was covered by lava flows. Ash fell as far away 

as Europe and the effects of the dust and sulphurous 

gases emitted were similarly pervasive and resulted in a 

lowering of the temperature in western Europe possibly 

by as much as 1 0 centigrade (Thordarson & Self 1993). 

A few years later in 1815 the most powerful, explosive 

volcanic eruption in recorded history took place at 

Tambora on the island of Sambawa in Indonesia when 

50 km 3 were blasted from the top of 

the volcano lowering its summit by 

1300 metres (Newhall & Dzursin 

1988). This time the effect was 

experienced globally and 1816 was 

known as the year without a summer 

when global temperatures 

dropped by as much as 3 0 centigrade 

(Kious & Tilling 1996). The large 

amounts of dust injected into the 

atmosphere by this highly explosive 

eruption also caused some spectacular 

sunsets in Britain and it is 

thought that these influenced the 

work of the English painter William 

Turner who was noted for both his sunsets and his dramatic 

use of lighting. 

Thus we should not discount entirely the effects of 

volcanoes on Britain and we should remember that 

even closer than the active volcanoes 

of Iceland and southern 

Europe are the volcanoes of the 

Eifel region of Germany (Fig. 2), 

that were active as recently as 10000 

years ago, and the French volcanoes 

of the Auvergne only 500 km away 

that were active as recently as 6000 

years ago (Fig.3). 


We are also fortunate in that we have 

not suffered the effects of strong 

earthquakes, such as those that frequently 

cause serious damage in 

California. However, we do experience earthquakes on 

a regular basis (Fig 4) (Musson 2002). The largest 

recorded so far was the 6.1 magnitude Dogger Bank 

Earthquake of 1931. Although it caused considerable 

alarm there was little damage done. However, had the 

epicentre been on land in a populated area, it was large 

enough to have caused significant damage. The epicentre 

of the Colchester Earthquake of magnitude 4.6ML 

in 1884 was on land and it did cause significant damage, 

including one fatality. Consequently Britain is not an 

aseismic area and earthquake hazard potential (Fig. 5) 

Fig. 1 

Laki fissure 

eruption 1783-4 

Iceland. (After 

Thordarson and 

Self 1993) 

Fig. 2 

Active and recent 

volcanoes in Europe 

41 www.esta-uk.org


Fig. 3 

Volcanoes in the 

Auvergne, France 

Fig. 4 

The seismicity 

of the UK. 

Symbol size is 

proportional to 

magnitude as 

shown in the key. 

(Musson 2002) 

Fig. 5 

Seismic hazard 

map of the 

UK showing 

intensities that 

are 90% likely 

not to be exceeded 

in 50 years. 

(Musson 2002) 

(Musson 2002) should be taken into account when sensitive 

structures, such as major bridges or chemical 

plants are designed. 

Tsunami waves 

Distant earthquakes may also affect Britain if they cause 

tsunami waves. These can travel many miles across 

oceans before impacting on a shallowing shoreline and 

damage coastal property as the wave runs up the coastal 

slope. The Great Lisbon earthquake of 1755 caused a 

seabed displacement, estimated at up to 17m, which 

caused a tsunami that resulted in a run up of 2 to 3 

metres on the southwest coasts of England and Ireland 

(Long et al 1989). 

Landslides may also cause tsunami waves and there 

is ample evidence of very large-scale submarine landslides 

(Fig 6) on the seabed off the west coast of Norway. 

These have been identified from marine 

geophysical surveys and are attributed to failures in the 

seabed deposits triggered by the seismic activity that 

accompanied the unloading of the earth’s surface at the 

end of the last glaciation. Possibly the stability of the 

sediments was impaired by increased pore pressures as 

gas hydrates destabilized when the temperature of the 

sea increased at the end of the glacial period. On the east 

coast of Scotland there is a widely occurring deposit of 

marine sand, dated at about 7000 years BP. This has 

been interpreted as the result of the impact of a tsunami 

wave caused by a sub sea landslide at Storeggar, that 

involved up to 1700 km 3 of material, off the Norwegian 

coast (Long et al 1989). There have been suggestions 

that massive landslides from volcanic islands could 

cause very large tsunamis that may have left deposits on 

land in prehistoric times. But there is much debate 

about this topic and they are unlikely to be a major hazard 

to the UK. 

Landslides 

More immediately important to our every day existence 

are the less dramatic geohazards of landslides, shrinkable 

clay soils, natural subsidence due to soluble rocks 

and the hazardous gases radon, methane and carbon 

dioxide. Such hazards rarely reach the headlines 

because individual events are usually small and only the 

most spectacular are reported. However, the collective 

damage and cost to the country from these geohazards 

is very significant. The destruction of the Holbeck Hall 

Hotel (Fig 7) in 1993 resulted in a claim for £2 million 

in compensation and the cost of the emergency protection 

scheme needed to protect the slope from further 

landslides was £1.5m (Byles 1994). 

The stability of a slope is controlled by the balance 

of the force of gravity, which promotes landsliding, and 

the strength of the slope forming materials that resists 

it. Changes in the factors which affect that balance, 

such as geological structure, slope angle, lithology, 

geotechnical properties, water and mineral composition 

are the triggering factors that initiate landslides. 


42


Using an understanding of the causal factors it is possible 

to predict where landslides may occur in the 

future and to avoid or mitigate their effects by land use 

planning or the design of hazard control structures 

such as the placement of a counterweight at the toe or 

slope drainage. 

Landslides are a major process in coastal erosion in 

many parts of the country but it is important to realize 

that undercutting by the sea is not the sole cause of 

coastal landslides. Below the Holbeck Hall Hotel the 

sea wall at the foot of the failed cliff remained buried 

but apparently undamaged (West 1994). The control of 

coastal landslides requires an understanding of both 

landward and seaward influences. 

Shrinkable clay 

Perhaps even more costly than landslides is the damage 

done by shrinkable clay soils. As the moisture content 

of a clay soil changes so does its volume as water is taken 

up or released by the clay minerals. Some varieties of 

clay, such as smectite, have a crystal structure that 

allows them to take up greater amounts of water than 

other clay minerals, such as kaolinite, and, as a consequence, 

show a much greater volume change. Although 

the moisture content of clay soils changes directly 

through water gain and loss from the ground surface, 

the most damaging effects are usually experienced by 

buildings when the moisture content change is accentuated 

by the demand for water from nearby trees and 

shrubs, especially in years of low rainfall. In 1991, after 

the preceding year’s drought, claims for damage due to 

shrinkable clay soils peaked at £500 million and claims 

are currently estimated to be about £300 million per 

year (Fig. 8). 

The shrinkable nature of clay soils is controlled the 

type and proportion of clay minerals they contain. If 

they contain a high proportion of the clay mineral 

smectite then they will undergo large volume changes 

as their moisture content changes. The mineral composition 

of a clay soil can be measured by geochemical 

analysis using a number of analytical techniques such as 

X-ray diffraction or X-ray fluorescence or its behavior 

can be measured directly using geotechnical tests for 

plasticity and shrinkage. Suitable foundations can then 

be designed to eliminate problems from shrinkable soil. 

Fig. 6 

Location of large 

slides on the 

continental slope 

of northwestern 

Europe. 

(Long et al 1989) 

Fig. 7 

Holbeck Hall 

landslide 

Scarborough 1993 

Dissolution 

The dissolution of rock is not a hazard widely recognized 

in the UK but it is present. The soluble rocks 

encountered in the UK are, in order of decreasing solubility, 

rock salt, gypsum and limestone. In the past 

rock salt extraction by solution has caused many subsidence 

problems, particularly in Cheshire, but it is so 

soluble that natural processes have removed salt from 

the near-surface zone and natural subsidence events are 

rare. Strong limestone such as the Carboniferous Limestone 

dissolves slowly and is capable of sustaining large 

stable cavities. However, Chalk is a weaker limestone 

Fig. 8 

Insurance subsidence claims 1975 - 1998 

43 www.esta-uk.org


Fig. 9 

Gypsum 

subsidence events 

in the Ripon area 

that is less able to form stable cavities and is more prone 

to subsidence problems but not to a significant degree. 

However, in both strong and weak limestone, subsidence 

over natural cavities may occur if surface 

drainage washes loose superficial material into the cavities 

to form a sinkhole or doline. But this is similar to 

a running sand failure rather than dissolution. Gypsum 

is sufficiently soluble to dissolve naturally over a time 

scale significant to human affairs but not so soluble that 

gypsum deposits have been removed entirely from the 

near-surface zone. Subsidence hazard due to the dissolution 

of Permian gypsum deposits is well known in the 

Ripon area and has caused considerable damage. If historical 

dissolution subsidence sites are plotted on a map 

(Fig. 9) it can be seen that there is a significant overlap 

with urban areas that implies damaging subsidence 

events may occur in the future. However, using an 

understanding of the distribution of geological strata, 

sub surface water flow patterns and the dissolution 

process it has been possible to produce hazard maps and 

appropriate planning guidance to minimise its impact 

(Cooper and Calow 1998). Where construction is necessary 

in areas of known gypsum dissolution hazard 

foundations can be designed to span safely the most 

likely dimensions of subsidence events. 

Hazardous Gases 

Radon, methane and carbon dioxide are all naturally 

occurring gases that, if allowed to collect in unventilated 

spaces, may pose serious hazards to those visiting 

such spaces. Radon is a radioactive gas resulting from 

the decay of naturally occurring radioactive minerals 

that are present in some rocks such as granite in small 

amounts and may cause cancer if exposure is prolonged. 

Methane occurs naturally and is commonly found in 

Carboniferous rocks such as sandstone, coal and shale 

where it is derived mainly from the organic content in 

the coal and shale but commonly accumulates in the 

pore spaces of the sandstone. It was called firedamp by 

miners because it forms an explosive mixture with air 

when the proportion of methane is between 5% and 

15% by volume and can be ignited by a spark or flame. 

This was the cause of the Abbeystead water pumping 

station explosion in 1984 when 16 people were killed 

and 36 were injured (Anon 1984) 

Carbon dioxide is heavier than air and may displace 

air in both subsurface confined spaces or open excavations 

in still air conditions. Persons entering such places 

would suffer asphyxia and, unless removed rapidly and 

resuscitated, death. This is a geohazard that needs to be 

considered for people working in basements, tunnels 

and caves, mines and other underground excavations 

that are poorly ventilated. 

Stythe gas or blackdamp is another potentially 

asphyxiating gas that may be encountered in mining 

areas and be a hazard to those entering old workings or 

unventilated sub surface voids. It is air that has become 

deficient in oxygen due to its removal by the oxidation 

of material in the ground to the point where there is 

insufficient oxygen left to sustain life. It may develop in 

the stagnant air of old workings but can migrate 

through fractures and fissures in the ground to accumulate 

in confined spaces such as basements. 

The origins of hazardous gases are known which 

enables the source rocks to be identified and the pathways 

that allow their passage through the ground recognized 

thus enabling the areas where they may be 

encountered, to be predicted. Buildings can be 

designed that seal internal spaces from the surrounding 

ground and provide ventilation for living and working 

areas. In construction and maintenance, safe-working 

practices can be implemented for those working in confined 

spaces. 

CLIMATE CHANGE 

Using an understanding of geological processes under 

the current environmental conditions the impact of 

geological hazards on society can be minimized. However, 

the indications are that climate is changing, possibly 

due to the activities of man. The burning of fossil 

fuels has released enormous amounts of carbon dioxide 

into the atmosphere that, together with other green 

house gases, is generally believed to be causing the 

world’s temperature to rise with a consequent shift in 

climate that would continue for some time, even if the 

production of carbon dioxide could be reduced. However, 

climate change is not a new phenomenon. 

The scientific recording of climate is a relatively 

recent activity and for information on climatic conditions 

before about the seventeenth century indirect 

means must be employed such as changes in agriculture. 

Looking at the last two thousand years, a useful 

indication of the climate in the UK is the production of 

wine because growing grapes for wine requires a lack of 

late frosts and sufficient heat and sun to ripen the grapes 

to a point where there is sufficient sugar content to 

make palatable wine. Thus, since the UK currently lies 


44


on the northern limit of wine production, the rise and 

fall of wine making provides a useful climatic indicator. 

At the time of the Roman occupation of Britain they 

appear to have been able to cultivate vines and make 

wine from the grapes. In 1086 the first version of the 

Domesday Book listed 42 vineyards in Britain and by 

1509 this had increased to 139 but shortly after this date 

they had declined considerably (Johnson 1989). Some 

people attributed this to the dissolution of the monasteries 

and the sloth of the people who took over from 

the monks (William Camden Britannia 1586 In: Johnson 

1989) but consideration of the temperature curve 

from 1000AD to the present (Fig 10) shows that the 

post Domesday rise in vine growing coincides with the 

Medieval climatic optimum and the post dissolution 

decline coincides with the onset of the Little Ice Age. 

The Little Ice Age was a marked cooling of the climate 

of Britain and Europe from about the seventeenth century 

until the end of nineteenth that allowed frost fairs 

to be held in London on a frozen River Thames and left 

a legacy of Christmas cards depicting snow covered 

landscapes far removed from the climate we currently 

experience. Thus it would appear that climate change is 

normal and only the causes of the changes vary. 

Looking back through the full span of geological 

time it is possible to identify a wide range of global climates 

that have prevailed at different times depending 

on natural variation in the composition of the atmosphere 

and the position of the continents that have controlled 

the way heat energy moves around the earth by 

their influence on the ocean currents and the flow of air 

in the atmosphere. But of more significance to our present 

and future climate change are the last 2.6 million 

years of the Quaternary in which the geological record 

shows dramatic changes of climate as the earth experienced 

a series of ice ages. 

The driving force behind these periods of extreme 

cold were attributed to cyclical variations in the earth’s 

orbit and its axis of rotation (Fig. 11) by a Serbian mathematician 

Milutin Milankovitch who calculated the 

variation in the energy received from the sun in the 

northern hemisphere At first his ideas found little 

favour because the four glacial periods then recognized 

did not reflect the many fluctuations in temperature 

predicted by his calculations. However, greater detail of 

past climate variation was found from a number of 

independent sources that confirmed the complexity of 

past climate change. Evidence from oxygen isotope 

ratios from deep-sea cores, detailed stratigraphy of loess 

deposits and the dust and gas content of ice cores from 

Greenland and Antarctica all gave detailed information 

on global temperature variation, and confirmed that 

there had been many more glacial episodes than previously 

thought (Fig 12)(Wilson et al 2000). Astronomical 

factors are now generally accepted as significant 

controls, if not the main cause, of the Earth’s recent 

changes in climate. On this basis we appear to be in an 

interglacial period with the possibility that, under ‘normal’ 

circumstances the onset of the next glacial period 

Fig. 10 

Climate change 

over the last 

1000 years 

Fig.11 

Periodic variations 

in the Earth’s orbit 

that influence 

climate 

Fig. 12 

Variation in climate 

indicators and 

northern summer 

insolation 

calculated from 

orbital variation 

data for the last 

400 thousand years 

45 www.esta-uk.org


is not too far distant when viewed from a geological 

perspective. There is also evidence in the geological 

record that climate can change very rapidly. In the 800 

year period from 13.3 to 12.5 ka BP summer temperatures 

rose by 7 0 -8 0 C and winter temperatures by 25 0 C 

and it is possible that this rise may have taken place in 

just 300 years between 13.0-12.7 ka BP (Ballantyne & 

Harris 1994). 

It is apparent that climate change is the normal situation. 

Thus an understanding of the drivers, whether 

natural, artificial or both, behind climate change is 

essential to assess what changes in climate are possible 

and which are most likely. If the most likely future climate 

change can be predicted it would be possible to 

predict the impact that it would have on our environment, 

including geohazards in Britain. 

GEOHAZARDS IN THE FUTURE 

According to the UKCIP report earlier this year 

(UKCIP 2002) the most favoured climate change scenario 

for the immediate future is of higher average 

annual temperatures with greater warming in the 

south east than the north west and summer and 

autumn warming to a greater extent than winter and 

spring. Although total rainfall may decrease slightly 

the winters may become wetter and the summers 

dryer. Extreme weather events such as very hot summers 

and very wet winters are likely to become more 

frequent (UKCIP 2002). 

If it is a reasonable assumption that climate is not a 

significant controlling factor on the effects of volcanoes 

and earthquakes then in the UK the geohazards that 

need to be considered most carefully are landslides, 

shrinkable clay soils, dissolution collapse and hazardous 

gases. Although it may be prudent to remember the 

possible increase in submarine landslide hazard and 

associated tsunami if the destabilization of gas hydrates 

on the sea floor is triggered by an increase in the temperature 

of the sea. 

The correlation between landslides and unusually 

wet periods is well known. A dramatic increase in landslide 

activity after the very wet autumn and winter of 

2000 caused considerable damage to the road and rail 

network that was very costly in terms of both the damage 

done to infrastructure and the delays to travelers 

who were caught up in the disruption. If winters 

become wetter more landslides may be expected as a 

consequence. In general increases in landslide frequency 

in clay areas may take several wet years to become 

apparent as it takes time for the strength loss due to rising 

water levels to take effect in relatively impermeable 

clay. In other areas the effect may be more rapid and 

landslides in relatively permeable ground such as slopes 

covered by head or in sandy till may be initiated by a 

single storm in a wet season especially if the ground has 

deep cracking, due to drying in the previous summer, 

that would facilitate the rapid passage of water into the 

ground. However, it is possible that drier summers may 

lower the water table to the extent that many slopes will 

remain stable. 

The net impact of climate change on the frequency 

of landslides on land is not certain but the effect of likely 

climate change on the incidence of landslides on 

coastal slopes is more clear with wetter winters, rising 

sea level and rougher seas increasing both the landward 

and seaward drivers that promote erosion. Rising 

ground water levels in coastal slopes and cliffs will 

destabilise them as they would inland slopes but coastal 

stability will be further impaired if higher sea levels 

cause material to be removed more rapidly from the 

base of coastal slopes or undercut the base of cliffs thus 

removing support from the bottom of the slope to the 

detriment of its ability to remain stable. The direction 

in which a coast faces will be important since greater 

storminess and rougher seas will attack exposed coasts 

faster than sheltered ones. Even the summer drought 

may offer little respite since the formation of deep desiccation 

cracks near to a cliff edge may create potential 

failure surfaces that will promote increased soil fall and 

toppling failures. 

In areas of shrinkable clay a higher frequency of 

summer drought would give a greater volume decrease 

in susceptible clay soils that could lead to the loss of 

support and damage to older buildings whose foundations 

may not be designed for such stress. If rainfall was 

in the form of intense short bursts of heavy rain, wetter 

winters would not necessarily compensate for the summer’s 

drought because rain would be more likely to be 

lost to surface runoff to land drains rather than infiltrate 

the ground and allow clays to rehydrate. If there were 

an alternation of summer drought and wet winters the 

damage could become more severe if loose material fell 

from the surface into the desiccation cracks formed on 

shrinkage since this would constrain the recovery to the 

original volume of the clay on taking up water in winter 

thus resulting in heave or lateral pressure that could 

cause more damage to nearby structures. 

The effect of climate change on the potential for collapse 

due to the dissolution of soluble rocks may not be 

significant but if rain becomes more intense this may 

result in more rapid dissolution of gypsum and if limestone 

cave systems fill more completely this could cause 

greater dissolution to take place. Another possibility is 

that increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere would 

lead to rainfall with a higher level of dissolved carbon 

dioxide that will enable it to dissolve more carbonate 

rock as it passes through the ground but this may only 

be significant on a geological time scale. Local flooding 

at times of intense rainfall may also promote loose 

superficial material to be washed into natural cavities 

creating or increasing the activity of natural swallow 

holes and dolines. 

The effect of climate change on natural hazardous 

gases may not be significant unless greater extremes of 

weather is associated with more rapid and greater 

changes in atmospheric pressure that may promote 


46


the release of gases from the ground as barometric 

pressure drops. 

Increased rainfall in winter may have serious implications 

for flooding. Flooding may not usually be 

classed as a geohazard but geology has an important 

influence on the severity of the hazard due to its controlling 

effect on infiltration into the ground and in 

water storage capacity in the sand and gravel deposits 

that are often associated with river valleys. Geological 

information can also help in planning for flood avoidance 

because an understanding of past flooding levels as 

revealed by their alluvial deposits can assist in predicting 

future maximum flooding levels. 

Thus it looks as though the most important consequences 

of climate change will be more landslides, 

faster coastal erosion, more subsidence and more 

floods. Since it looks unlikely that the climate could be 

fixed at an optimum state, assuming an optimum state 

could be agreed internationally, the best response to 

these hazards will remain as it has in the past. A thorough 

understanding of the hazard causing processes 

will enable control of the impact of the hazards by the 

elimination or mitigation of the risks that they engender 

by avoidance or engineered structural design, controlled 

through the planning process. 

CONCLUSION 

It is highly unlikely that the UK is in imminent danger 

of being destroyed by an unexpected geohazard. From a 

geological point of view it is, and is likely to remain, a 

surprisingly safe and pleasing environment. However, 

on a geological timescale it can be affected by a wide 

range of geological hazards and it is necessary to think 

laterally when trying to assess how hazards will be 

affected by climate change in the future. 

Britain has always been affected by both geohazards 

and a changing climate and whatever climate change 

occurs in the future the same geohazards will be present 

to a greater or lesser degree. It is important that the drivers 

of climatic change and the causative factors that 

control geohazards continue to be studied because such 

knowledge will enable the prediction of how geohazards 

are going to be affected and what measures will be 

needed to mitigate them. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

This paper is published with the permission of the 

Executive Director, British Geological Survey (NERC). 

Alan Forster, 

British Geological Survey 

Keyworth NG12 5GG 

REFERENCES 

Anon (1984) The Abbeystead explosion: a report of the investigation by the Health and Safety Executive into the explosion on 

23rd May 1984 at the valve house of the Lune/Wyre Water Transfer Scheme at Abbeystead. ISBN: 0118837958. 

Ballantyne, C. K., and Harris, C. (1994) The Periglaciation of Great Britain. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 

Byles, R. (1994) Scarborough Rock. New Civil Engineer, 3 Feb. pp.18-20. 

Cooper, A. H. and Calow, R.C. (1998) Avoiding gypsum geohazards guidance for planning and construction. 

British Geological Survey Technical Report WC/98/5, Keyworth: British Geological Survey. 

Johnson, H. (1989) The Story of Wine. London: Mitchell Beazley. 

Kious, W. J. and Tilling, R.I. (1996) This Dynamic Earth: The story of plate tectonics. United States Geological 

Survey General Interest Publication. 

Long, D., Dawson, A.G. and Smith D.E. (1989) Tsunami risk in northwestern Europe: a Holocene example. 

Terra Nova 1, pp.532-537. 

Musson, R. (2002) Seismicity and earthquake hazard in the UK. 

British Geological Survey web site http://www.gsrg.nmh.ac.uk/hazard/hazuk.htm 

Newhall, C.G. and Dzursin, D. (1988) Historical unrest at large calderas of the world. 

United States Geological Survey Bulletin 1855. 

Thordarson, Th., and Self, S. (1993) The Laki (Skaftar Fires) and Grimsvotn eruptions in 1783-1785: 

Bulletin of Volcanology, v. 55, pp. 233-263. 

UKCIP (2002) Climate change scenarios for the United Kingdom: United Kingdom Climate Impacts Programme 

Scientific Report April 2002. 

West, L.J. (1994) The Scarborough Landslide. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology. 27, pp. 3-6. 

Wilson R.C.L., Drury, S.A. and Chapman J.L. (2000) The Great Ice Age: climate change and life. 

Open University, Pub. Routledge 

47 www.esta-uk.org


Avalanching Grains: 

The Makse Cell Experiment 

TREVOR ELLIOTT 

This article comprises materials used as part of the INSET course for teachers of A Level Geology, 

entitled “Teaching the New Geology Curriculum”. This was run by the Department of Earth 

Sciences at the University of Liverpool in May 2002. This item is reproduced here with kind 

permission of the author, the organiser of the INSET course and the University of Liverpool. Ed. 

Objective 

This experiment is designed to simulate grain segregation 

during avalanching on slipfaces of bedforms such 

as ripples and dunes. This is a dry experiment analogous 

to processes that operate during the migration of 

wind-driven, aeolian dunes in deserts. Images included 

on the CD can be used to provide context information 

for this experiment. 

The students will learn, by experiment, that mixtures 

of grains with differing properties can segregate 

spontaneously during transport. They will learn, by 

observation and discussion, the processes that produce 

this segregation and will be able to relate this to earth 

surface processes, specifically dune migration. They 

will also practise skills of sediment description and the 

use of a clinometer. 

Equipment 

● Two sheets of 0.5cm gauge perspex, 30-40cms 

square. 

● A plywood frame capable of supporting the perspex 

sheets in a vertical orientation 

● Two grain populations; different grain sizes of sand 

work, but visually appealing results can be achieved 

with sand and granulated sugar provided that there is 

a difference in grain size between the populations. 

Suitable sand can be purchased from builders yards 

or pet shops. 

● Sample dishes, hand lens or binocular microscope, 

compass clinometer. 

Construction 

Build the frame so that there is a spacing of 5mm 

between the perspex sheets and the sheets can be 

detached for cleaning. Insert the frame into a 10-15 cm 

wide base for stability (see below left). Placed on a 

bench, the experiment can be viewed by small groups of 

students on either side of the bench. 

Procedure 

1. Place samples of the different grain populations into 

sample dishes in order that they can be examined by 

the students. 

2. Thoroughly mix the remainder of the grain populations 

in 50:50 proportions. 

3. Pour the mixture of sand and sugar between the perspex 

sheets using a paper cone. An A5 envelope with a 2-3cm 

slit in one corner works well. Flatten the cone between 

the glass sheets and lower the tip to mid-depth on one 

side of the cell. Allow the mixture to accumulate for a 

while, then when a corner shaped deposit has accumulated 

in the lower part of the cell control the experiment 

by carefully placing the tip of the paper cone on the tip 

of the deposit and slowly raising it. This should produce 

foresets showing clear segregation of the two grain populations 

that extend across the entire cell. 

4. Use slow delivery of the mixture in order that students 

may observe grain movement and segregation 

during the avalanching. 

5. If grains stick to the sides of the perspex remove the 

sheets and use an anti-static agent to clean them (e.g. 

vinyl record cleaner) 

What Students Should Do 

● Examine the two grain populations (sand and sugar) 

in the dishes using a hand lens or binocular microscope 

if available; what are the sizes (in mms and 

Wentworth grain size classes), shapes and sorting 

characterisitcs of the grain populations? Use a grain 

size ‘credit card’ if available. 

● Describe, as far as possible, what happened to the 

grains during the avalanching – did they move constantly 

or in surges; was it possible to observe any 

grains colliding? Making a video of the experiment 

in action and slo-mo replaying it may help here, but 

I have not tried it. 


48


● Observe the texture and definition of the foresets 

produced (concentrate on central sectors of the cell, 

avoiding edge effects) and make sketches of the key 

observations . 

● Measure the angle of the foresets produced in this 

experiment; how does this compare with the angles 

of foresets in aeolian and aqueous cross bedding? 

● Interpret the processes involved in grain segregation 

during avalanching and consider what differences 

there will be in the avalanching process in water? 

Results 

The experiment should produce cross bedding with a 

dip angle of 34 degrees. The cross bed foresets should 

be defined by well segregated bands of sand and sugar 

on a scale of 0.5cm or so. Usually the sand is coarser 

than the sugar and the stratification comprises a finer 

sugar layer overlain by a coarser sand layer. If there is 

some variation in grain size within the sand you may 

observe inverse grading in the sand layers. The stratification 

is the result of grain segregation during avalanching. 

Collisions between grains during avalanching 

cause momentum exchange between the grains (analogous 

to snooker balls colliding). This causes coarse 

grains to rise to the free surface whilst the finer grains 

settle towards the base of the avalaching layer. In aqueous 

settings, such as migrating dunes in rivers or estuaries, 

the avalanching process operates in a similar 

manner, but the higher density of the water cushions 

the collisions between grains (imagine playing snooker 

underwater). The grain segregation in aqueous cross 

bedding is often less pronounced as a result. 


Department of Earth Sciences 

The University of Liverpool 

4 Brownlow Street 

Liverpool 

L69 3GP 

Rock ‘N Roll – Oscillatory Waves and 

the Formation Of Wave Produced Ripples 

TREVOR ELLIOTT 

This article comprises materials used as part of the INSET course for teachers of A Level Geology, 

entitled “Teaching the New Geology Curriculum”. This was run by the Department of Earth 

Sciences at the University of Liverpool in May 2002. This item is reproduced here with kind 

permission of the author, the organiser of the INSET course and the University of Liverpool. Ed. 

Objective 

This experiment is designed to simulate the formation 

of ripples by wave action; a process that occurs naturally 

on continental shelves, shorelines and in standing 

water bodies such as lakes. Images included on the 

CD can be used to provide context information for 

this experiment. 

Students will learn, by experiment, how wave 

motions produce distinctive ripples. They will also 

learn, by observation and discussion, how to recognise 

and describe the ripples carefully in order that they can 

identify them in the geological record and make the 

correct interpretations. They will also practise skills of 

sediment description and field observation. 

Equipment 

Ingredients 

● A fish tank, preferably around 100cms long, 50cms 

deep and 50cms wide 

● Two or three wooden cylinders 3cms or so in diameter 

and slightly longer than the width of the tank 

● Clean, well sorted sand, around fine to medium 

grain size in a quantity sufficient to line the floor of 

the tank to a depth of several cms. Suitable sand can 

be purchased from builders’ yards or pet shops. 

Construction 

● Place a sample of the sand into a sample dish in order 

that students can examine the sand. 

● Place the tank on the wooden rollers, line the floor 

of the tank with sand, and fill the tank with water to 

a depth of 15-20cms. 

Procedure 

1. Smooth the surface of the sand if necessary. 

2. Gently and rhythmically rock the tank back-andforth 

in an oscillatory motion until ripples form on 

the sediment surface. This does not take long, but 

there is the potential for disaster if the tank is rocked 

too vigorously. 

What Students Should Do 

● Examine the sand in the sample dish using a hand 

lens or binocular microscope if available. Characterise 

the sand in terms of grain size (in mms and 

Wentworth grain size classes), sorting and grain 

shape. Use a grain size ‘credit card’ if available. 

● Watch the grain motions that are associated with the 

ripples and also the flow structure that is revealed by 

the grain motions. Videoing the experiment and 

Cont. overleaf 

49 www.esta-uk.org


running a slo-mo replay would help here, but the 

key observations can usually be made while the 

experiment is live. Students should record their 

observations. 

● the ripples have formed and stabilised, cease rocking 

the tank and observe the characteristics of the ripples. 

Measure the wavelength and amplitude of the 

ripples carefully in millimetres (use the centre of the 

tank to avoid edge effects). Consider whether the 

ripples are symmetrical or asymmetrical and ask students 

to devise a means of measuring the degree of 

symmetry/asymmetry of the ripples. Observe the 

plan view of the ripples across the width of the tank. 

Students should record the characteristics of the ripples 

(cross section and plan view) as a series of field 

sketches. 

● Calculate the steepness of the ripples (wavelength/height). 

● Check to see if any laminations can be seen in the ripples 

(usually not, or very faint at best in my experience). 

Results 

After a short period of rocking, the floor of the tank 

becomes covered by ripple scale bedforms that are symmetrical 

and straight crested with occasional bifurcations 

of crestlines. Dimensions tend to be in the range 

of 7-8cms wavelength and 1-2cms height. The symmetry/asymmetry 

of the ripples can be calculated by measuring 

the distance from ripple crestline to adjacent 

troughlines and plotting the distances as a ratio. 1:1 

equals pure symmetry and departures from this varying 

degrees of asymmetry. 

The ripples are formed by oscillatory motions set up 

in the water by the rocking of the tank. In nature winddriven 

shearing of the surface of the water produces 

waves that in turn cause ripples to form on the sediment 

surface. The grain motions associated with the 

ripples involve short-lived vortices or eddies that form 

on alternate sides of the ripples as the water waves pass 

over the ripples; it is these vortices that produce and 

maintain the steep flanks of the ripples (and the waveproduced 

cross lamination that can be observed in the 

rock record). As the tank is settling after ceasing the 

rocking motion it is usually possible to briefly observe 

grains rolling back-and-forth across the ripple crests as 

the water motions settle. No vortices are present at this 

time, simply a rolling of grains across the ripples. This 

is analogous to what happens in nature if the surface 

waves diminish and the wave base lifts above the sediment 

surface. The brief rolling grain phase is responsible 

for laminae that are concordant with the preserved 

profile of the ripple, whereas the vortex phase produces 

sets of cross lamination (see Figures). The steepness 

index illustrates whether the ripples were formed 

mainly by rolling grain processes just above the threshold 

for wave ripples formation (low steepness ripples, 

index less than 4), or by vortex processes (steeper ripples, 

index between 4-8). These are referred to as 

rolling grain and vortex wave ripples respectively. 

This experiment can be extended by students making 

comparable observations on hand specimens or 

photos of symmetrical ripples preserved in rocks if 

available, or by field observations on these structures in 

rocks or modern sediments. Beaches or sandy tidal flats 

affected by wind-driven waves are particularly useful in 

this respect. 


Department of Earth Sciences 

The University of Liverpool 

4 Brownlow Street 

Liverpool 

L69 3GP 

wanted 

MORE DYNAMIC EARTH SCIENTISTS 

‘Teaching the Dynamic Earth’ workshop facilitators 

See page 62 for more details 


50

Autumn 2002 ● Issue 38 

LIMESTONE 

THE WORLD’S MOST USEFUL ROCK 

Published by the Earth Science Teachers’ Association Registered Charity No. 1005331 

Introduction 

Not only is limestone probably the most useful 

rock, this edition of PEST attempts to show how 

limestone can be one of the most versatile 

teaching aids, covering a wide range of science, 

geography and environmental topics. Whereas 

the aim here is that the material can be used by 

any school, it should be especially valuable to 

those schools in limestone areas (see next 

page) or planning a visit to such an area. 

[Sections in square brackets contain incidental 

information for teachers]. 

What is Limestone and how is it 

formed? 

Limestone is one of the main sedimentary 

rocks. Chalk is a soft, often very pure form of 

limestone. Dolomite is another rock in the 

‘limestone family’. Marble is a metamorphic 

rock formed when limestone is re-crystallised 

by great heat and pressure. Most limestone is 

formed from the remains – the fossils, of sea 

creatures – their shells, bones, teeth, even the 

waste pellets they eject! Many fine grained 

limestones (e.g. chalk) are formed by the 

remains of microfossils or lime mud. 

Some shells are made of the mineral calcite; 

many other fossils become calcite, the main 

mineral making up most limestones [the 

chemical composition of calcite is calcium 

carbonate – Ca CO3]. Calcite is often found as 

crystals with a rhombic shape (squashed shoe 

box shape). In some coarsely crystalline 

limestones, you may be able to spot individual 

rhombs of calcite. 

How can we recognise Limestones? 

There is an easy chemical test to check 

limestones, which can be carried out safely 

under supervision. When acid is dripped onto 

limestone (an alkaline rock) it reacts – fizzing 

and bubbles occur. Household limescale 

remover (which may require dilution 

for safe handling), is a suitable 

form of acid and ideally 

should be applied using a 

dropper bottle. 

An easier check when 

looking at rocks 

outside is to take a close 

look – use a magnifying class or hand lens. 

Most rocks with closely packed fossil remains 

(apart from coal!) are limestones.

AUTUMN 2002 ● Issue 38 ● LIMESTONE 

What about colour? 

Almost all colour in rocks is the result of some 

form of iron staining. So pure limestones (e.g. 

most chalk) are white or light grey. But even 

very small amounts of iron oxide can turn the 

rock cream, yellow, orange, pink, brown even 

purple. In other words ‘’rusty rock’! Limestones 

may be almost any other colour, even green 

(other forms of iron), blue, grey or black (e.g. 

from natural tarry or bitumen – smells like 

diesel fumes when broken open). These colour 

changes apply to most other rocks. 

What do the fossils tell us? 

Although the study of fossils [palaeontology] is 

no longer referred to in the KS1/2 curriculum, 

the type and state of fossils in a rock can tell 

us a lot about how the rock was formed – in 

other words the habitats present at the time. 

Fossil corals and crinoids suggest that the 

rocks were deposited in tropical conditions 

and often relatively shallow turbulent clear 

water, (they were filter feeders). Very large 

shells (e.g. brachiopods up to 0.3m across) 

and the occasional shark’s teeth also suggest 

tropical seas. Fine detailed whole shells and 

lime mud might imply quiet water, e.g. in a 

lagoon; broken up shells could be the result of 

wave action on a beach. 

Other typical limestone fossils include 

ammonites, gastropods, sea urchins 

[echinoderms] and bivalves. 

The picture below shows a seabed as it would 

have been in the Peak District 300,000,000 

years ago! The long stemmed creatures are 

crinoids - weird animals almost extinct and 

related to starfish. Some of their remains are 

scattered on the seabed. Other animals include 

corals (with fronds), a cephalopod (swimming), 

brachiopods and bivalve shells on the sea floor. 

Where are Limestones found? 

Many areas of England, Wales and N.Ireland 

have extensive limestone outcrops. 

Limestones are rarer in Scotland. Harder 

limestone forms the Peak District, Yorkshire 

Dales, parts of the northern Pennines, the 

fringes of the Lake District, the Clwydian Hills 

and N.Wales coast, the Gower in S.Wales, parts 

of South Devon and N.Ireland borderlands. The 

softer oolitic limestones make up the 

Cotswolds, Northamptonshire Hills, Lincoln 

Edge and surround the Vale of Pickering. The 

Chalk forms the Downs of South East England, 

Wessex, the Chilterns and the Wolds of 

Lincolnshire and Yorkshire and parts of the 

Antrim coast. Can you find any of these areas 

on the map on the back page?


How many times have you used limestone in a day? 

(fill in the boxes with end-uses by using the information on the next page) 

Time 

Get up (bedroom) 

Use bathroom 

Have breakfast 

Go to school 

At school 

After school 

HINT – remember every time you use a building, a road, a railway, water, energy, a machine, or eat 

food, you are probably ‘using’ limestone in some way.


Something to discuss 

What do most of these areas have in 

common? – they include some of our most 

beautiful landscapes. Most are National 

Parks or areas of outstanding natural 

beauty – areas where the buildings 

themselves as well as caves, crags and 

scarps all reflect the limestone geology. So, 

if limestone is a really, really useful rock, 

do you see a problem here? Where can we 

quarry it without harming the environment? 

Materials 

It is important in making glass (with sand and 

chemicals), iron/steel/copper [flux], 

plastics/paints/paper/rubber/ceramics [as a 

low cost filler], household scourers/cleaners/ 

bleaching/caustic soda, soap and dyes. 

How do we use Limestone? 

Buildings 

From earliest times, stone has been used for 

building, e.g. Cotswold villages, most 

cathedrals in southern and eastern England 

and many N.Wales castles. Now it is crushed to 

make roadstone, concrete aggregate, or mixed 

with mudstone or clay to make cement, or 

heated to make lime (for mortar). It is used for 

some types of bricks in blocks, pipes, roof tiles 

and roofing felt. 

Food 

It is used in farming in cattle, pig and chicken 

feed [for calcium], as a fertilizer for crops, 

added to flour [for calcium], in pills, 

toothpaste, sugar and salt refining. 

Pollution Control 

To reduce sulphur emissions (acid rain) from 

power stations and metal refineries, water 

purification, sewage treatment, removing 

pollution when making white pigments 

[titanium dioxide]. 

COPYRIGHT 

This material in this issue has been prepared by Ian 

Thomas Director of the National Stone Centre (NSC) and 

currently chair of ESTA. It is based on other educational 

material produced by the NSC. It may be copied, but 

solely by and for use in educational establishments. The 

concept, title Limestone ‘The World’s Most Useful Rock’ 

and content, remain the copyright of the NSC. 

Illustrations by S Chadburn and I A Thomas. 

TO SUBSCRIBE TO: 

TEACHING PRIMARY EARTH SCIENCE 

send £5.00 made payable to ESTA. 

c/o Mr P York, 

346 Middlewood Road North, 

Oughtibridge, 

Sheffield 

S35 0HF 

Edited by Graham Kitts


Simple Apparatus for the Simulation of 

Seismic Waves and its use with Students 

MASAKAZU GOTO 

Masakazu Goto is the Earth science specialist in the Japanese Education Department, with 

responsibility for Earth science education across Japanese schools. He spent 2 months of his 

sabbatical year working with Chris King and others at Keele University during which time he 

developed, refined and tested this novel apparatus for simulating seismic waves. Readers will 

note that the introductory paragraphs in the science of seismic waves are intended for novice 

learners, at about GCSE level. 

Geological Background 

Evidence from Earthquakes indicates that there are 

three main layers in the Earth, as shown in Figure 1. 

The S (Secondary) waves... 

● are transverse waves. You can regard them as “shake” 

or “shear” waves and can demonstrate them on a an 

extended “slinky” spring by shaking the end from 

side to side. 

● travel more slowly than P-waves. 

● can travel only in solids, not in liquids (or gases) 

because these do not shear. 

Figure 1. 

The Inner part of the earth 

Whenever there is an earthquake, shock waves called 

seismic waves are generated. There are three kinds of 

seismic waves, P-waves, S-waves and surface waves and 

these travel differently thorough the Earth. The surface 

waves are the waves that travel along the surface of the 

Earth. These are the waves that cause hazards, damage 

buildings and can produce tsunamis. P-waves and S- 

waves are ‘body waves’ that travel through the body of 

the Earth and not over its surface. 

Following a large earthquake, some seismograph stations 

cannot detect S-waves; part of the Earth over 

which S-waves cannot be detected is called the S-wave 

shadow-zone. This indicates that the core is liquid 

because the S-waves cannot travel through it. We can 

calculate the size of the Earth’s core from this seismic 

wave information. 

There is also a region over which P-waves are not 

detected (the P-wave shadow zone). This is because the 

P-waves are refracted at the boundary between the 

mantle and the core and so do not reach the surface of 

the Earth in the area where they would be expected. 

How to make the apparatus 

I developed this simulation from readily-available 

materials – cotton buds, glue and sewing elastic. 

Figure 2 

The cotton buds 

apparatus 

The P (Primary) waves... 

● are longitudinal waves, like sound waves. You can 

think of them as “push and pull waves”, and can 

demonstrate them easily using a “slinky” spring. 

Push the end of an extended “slinky” and the coils 

will move backwards and forwards, transmitting 

the waves. 

● travel quickly (about twice as fast as S-waves). 

● can travel in liquids (and gases) as well as in solids. 

Cut about 1.5m of the elastic and put it on the table. 

Glue the cotton buds across the elastic with 1 cm spacing 

(see Figure 2). 

Cont. overleaf 

51 www.esta-uk.org


Figure 3 

A student makes a 

wave at one end of 

the apparatus 

Figure 4 

How the P and S 

waves travel when 

a student hit a 

cotton bud. 

How to use the apparatus 

a. Japanese students experience earthquakes and 

describe feeling a small vibration at first and a bigger 

vibration later. Teachers explain that the shorter the 

period of time between the small vibration and the 

big vibration, the closer the Earthquake, i.e. a short 

time between P and S arrival times indicates that the 

epicentre is close. The closer the epicentre, the more 

violent the effects. 

b. The structure and function of the seismograph is 

explained. Then the three main seismic wave 

records on a seismograph chart are shown. 

c. Teachers demonstrate the P-wave and the S-wave 

with a “slinky” spring which can be bought at a toy 

shop. Students also demonstrate them for themselves. 

d. They then demonstrate the waves using the simulation 

apparatus. Tack both ends of the elastic across 

a space with drawing pins (as shown in Fig 4) and 

hit the cotton bud at one end. They observe how 

the S-wave travels as an undulating motion. A P- 

wave can also be demonstrated by pulling the elastic 

a short distance towards one of the drawing pins 

and then releasing it. The cotton buds ‘shudder’ as 

the P-wave passes. 

e. Students can investigate how the velocity of the S- 

wave changes when the tension of a rubber band is 

changed (the elastic is 

stretched more loosely or 

tightly). They can measure 

the time for the S- 

wave to travel from end to 

end with different tensions 

of elastic. Teachers 

explain the relationship 

between the velocity of 

the seismic wave and the 

rigidity/incompressibility 

of the rock through which it travels (i.e. the effects 

on seismic wave velocity of hard rock and soft rock) 

f. Teachers explain about the difference between the 

focus (where sudden rock movement generates an 

earthquake underground) and the epicentre (where 

the shock waves first reach the surface and where 

earthquake damage is at its most intense). 

g. Students set the apparatus in a V-shape as in the picture 

(Fig 5). They test how long it takes the S-wave 

to travel from the point O at the base of the ‘V’ to the 

points on the surface of the ‘Earth’ (A and B) by hitting 

the cotton buds near point O at the same time. 

This investigation shows the relationship between 

distance from the focus and the travel time of the 

seismic wave, as illustrated in Figure 6. 

Figure 5 

A student show how the wave travel from the focus to the 

stations A and B with different distances 

Figure 6 

This indicates how the wave travels from the focus to the stations 

with different distance. 

h. Teachers demonstrate to students the effects of 

superposition of two waves. They hit a cotton bud at 

one end and make a wave. It travels from one end to 

the other and is reflected at the other end. Then the 

teacher makes another wave. The first reflected wave 

collides with the second wave. Students observe that 

where the two waves reinforce one another an 

amplified (bigger) wave is produced. However, the 

waves combine destructively elsewhere, producing a 

smaller wave. 

i. The science teacher then demonstrates waves travelling 

on the surface of water in a tank – these are neither 

P- nor S-waves but are surface waves. 

j. Students draw the equi-time line in every 10 seconds 

on the map by using the data of the time when the 

seismic wave arrives and understand how the seismic 

wave travels in the land. See Fig 7. 


52


Researcher 

for the Earth Science Education Unit (ESEU) 

Salary: £22,522 - £26,491 

(Contract for 2 years in first instance.) 

Fig.7 

The map of equi-time line in every 10 seconds 

Educational Value 

Science teachers can demonstrate a P-wave and S-wave 

at the same time with this apparatus (which they cannot 

do using a “slinky” spring or ready-made expensive 

wave producing machines). 

The apparatus costs less than £1 and can be made 

very easily. It is very effective in helping students to 

understand the concept of the how seismic waves travel. 

Seismic waves soon become familiar to them 

because they can make the apparatus very easily and use 

it for active experimentation. 

Acknowledgements 

This paper was developed in English while I was carrying 

out research on science teacher education as a visiting 

scholar with Chris King at Keele University. My 

English in this paper was reviewed by him. I was also 

introduced to many useful hands-on activities at the 

INSET workshop designed by him and his colleagues 

(Anna Hrycyszyn and Peter Kennett). I am very grateful 

to them for their kind advice and help, particularly 

Chris King. 

Bibliography 

Goto, Masakazu (1993) Making the original apparatus 

of demonstration of the seismic wave, Science Education 

Monthly (June), pp52-53, Society of Japan Science 

Teaching 

Masakazu Goto 

National Institute for 

Educational Policy Research of Japan 

6-5-22 Shimomeguro, 

Meguro-ku 

Tokyo 153-8681 

JAPAN 

e-mail: masakazu@nier.go.jp 

The Earth Science Education Unit, based in the Education 

Department at Keele University, is seeking a Researcher 

to evaluate and monitor the performance of the ESEU 

INSET and the general state of Earth science education in 

UK secondary schools. 

The ESEU has appointed regional facilitators to present 

interactive workshops to secondary science teachers in 

schools, teachers’ centres, at conferences and in teacher 

education institutions. The workshops have been 

developed through a two-year pilot programme and 

current evaluation data is indicating a high level of 

success. Research will focus primarily on the effectiveness 

and development of this programme, its methodology and 

its contribution to teaching and learning. 

The post holder will have a background in educational or 

science research and experience of running/involvement 

in, a successful research and development programme at 

PG level, possess strong skills in data collection and 

analysis, interview techniques, evaluation and the 

preparation of materials for publication/presentation 

(further details upon request). 

As a member of the ESEU leadership team, the postholder 

will contribute to ESEU development, its evolving 

facilitator network and its consultancy activities. 

Informal enquiries regarding the post may be made to: 

Chris King, Director, Earth Science Education Unit, Tel 

(01782) 584437, e-mail c.j.h.king@educ.keele.ac.uk 

Application forms and further particulars are available 

from the Personnel Department, Keele University, 

Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, Fax: 01782 583471 or E-mail 

vacancies@keele.ac.uk. 

Please quote post reference number RE02/24 

Closing date: Friday, 8th November 2002 

Interviews planned for the week of 18th November 2002 

AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES EMPLOYER 

53 www.esta-uk.org


“I want an earthquake” 

PETER KENNETT 

What does one do when confronted by an email, via the Geological Society, from the 

Association of British Schools in Chile, seeking a workshop leader for its Annual Conference? 

One seeks permission from one’s spouse, adds a week’s holiday in the Falkland Islands and 

responds with alacrity! 

Thus, I found myself, in August, attending the 

Conference of about 120 teachers in a spa hotel, 

slap against the Andean foothills. There was 

even a clear view of Aconcagua (see front cover), just 

for the effort of walking out of the back door and climbing 

a few hundred feet up some low ridges, cacti and all. 

I was pleased to see children’s work on the tectonic 

plates on the wall in one school, but it had been done 

in the context of a history lesson, although I do have to 

admit that the theory has been around for over 30 

years now! 

I offered to cover the standard workshops offered by 

the Earth Science Education Unit at Keele University, 

plus some activities for teachers of Primary children. 

These activities all seemed to be well received and I 

Conference: Rock Cycle Discussion 

Conference at 

Los Andes 

Santiago College 

To make the trip worthwhile, I also ran Earth science 

workshops in some of the Association’s 17 schools, 

ranging from Caernafon School with 130 pupils, in a 

converted farmhouse, to Santiago College with 1800 or 

so, and as far south as Punta Arenas, the world’s southernmost 

city of any size. 

I also visited the Chilean Ministry of Education, to 

continue the promotion of more practical and investigative 

work in school science in general, and not just 

in Earth science. We regard the English Science 

National Curriculum as containing barely enough 

Earth science, but there is none at all in the school science 

curriculum in Chile. What Earth science there is 

seems to be delivered via history or geography lessons. 

hope that they will continue to be used and developed 

by the staff who experienced them. I approached the 

Primary activities with some trepidation, having no 

experience of teaching at this level. I went armed with 

advice from the ESTA Primary Group, together with a 

complete set of the Primary Earth Science Teachers’ 

pullouts from Teaching Earth Sciences, known for 

short as “PEST”. By the end of the Conference session 

for Primary staff, the activities were voted “Peter’s 

Exciting Science Toys” instead! The same group also 

got quite enthusiastic when taken out to look at a wall, 

built of a wide range of local rocks, including granites 

with xenoliths, ashes with volcanic bombs and many 

others. In fact, we nearly overran the coffee break! 

My brief was to deal with the teachers. However, in 

two schools I was asked to run sessions for children, in 

one case at half an hour’s notice! Like most retired 

teachers, I don’t “do” children any more, but their reaction 

was so energetic that I felt quite rejuvenated. The 

younger pupils do so little practical work that almost 

any chance to get their hands on a Bunsen burner, or to 

imitate earthquakes by loading spaghetti with 10g masses 

was a real event. In the latter case, one Junior school 

had no masses or mass hangers, so we improvised by 


54


Far left: 

Conference: Rock 

Cycle Discussion 

Left: Santiago 

College: Spaghetti 

earthquakes 

filling a plastic cup with 100 peso coins. When these ran 

out, almost any object was added until the spaghetti 

broke, which gave a nice lead in to discussions of “fair 

testing”! Fortunately, much of the teaching is delivered 

in English, so even Chilean 8 year olds could cope with 

my total lack of Spanish. 

Wherever I went, I kept stressing the benefits of living 

near the edge of an active plate, and of having geological 

resources, such as copper (from which a third of 

the country’s income is derived), which is itself a consequence 

of the geological setting. 

I expressed the wish to experience a small earthquake 

whilst in the country, but was informed that a 

small tremor might be quite fun, but that they reserved 

the word earthquake for a big event. 

Local wisdom maintained that tremors are more frequent 

during low atmospheric pressure, and indeed, 

one occurred whilst it was teeming down with rain. 

Unfortunately, I was in a taxi at the time, and would 

never have noticed the difference! I was also told that 

when a bigger tremor arrived, people could actually 

sense the P wave, making the ground rise and fall, followed 

by the S wave, with sideways motion, before the 

general ground roll started. I had always thought that 

the P and S waves were of too high a frequency and too 

low an amplitude to be felt by humans. However, after 

returning home, I have consulted a proper seismologist 

and have learned that the P and S waves are indeed felt 

– even in earthquakes in Britain, but that trying to judge 

the direction of the source is difficult, especially if the 

effects are masked by the structure of a building. To the 

professional, there is no difference between a tremor 

and an earthquake, but opinion differs as to whether 

there really is a correlation between atmospheric pressure 

and earthquake activity. 

At Punta Arenas, I was told that I would have no 

chance of experiencing an earthquake. However, we 

still did the plate tectonics workshop in its entirety, 

including the demonstration where a line of people is 

pushed, pulled and waggled, to imitate the response of 

P and S waves to solids and liquids. In English, I usually 

reinforce the titles of the waves by deliberately using 

words beginning with the appropriate letter, e.g. S 

waves are slow, shear, secondary, or even shake or sideways 

waves. We were a bit stuck for a Spanish word 

beginning with “s”, until someone suggested “samba 

waves” – much more imaginative, especially in view of 

the way they had been imitating the passage of a wave 

with their own bodies! 

Another benefit of being in such a geologically exciting 

environment, was the ability to go out of the back 

door of the hotel and grab a variety of andesites and volcanic 

ashes, just lying about on the slopes. In the amazing 

canyon, the Cajon del Maipo, on the outskirts of 

Santiago, merely getting out of my host’s car by the 

roadside resulted in a collection of andesites, basalt, 

rhyolite and granite, to say nothing of the dramatic 

view, and some fascinating structures in the drift. 

There wasn’t enough time in 

Santiago to develop a city trail of 

building stones (it’s a huge city!), 

but in Punta Arenas I thought the 

municipal cemetery might be 

worth a look. This is a large walled 

area, with some tall cypress trees, 

lovingly shaped by the topiarists. 

Peeping over the wall were some 

very elaborate mausoleums, to the 

memory of the good and the great 

of Punta Arenas, in its heyday as a 

Cape Horn port. This looked 

promising, but with the exception of one or two ostentatious 

creations in marble or gabbro, they turned out 

to be made of concrete, with cement rendering. However, 

a diligent search revealed the “Ingles” section, 

where former inhabitants from Great Britain (mostly 

Scots) lie buried. Their relatives were not going to be 

content with a bit of concrete, and whole tombstones 

had obviously been shipped in from Europe, most of 

them probably carved in the U.K. beforehand. Thus I 

was soon looking at the familiar Peterhead and Balmoral 

Granites, Carrara Marble, black Gabbro and so 

on. One unnamed tomb was constructed of a granite 

with many xenoliths, which had been cut by at least 

two generations of quartz veins – a lovely puzzle for 

children to work out the sequence of events. This 

Punta Arenas 

Cemetery 

55 www.esta-uk.org


Far right: Granite 

headstone, Punta 

Arenas: work 

out the age 

relationships 

Right: Granite 

headstone, Punta 

Arenas: side view 

could only be categorically answered when one looked 

at the end section of the slab and not just the front. 

Although Punta Arenas lies in a wind swept area and 

is near the sea, it appeared that the rate of weathering 

was considerably less than in Sheffield (UK), presumably 

a testament to the lower rainfall (380mm) and lack 

of air pollution. 

An unexpected opportunity, whilst in Punta Arenas, 

was a day visit to the Cueva del Milodon, a mere 250 km 

away, near Puerto Natales. The distance is equivalent to 

the journey from Sheffield to London, but my host, the 

Head of the British School, thought nothing of it, 

although the road was a bit busy, with about 30 vehicles 

seen during the whole 500 km round trip! The Cueva del 

Milodon is where the famous ground sloth remains were 

found in the late 19th Century (See Geology Today 18.2, 

March-April 2002, for an excellent account). The cave 

and the visitor centre are well worth a visit, but the geology 

of the area is equally dramatic, with massive polymict 

conglomerates overlying shales, at the junction of which 

the cave was apparently eroded along the shoreline of a 

pro-glacial lake (see back cover photograph). Evidence for 

the former lake is clearly seen in the background, with 

probable strand lines marking its ancient shorelines. An A 

Level geology group would find plenty to work on here 

for its assessed fieldwork projects! 

Having attended countless conferences run by 

ESTA, the ASE etc., I was interested to see if Chilean 

teachers thought any differently when it came to their 

Open Forum. I had to remember that the teachers represented 

17 British schools up and down Chile, where 

most of the staff and nearly all the children are Chilean 

nationals. The schools take children from aged 4 to 18, 

and although the Primary sections may be in separate 

buildings from the seniors, each school has an overall 

Head Teacher. They follow the Chilean curriculum, 

although much of the teaching is in English, and students 

take Chilean school-leaving exams (mostly multiple 

choice type). Many of the schools also enter their 

pupils for International GCSEs, set in Cambridge, and 

the International Baccalaureate is increasingly used for 

18 year olds. The schools are fee-paying, so their 20,000 

or so pupils represent the rapidly growing more affluent 

sector of Chilean society. 

So, what were the decisions of the delegates in 

answer to the Conference Theme, “What can I do to 

improve the learning of science in my school?” 

Six headings emerged from the feedback session: 

1. Ensure that in my school there exists a child-centred 

curriculum that is vertically integrated, coherent and 

motivating and is supported by the school. 

2. Create opportunities for Continuing Professional 

Development and dare to implement and share what 

I learned and accept the risks involved. 

3. Identify and prioritise the skills involved (in learning 

science) and ensure that the students acquire and 

develop them. 

4. Request the necessary resources and use them 

properly. 

5. Raise the importance of practical activities in the 

curriculum. 

6. Give the sciences the importance they deserve. 

In Point 1, I was surprised to find that the links 


56


between Primary and Secondary schooling were felt to 

be poor - in schools where there is follow-on between 

the sections. This, of course, is one of the current weaknesses 

perceived in English schools, which the Key 

Stage 3 Strategy is now addressing. 

I like the emphasis on “daring to implement and 

share...”. How often do we return from a conference, 

fired up with what we have experienced, only to find 

that pressure of work, or the scepticism of stay-athome 

colleagues means that ideas do not become 

implemented? 

In the Chilean schools, there doesn’t seem to be a 

capitation system, whereby departments are allocated 

their own budget to disburse as they wish – hence the 

emphasis on “requesting” the necessary resources. 

In addition to “practical activities” some delegates 

actually mentioned fieldwork as being desirable – perhaps 

they attended my field trip to the wall! 

Although our own situation in England is markedly 

different, I think almost any science teacher will be able 

to identify with the summary above. It is all too easy to 

go to another country and think that one has the 

answers to all their problems, but this is clearly not the 

case with Chile. I did feel, however, that one vital thing 

which our National Curriculum has introduced to our 

science teaching is the “investigation” procedure, and I 

am sure I am not alone in noticing the difference in 6th 

Formers carrying out geological investigations, after 

they had got used to the idea lower down the school. 

The Chilean Ministry of Education is clearly keeping 

an eye on the education systems of other countries, as 

they seek to reform their own, and they are aware of all 

the multifarious websites run by our DfES, QCA et al. 

All they need to avoid is doing what we did and going 

through 4 versions of the National Curriculum in just 

a few years, through not thinking it out properly in the 

first place, and I noticed a few knowing smiles when I 

told them my views! 

I could not have wished to have met a nicer group of 

people – even the police seemed cheerful and courteous, 

especially when we were able to give one of their 

off-duty men a lift! And everywhere you look in central 

Chile, there is the backdrop of the Andes, with its constant 

reminder of all the geological opportunities open 

to the people. 

And what of the Falklands? Apart from meeting the 

Director of Education and trying to sow a few Earth science 

seeds, the trip was a pure holiday, and a wallow in 

nostalgia, nearly 40 years on from my last visits! Even in 

winter, the wildlife was too good to spend much time 

looking at the geology, although I did see some rather 

good dykes with baked margins, standing up above the 

rest of the sandstone host rocks, and walked across 

some of the famous stone runs. 

During my stay in the Chilean schools, I had been at 

pains to point out that the Falklands are geologically 

part of southern Africa and do not belong on the Argentine 

Continental Shelf at all! (wry smiles all round). 

Will this be expressed in the discovery of oil in commercial 

quantities on the Falklands Shelf, or gold, or 

even diamonds inland? I gather that the oil companies 

are now planning another exploration programme, this 

time on the South Falklands Shelf, having found traces 

of hydrocarbons to the north. Prospecting has been carried 

out for gold, and they do say as how a few precious 

samples have been found! 

Perhaps the next member of the Earth Science Education 

Unit to visit the islands ought to be a sedimentologist 

and not a somewhat rusty geophysicist! 

Peter Kennett 

Department of Education 

Keele University 

ESTA Diary 

NOVEMBER 2002 

Thursday 14th November 

North Staffordshire Group, Geologists’ Association, Derbyshire 

Blue John. Speaker: Dr Trevor Ford. School of Earth Sciences 

and geography, Keele University, 8.00 pm 

JANUARY 2003 

Friday 3rd - Sunday 5th January 

ASE, Univ of Birmingham. [Sat 4th is Earth Science day] 

APRIL 2003 

Wednesday 23rd - Friday 25th April 

Geographical Association Annual Conference, 

University of Derby 

SEPTEMBER 2003 

Friday 12th - Sunday 14th September 

ESTA Annual Conference, University of Manchester 

Conference 

Participants, 

Santiago College 

57 www.esta-uk.org


ESTA Conference Issues: 

Selection of future venues 

PETER KENNETT 

The Association is always glad to receive invitations for possible conference venues – always 

nicer than inviting itself somewhere! In this connection, tentative discussions have been 

held with representatives of Southampton and Derby Universities. There is also a revival of 

interest in Earth science education in Scotland and some of the Scottish universities are keen 

to see if English ESTA members would be happy to travel “up north” for a conference. Perhaps 

members would be tempted by the excellent opportunities for fieldwork, and the 

thought of treading in the footsteps of James Hutton et al! 

Before any institution gets too involved in making plans, ESTA Council has proposed that 

there should be a straw poll of those attending the 2002 Conference, to enable it to gauge the 

potential support for each venue. Council would also welcome other offers of hosts for 

future conferences. 

To increase the coverage, this questionnaire is also being included as an insert in this issue 

of Teaching Earth Sciences. If you did not return a copy at Conference, please will you fill this 

one in and return it promptly to Peter Kennett, at 142, Knowle Lane, Sheffield, S11 9SJ. 

Thank you. 

Suggested venue (please add any more, include them in your tick boxes, and state your 

connection, if any with the venue, hopefully in the capacity of issuing an invitation!) 

Venue I would attend Order of I would be very My connection with 

anyway preference unlikely to attend additional venues 

Southampton University □ □ □ X 

Derby University □ □ □ X 

A Scottish University □ □ □ X 

................................. □ □ □ ................................. 

................................. □ □ □ ................................. 

................................. □ □ □ ................................. 

Name (printed).......................................... Institution.............................. 

Any further comments: 

Please return to Peter Kennett, at 142, Knowle Lane, Sheffield, S11 9SJ 


58

Your President 

Introduced 

Activities to Develop 

Thinking Ski ls in 




Response to the 

House of Commons 

Science and 

Technology Commi t e 

inquiry into the 

Science Cu riculum for 

group - West Wales 

Geology Teachers’ 

Network 

Highlights from the 

post-16 ‘bring and 

share’ se sion a the 

ESTA Conference, 

update 

B ok Reviews 

Websearch 



achers 

Browne 

Websearch 


New ESTA 

Members 

Mr Paul Douglas 

Manchester 

Mr R Dunn 

Dorset 

Miss Mandy Winstanley 

Luton 

Miss Nicola Wiltshire 

Southsea 

Mr P Bonner 

Fareham 

Mrs Susan Brown 

London 

Mrs Jacqui Nicholas 

Tiverton 

Mr David Lomax 

West Midlands 

Mr Paul Angel 

Tynemouth 

Miss Sarah Rose 

Northumberland 

Miss Jane Retter 

Middlesborough 

Mrs K Leonard 

York 

Dr Stuart Monro 

Dynamic Earth, 

Edinborough 

Mr David Armstrong 

West Lothian 

Alastair McKenzie 

Paisley 

Miss Hazel Clark 

Liverpool 

Mr Chris Jones 

Widnes 

Mr Chris Evans 

Pembroke 

Dr Peter Craig 

Aberdeenshire 

Dr Zoe Sayer 

Bangor 

Miss Agela De Steffano 

St Neots 

Letter to the Editor 

Dear Editor 

With reference to your Editorial in TES 27/1 (Third Way?), I would like to add that there is 

indeed a ‘third way’ for some applicants through the Keele 2-year science PGCE course. That 

doesn’t help those who want to be geography teachers, but does help prospective science teachers 

(who would have a training in GCSE/A-level Geology teaching as well). 

The course requirements for our 2-year science PGCE are: 

● a minimum of half a degree (40% of modules) in a school science subject (biology, chemistry, 

physics, geology or environmental science) or equivalent; 

● double award, science, maths and English at GCSE level, or equivalent; 

● study at A-level or equivalent. 

The categories of people that this most often applies to are geologists and biologists. Thus the 

make up of our current 2-year course of 17 is: 

● 7 geologists ● 7 biologists ● 1 chemist ● 2 physicists 

Students spend the first year mainly taking access courses in the University to boost their 

weakness science areas. In the second year, they join the one year PGCE students for the full 

one year course. 

This doesn’t do all we would want it to do, I know – but does help some people who would 

otherwise fall between the stools. 

However, the situation in England and Wales is currently far better than in Scotland. In Scotland 

there is no possibility for someone with a Geoscience degree to become a teacher at present. 

This makes the continuation of Higher Still Geology in the future very problematic. 

Currently the only way to teach Higher Still Geology as a new teacher is to train as either as a 

geography teacher (needing a geography degree) or a science teacher (needing a biology, chemistry 

or physics degree) and then to pursue some geology teaching later. 

Food for thought! 

Chris King 

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59 www.esta-uk.org


Websearch 

Mick de Pomeroi of Worthing College has kindly offered to share 

his current collection of vetted websites, grouped by topic for 

post-16 (AS & A2) teaching and star-rated. This is, of course, an 

ongoing project of evaluation, amendment, addition and deletion. 

Mick has offered to email his current list of approved websites to 

anyone who is prepared to reciprocate by sending him their own 

lists. The key thing is that the lists must not contain websites 

which are pitched too high or too low or are simply out of date, 

with dead links etc. Mick’s current list contains about 80 websites 

grouped into 18 categories. Reproduced in TES here are two sections: 

General Geology and Geological Time. Mick’s email 

address is depom@globalnet.co.uk. 

General Geology 

http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/template.cfm?name=geoteaching 

Good starting point for any web search on geology with categorised 

links to many more sites. 

Level: AS & A2 ** 

http://www.ge-at.iastate.edu/courses/Geol_100/glossary.html#R 

An excellent glossary of geological terms - your own on-line 

dictionary! Useful images, too. 

Level: AS & A2 *** 

http://www.zephryus.demon.co.uk/geography/links/plate.html 

Useful site with links to many articles etc on Plate Tectonics, 

Earthquakes, Volcanoes etc. 

Level: AS mainly 

http://www.cln.org/search_index.html 

Community Learning Network: Good general resource for 

geological themes 

Level: AS 

http://www.psigate.ac.uk/ROADS/subject-listing/earth/numearth.html 

Excellent gateway site with links categorised by topic (use the 

browse button or search facility). 


http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Earth_Sciences 

Another useful search site with many links to Earth Science 

websites. 

Level: AS & A2 

http://www.aber.ac.uk/~ieswww/geores/earthsci.html 

University of Aberystwyth site. Lots of good links, but a trawl to 

get through. 


http://www.geologyshop.co.uk/newindex.htm 

UK based alphabetical list of geology websites. Lots of stuff here 

– well worth a look. 


http://www.sciencecourseware.com/ 

California State Unvi. website with excellent geological simulations 

and web-based exercises. 


http://www.soton.ac.uk/~imw/index.htm 

West’s (So’ton Uni) Index to geological sites. Masses of stuff; 

some very esoteric though! 


http://geology.usgs.gov/index.shtml 

US Geological Survey website – lots of good stuff, especially on 

Plate Tectonics & Geohazards 


http://gpc.edu/~pgore/geology/geo101.htm 

Course notes + images for Georgia Perimeter College course in 

Physical Geology. Covers Faults, Earthquakes, Earth’s Interior, 

Plate Tectonics, Minerals, Volcanoes & Igneous rocks, Weathering, 

transport & Sedimentary rocks, Metamorphism, Crustal 

deformation & Mountain building, Groundwater, Mass wasting 

(landslides) – in fact, much of the AS level course!!! 

Level: AS *** 

Recommended 

http://gpc.edu/~pgore/geology/geo102.htm 

Companion site on Historical Geology: more on Sedimentary 

rocks, Dating techniques, Fossils 


http://geollab.jmu.edu/vageol/index.html 

James Madison University Course notes on Minerals, Igneous, 

Sedimentary & Metamorphic rocks, Plate Tectonics and the 

Wilson Cycle. More advanced than Georgia stuff. 

Level: A2 *** 

Recommended 

http://community3.webshots.com/user/smayda 

A slide gallery of geological images. Some nice diagrams and 

photos. Useful resource material. 


http://spacelink.nasa.gov/Instructional.Materials/Curriculum.Support/Earth.Science/Earth.Images.From.Space/.index.html 

Lots of Images of Earth from space – searchable databases. 


www.bton.ac.uk/environment/ROCC 

Website on local Chalk geology and coastal geohazards (Risk of 

Cliff Collapse). 

Level: AS 


60


Geological Time 

http://www.jmu.edu/geology/html/time.html 

University of Berkeley Museum: Geological Time Scale. excellent 

general introduction. 


http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/help/timeform.html 

Another Berkeley site on Geological time with links to individual 

Periods of Earth History. 


http://hannover.park.org/Canada/Museum/extinction/cretmass.html 

Good site on extinction at the KT boundary. 


http://www.gpc.peachnet.edu/~pgore/geology/historical_lab/contents.php 

Georgia Geoscience lectures 7 & 8 on Stratigraphic principles 

(Relative Dating). 


http://www.physci.wsc.ma.edu/young/hgeol/geoinfo/neoprot 

Another Timescale website with useful links. 


http://www.sciencecourseware.com/ 

Virtual Lab simulations on radiometric ( Rb-Sr & Carbon14) dating. 


Reviews 

Rocks and Scenery of the Peak District 

Trevor D. Ford, Landmark Publishing, Ashbourne, 2002. 

ISBN 1-84306-026-4, £7.95, 96pp. 

My first reaction on receiving the 

review copy of Trevor Ford’s latest 

book was to leap to the bookcase for his 

Castleton Area Guide, written for the 

Geologists’ Association in 1996. Had it 

gone out of print? Surely this was mere 

duplication? 

I am glad to say that the purpose of 

Rocks and Scenery of the Peak District is 

different – rather than being a field 

guide, it gives the background to the 

geology and geomorphology of the 

whole of the Peak District. The author 

must surely be the most experienced 

geologist to have worked in the area, 

both above and below ground, and his 

long-standing personal enthusiasm is 

very evident in the way he tells the story. 

And a good story it is, too, written for 

the intelligent layman, rather than the 

expert, or field leader wanting to know 

exactly where to take a party of students. 

The book does not pretend to be a field 

handbook, although the last chapter does 

describe “areas of special interest”. Even 

these are described in general terms, 

rather than being supplied with grid 

references, although the diagrams of the 

National Stone Centre would enable 

anyone to find their way around the 

geology there. 

So, does the book do more than the 

introductory chapters in existing guides? 

I found it very readable, and actually 

ensconced myself in an armchair to read 

it properly, rather than sitting at the 

computer flicking the pages! Trevor Ford 

introduces the Peak District in the timehonoured 

way, i.e. Dark and White Peak, 

thus linking it to the 1:25000 OS maps 

with the same titles. He then breaks the 

story down into 17 short chapters with 

headings ranging from “Structures, folds 

and faults” to “Landslips”, and, of 

course, “Caves”. He writes with his 

usual flow, and avoids geological jargon, 

although some of the diagrams, mostly 

culled from existing publications, retain 

evidence of their origins, with, for 

example, reference to distal turbidites 

etc. I am not too sure about his 

assertion that the coarser gritstones were 

used in the Sheffield cutlery industry 

(the ones I have seen appear to be 

mostly made from the finer-grained 

Coal Measures sandstones). However, 

this was offset by the amusing reference 

to our prehistoric ancestors’ teeth being 

ground down by getting too much sand 

in their flour, as a result of using coarse 

grit for their quern stones! 

The book is extremely well 

illustrated with many new pictures and 

the frequent use of colour enabling a 

clearer understanding of some 

photographs, which had appeared in 

smudgy black and white in earlier 

books about the area. 

Trevor Ford has managed to describe 

most of the significant geological and 

geomorphological points within these 

covers. Any tourist buying the book and 

settling down to read it on a rainy day in 

a Peak District B & B would be well 

served by the book, and encouraged to 

go out and explore some of the areas 

described. So too will teachers who want 

to obtain an overview and are not too 

worried whether the limestones they 

will be taking their students to 

investigate are Brigantian or Chadian, or 

whatever other funny words came out 

since they graduated! 

Peter Kennett 

61 www.esta-uk.org



North Staffordshire Group, Geologists’ Association 

See ESTA Diary 

Dudley Earthquake 

An earthquake of magnitude 4.8 ML hit Dudley at 23.53 on Sunday September 

22nd, giving geoscience teachers across the land an opportunity to 

confuse (or stimulate?) their pupils by pointing out that Britain does not 

actually lie on a lithospheric plate boundary. Details from the BGS website 

at http://www.earthquakes.bgs.ac.uk/alert_info.htm 

Classic Landform Series 

The Geographical Association has recently published (2002) two new 

guides in its long-established Classic Landform series. Classic Landforms 

of the Brecon Beacons by Richard Shakesby and Classic Landforms of the 

Assynt and Coigack Area by Tim Lawson are both 50-page booklets, fully 

illustrated in colour and pitched at post-16 and beyond. These two 

books maintain the very high standards set by this series and provide 

readers with detailed material on the two districts. Both include excellent 

bibliographies and glossaries and both authors make effective use 

of a range of illustrations, including OS maps, colour photographs, aerial 

photographs, tables, cross-sections, line diagrams and other maps at 

various scales to meet the need. At £8.95 for each booklet you don’t get 

much paper for your money, but these publications are of very high 

quality, up-to-date, attractive, stimulating and comprehensive. RDT 

Thematic Trails 

In case ESTA members have lost track of the Thematic Trails publications, 

see the website at http://www.thematictrails.u-net.com/home.htm 

The Best of British 2002 

Geo Supplies have recently circulated a “Best of British 2002” publications 

list, organised by region (South West England, South & South East 

England, Wales, etc). Contact: 0114 245 5746 

Geophysics in the UK 

The Royal Astronomical Society has recently published this 40-page 

illustrated booklet to provide a review of UK work in geophysics and 

solar system science. The booklet is a useful (and very colourful) 

resource for post-16 study and copies are available free from the Royal 

Astronomical Society, Burlington House, Piccadilly, London W1J 0BQ, 

Tel 020 7734 3307, website http://www.ras.org.uk 

English Heritage: Building in Stone 

This A4 8-page teacher information leaflet from English Heritage is 

designed to introduce teachers to stone and how it has been used in the 

past for building. Although the author, Scott Engering, obviously deals 

more with buildings and building processes than with the stone per se, 

the first sections cover some basic geology. Plate tectonics, polar wandering, 

rock classification, geomorphological processes and Earth history 

are all visited in the first page or so. Inevitably in such a brief 

publication there is much simplification which, in the most part, does 

not lead to loss of accuracy. There are a few dubious phrases such as 

“tectonic plates of the Earth’s crust” and the apparent use of sand and 

quartz as synonyms, but these do not detract from the usefulness of this 

illustrated booklet. RDT. 

wanted 

MORE DYNAMIC EARTH SCIENTISTS 

‘Teaching the Dynamic Earth’ workshop facilitators 

The Earth Science Education Unit is expanding its 

coverage to Wales and to parts of England not well 

served at present, and so is seeking more individuals to 

lead and facilitate Earth science workshops with 

secondary science teachers at schools and other venues. 

We are looking for individuals with a passion for Earth 

Science and excellent communication skills who are 

capable of extending and building on the success of the 

current project. Commitment and enthusiasm are more 

important than current occupation and there are 

opportunities for people ranging from practising teachers 

to geoscientists in industry. 

A successful workshop format has been developed by the 

Unit, which uses a range of practical activities. These 

provide background knowledge but also motivate, 

enthuse and develop the understanding of science 

teachers who, whilst they are required to teach Earth 

science, have often received limited Earth science 

education themselves. 

Facilitators will: 

● live in or near Wales or one of the following regions of 

England: the North West, the Midlands, the South East, 

(the project will be extended to other regions of the 

United Kingdom in future years); 

● be available to present up to ten workshops per year in 

their local area on a session by session basis (where 

applicable, employers will be required to sign a letter 

of release to confirm ad hoc absences - supply cover 

can be paid); 

● be a full-time or part-time teacher or an Earth-scientist 

from industry; on a career break or a recent retiree 

from one of these; 

● have studied Geology/Earth science at degree level; 

● be an effective communicator and motivator; 

● be willing to update his/her knowledge of Earth 

science, of science teaching and of effective ways of 

educating teachers and pupils; 

● be willing to undertake training 

● liaise regularly with ESEU staff; 

● preferably have access to email; 

● be appointed from late 2002 or early 2003; 

● receive remuneration and expenses as agreed 

For further details visit www.earthscienceeducation.com 

Applications available from: Bernadette Callan, 

Administrator, Earth Science Education Unit, Education 

Department, Keele University, Staffordshire ST5 5BG. 

Tel: 01782 584437. Fax: 01782 584438. 

Email: eseu@keele.ac.uk 

Closing date for applications: 15 November 2002 

Interviews to be held week commencing 2 December 

2002 All expressions of interest from all regions of the 

United Kingdom welcome 


62

THEMATIC TRAILS 

GEOLOGY AND THE BUILDINGS OF OXFORD Paul Jenkins 

A walk through the city of Oxford is likened to visiting an 

open-air museum. Attention is drawn to the variety of 

building materials both ancient and modern, used in the 

fabric of the city. Discussion of their suitability, durability, 

susceptibility to pollution and weathering, maintenance 

and periodic replacement is raised. 

44 pages, 22 illustrations, ISBN 0 948444 09 6 Thematic 

Trails (1988) £2.40 

GEOLOGY AT HARTLAND QUAY Chris Cornford & Alan Childs 

In a short cliff-foot walk along the beach at Hartland 

Quay, visitors are provided with a straightforward 

explanation of the local rocks and their history. 

Alternative pages provide a deeper commentary on 

aspects of the geology and in particular provides 

reference notes for examining the variety of structures 

exhibited in this dramatic location. 

40 pages, 47 illustrations, ISBN 0 948444 12 6 Thematic 

Trails (1989) £2.40 

THE CLIFFS OF HARTLAND QUAY Peter Keene 

Interpreting the shapes of coastal landforms is introduced 

as a method of understanding something of the 

environmental history of this dramatic coastal landscape. 

A short walk following the coastal path to the south of 

Hartland Quay puts this strategy into practice. 

40 pages, 24 illustrations, ISBN 0 948444 05 3 

Thematic Trails (1990) £2.40 

STRAWBERRY WATER TO MARSLAND MOUTH Peter Keene 

A short cliff-top walk between the small but spectacular 

coastal coombes of Welcome Mouth and Marsland 

explains what beaches, streams and valley sides can 

tell us of the history of this coastal landscape. 40 

pages, 24 illustrations, ISBN 0 948444 06 1 


VALLEY OF ROCKS; LYNTON Peter Keene & Brian Pearce 

The drama of the valley is explored both by offering 

explanation for the spectacular scenery and by recalling 

its theatrical setting as seen through the eyes of those 

who have visited the valley in the past. 

44 pages, 35 illustrations, ISBN 0 948444 25 8 


THE CLIFFS OF SAUNTON Peter Keene & Chris Cornford 

I n a short cliff-foot walk along the beach at Saunton, 

visitors are provided with an explanation for the local rocks 

that make up the cliff and the shore. Alternative pages 

provide a deeper commentary on aspects of the geology 

and a chance on the return walk to reconstruct the more 

recent history of this coast by a practical examination of the 

cliff face. 44 pages, 30 illustrations, ISBN 0 948444 24 X 

Thematic Trails (May 1993) £2.40 

INTERPRETING PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS Peter Keene 

A field interpretation guide for beginners. A simple 

teaching model using an adapted graphic log sheet. Of 

wide general educational application, but designed for 

use with the following trails: ‘Westward Ho! Coastal 

Landscape Trail’, ‘Valley of Rocks, Lynton’, ‘The Cliffs of 

Saunton’, ‘Strawberry Water to Marsland Mouth’, ‘Prawle 

Peninsula Landscape Trail’ and ‘Burrator Dartmoor 

Landform Trail’ 10 pages, 10 illustrations 

Thematic Trails (1993 edition) £2.40 

MENDIPS New Sites for Old; 

a student’s guide to the geology of the east Mendips. This 

guide gives a detailed description of 39 safe, accessible 

sites chosen for their educational potential. 

192 pages, 46 illustrations, 

ISBN 086139 319 8 (NCC 1985) £2.50 

MALVERN HILLS; a student’s guide to the geology of the 

Malverns. D. W. Bullard (1989) 

The booklet includes detailed description of 21 geological 

sites of interest in the area. 


ISBN 086139 548 4 (NCC) £2.25 

WENLOCK EDGE; geology teaching trail M. J. Harley (1988) 

Six sites suitable for educational fieldwork are described 

and suitable exercises outlined. 


ISBN 086139 403 8 (NCC) £1.50 

BURRATOR, DARTMOOR LANDFORM TRAIL Peter Keene & Mike 

Harley (1987) 

An interactive circular 6 mile walk exploring the evolution 

of tor and valley scenery on Dartmoor. 


ISBN 086139 385 6 (NCC) £1.50 

THE ICE AGE IN CWM IDWAL 

The Ice Age invested Cwm Idwal with a landscape whose 

combination of glaciological, geological and floristic 

elements is unsurpassed in mountain Britain. Cwm Idwal 

is readily accessible on good paths within a few minutes 

walk of the modern A5 route through Snowdonia. 


ISBN 0 9511175 4 8 

Addison Landscape Publications (1988) £3.00 

THE ICE AGE IN Y GLYDERAU AND NANT FFRANCON 

Ice in the last main glaciation in Wales carved the glacial 

highway of Nant Ffrancon through the heart of Snowdonia 

so boldly as to ensure its place amongst the best known 

natural landmarks in Britain. The phenomena is explained 

in a way that is attractive to both specialist and visitor 

alike. 30 pages, 20 illustrations, 

ISBN 0 9511175 3 X 

Addison Landscape Publications (1988) £3.00 

LONDON. ILLUSTRATED GEOLOGICAL WALKS. 

BOOK 1 (The City) 

Adds to the well-known Pevsner accounts of the buildings 

of the City of London by offering comment upon the rock 

types used in familiar City streets. Maps set out the route 

clearly. No previous knowledge of geology is assumed. 98 

pages, 98 photographs, 14 maps, 

ISBN 0 7073 0350 8 

Geologists’ Association (1984) £4.95 

LONDON. ILLUSTRATED GEOLOGICAL WALKS. 

BOOK 2 (The West End) 

A wide range of exotic rock types are found in the shop 

fronts of Piccadilly, Tottenham Court Road and the office 

blocks of Central London. Again no previous knowledge of 

geology is assumed. 

142 pages, 128 photos, 16 maps, 

ISBN 0 7073 0416 4 

Geologists’ Association (1985) £4.95 

Some earlier items are still available - please enquire 

ORDERS TO: Dave Williams, Corner Cottage, School Lane, Hartwell, Northampton, NN7 2HL E-mail: earthscience@macunlimited.net 

Official orders will be invoiced. Cheques and postal orders should be made payable to ESTA. Order forms avaliable from the ESTA Website 

63 www.esta-uk.org

Key Stage 3 

Science of the Earth 11-14 Units have been devised to introduce Earth Science to pupils at Key 

Stage 3 level as part of their National Curriculum studies in Science and Geography. 

Each Unit occupies about one double period of teaching time and the Units are sold as 3-Unit 

packs. Units that are available now are:- 

GW: Groundwork - Introducing Earth Science 

GW1 - Found in the Ground 

GW2 - Be a Mineral Expert 

GW3 - Be a Rock Detective 

LP: Life from the Past - Introducing Fossils 

LP1 - Remains to be seen 

LP2 - A well-preserved specimen 

LP3 - A fate worse than death - fossilization! 

ME: Moulding Earth’s Surface - Weathering, Erosion 

and Transportation 

ME1 - Breaking up rocks 

ME2 - Rain, rain and rain again 

ME3 - Landshaping 

PP: Power from the past: coal (a full colour poster is 

available with this Unit for a p & p charge of 

£1.15 (inc. VAT) please indicate if you do not 

require this. 

PP1 - Coal swamp 

PP2 - Layers and seams 

PP3 - ‘Unspoiling’ the countryside 

HC: Hidden changes in the Earth: introduction to 

metamorphism 

HC1 - Overheated 

HC2 - Under Pressure 

HC3 - Under Heat and Pressure 

M: Magma - introducing igneous processes 

M1 - Lava in the lab. 

M2 - Lava landscapes 

M3 - Crystallising magma 

SR: Secondhand rocks: Introducing sedimentary 

processes 

SR1 - In the stream 

SR2 - Blowing hot and cold 

SR3 - Sediment to rock, rock to sediment 

Key Stage 4 

BM: Bulk constructional minerals 

BM1 - What is our town made of? 

BM2 - From source to site 

BM3 - Dig it - or not? 

FW: Steps towards the rock face - introducing 

fieldwork 

FW1 - Thinking it through 

FW2 - Rocks from the big screen 

FW3 - Rock trail 

ES: Earth’s surface features 

ES1 - Patterns on the Earth 

ES2 - Is the Earth cracking up? 

ES3 - Earth’s moving surface 

E: Power source: oil and energy 

E1 - Crisis in Kiama - which energy source now? 

E2 - Black gold - oil from the depths 

E3 - Trap - oil and gas caught underground 

WG: Water overground and underground 

WG1 - Oasis on a desert island-the permeability 

problem 

WG2 - Out of sight, out of mind? - waste disposal 

and ground water pollution 

WG3 - The dam that failed 

SPECIAL REDUCED PRICE 

£2.00 each (post free) 

for Key Stage 3 

A Teachers’ Guide to the 

‘Science of the Earth’ Approach - £1.00 

SoE1: Changes to the atmosphere 

SoE2: Geological Changes - Earth’s Structure and Plate Tectonics 

SoE3: Geological Changes - Rock Formation and Deformation 

Investigating the Science of the Earth. Practical and investigative activities for Key Stage 4 and beyond. 

Price £2.95(Per Unit) 

ROUTEWAY – solving planning and technical problems of building a major road. A three-unit pack dealing with aspects 

of planning and engineering geology and associated environmental problems. Science and 

Geography courses at Key Stage 4. Also applicable to problem-solving modules in ‘A’ level or Vocational Science or 

Geology courses. 

Price: £4.95 

Please note - to claim ESTA member prices on the above items, you must enclose a copy of this 

advertisement or an ESTA order form, or simply mention your ESTA membership. 

ORDERS TO: Geo Supplies Ltd., 49 Station Road, Chapeltown, Sheffield S35 2XE. Tel: (0114) 245 5746 

Official orders will be invoiced. Cheques and postal orders should be made payable to Geo Supplies Ltd. 


64

GRAIN SIZE SCALE 

Laminated cards specially printed for ESTA 

(6 x 9 cm credit card size). They show grains 

from coarse sand down to silt. 

30p each 

20p each for 20 to 99 copies 

100 copies or more £15 

1000 copies £100 

WORKING WITH ROCKS PACK: 

Folder of Teacher notes and worksheets; Christina’s Story 

- tale of a marble headstone; 16 postcards of building 

stones - for town and graveyard trails. 

KS1/2/3. £7.00 

ROCK, MINERAL & FOSSIL KITS 

1. ESTA MINERAL SAMPLES 

Boxed set of ten minerals (haematite, magnetite, 

galena, pyrite, mica, gypsum, calcite, halite, quartz & 

feldspar), plus steel nail, copper coin, streak plate, 

dropper botter & magnifier. Essential for use with 

activities in PEST 9 - MINERALS (copy included). 

Suitable for KS2/KS3. £15.00 

2. DIVERSITY OF LIFE - FOSSIL REPLICAS SET 

Boxed fossil replicas, selected to illustrate the 

diversity of life over geological time (dinosaur tooth, 

trilobite, ammonite, shark tooth, icthyosaur tooth, 

fish, sea urchin, coral, reptile footprint, seed fern, sea 

lily & shrimp). 

Produced by GEOU (Open University Dept of Earth 

Sciences) & includes detailed notes and a copy of 

PEST 1 - FOSSILS. 

Suitable for KS2/KS3/KS4. £16.00 

3. ESTA ROCK KITS - ask for details 

POSTCARDS 

1. THE FLOOR OF THE OCEANS 

(14 x 9cm) miniature version of wall map. 

25p each, 10 or more 20p each. 

2. BUILDING STONES 

A set of 16 postcards depicting building or 

ornamental stones to be found in towns and cities 

throughout the country. 

All at natural size. £3.50. 

MAPS AND WALLCHARTS 

1. GEOTHERMAL MAP OF THE UNITED KINGDOM 

Published by BGS 

This coloured chart consists of a map (scale 

1:1,500,000) showing the geothermal potential of the 

UK along with annotations describing the major sites 

and projects. Size approx. 80 x 80 cm. 

£4.00 per folded map 

2. THE FLOOR OF THE OCEAN 

published by Marie Tharp 

Useful for 11-14 Unit - Earth’s surface features. 

Specially imported by ESTA from the USA. Printed on 

laminated paper, a superb map showing the relief 

featues of the ocean floor in graphic detail. 

£14.00 per rolled map 

3. LE PUYS VOLCANOES (AUVERGNE) 

Published by the French Bureau of Geology and Mines 

and the Auvergne Volcanoes Regional Park. Useful for 

11- 14 unit - Magma. 

A folded geological map of the region at 1: 25,000 

scale colourfully illustrates the volcanic sites - £9.00 

An accompanying sheet of 16 postcards has been cut 

into 4-A4 sized sheets for easier mailing - £5.00 

Set of maps and photos - £13.00 

4. GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE WORLD 

Published by OU/ESSO with help from ESTA. 

Including oceanic crust colour coded by age, 

beautiful! 100cm x 150 cm. Price £8.00. 

5. TARR’S WORLD SEISMICITY MAP 

(return of an old favourite). This large map (120cm x 

90cm) shows a distribution of the world’s major 

earthquakes - shallow, medium and deep focus. 

Magnitudes and dates are given for many. £5.00 

6. U.K. GEOLOGY WALL MAP 

One of Ordnance Survey series for KS2/3, published 

with help from ESTA. 

£4.00 paper, £12.00 laminated. 

Some earlier items are still available - please enquire 

ORDERS TO: Dave Williams, Corner Cottage, School Lane, Hartwell, Northampton, NN7 2HL E-mail: earthscience@macunlimited.net 

Official orders will be invoiced. Cheques and postal orders should be made payable to ESTA. Order forms avaliable from the ESTA Website 

N.B. All items are posted free of charge.

teaching - Earth Science Teachers' Association

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