4. Corruption and its impact on development in Nagaland, India

CORRUPTION AND ITS IMPACT ON DEVELOPMENT: 

A Case Study of Nagal<strong>and</strong> 

Dr. T. Zarenthung Ezung, Assistant Professor, Department Of Economics, 

Nagal<strong>and</strong> University, Hqrs. Lumami 798627 

tzars@rediffmail.com Ph. 09436016413 

Abstract 

<strong>Corruption</strong>, which is defined as the abuse of 

public power for personal ends, has become 

a way of life for the Naga society. This 

paper attempts to highlight the causes, 

types <strong>and</strong> trends of corruption <strong>and</strong> <strong>its</strong> <strong>impact</strong> 

on development in the state. The causes are 

multi-faceted, but the most important was 

found to be the attitude of the people. The 

result of the analysis also revealed that misutilization 

or misappropriation of government 

funds, bribery <strong>and</strong> nepotism, abuse of power 

<strong>and</strong> corrupt activities of the public in the 

state was very high <strong>and</strong> continues unabated. 

<strong>Corruption</strong> was also found to be curtailing 

the developmental fund from the actual 

amount sanctioned, increasing inequality in 

society <strong>and</strong> employing unskilled <strong>and</strong> 

inefficient manpower. The paper concludes 

with suggestions to counter rising corruption 

in Naga society. 

Introduction: 

<strong>Corruption</strong> is a human creation affecting the 

smooth process of countries’ economic 

development, especially developing ones. It 

is increasingly considered as one of the 

most important obstacles to development 1 . 

But how did corruption come into existence 

in <strong>its</strong> current form It began because 

“human wants are unlimited” as stated by 

Robinson. The unlimited wants of human 

beings with limited means to meet their 

ends, makes them use unfair means to 

achieve their goals. This is called corruption. 

In most literature, corruption has been 

defined as "the abuse of public power for 

personal ends" 2 . This definition has been 

widened recently, as attention has turned to 

corruption within the private sector, to cover 

"giving or receiving undue advantage in the 

course of business activities leading to acts 

in breach of a person's duties " 3 . <strong>Corruption</strong> 

is also defined as an act done with the intent 

to give some advantage inconsistent with 

official duty <strong>and</strong> the rights of others 4 . 

Bribery, nepotism, extortion <strong>and</strong> 

embezzlement are common in Nagal<strong>and</strong>. 

This paper examines the causes, extent <strong>and</strong> 

depth of corruption <strong>and</strong> suggests ways <strong>and</strong> 

means to overcome this sickness of society. 

Methodology: 

Primary data was collected in a survey 

conducted on 100 Naga intelligentsia 

(teachers teaching in higher education) in 

four districts of the state <strong>and</strong> 14 middle men 

who act as agents in chasing files in the 

office; they were interviewed in 2009-2010. 

The data on misappropriation of funds, 

illegal appointments, tax at check gates <strong>and</strong> 

corrupt activities of the public were collected 

for the period 2003-2011 from newspapers, 

viz, 1) Eastern Mirror 2) Nagal<strong>and</strong> Post 3) 

Morung Express 4) Naga Realm <strong>and</strong> 5) 

Nagalim News, as a secondary source. 

Causes of corruption: 

The causes of corruption differ from one 

economy to the other. In many countries, 

corruption is caused by weak regulatory 

institutions <strong>and</strong> enforcement practices 5 . It is 

also caused by government regulation <strong>and</strong> 

authorization, lack of transparency <strong>and</strong> 

quality of the bureaucracy 6 ... The inequality 

in the distribution of income is another factor 

affecting corruption 7 . These factors are 

summarized below. 

It is a universally accepted fact that human 

wants are unlimited but limited means <strong>and</strong> 

the desire to meet their wants induce a 

person to participate in corrupt activities. 

Complacent attitude: The infrastructural 

development (especially roads) in the state 

does not last even for a year because there 

is a nexus of politicians, bureaucrats, 

contractors <strong>and</strong> other governments officials. 

In many cases the development lasted only 

for a short period, mostly before the arrival 

of the monsoon because the funds meant 

International Journal of Rural 

vol. 19 no. 1 April 2012 

Studies (IJRS) 

ISSN 1023–2001 www.vri-online.org.uk/ijrs Article 4 Page 1 of 7

for infrastructural development are 

distributed among them. However, people 

never raise their voices against the work 

done for them. This complacent attitude of 

the people emboldens the person in-charge 

of the work to carry on his corrupt activities. 

Donation culture: People expect chief 

guests/speakers at any social, cultural or 

political function to donate money <strong>and</strong> this 

causes corruption. The donor of large sums 

is highly regarded by the people without any 

knowledge of the source of the funds. Yet it 

is clear that an officer who donates huge 

sums of money, more than his salary, must 

have some side income (corrupt money). 

Expectation for jobs: In Nagal<strong>and</strong>, educated 

youths are under pressure from their parents 

<strong>and</strong> relatives to secure government jobs 8 . 

94% respondents viewed a government job 

as the most preferred job in the state <strong>and</strong> 

96% respondents preferred the department 

that provided an opportunity to earn side 

income, other than teaching jobs. The 

social status of those working in a 

department that earns extra cash is high <strong>and</strong> 

acknowledged. This attitude of people 

valuing those employees who earn extra 

money causes corruption because it inspires 

people to be more corrupt. 

Election system: 90% of respondents are of 

the view that the system of election in the 

state is faulty because it is based on money 

power, coup system, party line, clan line <strong>and</strong> 

tribes <strong>and</strong> not based on the capacity <strong>and</strong> 

knowledge of a person. This type of election 

breeds nepotism into the system of 

governance. A person who is elected 

through the use of money will always try to 

cover up the expenses he/she made during 

the election <strong>and</strong> will also try to retain some 

extra money for the next election. Thus, the 

developmental money in his/her department 

goes into his/her pocket first <strong>and</strong> 

development last. Moreover, a person 

elected based on area, village <strong>and</strong> clans will 

automatically practise nepotism. It was often 

found that development funds were being 

diverted to less feasible areas to appease 

his/her voters. 

Existence of freedom fighters: There are 

many freedom fighters st<strong>and</strong>ing for the good 

cause of the people. However, there are 

many black sheep among the freedom 

fighters <strong>and</strong> their influence on the electoral 

process, allocation of contract work <strong>and</strong> jobs 

is very significant in the state. They select 

inefficient c<strong>and</strong>idates who often become 

their puppets <strong>and</strong> together they siphon off 

developmental funds without doing any 

work. This also leads to the appointment of 

ineffective persons in particular departments 

through the backdoor. In many cases, 

freedom fighters become the scape-goat of 

corrupt officials <strong>and</strong> contractors. Moreover, 

some public, in the guise of freedom 

fighters, indulge in corrupt activities like 

collecting taxes <strong>and</strong> donations from the 

people <strong>and</strong> businessmen. 

Existence of many non-governmental 

organizations (NGOs):- In Nagal<strong>and</strong> there 

are a thous<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> one NGOs from village 

to state level. They are well known for 

collecting donations from members. This 

encourages corruption because a person 

cannot donate generously unless they have 

some side income (corrupt money). 

Unprincipled non-governmental organization 

leaders: Another factor causing corruption 

in the state is that the leaders of many 

NGOs who are fighting against injustice in 

society become susceptible to money. 

Frequently, organizations fighting against 

corruption keep their mouths shut before 

they cleansing the system because their 

leaders are being bribed <strong>and</strong> hot issues 

usually die a natural death. The acts of 

these unprincipled leaders embolden corrupt 

people to carry on their corrupt activities 

because they have those once-feared 

leaders now under their control. 

Lack of patience: Nagas believe that Rome 

was built in a day. They expect quick results 

because they have no patience. This results 

in bribing the person in-charge of the files or 

work so that their files are moved faster or 

the work is done more quickly. This type of 

bribery has now become a work culture in all 

offices <strong>and</strong> nothing moves in the office 

without bribe to the person in-charge. This 

attitude encourages corruption. 





Existence of “ism”: “Ism” in Naga society is 

so entrenched that people become blind to 

the difference between good <strong>and</strong> bad. When 

corrupt officials are caught in any corruption 

sc<strong>and</strong>al, the community or clan to which 

he/she belong comes out openly in defense 

of that person. The practice of sanctifying 

corrupt officials instead of fighting against 

corruption simply because the officials 

belong to their community or clan also 

causes corruption in the state. 

Types <strong>and</strong> Trends of <strong>Corruption</strong> in the 

State: 

A) Misappropriation of funds: 

The looting of government coffers by 

politicians, bureaucrats <strong>and</strong> sometimes in 

connivance with freedom fighters goes 

unabated. From 1998 to 2010, Rs. 442.56 

crores (approximately 56 million British 

pounds) was withdrawn from various 

government offices using fake documents. 

The greatest fraud took place in the Border 

Affairs department with Rs. 16<strong>4.</strong>74 crores 

during 2005-10 followed by rural 

development which looted Rs. 141.91 crores 

from 2008 to 10. Education, Horticulture, 

Police, Commerce <strong>and</strong> Industries, PWD <strong>and</strong> 

PHED followed up with Rs. 46.599 crores 

during 2003-10, Rs. 23.04 crores during 

2006-08, Rs.18.17 crores during 2006-09, 

Rs. 1<strong>4.</strong>005 crores during 2004-07, Rs. 12.98 

crores during 1998-09 <strong>and</strong> Rs. 11.56 crores 

during 2004-09 respectively. The least 

misappropriation of funds was in the 

Electricity department with Rs. 2 lakhs in 

2008 followed by Veterinary with Rs. 49.5 

lakhs during 2011, Agriculture with Rs. 2.61 

crores during 2004-07 <strong>and</strong> the Treasury with 

Rs. 6.45 crores. 

With so much corruption in the state, the 

Mahatma G<strong>and</strong>hi National Rural 

Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA) 

which was meant to employ rural people 

was not implemented according to 

objectives laid down. In Nagal<strong>and</strong>, projects 

initiated under MNREGA usually employ 

capital rather than labor to generate 

employment. A simple example is the 

creation of an agricultural link road using 

machines rather than employing villagers. 

Moreover, the midday meal programme 

which was meant to be provided daily to 

school children was done once in a week or 

month <strong>and</strong> photos published in the 

newspapers. 

B) <strong>Corruption</strong> in appointment <strong>and</strong> promotion: 

From creation of contract/adhoc system in 

employment to out-of-turn promotion, the 

state has been witnessing a series of 

sc<strong>and</strong>al after sc<strong>and</strong>al which is not always 

made public. There was nepotism, 

manipulation <strong>and</strong> bribery in the Nagal<strong>and</strong> 

Public Service Commission (NPSC) 

examination system which is the highest 

recruiting body in the state, as well as in 

various departmental examinations. In 2004, 

question papers of NPSC 2004 were typed 

by a clerk at Alder College, Kohima without 

sanction from the Commission. On 14 th 

February 2005 a bribery attempt was made 

on the Controller of Examinations (CoE) 

NPSC by a c<strong>and</strong>idate. In the same year, one 

c<strong>and</strong>idate who was declared passed as 

extra assistant commissioner (EAC) 

(Reservation-Backward Tribe) was later 

denied a seat because of a complaint from 

another c<strong>and</strong>idate. In the same year, an 

over aged c<strong>and</strong>idate was allowed to sit vivavoce. 

During the 2006 NPSC examination, 

a c<strong>and</strong>idate who was declared as deputy 

superintendent of police (DSP) was adjusted 

to UDA. Moreover, the Combined Technical 

Examination (CTE) 2007-08 for various 

posts in government departments conducted 

by the NPSC in 2008 was boycotted by 

c<strong>and</strong>idates for sudden changes in the 

pattern of examination. The NPSC in May 

2004, had selected seventy-one c<strong>and</strong>idates 

for the posts of lecturers but the selection of 

twenty-four c<strong>and</strong>idates were later kept in 

abeyance <strong>and</strong> cleared only in 2006. 

<strong>Corruption</strong> in appointment <strong>and</strong> promotion 

happens not only in the highest recruiting 

body of the state but in almost all 

departments. In 2006, the Public Work 

Department (PWD), Mechanical Wing 

appointed <strong>and</strong> regularized 263 employees 

against the total vacancy of 63 in Grade-III & 

IV posts by flouting existing rules <strong>and</strong> 

norms. In 2007, 1181 illegal appointments 

were made from the State Health <strong>and</strong> 

Family Welfare department without any 

advertisement. In the department of 





education, 2140 employees were illegally 

appointed in 2004 against the actual number 

of employees of 719, thus making an excess 

appointment of 1421. In 2010, the Special 

Investigating Team (SIT) detected a huge 

number of bogus appointments in this 

department. Altogether 2125 persons were 

given fake teacher appointments in various 

primary <strong>and</strong> middle schools of the state. In 

the department of police, two junior officers 

were given "out-of-turn" promotion by the 

PHQ in 2007 without following the guidelines 

of an earlier office memor<strong>and</strong>um. In 2009, 

one person was given out-of-turn promotion 

to the post of Superintendent of Police 

overtaking many of his seniors. 

C) Extortion at the check gates: 

In Nagal<strong>and</strong>, the hunger for side income 

(corrupt money) is so deep rooted that 

departments that are not authorized to 

collect taxes at the check gate indulge in this 

activity. Municipal <strong>and</strong> town councils that are 

supposed to run their offices in their 

respective jurisdiction <strong>and</strong> not at the check 

gates were also found to be actively 

participating in this area. Even the 

undergrounds that take a yearly tax from all 

commercial vehicles in the state <strong>and</strong> should 

not be taxing those vehicles everyday were 

taking extra tax. Moreover, a nongovernmental 

organization like the Naga 

Council which should be spearheading the 

drive against any illegal collection was 

involved in this kind of activity. The security 

forces of the state who were being paid to 

safeguard the people <strong>and</strong> not to collect 

taxes have been found collecting money at 

various police check gates. Indeed, the 

unarmed branch (UB) police constables 

bribe their seniors to get posted at the check 

gates. 

The findings reveal that during 2008, a truck 

going from Dimapur to Kohima had to pay a 

total of Rs. 10350 to various departments 

<strong>and</strong> organizations, Rs. 550 to the police 

manning the various check gates, Rs3000 to 

the veterinary department, Rs.300 to 

Dimapur Municipal Council, Rs. 5000 to the 

Dimapur-based undergrounds <strong>and</strong> Rs. 500 

to Chumukidema Town Council <strong>and</strong> under 

grounds, Rs. 1000 to Naga council <strong>and</strong> Rs. 

2100 to reach Dimapur during the same 

period, Rs. 1900 to the police manning the 

various check gates <strong>and</strong> traffic points <strong>and</strong> 

Rs. 200 to the excise department. In 

September 2010, three policemen were 

caught by the public extorting money from 

truckers 9 . The findings of Law students VIth 

semester 2010 show that the collection by 

various non-governmental organizations still 

continues at various check gates of National 

Highway No. 39 10 . 

D) Corrupt activities of the public: 

It is sad to observe that the majority of Naga 

people have been infected by the easy 

money virus <strong>and</strong> wealth has become a 

religion for many. In their aspiration to 

become overnight millionaires many people 

enter into an improper business. Corrupt 

activities practised by the public can be in 

the form of non-payment of bills, cheating, 

fake currency business, fake certificate 

business <strong>and</strong> other illegal business. 

Moreover, NGOs which were not supposed 

to impose any tax started taxing 

businessmen <strong>and</strong> the public. For example in 

2010, Naga council which is an NGO started 

the Naga commission tax from selling 

vegetable to timber. 

Apart from illegal taxation by NGOs, the 

findings reveal that in 2007, the people owe 

BSNL over Rs 365 crores for l<strong>and</strong>line phone 

bills <strong>and</strong> another Rs 142 crores for postpaid 

mobile phones. In 2004, two people were 

arrested for collecting several lakhs of 

rupees from the Jain community <strong>and</strong> various 

individuals on the pretext of depositing the 

money in various postal schemes <strong>and</strong> fixed 

depos<strong>its</strong>, by showing forged government 

documents, seals <strong>and</strong> pass books. 

However, they fraudulently withdrew Rs. 25 

lakhs from the post office without the 

knowledge of their clients. In 2006, one 

person was arrested for fraudulent collection 

of money amounting to more than Rs. 17, 

00,157 from the public in the form of 

processing fees <strong>and</strong> an initial deposit for 

advancing a loan by the National Finance 

Company, Dimapur. In 2004, two people 

were caught selling fake question papers of 

class VIII <strong>and</strong> IX board examinations for Rs. 

100 per copy to students in Dimapur. In 

2005, seven people were arrested in 

connection with the fake Nagal<strong>and</strong> Board of 





School Education (NBSE) certificate racket. 

In 2009, one person was arrested for forging 

<strong>and</strong> selling fake certificates <strong>and</strong> documents 

of various government offices, police, 

schools, colleges, universities etc., of 

different states of the Northeast. Even 

government employees enter into improper 

businesses in order to earn extra income. In 

2006, 3 persons including a government 

servant were caught for trafficking 500gms 

of heroin valued at around Rs. 50 lakhs in 

the international market. In 2007, 6 people 

were arrested for fake currency business. 

The negative population growth rate of - 

0.47% during the decade 2001 to 2011 was 

another clear example of the corrupt 

activities of the people. The reason is that 

there were no epidemic diseases in the state 

during this period <strong>and</strong> the death rate was 

never high. Another corrupt practice of the 

public is the non-repayment of loans. It has 

been found that people who are availing 

themselves of the Chief Minister Corpus 

Fund (CMCF) usually take it as a subsidy 

<strong>and</strong> never repay the amount. 

E) Abuse of powers: 

Abuse of public office <strong>and</strong> power forms an 

important part of corruption. In Nagal<strong>and</strong> 

most public leaders <strong>and</strong> bureaucrats abuse 

their office for personal profit. In 2006, two 

seats were allotted to c<strong>and</strong>idates to a 

medical college even though they did not 

pass the joint entrance exam. In 2010, the 

books that were actually meant for free 

distribution for certain districts were sold in 

another state. There are many ways powers 

ae being abused. In Nagal<strong>and</strong>, most officers 

use government vehicles for dropping off 

<strong>and</strong> picking up their school children. Even 

officials’ vehicles are driven by unauthorized 

drivers as if they were private vehicles. Not 

only do they use them for school duties, but 

in some cases, the larger vehicles of their 

department are used for transporting their 

private materials. In some departments, the 

officers not only use available materials for 

private work but also employ lower grade 

staff as their maids for their personal work. 

The grabbing of government l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> 

buildings by bigwigs (politicians <strong>and</strong> 

bureaucrats) without inviting any tender is 

yet another clear case of abuse of power. In 

many departments a certain percentage of 

money is deducted from the arrears of the 

increase in half yearly dearness allowance 

(DA) by the officer in-charge. The creation of 

a contract system in employment instead of 

recruiting people through open exams is yet 

another instance of abuse of power by 

higher officials. 

F) Movement of files in Government offices: 

In Nagal<strong>and</strong>, it is well known that some files 

move slower than snails whereas others 

move faster than cheetahs. As per 

government rules, a person who retires 

should be given what is due to him without 

any hurdles since that person has worked 

for the welfare of the people. But that is not 

the case in Nagal<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> a person has to 

go after his own files. To come to a 

conclusion about the corruption in the 

movement of files in government offices, 14 

middlemen who deal in this area were 

interviewed. From the interview it was found 

that files are not moved for years unless 

someone working there is bribed. Here is 

the modus-oper<strong>and</strong>i of how files move faster 

in the offices. The case is chasing pension 

files. When a person retires, he contacts the 

middleman in this field <strong>and</strong> h<strong>and</strong>s over his 

file with some money or with a promise to 

give a certain sum/percentage once the 

work is done. Then he takes the file number 

<strong>and</strong> goes to the office of the retired person. 

Firstly, he bribes the peon <strong>and</strong> acquires from 

him all the necessary information about the 

process of doing it. Then he approaches the 

clerk who looks after the file <strong>and</strong> leaves the 

office with the clerk’s phone number after 

leaving an envelope containing money <strong>and</strong> 

his file number on his table. Once the work 

is done, he is informed by the clerk. Then 

the file moves up to the next level where he 

has to bribe the person in charge. Finally, 

when the work is completed, it goes to the 

office of the Accountant General (AG) <strong>and</strong> 

the person then follows the same technique. 

From AG, the file moves to the Treasury 

office where again the person follows the 

same technique <strong>and</strong> finally all the pension 

benefit is allotted to the retired person. Thus, 

he has to part with 25% to 30% of his 

pension benefit as expenditure to the 

middlemen when he finally gets his work 





done. Thus corruption in government offices 

is rife from top to bottom <strong>and</strong> vice versa. 

Effect on Development: 

The effect of corruption on development is 

always negative because it makes someone 

better off while making others worse off. The 

effects are summarized below. 

Trade off between corruption <strong>and</strong> 

development: 

The higher the rate of corruption, the lower 

will be the rate of funds available for 

development leading to less development. 

The low availability of developmental funds 

will adversely affect the longevity of the 

assets created <strong>and</strong> the master plan of a 

project. But as the rate of corruption 

declines in society, more developmental 

funds will be available for the development 

of physical <strong>and</strong> social infrastructure <strong>and</strong> the 

desired end will be met. Thus, there is a 

trade off between corruption <strong>and</strong> 

development. 

Concentration of wealth: <strong>Corruption</strong> breeds 

monopoly <strong>and</strong> concentration of wealth in the 

h<strong>and</strong>s of a few people, widening the gap 

between rich <strong>and</strong> poor. In other words, 

corruption causes inequality in the 

distribution of wealth <strong>and</strong> income. 

Inefficient manpower: It is an open secret 

that in any open examination a post or two is 

always reserved for the politician <strong>and</strong> if not, 

the politician forcefully grabs it, followed by 

the bureaucrats who take their share, the big 

shots of the state who are ready to pay 

bribes for their sons <strong>and</strong> daughters <strong>and</strong> the 

remaining is left open to all. This type of 

selection of c<strong>and</strong>idates based on nepotism 

<strong>and</strong> money leaves out efficient <strong>and</strong> skilled 

c<strong>and</strong>idates. Thus, the supply of inefficient 

<strong>and</strong> unskilled employee at work breeds 

inefficiency in the system of work <strong>and</strong> 

governance. 

<strong>Corruption</strong> <strong>its</strong>elf is a cause of corruption: For 

instance, a person getting employed in 

government offices through improper means 

such as bribery will always try to make up 

the money he/she has spent for getting the 

job. Thus, in the process of filling his/her 

bank account, he/she will care less about 

the welfare of others <strong>and</strong> will indulge in 

corruption. 

Effect on prices: Lastly, the corrupt activities 

of public <strong>and</strong> government servants engaged 

in collecting unauthorized taxes at the gates 

<strong>and</strong> in the shops causes hyper inflation in 

the state. The simple reason is that all 

businessmen’s main objective is profit but 

when they are taxed, the burden is always 

shifted to the consumers by inflating prices. 

Conclusion <strong>and</strong> Suggestions: 

It is disheartening to see that corruption has 

become a way of life for Naga people <strong>and</strong> 

corrupt activities are still rampant. The 

adverse effect on development is shown by 

the improper construction of infrastructure 

<strong>and</strong> improper implementation of any 

projects. Unless corruption is curtailed by 

anti-corruption laws, the development in the 

state will go from bad to worse. Here are 

some suggestions for the government <strong>and</strong> 

people to take up to tackle the menace of 

corruption in the state. 

• Proper education about the 

consequences <strong>and</strong> the effects of 

corruption should be imparted to the 

people. Once people realize the 

adverse effect of corruption on 

public goods, this should act as a 

restraining factor. 

• Unnecessary collection by 

organizations should be totally 

banned. 

• Taxation at various police check 

gates should also be banned. 

• A person caught in misutilisation of 

government funds should be made 

to recover the amount in addition to 

the existing system of suspension 

<strong>and</strong> sentenced to prison. 

• A maximum ceiling for donations by 

any government servant who 

attends any social function as the 

chief guest should be fixed by the 

government. 

• Regarding the movement of files in 

offices, the government should 

amend the law in such a way that no 

files can be kept pending at one 

table for more than 48 hours or a 





week (holidays not counted). The 

date of receipt <strong>and</strong> dispatch of files 

should be kept so that there is 

transparency. 

• In the absence of the person incharge, 

the officer of the department 

should make sure that somebody is 

entrusted to look after the file. This 

will destroy the delay tactics being 

played by that person in-charge of 

the work. 

• The marks of any written 

recruitment exams should be 

declared before an interview. This 

will act as a check to manipulation 

by board members because 

interview marks are always lower 

than written marks. 

• People should be able to come out 

from the cocoon of tribalism <strong>and</strong> 

clanism <strong>and</strong> should openly fight 

against corruption. 

• Elections should be based on the 

ability <strong>and</strong> capability of a person <strong>and</strong> 

not on money <strong>and</strong> muscle power. 

10 Nagal<strong>and</strong> Post (2010), Law students testify collection 

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131 No. ½ (April 2007), pp 1-21. 

Jeffrey C (2002), Caste, Class <strong>and</strong> Clientelism; A 

political economy of everyday corruption in Rural North 

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2002), pp 21-41. 

Singh M (2006), <strong>Corruption</strong>, International journal for 

rural studies, Vol 13, No 1 April 2006, pp 1-3. 

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www.esternmirror.com 

Naga Realm: Online [Available] at 

www.nagarealm.com. 

Nagal<strong>and</strong> Post: Online [Available] at 

www.nagal<strong>and</strong>post.com 

Nagalim News: Online [Available] at 

www.nagalim.nlnews.com 

Notes <strong>and</strong> References: 

1 

Khanal D R, Rajkarnikar P R, Karki B B (2007), 

Institution Building for Controlling <strong>Corruption</strong>: A Case 

Study on the Effectiveness of Commission for the 

Investigation of Abuse of Authority (CIAA) <strong>and</strong> National 

Vigilance Center (NVC) in Nepal, Final report, 

Submitted to South Asia Network of Economic 

Research Institutes (SANEI). On line [Available] 

www.iprad@org.np. Pp- 1. 

2 

Frisch, D (1996): The effect of corruption on 

development, The Courier ACP-EU, No. 158, P 68-70. 

3 

Transparency International 1999. Fighting <strong>Corruption</strong>: 

What Remains to be Done at EU Level : Working 

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4 

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