R&D on Catalyst for Catalytic Cracking of Heavy Oil With High Metal ...

2000.M2.1.3 

R&D on Catalyst for Catalytic Cracking of Heavy Oil With High 

Metal and High Residual Carbon Content 

(High residual carbon catalytic cracking group) 

Sodegaura No. 404 laboratory 

Toshio Ito, Motoo Tanaka, Tomoyuki Sumiyoshi, Yoshifumi Hiramatsu 

1. Contents of Empirical Research 

Special petroleum laws have been repealed; competition with overseas petroleum companies 

has become fierce, and in order to beat the competition in the petroleum industry, stepped-up 

efficiency at refineries and development of new technologies have become urgent necessities. 

Greater efficiency and new technologies are also required at RFCC facilities. Attention is now 

being focused on treatment of coarse feedstock (low-priced feedstock which could not be 

treated up to the present) containing large amounts of residual carbon believed to be metals 

and coke precursors, and on treatment of RFCC feedstock in which metals, residual carbon and 

sulfur have increased in the course of continuous treatment over two years with direct 

desulfurization units. 

When useful FCC gasoline and LCO are obtained from this coarse RFCC feedstock, the 

economy of RFCC equipment improves, the range of crude oil selection at refineries expands, 

and international competitiveness is strengthened. It is suspected that in the future, crude oil 

will be heavy and large quantities of coke will be produced, but in obtaining FCC gasoline and 

LCO, the volume of CO 2 discharged from RFCC equipment regenerator tower can be drastically 

reduced by using catalyst that produces little coke. This approach would also contribute to the 

prevention of global warming. 

In light of these conditions, the objective of the present research is to develop an RFCC catalyst 

which exhibits the following performance in the RFCC process when desulfurized heavy oil has 

been passed through, and it is assumed that this oil is a mixture of Arabian heavy and Rutawi 

containing 15ppm or more of metal and 5wt% or more of residual carbon. 

• FCC gasoline + LCO 64wt% or more 

• Coke 8wt% or below 

Other objectives include greater operational efficiency in the RFCC process, reduced volumes 

of CO 2 generation, and countermeasures against global warming. 

1.1 Search for and improvement of highly active catalysts 

With RFCC catalyst, feedstock containing heavy fraction and large quantities of sulfur and 

metals such as V or Ni must be processed so that the yield of FCC gasoline and LCO is 64wt% 

or more and the coke yield is 8wt% or less. For this purpose, studies have been done on 

globular alumina, which is believed to generate little coke, to be used as a substitute for the 

conventional needle alumina, and catalyst comprised of globular alumina combined with 

substances of different properties and ingredients have been trial-produced and examined. 

1

1.1.1 Evaluation of catalyst in which the volumes of globular alumina and zeolite were 

increased 

With the aim of improving catalytic reactivity, catalyst was fabricated in which the volumes of 

both globular alumina and zeolite were increased, and catalyst reactions were evaluated. 

1.1.2 Evaluation of the activity of catalyst in which globular alumina are combined with 

regular alumina 

To improve catalytic reactivity even further, catalyst was fabricated in which globular alumina 

was combined with regular alumina, and catalyst reactions were evaluated. 

1.1.3 Impact of zeolite additive 

With the aim of increasing the yield of FCC gasoline and LCO even further, the volume of 

zeolite additive added to catalyst was increased over the conventional amounts, and catalyst 

reactions were evaluated. 

1.2 Investigation of the factors affecting catalyst activity 

With the aim of attaining high yields of FCC gasoline and LCO, the relationships between 

catalyst pore distribution, acid volume and catalytic activity were investigated. The 

relationships between catalyst OH base, distribution of alumina in catalyst, and reaction results 

were also investigated. 

1.2.1 Investigation of catalytic pore distribution 

In examining catalyst structure, the inter-relationships among the following were studied: 

meso-pore (intermediate pore) positions, catalytic meso-pore and macro pore distributions, 

which are believed to be effective in FCC gasoline and LCO production, pore capacity and 

reactivity. 

1.2.2 Investigation of catalyst acid volume 

Among catalysts yielding outstanding reaction results, the relationship between acid volume and 

reaction results was investigated. 

1.2.3 Investigation of catalyst OH base 

The relationships between catalyst reaction results and OH base strength, which is related to 

catalyst acid strength, were investigated. 

1.3 Examination of catalyst industrial production methods 

Industrial production methods were investigated in order to establish a method for production, 

on industrial scale, of catalyst developed on the laboratory scale. In the investigation of 

industrial production methods, attention was focused on catalyst composition and on uniformity 

in catalyst structure during production testing and on stability during catalyst spray drying. 

Stability during the catalyst washing process was also considered. 

1.4 Determination of catalyst practical performance 

Metal resistance, hydrothermal resistance and wear resistance of manufactured and tested 

catalyst were investigated in consideration of use of the catalyst in practical equipment. 

2

2. Results of empirical research and analysis thereof 

2.1 Search for and improvement of highly active catalyst 

2.1.1 valuation of catalyst in which the volumes of globular alumina and zeolite were 

increased 

In commercial catalyst , as shown in Figure 2.1-1, because there are few meso-pores, primary 

cracked oil produced by cracking of heavy feedstock stagnates in the pores and coke is 

generated. Consequently, in order to curtail coke formation and have FCC gasoline + LCO 

produced, in the catalyst targeted for development, also shown in the Figure, it is important to 

increase meso-pores of uniform size so that primary cracked oil, which can be produced by 

cracking feedstock, can be quickly cracked into gasoline and LCO without stagnating in the 

pores. As shown in Figure 2.1-2, these meso-pores produce uniform grains. This production 

can take place because when grains agglutinate, cavities which can produce uniform grains 

also become uniform. 

Coke 

Commercial catalyst 

Macropore 

Development target catalyst 

Macropore 

Meso-pore 

Meso-pore 

Primary cracked oil 

Gasoline 

Figure 2.1-1 

Feedstock 

Primary cracked oil 

Gasoline 

Feedstock 

LCO 

Comparative outline of pore structure of development 

target catalyst and commercial catalyst 

 


Development target catalyst 

Silica 

 

Needle lumina 

Silica · Alumina Globular alumina 

Meso-pore 

Meso-pore 

 

Non-uniform 

pores 

Figure 2.1-2 

Development 

target Catalyst 

Meso-pore 

Uniform pore 

Outline of preparation of alumina having uniform 

meso-pores 

 

For this reason, catalyst manufacture takes place in which globular alumina containing uniform 

grain size is used. Using I4-05 catalyst, developed in 1998, as a reference for comparison, 

percentages of increases in globular alumina and zeolite are presented in Table 2.1-1. 

3

Table 2.1-1 Volumes of added globular alumina and zeolite 

Item/ Catalyst I4-05 I4-10 I4-11 I4-12 

Globular alumina (wt%) Standard +10 +7 +9 

Zeolite (wt%) Standard +3 +5 +6 

The activity of the newly prepared catalyst was evaluated by means of the microactivity test 

(MAT). Prior to activity evaluation, vanadium and nickel were added to the catalyst, and it was 

subjected to steaming and to pseudo-equilibrium treatment. The properties of the feedstock 

used in activity evaluation are given in Table 2.1-2. The feedstock used satisfies the property 

requirements ultimately targeted. 

Table 2.1-2 Properties of feedstock used in evaluation of catalyst activity 

Item/ Feedstock 

Reaction evaluation feedstock 

Density (15%) 0.936 

Sulfur component (wt%) 0.51 

Residual carbon component (wt%) 5.9 

Metal component (ppm) 15 

The results of evaluation of catalyst reactions are shown in Figure 2.1-3. It was found that 

when three times as much globular alumina, as opposed to zeolite, has been added to I4-10 

catalyst, the final targets, namely FCC gasoline + LCO yield of 64wt% or more and coke yield of 

8wt% or less, are satisfied. It was also found that I4-10 catalyst yields better results that the 

nventional I4-05 catalyst. The mechanism behind this pattern is believed to be as follows. 

When the volume of globular alumina added to catalyst is increased, meso-pores (intermediate 

pores) increase; and when the feedstock (heavy oil) undergoes adequate primary cracking in 

the pores, the yields of FCC gasoline and LCO increased because the primary cracked oil, 

produced in large volume in the meso-pores, is cracked smoothly with zeolite, which has been 

increased. 

The reason that the coke yield increases only slightly even though the FCC gasoline + LCO 

yield has been increased is that the feedstock is cracked smoothly in the meso-pores, which 

have increased, and primary cracked oil does not stagnate inside the pores. 

4

FCC gasoline + LCO (wt%) 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Target value 

Standard 

 

 

Coke (wt%) 

 

 

 

 

Target value 

 

Standard 

 

 

 

: I4-10 

: I4-11 

: I4-12 

: I4-05 

Conversion rate (wt%) 

Figure 2.1-3 


Evaluations of reactions with catalysts of increased 

globular alumina and zeolite 

 

2.1.2 Evaluation of the activity of catalyst in which globular alumina are combined with 

regular alumina 

With the aim of further improving catalyst activity, studies were done on combinations of 

globular alumina and regular alumina. Percentages of added globular alumina and regular 

alumina are shown in Table 2.1-3. 

Table 2.1-3 Percentages of globular alumina and regular alumina added to catalyst 

Alumina type / catalyst Commercial catalyst I4-13 catalyst I4-14 catalyst 

Globular alumina (wt%) 0 12 6 

Regular alumina (wt%) Standard +5 +11 

The results of evaluations of reactions are shown in Figure 2.1-4. It was found that as the 

percentage of globular alumina increases, the yield of FCC gasoline + LCO escalates and the 

coke yield declines. We see that when the volume of added globular alumina is 12wt%, the 

target values are satisfied. One reason for this is ascribed to the fact that feedstock is cracked 

smoothly by meso-pores, which are created by globular alumina, so that results are improved. 

With large volumes of regular alumina, uniform meso-pores cannot be easily formed among 

catalyst pores, the feedstock does not disseminate smoothly, and reaction results decline. And 

when regular alumina is used, it is believed that because the pores are small, L acid in alumina 

increases relatively, which results in overcracking by acid; coke yield escalates and the yield of 

FCC gasoline + LCO drops to a low level. 

5


 

 

 

 

 

Target value 

 

 

Standard 


Figure 2.1-4 

Coke (wt%) 

 

 

 

 

 

Target value 

 

 

Standard 


 

: I4-13 

: I4-14 

: 

Evaluations of reactions with catalysts in which globular 

alumina and regular alumina are combined 

Cmmercial 

catalyst 

 

2.1.3 Impact of zeolite additive 

With the aim of further increasing the yield of FCC gasoline and LCO, studies were undertaken 

in which the volume of zeolite added to catalyst was increased over the conventional level. 

Volumes of zeolite added to catalyst are presented in Table 2.1-4. 

Table 2.1-4 Volumes of zeolite added to catalyst 

Item / Catalyst name I4-13 catalyst I4-18 catalyst 

Zeolite volume (wt%) Standard +10 

The results of evaluations of catalyst reactions are given in Figure 2.1-5. We can see that 

when the volume of zeolite added is increased 10wt%, the yield of FCC gasoline and LCO 

drops and coke yield increases. Because zeolite has been increased 10wt%, FCC gasoline 

and other light, primary products are overcracked. Concurrently, opportunities for direct 

cracking of feedstock by zeolite increase because of the large volume of zeolite added to the 

catalyst, the yield of FCC gasoline and LCO drops, and coke yield increases. 


 

 

 

 

 

 

Target value 

 

Standard 


Figure 2.1-5 

Coke (wt%) 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Target value 

 

Standard 


 

Impact of added zeolite volume on reaction results 

: I4-13 

: I4-18 

 

6


2.2.1 Investigation of catalytic pore distribution 

The impact of pore distribution on the results of catalytic reactions was investigated. The pore 

distribution of a typical developed catalyst is illustrated in Figure 2.2-1. It was found that 

catalysts having meso-pores, which are intermediate pores in the vicinity of 100Å, produce 

favorable results. 

Log differential pore capacity (ml/g) 

Developed catalyst 


 

Figure 2.2-1 

Pore diameter (Å) 

Pore distribution in developed catalyst 

 

Table 2.2-1 shows the percentages of pore capacity in I4-10 catalyst, which produced the best 

reaction results, and in catalysts on the market with pore sizes ranging from 40 ~ 400Å, 400 ~ 

2000Å and 2000 ~ 18000Å. As indicated under reaction results in section 2.1, it was found 

that developed catalyst of high FCC gasoline + LCO yield had extensive meso-pore capacity 

between 40 and 400Å. 

Table 2.2-1 Distributions of pore diameter in developed catalyst and commercial catalyst 

Pore capacity percentage/ 

Catalyst name 

I4-05 catalyst I4-10 catalyst I4-13 catalyst Commercial 

catalyst 

40 Å400 Å (%) 26 33 29 21 

400 Å2000 Å (%) 38 40 36 47 

2000 Å18000 Å (%) 36 27 35 32 

2.2.2 Investigation of catalyst acid volume 

In order to investigate the factors behind catalytic activity, the acid volume of developed catalyst 

was measured by ammonia adsorption heat, and the results are given in Figure 2.2-2. In light 

of these results and the results of a search for and improvement of catalyst as discussed in 

section 2.1, no clear relationship between acid volume and yield of FCC gasoline + LCO, or 

coke yield, could be recognized. However, in view of the fact that the greatest volume of 

adsorption heat is in the I4-10 catalyst, which produces the highest yield of FCC gasoline + LCO, 

it is evident that acid must be added to catalyst to some extent in order to improve upon a yield 

of 64wt% or more for FCC gasoline + LCO. 

7

Figure 2.2.2 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Measurements of ammonia adsorption heat in catalyst 

2.2.3 Investigation of catalyst OH base 

Since it is suspected that numerous OH bases are included in catalysts that have large 

quantities of solid acid, catalyst OH bases were determined by IR measurements. 

Measurements of OH bases by IR in the I4-10 catalyst, which produced favorable results, are 

presented in Figure 2.2-3. In the figure, a number of OH base peaks originating from solid acid 

or water can be observed, and the peak near 3600 cm-1, which is believed to be a solid acid 

OH base, is also high. 

 

 

 

 

Absorb 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 2.2-3 

 

 

Wave number (cm-1) 

 

Measurements of OH base by IR of I4-10 catalyst 

8

In addition to I4-10 catalyst, OH base measurements were taken for a number of other catalysts 

of outstanding reactivity, and Table 2.2-2 presents the results of comparisons of peak strength 

near 3600 cm-1. From these results, plus the results of evaluations of catalyst reactions, it was 

learned that there is not much of a correlation between OH base strength and reaction results. 

It is suspected that pore distribution has a strong impact on reaction results. However, in view 

of the fact that the OH base peak strength is highest for I4-10 catalyst, which produces the best 

reaction results, although results are the same as measurements by ammonia adsorption heat 

mentioned earlier, it was discovered that OH base, which is a solid acid, is required to some 

extent in addition to pore distribution in order to improve still further the yield of FCC gasoline + 

LCO. 

Table 2.2-2 Strength of OH base in developed catalyst 

I4-05 catalyst I4-10 catalyst I4-13 catalyst Commercial 

catalyst 

OH base strength (-) 0.115 0.156 0.028 0.135 

2.2.4 Examination of alumina distribution in catalyst 

An investigation was undertaken to discover how alumina becomes distributed in catalyst when 

globular alumina has been added. Measurements by EPMA of alumina distribution in catalyst 

revealed that large alumina clusters are distributed more widely in I4-10 catalyst to which 

globular alumina has been added than in commercial catalyst. In catalyst of high reactivity, it is 

suspected that large clusters of globular alumina are scattered widely and that pores effective in 

reactions are formed. 


Industrial production methods were investigated in order to establish a method for production, 

on industrial scale, of catalyst developed on the laboratory scale. In the investigation of 

industrial production methods, attention was focused on catalyst composition and on uniformity 

in catalyst structure during production testing, and on stability during catalyst spray drying. 

Stability during the catalyst washing process was also considered. 

2.3.1 Examination of catalyst composition and catalyst structure 

An investigation was made to determine if catalyst could be produced on an industrial scale 

without problems and according to specifications. As a result of the catalyst search, I4-10 

catalyst, which yielded the best results, was used as a basis in testing of catalyst production. 

Catalyst specifications and the composition and property values of manufactured and tested 

catalyst are shown in Table 2.3-1. The specifications and property values of this catalyst fall 

within the permissible range of variance from specifications, and it was found that there were no 

problems with catalyst composition or structural uniformity at the time of production testing. 

9

Table 2.3-1 Composition and properties of test produced catalyst 

Specification 

Test produced catalyst 

Composition 

TiO2 (wt%) Standard +0.1 

RE2O3 (wt%) Standard +0.2 

Na2O (wt%) Standard -0.08 

Al2O3 (wt%) Standard +1.5 

Ignition loss (wt%) Standard -1.2 

Physical property surface area (m 2 /g) Standard -4 

Matrix surface area (m 2 /g) Standard -10 

Zeolite surface area (m 2 /g) Standard +14 

Apparent bulk density (g/ml) Standard +0.04 

Pore capacity (g/ml) Standard +0.01 

Mean grain size (m) Standard +2 

2.3.2 Examination of catalyst bulk density and stability in grain size during spray drying 

If conditions change during spray drying of catalyst, cavities are created in the catalyst and 

catalyst grain sizes become disparate. When large cavities are produced in the catalyst and 

grain sizes become disparate, the catalyst becomes weak in mechanical strength, and the flow 

condition of catalyst in practical equipment becomes poor, which in turn adversely affects 

reaction results. Accordingly, an investigation was made to ascertain the possibility of 

production stable in terms of apparent bulk density and grain diameter. Temporal changes in 

apparent bulk density and grain diameter of catalyst during catalyst test production are 

presented in Table 2.3-2. At each stage of test production, changes were within permissible 

limits, and it was concluded that during spray drying, catalyst physical properties are stable and 

there are no problems. 

Table 2.3-2 Temporal changes in apparent bulk density and in grain diameter during 

catalyst test production 

Apparent bulk density (ml/g) 80 µm or less (wt%) 

Early term Standard Standard 

Standard 

Standard 

Middle term Standard -0.01 Standard +1.4 

Standard Standard -3.7 

Late term Standard -0.02 Standard -0.5 

Standard -0.02 Standard -1.9 

2.3.3 Examination of stability during catalyst washing 

Upon completion of spray drying of catalyst, the catalyst must be washed and poisonous 

ingredients in catalyst, Na 2 O and SO 4 , must be removed. Unless such impurities are below a 

threshold value, during catalyst application they will react with zeolite or matrix, which are active 

ingredients, producing a drop in catalyst activity. For this reason, temporal changes in the 

concentrations of these impurities during catalyst washing were investigated. The temporal 

changes in Na 2 O and SO 4 during washing are presented in Table 2.3-3. Throughout all 

catalyst production testing, changes in both Na 2 O and SO 4 were below the reference value, and 

it was concluded that there are no problems in washing out the impurities. 

10

Table 2.3-3 Temporal changes in Na 2 O and SO 4 during catalyst washing 

Na 2 O (wt%) SO 4 (wt%) 

Early term Standard -0.05 Standard -0.19 

Middle term Standard -0.08 Standard -0.23 

Late term Standard -0.05 Standard -0.17 


Metal resistance, hydrothermal resistance and wear resistance of produced and tested catalyst 

were investigated in consideration of use of the catalyst in practical equipment. 

2.4.1 Metal resistance 

When catalyst is used in practical equipment, V and Ni in feedstock accumulate on catalyst due 

to catalyst reaction and reproduction, and the catalyst is gradually poisoned. When the metal 

resistance of catalyst is low, the catalyst rapidly deteriorates and reaction output declines. 

Accordingly, two types of catalyst were produced in which the quantities of V and Ni retained in 

each were varied; the catalysts were then subjected to steaming and the metal resistance of 

each was examined through evaluations of catalyst reactions. The results of evaluations of 

metal resistance in test-produced catalyst are given in Figure 2.4-1. 

These results indicated that the drop in reaction output, as opposed to V and Ni poisoning, was 

slight in the test-produced catalyst, and that the metal resistance of the test-produced catalyst is 

high in comparison to commercial catalyst. 

Standard 


+20 

Standard 

+10 

Test-produced catalyst 

Standard 


1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 

Figure 2.4-1 

V + Ni (ppm) 

Metal resistance of test-produced catalyst 

 

2.4.2 Hydrothermal resistance 

In the regeneration tower of practical equipment, coke produced on catalyst by reactions is 

burnt; the reproduction tower becomes high in temperature; hydrogen included in the coke is 

burnt, and a vapor ambient is created. When the hydrothermal resistance of catalyst is low, 

the catalyst structure is destroyed in a high-temperature, vapor ambient and surface area 

declines, causing reactivity to drop so that targeted output can no longer be attained. For this 

reason, hydrothermal resistance is required in catalyst so it can withstand a high-temperature 

vapor ambient. 

11

In order to determine the hydrothermal resistance of the test-produced catalyst, the catalyst was 

subjected to steaming at the high temperatures of 773°C or 732°C, and its reactivity was then 

evaluated. The results of this evaluation are shown in Figure 2.4-2. It was found that the 

hydrothermal resistance of the test-produced catalyst is superior to that of commercial catalyst, 

and that there are no problems. 

Standard 

+20 


Standard 

Standard 

+10 


Test-produced catalyst 

Figure 2.4-2 

720 730 740 750 760 770 780 

Treatment temperature (°C) 

Hydrothermal resistance of test-produced catalyst 

 

2.4.3 Wear resistance 

In the equipment, RFCC is circulated between the reaction tower and regeneration tower and 

wear is produced by collisions between the catalyst and equipment and by collisions among 

catalyst grains. When catalyst wear is extensive, large volumes of catalyst are introduced into 

the equipment, which makes for poor economy. Accordingly, the wear resistance of the 

test-produced catalyst was measured. To measure wear resistance, a fixed quantity of catalyst 

was filled into a cylindrical container, air was introduced from the bottom of the container at 

close to the speed of sound so that the catalyst grains would flow violently and collide; the 

catalyst was thus pulverized into powder form and powder scattering from the top of the cylinder 

was collected, and its volume measured. The results of this wear resistance test are presented 

in Table 2.4-1. 

It was found that the test-produced catalyst presents no problems in wear resistance, since the 

scattered volume of test-produced catalyst was less than that of commercial catalyst. 

Table 2.4-1 Measurements of wear resistance in test-produced catalyst 

Test-produced catalyst Commercial catalyst 

Catalyst scattering volume (wt%/30h) 3 4 

3. Results of Empirical Research 

3.1 Search for and improvement of highly active catalyst 

With the aim of increasing the yield of FCC gasoline + LCO and decreasing coke yield, various 

studies were done on zeolite and globular alumina, which causes meso- pores (intermediate 

pores) to form in catalyst. As a result, it was found that at bench plant the developed catalyst 

satisfied the target values of the present research. 

12


Various factors affecting catalyst activity, including catalyst pore distribution, acid volume, OH 

base and alumina distribution, were investigated for the purpose of escalating catalyst reaction 

output. It was discovered that favorable reaction results are obtained from catalyst having 

many meso-pores, that is, intermediate pores in the vicinity of 100Å. It was also found that 

high yields of FCC gasoline + LCO are obtained from catalyst having a meso-pore capacity of 

between 40 ~ 400Å. Another finding is that the catalysts producing favorable reaction results 

are ones that have large clusters of alumina spread widely throughout which cause pores to 

form that are effective in reactions. 


Studies were done on catalyst composition and structure, on stability during spray drying and on 

stability during washing, all items of concern in industrial manufacture of catalyst, and it was 

found that there were no problems in any instance. 


Studies were done, in practical terms, on the metal resistance, hydrothermal resistance and 

wear resistance of developed catalyst, and it was found that in every instance, the results were 

better than with commercial catalyst and that no problems were encountered. 

4. Synopsis 

In the present R&D on catalyst for catalytic cracking of heavy oil containing high levels of metal 

and residual carbon, studies were done on catalyst manufacture on an industrial scale, and as a 

result of evaluations of reactions, using bench equipment, it was found that catalytic 

performance reached targeted values. To gain a more solid evaluation of developed catalyst in 

the future, short-term evaluations will be made of applicability, using practical equipment, in 

relation to catalyst stripability (removal of produced oil adhering to catalyst), which cannot be 

evaluated easily with laboratory equipment, and catalyst service life. 

In reference to final targets, the applicability of catalyst obtained in studies of industrial 

manufacturing methods will be evaluated, the factors affecting activity will be investigated and 

other steps will be taken to advance the development of catalysts. 

Copyright 2000 Petroleum Energy Center all rights reserved. 

13

R&D on Catalyst for Catalytic Cracking of Heavy Oil With High Metal ...

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