The Role of Sustainable Land Management for Climate ... - CAADP
The Role of Sustainable Land Management for Climate ... - CAADP
The Role of Sustainable Land Management for Climate ... - CAADP
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<strong>Land</strong>&<strong>Climate</strong><br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>Role</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Land</strong> <strong>Management</strong><br />
<strong>for</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> Change Adaptation<br />
and Mitigation in Sub-Saharan Africa<br />
I S S U E P A P E R<br />
A TerrAfrica Partnership Publication
<strong>The</strong> <strong>Role</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Land</strong> <strong>Management</strong> (SLM) <strong>for</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> Change<br />
Adaptation and Mitigation in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)<br />
April 2009
PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
<strong>Climate</strong> change and land degradation are major threats to the survival and livelihoods <strong>of</strong> millions<br />
<strong>of</strong> people in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Major new opportunities exist to help improve the<br />
livelihoods <strong>of</strong> African smallholder farmers, pastoralists and other resource users while mitigating<br />
emissions <strong>of</strong> greenhouse gases, reducing land degradation and addressing other environmental<br />
problems in the context <strong>of</strong> the current negotiations to develop a post-Kyoto climate change<br />
framework, and international, national and local ef<strong>for</strong>ts to promote sustainable land management<br />
(SLM) and conserve biodiversity. This paper seeks to help address these threats and achieve the<br />
potential <strong>of</strong> these opportunities by in<strong>for</strong>ming policy makers, development practitioners, and<br />
others concerned about these issues about the linkages between climate change and SLM, the<br />
opportunities and constraints to promoting climate change mitigation and adaptation through<br />
SLM, and the policy and institutional options to overcome the constraints and realize the<br />
opportunities that are now or are becoming available.<br />
This paper was prepared by researchers <strong>of</strong> the International Food Policy Research Institute<br />
(IFPRI) – John Pender, Claudia Ringler, and Marilia Magalhaes - and the World Agr<strong>of</strong>orestry<br />
Centre (ICRAF) - Frank Place - as part <strong>of</strong> the TerrAfrica work program, with the support <strong>of</strong> the<br />
World Bank. <strong>The</strong> research team was supported by a Special Advisory Group (SAG) that<br />
included representatives <strong>of</strong> African governments, the New Partnership <strong>for</strong> African Development<br />
(NEPAD), the Global Mechanism <strong>of</strong> the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification<br />
(UNCCD), the World Bank, the Food and Agricultural Organization <strong>of</strong> the United Nations<br />
(FAO), the International Fund <strong>for</strong> Agricultural Development (IFAD), the government <strong>of</strong><br />
Norway, and Ecoagriculture Partners. <strong>The</strong> SAG provided valuable in<strong>for</strong>mation and references<br />
that were used in the paper, as well as feedback on the outline and first draft <strong>of</strong> the paper. <strong>The</strong><br />
authors also drew heavily upon the draft issues paper “<strong>Land</strong> <strong>Management</strong> and <strong>Climate</strong> Change”<br />
by Christophe Crepin, Steve Danyo and Frank Sperling <strong>of</strong> the World Bank. <strong>The</strong> authors are<br />
grateful to the World Bank <strong>for</strong> financial support <strong>of</strong> the research; to Christophe Crepin, Frank<br />
Sperling and Florence Richard <strong>for</strong> their leadership and guidance; and to the members <strong>of</strong> the SAG<br />
<strong>for</strong> providing valuable in<strong>for</strong>mation, advice and feedback. In addition to the a<strong>for</strong>ementioned, the<br />
following individuals provided specific comments on early draft versions <strong>of</strong> the paper: Elizabeth<br />
Bryan, Saveis Sadeghian, Alejandro Kilpatrick, Elsie Attafuah, Evariste Nicoletis, Francois<br />
Tapsoba, Kwame Awere, Paule Herodote, Simone Quatrini, Sven Walter and Sara Scherr.
Martin Bwalya, Elijah Phiri, Odd Arnesen and Dominique Lantieri provided additional guidance.<br />
<strong>The</strong> authors are solely responsible <strong>for</strong> any errors or omissions that remain.
Table <strong>of</strong> Contents<br />
Executive Summary......................................................................................................................... i<br />
1. Introduction ..............................................................................................................................1<br />
2. <strong>The</strong> Challenge <strong>of</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> Variability and <strong>Climate</strong> Change in Sub-Saharan Africa................4<br />
!<br />
2.1 <strong>Climate</strong> Variability in Sub-Saharan Africa ...................................................................... 4<br />
2.2 <strong>The</strong> Impact <strong>of</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> Change on Sub-Saharan Africa................................................... 5<br />
2.3 <strong>The</strong> <strong>Role</strong> <strong>of</strong> Extreme Events ............................................................................................ 5<br />
2.4 <strong>Land</strong> Use Change and <strong>Climate</strong> Change............................................................................ 6<br />
2.5 Impact <strong>of</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> Change on Agriculture and Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa.... 8<br />
3. <strong>The</strong> role <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Land</strong> <strong>Management</strong> in Sub-Saharan Africa .......................................11<br />
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3.1 <strong>Land</strong> Degradation in sub-Saharan Africa....................................................................... 11<br />
3.2 <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Land</strong> <strong>Management</strong> under <strong>Climate</strong> Change ................................................. 17<br />
4. Policies and Strategies to Promote <strong>Climate</strong> Change Mitigation and Adaptation in SSA through<br />
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SLM............................................................................................................................................27<br />
4.1. Existing Policies and Strategies Related to <strong>Climate</strong> Change and SLM ............................. 27<br />
4.2. Opportunities and Constraints to Mitigate and Adapt to <strong>Climate</strong> Change through SLM.. 43<br />
4.3. Options to Address Opportunities and Constraints to <strong>Climate</strong> Mitigation and Adaptation<br />
through SLM in SSA................................................................................................................. 64<br />
5. Conclusions ............................................................................................................................75<br />
References....................................................................................................................................102!
List <strong>of</strong> Tables<br />
Table 2-1. Regional averages <strong>of</strong> temperature increases in Africa from a set <strong>of</strong> 21 global<br />
models............................................................................................................................................81<br />
Table 2-2. Projected mean temperature increases in African countries........................................82<br />
Table 2-3. Regional averages <strong>of</strong> change in rainfall in Africa from a set <strong>of</strong> 21 global models .....83<br />
Table 2-4. Transition matrix <strong>of</strong> changes in environmental constraints to crop agriculture <strong>of</strong><br />
land in sub-Saharan Africa.............................................................................................................83<br />
Table 2-5. Severe environmental constraints <strong>for</strong> rain-fed crop production ..................................84<br />
Table 2-6. Percentage <strong>of</strong> land with severe versus slight or no constraints <strong>for</strong> reference<br />
climate and maximum and minimum values occurring in four GCM climate projections ..........84<br />
Table 3-1. <strong>The</strong> extent <strong>of</strong> land degradation and its effects in sub-Saharan Africa.........................85<br />
Table 3-2. Importance <strong>of</strong> causes <strong>of</strong> degraded lands by continent.................................................86<br />
Table 3-3. Examples <strong>of</strong> sustainable land management practices <strong>for</strong> climate change<br />
adaptation and mitigation...............................................................................................................87<br />
Table 3-4. Mitigation potential <strong>of</strong> alternative land management practices on soil carbon...........89<br />
Table 4-1. Carbon markets, volumes, and values ..........................................................................90<br />
Table 4-2. Estimated economic mitigation potential by agricultural and land management<br />
practices in Africa..........................................................................................................................90<br />
Table 4-3. Estimated economic mitigation potential by agricultural and land management<br />
practices in Africa..........................................................................................................................91<br />
Table 4-4. Summary <strong>of</strong> progress during 2007 in Phase 2 TerrAfrica countries............................92<br />
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List <strong>of</strong> Figures<br />
Figure 2-1. Number <strong>of</strong> flood events per decade, by continent......................................................93<br />
Figure 2-2. Total Number <strong>of</strong> People Affected by Droughts in Africa. 1964-2005 .......................93<br />
Figure 2-3. Projected increases in rainfall from 1961-90 to 2070-99 ...........................................94<br />
Figure 2-4. Changes in sub-Saharan land with no or slight environmental constraints . ..............94<br />
Figure 2-5. Probabilistic projections <strong>of</strong> production impacts in 2030 from climate change ..........95<br />
Figure 3-1. NDVI based estimates <strong>of</strong> land degradation in sub-saharan Africa in 2003 ...............96<br />
Figure 3-2. Effect <strong>of</strong> improved land management and climate change on crop yields ................97<br />
Figure 3-3. Greenhouse gas emission sources by location ...........................................................98<br />
Figure 4-1. Potential size <strong>of</strong> REDD payments..............................................................................99<br />
Figure 4-2. Potential savings by 2030 from mitigation options in agriculture ...........................100<br />
Figure 4-3. Income potential from REDD payments vs. governance indices ............................101<br />
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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS<br />
AEZ<br />
AFOLU<br />
AGRA<br />
A/R<br />
BSAP<br />
<strong>CAADP</strong><br />
CBD<br />
CCX<br />
CDCF<br />
CDM<br />
CEEPA<br />
CER<br />
CGIAR<br />
CIF<br />
CILSS<br />
CSIF<br />
CSIRO<br />
CTF<br />
DfID<br />
DNA<br />
DOE<br />
EAP<br />
EC<br />
ERU<br />
EU<br />
FCPF<br />
FIP<br />
GCCA<br />
GDP<br />
GEF<br />
GFDRR<br />
GGAS<br />
GHG<br />
GLASOD<br />
Agro-ecological zone<br />
Agriculture, <strong>for</strong>estry and other land uses<br />
Alliance <strong>for</strong> a Green Revolution in Africa<br />
Af<strong>for</strong>estation or re<strong>for</strong>estation<br />
Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans<br />
Comprehensive African Agricultural Development Program<br />
Convention on Biological Diversity<br />
Chicago <strong>Climate</strong> Exchange<br />
Community Development Carbon Fund<br />
Clean Development Mechanism<br />
Centre <strong>for</strong> Environmental Economics and Policy in Africa<br />
Certified Emissions Reductions<br />
Consultative Group <strong>for</strong> International Agricultural Research<br />
<strong>Climate</strong> Investment Funds<br />
Institute <strong>of</strong> the Sahel <strong>of</strong> the Interstate Committee <strong>of</strong> the Sahelian<br />
Countries<br />
Country Strategic Investment Framework<br />
Commonwealth Scientific Industrial and Research Organization<br />
Clean Technology Fund<br />
Department <strong>for</strong> International Development<br />
Designated National Authority<br />
Designated Operational Entity<br />
Environment Action Plan<br />
European Community<br />
Emission Reduction Unit<br />
European Union<br />
Forest Carbon Partnership Facility<br />
Forest Investment Program<br />
Global <strong>Climate</strong> Change Alliance<br />
Gross Domestic Product<br />
Global Environment Facility<br />
Global Facility <strong>for</strong> Disaster Reduction and Recovery<br />
Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme<br />
Greenhouse Gases<br />
Global <strong>Land</strong> Assessment <strong>of</strong> Degradation<br />
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ICRISAT<br />
IGAD<br />
IPCC<br />
ISDR<br />
JI<br />
lCER<br />
LDCF<br />
LULUCF<br />
LGP<br />
MEA<br />
NAP<br />
NAPA<br />
NARS<br />
NCAR<br />
NDVI<br />
NEPAD<br />
NGO<br />
NSW<br />
ODA<br />
OTC<br />
PoA<br />
PPCR<br />
RAP<br />
REC<br />
REDD<br />
SCCR<br />
SCF<br />
SLM<br />
SLWM<br />
SIP<br />
SRAP<br />
SRE<br />
SRES<br />
SSA<br />
tCER<br />
UNCCD<br />
UNCED<br />
UNCTAD<br />
International Crop Research Institute <strong>of</strong> the Semi-Arid Tropics<br />
Intergovernmental Authority <strong>for</strong> Development<br />
Intergovernmental Panel on <strong>Climate</strong> Change<br />
International Strategy <strong>for</strong> Disaster Reduction<br />
Joint Implementation<br />
Long-term Certified Emissions Reductions<br />
Least Developed Countries Fund<br />
<strong>Land</strong> use, land use change and Forestry<br />
Length <strong>of</strong> growing period<br />
Multilateral Environmental Agreement<br />
National Action Programme <strong>of</strong> the UNCCD<br />
National Adaptation Programme <strong>of</strong> Action <strong>of</strong> the UNFCCC<br />
National agricultural research system<br />
National Center <strong>for</strong> Atmospheric Research<br />
Normalized Difference Vegetative index<br />
New Partnership <strong>for</strong> Africa’s Development<br />
Non-governmental organization<br />
New South Wales<br />
Official Development Assistance<br />
Over the counter<br />
Programme <strong>of</strong> Activities<br />
Pilot Program <strong>for</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> Resilience<br />
Regional Action Programme<br />
Regional Economic Communities<br />
Reducing Emissions from De<strong>for</strong>estation and Degradation<br />
Special <strong>Climate</strong> Change Fund<br />
Strategic <strong>Climate</strong> Fund<br />
<strong>Sustainable</strong> land management<br />
<strong>Sustainable</strong> land and water management<br />
Strategic Investment Program<br />
Sub-regional Action Programmes<br />
Scaling up Renewable Energy<br />
Special Report on Emissions Scenarios<br />
Sub-Saharan Africa<br />
Temporary Certified Emissions Reductions<br />
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification<br />
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development<br />
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development<br />
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UNDP<br />
UNEP<br />
UNFCCC<br />
USD<br />
VCS<br />
WRI<br />
United Nations Development Program<br />
United Nations Environment Programme<br />
United Nations Framework Convention on <strong>Climate</strong> Change<br />
United States Dollar<br />
Voluntary Carbon Standard<br />
World Resources Institute<br />
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY<br />
Coping with climate variability is a major challenge <strong>for</strong> the people <strong>of</strong> sub-Saharan Africa<br />
(SSA). <strong>The</strong> high dependence <strong>of</strong> the economies and rural people <strong>of</strong> SSA upon rainfed agriculture,<br />
the prevalence <strong>of</strong> poverty and food insecurity, and limited development <strong>of</strong> institutional and<br />
infrastructural capacities in this region make coping with natural climate variability a perennial<br />
challenge. In the past several decades, the number <strong>of</strong> extreme weather events in particular subregions<br />
and the number <strong>of</strong> people affected by droughts and floods have grown dramatically.<br />
This challenge is being magnified by global climate change in most <strong>of</strong> SSA. Many climate<br />
models predict negative impacts <strong>of</strong> climate change on agricultural production and food security<br />
in large parts <strong>of</strong> SSA. Higher temperatures throughout all <strong>of</strong> SSA will cause shorter growing<br />
periods, drying <strong>of</strong> the soil, increased pest and disease pressure, and shifts in suitable areas <strong>for</strong><br />
growing crops and livestock. Mean rainfall is predicted by most models to decline in many areas<br />
<strong>of</strong> SSA, especially in southern Africa, while rainfall is more likely to increase in parts <strong>of</strong> eastern<br />
and central Africa and predictions are more variable in western Africa. Beyond the impacts on<br />
mean trends, climate change is expected to cause more extreme weather events. Even in many<br />
areas where rainfall is expected to increase, higher temperatures will reduce growing periods.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se changes are predicted to reduce the area <strong>of</strong> land suitable <strong>for</strong> rainfed agriculture by 6%<br />
(averaged across several projections), and reduce total agricultural GDP in Africa by 2 to 9%.<br />
Agricultural losses are expected to be as much as 50% in southern Africa during drought years.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se problems can exacerbate and be exacerbated by land degradation. Severe land<br />
degradation – caused mainly by conversion <strong>of</strong> <strong>for</strong>ests, woodlands and bush lands to agriculture,<br />
overgrazing <strong>of</strong> rangelands, unsustainable agricultural practices on croplands, and excessive<br />
exploitation <strong>of</strong> natural habitats – is reducing primary productivity on as much as 20% <strong>of</strong> the land<br />
in SSA, with the most severe impacts in drylands and <strong>for</strong>est margins. <strong>Climate</strong> variability and<br />
change can contribute to land degradation by exposing unprotected soil to more extreme<br />
conditions and straining the capacity <strong>of</strong> existing land management practices to maintain resource<br />
quality, contributing to de-vegetation, soil erosion, depletion <strong>of</strong> organic matter and other <strong>for</strong>ms<br />
<strong>of</strong> degradation. <strong>The</strong>se changes can cause land management practices that were sustainable under<br />
other climate conditions to become unsustainable, and induce more rapid conversion <strong>of</strong> <strong>for</strong>est or<br />
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rangeland to unsustainable agricultural uses. At the same time, land degradation increases the<br />
vulnerability <strong>of</strong> agricultural production and rural people to extreme weather events and climate<br />
change, as the fertility and buffering capacities <strong>of</strong> the land and livelihood assets are depleted.<br />
<strong>Land</strong> degradation is not an inevitable result <strong>of</strong> climate variability and change, however.<br />
Much depends upon how land resource users respond to climate changes. <strong>Climate</strong> change<br />
can <strong>of</strong>fer new opportunities <strong>for</strong> productive and sustainable land management (SLM) practices,<br />
such as re<strong>for</strong>estation, improved water management, integrated soil fertility management,<br />
conservation agriculture, agr<strong>of</strong>orestry, improved rangeland management and others as a result <strong>of</strong><br />
changing biophysical or market conditions.<br />
New opportunities <strong>for</strong> SLM are arising from regulations and emerging markets to mitigate<br />
global emissions <strong>of</strong> greenhouse gases (GHG). Agriculture, <strong>for</strong>estry and land use (AFOLU)<br />
practices in SSA can play an important role in mitigating GHG emissions by reducing<br />
agricultural emissions <strong>of</strong> GHG and sequestering carbon in vegetation, litter and soils. <strong>The</strong><br />
Intergovernmental Panel on <strong>Climate</strong> Change (IPCC) estimates that improved agricultural and<br />
land management practices in SSA, including improved cropland and grazing land management,<br />
restoration <strong>of</strong> peaty soils, restoration <strong>of</strong> degraded land and other practices, could reduce GHG<br />
emissions by 265 Mt CO 2 e per year by 2030 (at opportunity costs <strong>of</strong> up to $20 per tCO 2 e).<br />
Af<strong>for</strong>estation in Africa could sequester 665 Mt CO 2 per year, while reduced de<strong>for</strong>estation and<br />
<strong>for</strong>est degradation (REDD) in Africa could reduce emissions by 1,260 Mt CO 2 e in 2030 (at<br />
opportunity costs <strong>of</strong> up to $100 per tCO 2 ). <strong>The</strong>se potential emission reductions in Africa<br />
represent about 6.5% <strong>of</strong> global GHG emissions in 2000; a substantial potential impact even if it<br />
would not solve the climate problem by itself. If payments <strong>for</strong> these carbon mitigation<br />
services were available, this could also provide large flows <strong>of</strong> funds (more than $10 billion<br />
per year if only half <strong>of</strong> the potential reductions were achieved) to help promote SLM<br />
activities in Africa.<br />
SLM can also reduce vulnerability and help people adapt to climate variability and change.<br />
For example, farmers in the Ethiopian highlands report investing in soil and water conservation<br />
measures as their most common response to declining rainfall. Many SLM practices can<br />
simultaneously achieve both adaptation and mitigation goals, especially those that increase soil<br />
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organic carbon. SLM represents a preventative approach to climate change that can reduce the<br />
need <strong>for</strong> costly ex post coping measures, like changing crops and livelihoods, clearing new lands<br />
<strong>for</strong> agriculture and migration. <strong>The</strong> predicted negative yield impacts <strong>of</strong> climate change are <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
dwarfed by proven positive yield impacts <strong>of</strong> improved land management. In addition to positive<br />
impacts on average yields, many SLM practices reduce the variability <strong>of</strong> agricultural production<br />
(<strong>for</strong> example, soil and water conservation and organic practices that improve soil moisture<br />
holding capacity or integrated pest management practices that reduce vulnerability to pests),<br />
while others can help to diversify agricultural income (<strong>for</strong> example, agr<strong>of</strong>orestry with non-timber<br />
tree products or crop rotations). A combination <strong>of</strong> SLM practices can be used to combat the<br />
different manifestations <strong>of</strong> climate change.<br />
Despite the large potential <strong>for</strong> SLM to contribute to climate change mitigation and<br />
adaptation in SSA, little <strong>of</strong> this potential is currently being realized. SLM practices are<br />
adopted on only a small percentage <strong>of</strong> agricultural land in SSA. Degradation <strong>of</strong> agricultural land<br />
and expansion <strong>of</strong> agriculture into <strong>for</strong>ests, woodlands and bush land are continuing at a rapid<br />
pace.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are many policy frameworks, strategies, institutions and programs to promote<br />
climate mitigation and adaptation through SLM in SSA, but the impacts <strong>of</strong> these are so far<br />
quite limited. Among the potentially most important mechanisms are the Clean Development<br />
Mechanism <strong>of</strong> the United Nations Framework Convention on <strong>Climate</strong> Change (UNFCCC), the<br />
voluntary carbon market, various climate mitigation and adaptation funds, the United Nations<br />
Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), the Comprehensive African Agricultural<br />
Development Program (<strong>CAADP</strong>) <strong>of</strong> the New Partnership <strong>for</strong> Africa’s Development (NEPAD),<br />
TerrAfrica, and regional, sub-regional and national policy processes linked to these. Current use<br />
<strong>of</strong> these mechanisms is very limited:<br />
• Among AFOLU measures, the CDM allows only af<strong>for</strong>estation and re<strong>for</strong>estation (A/R)<br />
projects, but only 10 A/R projects in SSA are in the CDM pipeline.<br />
• No <strong>of</strong>fsets are supplied to the Chicago <strong>Climate</strong> Exchange (CCX) by SLM projects in<br />
SSA, and only about 0.2 MtCO 2 e were <strong>of</strong>fset through other voluntary transactions<br />
involving land management in SSA in 2007.<br />
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• Many carbon mitigation funds have been established, but most do not support AFOLU<br />
activities in SSA.<br />
• National Adaptation Programmes <strong>of</strong> Action (NAPAs) have been developed by most<br />
African countries, but implementation has been limited by funding and other constraints.<br />
Several adaptation funds have been established, but they are small compared to the total<br />
need, and access to these funds in SSA has been very limited so far.<br />
• Implementation <strong>of</strong> National Action Programmes <strong>of</strong> the UNCCD has also been limited by<br />
funding constraints and other factors.<br />
NEPAD’s <strong>CAADP</strong> and TerrAfrica are working in partnership to promote upscaling <strong>of</strong><br />
SLM in Africa, with increasing focus on climate change mitigation and adaption. TerrAfrica<br />
has mobilized $150 million in funds that are expected to leverage an additional $1 billion to<br />
support this goal. <strong>CAADP</strong> and TerrAfrica are working with African governments to develop and<br />
support Country Strategic Investment Frameworks (CSIFs) <strong>for</strong> SLM. Integrating strategies and<br />
programs to promote SLM and address climate change with each other and with national<br />
development strategies and policies is a major challenge. Addressing this challenge is a major<br />
emphasis <strong>of</strong> the CSIFs.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are opportunities to promote climate change mitigation and adaptation through<br />
SLM in SSA through existing mechanisms. In the present context, the opportunities include<br />
increased use <strong>of</strong> the CDM to finance A/R projects; increased use <strong>of</strong> voluntary carbon markets<br />
and carbon mitigation funds to test and demonstrate methodologies <strong>for</strong> a wider range <strong>of</strong> AFOLU<br />
activities; increased use <strong>of</strong> adaptation funds to support SLM activities prioritized by African<br />
governments; increased funding <strong>for</strong> climate change mitigation and adaptation through programs<br />
promoting SLM in Africa; and increased integration <strong>of</strong> climate change mitigation and adaptation<br />
activities, including SLM, into development strategies <strong>of</strong> African governments and donors.<br />
Many challenges and constraints may prevent realization <strong>of</strong> these opportunities. <strong>The</strong> main<br />
constraints to expanded use <strong>of</strong> the CDM to support SLM in the present framework include CDM<br />
eligibility restrictions; high transactions costs <strong>of</strong> registering and certifying CDM projects; low<br />
prices <strong>for</strong> certified emissions reductions (CERs), especially <strong>for</strong> A/R projects; long time lags in<br />
achieving CERs; uncertainty about the benefits <strong>of</strong> projects and the future <strong>of</strong> the CDM; and land<br />
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tenure insecurity in many African contexts. <strong>The</strong>se constraints are exacerbated by the limited<br />
technical, financial and organizational capacities <strong>of</strong> key actors in SSA. Many <strong>of</strong> the same<br />
constraints apply to supporting AFOLU investments through voluntary and other compliance<br />
carbon markets, although to a lesser degree in some cases. Constraints to increased use <strong>of</strong><br />
adaptation funds to support SLM activities <strong>for</strong> climate adaptation include the limited size <strong>of</strong><br />
these funds; lack <strong>of</strong> coordination among key government ministries; lack <strong>of</strong> technical and human<br />
capacity to implement adaptation activities; and others.<br />
Major new opportunities may arise as a result <strong>of</strong> development <strong>of</strong> a cap and trade system in<br />
the United States and inclusion <strong>of</strong> REDD and a broader set <strong>of</strong> AFOLU activities in the post<br />
Kyoto climate framework. Prospects <strong>for</strong> a U.S. cap and trade system have substantially<br />
improved as a result <strong>of</strong> the election <strong>of</strong> 2008, although passage <strong>of</strong> such a system or U.S.<br />
ratification <strong>of</strong> a post Kyoto treaty is by no means assured. <strong>The</strong> 2007 Bali Plan <strong>of</strong> Action <strong>of</strong> the<br />
UNFCCC urges consideration <strong>of</strong> REDD payments in the post-Kyoto framework, and many<br />
proposals <strong>for</strong> such schemes have been tabled by Parties to the convention and others. Proposals<br />
<strong>for</strong> expanding the eligible AFOLU activities in the post-Kyoto framework are also being<br />
suggested, although the UNFCCC has not taken a <strong>for</strong>mal decision to consider those.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are many uncertainties, challenges and constraints to realizing these new<br />
opportunities as well. Challenges to U.S. participation in the global carbon market include the<br />
political challenge <strong>of</strong> achieving ratification <strong>of</strong> a post-Kyoto treaty; concerns about the<br />
effectiveness and risks <strong>of</strong> emissions reductions purchased from developing countries; and<br />
possible opposition by U.S. lobby groups to <strong>of</strong>fset payments to <strong>for</strong>eign land users. Challenges to<br />
REDD payments include the technical difficulties and costs <strong>of</strong> defining baselines and assuring<br />
additionality; concerns about leakages; potential adverse incentives caused by such payments;<br />
concerns about the fairness <strong>of</strong> paying countries with a poor record <strong>of</strong> protecting <strong>for</strong>ests and not<br />
paying those that have protected their <strong>for</strong>ests; possible negative impacts on poor people,<br />
especially where they have insecure land and <strong>for</strong>est tenure; and concerns about flooding the<br />
carbon market with cheap <strong>of</strong>fsets. Many <strong>of</strong> the same challenges will affect payments <strong>for</strong><br />
AFOLU activities. Many <strong>of</strong> these concerns are likely to be less problematic than <strong>for</strong> REDD<br />
payments, except the size <strong>of</strong> transaction costs relative to the value <strong>of</strong> payments per hectare.<br />
Given the low payments per hectare possible <strong>for</strong> many AFOLU activities, projects will need to<br />
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focus on promoting pr<strong>of</strong>itable AFOLU activities by addressing other constraints to adoption,<br />
such as lack <strong>of</strong> technical, financial and organizational capacity.<br />
Based on this review, we have identified eight options to help take advantage <strong>of</strong> the<br />
opportunities and overcome the constraints to increased use <strong>of</strong> SLM in SSA to mitigate and<br />
adapt to climate change:<br />
1. Advocate improvements in the post-Kyoto agreement that address these<br />
opportunities and constraints, including<br />
o Expanding eligibility in the CDM to include all activities that sequester carbon<br />
or reduce emissions <strong>of</strong> GHGs, including REDD and AFOLU activities;<br />
o Agreeing to national targets <strong>for</strong> GHG levels <strong>of</strong> developing countries, and use<br />
a full GHG national accounting approach to credit reductions relative to<br />
baselines (approach could be pilot tested in a few countries and <strong>for</strong> a specific set<br />
<strong>of</strong> activities first); and<br />
o Increasing funding <strong>for</strong> adaptation measures.<br />
2. Simplify and improve the procedures to access funds under the CDM, adaptation<br />
funds and other relevant funds.<br />
3. Explore existing opportunities to increase participation in voluntary carbon<br />
markets.<br />
4. Expand knowledge generation and outreach ef<strong>for</strong>ts on the problems <strong>of</strong> climate<br />
variability and change, land degradation, their linkages, and options <strong>for</strong> solution.<br />
5. Improve coordination <strong>of</strong> ef<strong>for</strong>ts to address climate and land degradation and<br />
integration with key government strategies and processes.<br />
6. Expand investment in strengthening technical, organizational and human capacity<br />
relevant to climate and land management issues in SSA.<br />
7. Engage community leaders, farmers and other resource users in program and project<br />
development.<br />
8. Address specific policy, institutional and other constraints to SLM and climate<br />
change mitigation and adaptation at national and local level in the context <strong>of</strong><br />
Country Strategic Investment Frameworks (CSIFs).<br />
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To achieve success in the first two options, it will be quite important <strong>for</strong> stakeholders<br />
concerned about SLM issues in SSA, including African governments, the UNCCD,<br />
NEPAD, the TerrAfrica partnership, and civil society organizations to be actively involved<br />
in advocating a continuation <strong>of</strong> the CDM, inclusion <strong>of</strong> AFOLU and REDD projects in the<br />
CDM, and expansion <strong>of</strong> adaptation funds.<br />
<strong>The</strong> remaining options are not closely bound to the UNFCCC process, and can be addressed<br />
within the context <strong>of</strong> the NEPAD/<strong>CAADP</strong> and TerrAfrica process to develop CSIFs <strong>for</strong> SLM in<br />
each country. To achieve effective synergies with climate change issues in these processes, it<br />
will be important to involve key stakeholders from the climate change community in these<br />
processes, where they are not yet involved.<br />
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1. Introduction<br />
<strong>Climate</strong> variability and change are major threats <strong>for</strong> developing countries, especially <strong>for</strong> the<br />
people <strong>of</strong> sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). <strong>The</strong> high dependence <strong>of</strong> the economies and rural people <strong>of</strong><br />
SSA upon rainfed agriculture, the prevalence <strong>of</strong> poverty and food insecurity, and limited<br />
development <strong>of</strong> institutional and infrastructural capacities in this region make coping with<br />
natural climate variability a perennial challenge. This challenge is being magnified by global<br />
climate change, which is predicted by many models to have some <strong>of</strong> the most negative impacts<br />
on agricultural production in tropical and sub-tropical regions, and especially in parts <strong>of</strong> SSA<br />
(Cline 2007; Lobell et al. 2008). Higher temperatures throughout SSA are causing increased<br />
evapotranspiration, shorter growing periods, drying <strong>of</strong> the soil, increased pest and disease<br />
pressure, shifts in suitable areas <strong>for</strong> growing crops and livestock, and other problems <strong>for</strong><br />
agriculture. <strong>Climate</strong> change is also expected to cause increased variability <strong>of</strong> rainfall in much <strong>of</strong><br />
SSA, and increased intensity and frequency <strong>of</strong> extreme events, including droughts, floods, and<br />
storms.<br />
Concerted and effective responses by governments, civil society, the private sector,<br />
communities and individuals are necessary to address the challenges posed by climate variability<br />
and change. At the global level, much emphasis has been placed to date on mitigating climate<br />
change caused by emissions <strong>of</strong> greenhouse gases (GHG) through international actions to<br />
implement the United Nations Framework Convention on <strong>Climate</strong> Change (UNFCCC),<br />
particularly through the Kyoto Protocol, as well as other government and private mitigation<br />
initiatives. Despite these actions, it is now widely recognized that it is unlikely that levels <strong>of</strong><br />
GHG can be kept low enough to avoid significant adverse impacts from global warming. As a<br />
result, the need to adapt to climate change is increasingly recognized as well, although less<br />
progress has been made toward international action to address this need.<br />
Many actions are needed to mitigate and adapt to climate variability and change. At a<br />
global level, most mitigation activities have focused on reducing emissions <strong>of</strong> GHG through<br />
improvements in the energy efficiency <strong>of</strong> industrial activities. Few <strong>of</strong> these activities have been<br />
in SSA, given the low level <strong>of</strong> industrialization <strong>of</strong> this region. Large economic potential also<br />
exists to help mitigate climate change through activities related to agriculture, <strong>for</strong>estry and land<br />
use (AFOLU), such as af<strong>for</strong>estation and re<strong>for</strong>estation, avoiding de<strong>for</strong>estation and <strong>for</strong>est<br />
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degradation, soil and biomass carbon sequestration through improved cropland and rangeland<br />
management and restoring degraded lands, and reduced GHG emissions through improved<br />
management <strong>of</strong> livestock and manure, paddy production, and nitrogenous fertilizer. SSA could<br />
contribute substantially to climate change mitigation through such activities. However, these<br />
potentials are so far mostly untapped, largely because most <strong>of</strong> these activities are not eligible <strong>for</strong><br />
certified emissions reduction credits under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Kyoto Protocol, the largest carbon market <strong>for</strong> developing countries. Other major constraints<br />
include the substantial challenges related to the feasibility and costs <strong>of</strong> establishing, monitoring<br />
and verifying emissions reductions through projects related to such dispersed, small-scale<br />
activities. Overcoming these constraints requires carbon markets to agree upon and accept simple<br />
standards <strong>for</strong> measuring GHG <strong>of</strong>fsets, and the development <strong>of</strong> institutions to monitor and en<strong>for</strong>ce<br />
small-scale activities.<br />
Many <strong>of</strong> the mitigation actions related to agriculture, <strong>for</strong>estry and land can also help<br />
people to adapt to climate change. For example, agr<strong>of</strong>orestry activities can increase farmers’<br />
agricultural productivity and income security by improving soil fertility, reducing vulnerability<br />
to drought, and helping to diversify income sources, while also sequestering carbon. Water<br />
harvesting, soil and water conservation measures, conservation agriculture, organic soil fertility<br />
management and other sustainable land and water management practices can have similar<br />
income and resilience enhancing impacts, and would also increase carbon sequestration and thus<br />
reduce GHG emissions. Recognition <strong>of</strong> the potential <strong>of</strong> such land and water management<br />
practices to help rural people adapt to climate change is increasing, as evidenced by the fact that<br />
such measures are prioritized by almost all <strong>of</strong> the National Adaptation Programmes <strong>of</strong> Action<br />
adopted in the region.<br />
<strong>Sustainable</strong> land management (SLM) measures are also essential to address problems <strong>of</strong><br />
land degradation and associated poverty and food insecurity, as prioritized by all countries that<br />
have ratified the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), and to protect<br />
and preserve biodiversity, as prioritized under the U.N. Convention on Biological Diversity<br />
(CBD). Hence, there is potential to pursue several critical objectives synergistically through<br />
promotion <strong>of</strong> SLM in SSA, helping to mitigate and adapt to climate change while reducing land<br />
degradation, conserving biodiversity, and reducing poverty and food insecurity.<br />
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<strong>The</strong> objectives <strong>of</strong> this report are to i) review the evidence on climate variability and<br />
change and land degradation in SSA, ii) assess the potential <strong>for</strong> sustainable land management<br />
(SLM) approaches to help mitigate and adapt to these problems, iii) consider the policies and<br />
institutional strategies being used to promote mitigation and adaptation (emphasizing those<br />
relevant to SLM in SSA), and iv) identify key opportunities and constraints affecting these<br />
policies and strategies, and options to help improve their effectiveness. <strong>The</strong> next three sections<br />
<strong>of</strong> the paper address each <strong>of</strong> these objectives, while the final section concludes. In each section,<br />
we highlight the key messages at the outset <strong>of</strong> the section, followed by detailed discussion <strong>of</strong><br />
these points.<br />
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2. <strong>The</strong> Challenge <strong>of</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> Variability and <strong>Climate</strong> Change in Sub-<br />
Saharan Africa<br />
Key messages<br />
• SSA is highly vulnerable to climate variability and change.<br />
o<br />
<strong>The</strong> impacts <strong>of</strong> climate variability have increased in SSA in recent decades, and<br />
are expected to continue to do so as a result <strong>of</strong> climate change.<br />
o <strong>The</strong> impacts <strong>of</strong> climate change on future land use, agriculture and food security<br />
are predicted to be negative throughout much <strong>of</strong> Africa, as a result <strong>of</strong> rising<br />
temperatures everywhere, and declining and more variable rainfall in many<br />
locations.<br />
• <strong>The</strong>se impacts will exacerbate and be exacerbated by widespread land degradation in<br />
SSA.<br />
2.1 <strong>Climate</strong> Variability in Sub-Saharan Africa<br />
<strong>The</strong> frequency and intensity <strong>of</strong> climate-related natural disasters have increased in SSA since the<br />
1960s. While trends in the frequency <strong>of</strong> droughts are not readily discernible <strong>for</strong> all <strong>of</strong> SSA,<br />
floods are increasingly common (Figure 2-1) (Gautam 2006). Although there are no Africa-wide<br />
trends in the frequency <strong>of</strong> droughts, their impact – as indicated by the number <strong>of</strong> people affected<br />
by droughts – shows a strongly increasing trend (Figure 2-2). During 1960-2006, the majority <strong>of</strong><br />
droughts in SSA occurred in East and West Africa with an increasing trend in the frequency <strong>of</strong><br />
droughts in East Africa and a declining trend in West Africa. East Africa accounted <strong>for</strong> more<br />
than 70 percent <strong>of</strong> all people affected by drought during 1964-2006 in SSA, with Ethiopians<br />
being the most affected (39 percent <strong>of</strong> all affected) (Ibid.).<br />
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2.2 <strong>The</strong> Impact <strong>of</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> Change on Sub-Saharan Africa<br />
Sub-Saharan Africa will be strongly affected by climate change. In fact, the increased trend in<br />
natural disasters mentioned above is likely in part a response to a warmer climate 1 . <strong>The</strong> region is<br />
particularly vulnerable to climate change because <strong>of</strong> its dependence on rainfed agriculture <strong>for</strong><br />
both food and income, and high poverty and malnutrition levels. Modeling studies indicate that<br />
the African continent is already warmer today than it was a 100 years ago (Hulme, et al. 2001)<br />
and that it will continue to warm throughout this century (Christensen et al. 2007; Cline 2007;<br />
Hulme et al. 2001). <strong>The</strong> Intergovernmental Panel on <strong>Climate</strong> Change’s (IPCC) Fourth<br />
Assessment Report (AR4) predicts that temperature increases will exceed the expected global<br />
mean increase <strong>of</strong> 2.5 o C in all regions <strong>of</strong> SSA (Table 2-1) (Christensen et al., 2007). Furthermore,<br />
warming is expected to be more intense in the interior semi-arid tropical margins <strong>of</strong> the Sahara<br />
and central southern Africa (Hulme, et al. 2001). Cline (2007) projects mean temperature<br />
increases <strong>of</strong> 3-4 o C by the end <strong>of</strong> the 21 st century <strong>for</strong> most individual countries in the region<br />
(Table 2-2). Some <strong>of</strong> these temperatures may well exceed the optimal temperature <strong>for</strong><br />
agriculture <strong>for</strong> some key food crops in the region.<br />
Predictions <strong>of</strong> climate change impacts <strong>for</strong> precipitation patterns are much less certain and<br />
consistent across models (Hulme et al. 2001; Boko et al. 2007). Generally, dry areas are expected<br />
to get drier and wet areas are likely to become wetter (IPCC AR4 2007). Rainfall is likely to<br />
decrease in much <strong>of</strong> the winter rainfall region in South Africa and in the western margins <strong>of</strong><br />
Southern Africa. In East Africa, mean rainfall is likely to increase—but most <strong>of</strong> the additional<br />
rainfall may fall on the sea, and not on land (see Funk et al. 2008). In the Sahel, the Guinean<br />
Coast and the southern Sahara, it is uncertain how rainfall will evolve in this century. Overall,<br />
the subtropics are likely to get drier and the tropics are likely to see an increase or little change in<br />
precipitation (Table 2-3, Figure 2-3) (Christensen et al. 2007; Cline 2007) .<br />
2.3 <strong>The</strong> <strong>Role</strong> <strong>of</strong> Extreme Events<br />
Easterling et al. (2007) cite several recent studies that project increased frequency <strong>of</strong> extreme<br />
weather events such as droughts and floods, which will have more serious consequences <strong>for</strong> food<br />
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$ !According to Conway et al. (2008), robust identification and attribution <strong>of</strong> hydrological change is severely limited<br />
by poor data, conflicting behavior across basins/regions, low signal-to-noise ratios, sometimes weak rainfall-run<strong>of</strong>f<br />
relationships and limited assessment <strong>of</strong> the magnitude and potential effects <strong>of</strong> land use and cover change or other<br />
anthropogenic influences (p. 24).!<br />
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production and food security <strong>for</strong> SSA than projected changes in mean climate temperature and<br />
precipitation, given the high dependence <strong>of</strong> the region on rainfed agriculture. <strong>Climate</strong> variability,<br />
particularly severe droughts, has been directly linked to declines in economic activity (measured<br />
by Gross Domestic Product (GDP), whereas gradual increase in mean temperature has not yet<br />
been linked to changes in GDP (Brown et al. 2008).<br />
<strong>The</strong> Sahel region, one <strong>of</strong> the poorest regions <strong>of</strong> the world with large semi-arid areas, will<br />
likely be among the most impacted by climate extremes. However, there is still limited<br />
in<strong>for</strong>mation on the predicted incidence <strong>of</strong> future extreme events (Boko et al. 2007). While some<br />
studies link Indian Ocean warming to drought in the Sahel and expect a drier Sahel over the next<br />
100 years (Held et al. 2005; Tschakert 2007), others suggest that a warmer North Atlantic Ocean<br />
since the 1990s has been the reason <strong>for</strong> the Sahel’s recent swing from drought to moist<br />
conditions, and that this trend will continue with a Sahel monsoon 20-30 percent wetter by 2049<br />
compared to the 1950-99 average (University Corporation <strong>for</strong> Atmospheric Research (UCAR)<br />
2005). Given the high vulnerability <strong>of</strong> the Sahel combined with high uncertainty regarding future<br />
climate outcomes, it will be crucial to devise robust adaptation strategies that are (cost)-effective<br />
under the full range <strong>of</strong> expected climate outcomes. Given the larger agreement on rainfall<br />
outcomes <strong>for</strong> Eastern Africa (but see also Funk et al. 2008) it should be easier to develop<br />
appropriate adaptation and mitigation strategies <strong>for</strong> this region.<br />
2.4 <strong>Land</strong> Use Change and <strong>Climate</strong> Change<br />
2.4.1 <strong>Climate</strong> change impacts on land use change<br />
<strong>Climate</strong> change is expected to increase the area <strong>of</strong> drylands in SSA and hence reduce the area<br />
suited to intensive agriculture. According to Nellemann et al. (2009) past soil erosion in Africa<br />
might have generated yield reductions from 2-40 percent, compared to a global average <strong>of</strong> 1-8<br />
percent. If nutrient depletion continues in Sub-Saharan Africa, about 950,000 km 2 <strong>of</strong> land is<br />
threatened by irreversible degradation in that region.<br />
Studies project that in SSA, constraint-free prime land will decrease while land with<br />
severe constraints is likely to increase under global warming. Fischer et al. (2002) project the<br />
impacts <strong>of</strong> climate change on agriculture in SSA by using twelve climate projections <strong>of</strong> SRES<br />
scenarios simulated by four GCM groups (Hadley Centre, Commonwealth Scientific Industrial<br />
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and Research Organization (CSIRO), Canadian <strong>Climate</strong> Centre, and National Center <strong>for</strong><br />
Atmospheric Research (NCAR)). In 11 out <strong>of</strong> 12 GCM climate projections, land with no or only<br />
slight constraints decreases while in 10 out <strong>of</strong> 12 projections land with severe climate, soil, or<br />
terrain constraints (prohibiting use <strong>for</strong> rainfed agriculture) increases. Agro-ecological zone<br />
(AEZ) simulations predict an expansion <strong>of</strong> land with severe climate, soil or terrain constraints in<br />
SSA, by 30-60 million hectares, in addition to the 1.5 billion hectares already unfit <strong>for</strong> rainfed<br />
agriculture under current climate (Fischer et al. 2005). For the SRES A2 scenario, <strong>for</strong> instance,<br />
‘good’ land (sum <strong>of</strong> suitable and very suitable land) decreases <strong>for</strong> all four GCM climate<br />
projections considered, by an average <strong>of</strong> 6 percent <strong>of</strong> total Sub-Saharan prime land, ranging from<br />
8.2 million hectares (NCAR-PCM) to 27.3 million hectares (CSIRO). On the other hand, land<br />
with severe climate, soil or terrain constraints, increases in the majority <strong>of</strong> climate projection<br />
considered, in the range <strong>of</strong> 26-61 million hectares. Table 2-4 shows that out <strong>of</strong> 15.1 million km 2<br />
<strong>of</strong> land facing severe constraints under the reference climate, only 80,000 km 2 are expected to<br />
improve with climate change while more than 650,000 km 2 <strong>of</strong> land considered moderately<br />
constrained, slightly constrained or unconstrained <strong>for</strong> agriculture are predicted to face severe<br />
environmental constraints by the 2080s due to climate change.<br />
All regions <strong>of</strong> Africa are likely to experience increases in severe environmental<br />
constraints <strong>for</strong> rainfed crop production according to HadCM3-A1F1 projections <strong>for</strong> 2080.<br />
Northern, Southern and Western Africa already contain most <strong>of</strong> the land that is too dry <strong>for</strong><br />
rainfed production. <strong>The</strong>se regions are predicted to face increases in the share <strong>of</strong> area too dry <strong>for</strong><br />
rainfed cultivation from 88%, 59% and 51% during 1961-1992 to 95%, 79% and 54% by 2080,<br />
respectively (Table 2-5). Moreover, model scenarios project a decrease in land area with no<br />
constraints or only slight constraints <strong>for</strong> all regions <strong>of</strong> Africa, with the Southern region expecting<br />
to see a decrease <strong>of</strong> up to 90% according to the most pessimistic scenarios (Table 2-6) (Fischer,<br />
Shah, and Van Velthuizen 2002). Figure 2-4 shows that land suitability <strong>for</strong> rainfed agriculture in<br />
sub-Saharan Africa decreases with the increase <strong>of</strong> atmospheric CO 2 across different scenarios.<br />
2.4.2 <strong>Land</strong> use change impacts on climate<br />
Available global climate models poorly replicate present and past rainfall variability in Africa.<br />
Many global climate models do not consider the effects <strong>of</strong> El Niño events on climate variability<br />
or the effects <strong>of</strong> changes in land covers, vegetation feedbacks and feedbacks from dust aerosol<br />
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production in Africa and other regions (Hulme et al. 2001; Christensen et al. 2007). However,<br />
the importance <strong>of</strong> land-cover change in altering regional climate in Africa has long been<br />
suggested (Hulme et al. 2001). Different studies indicate that vegetation patterns help shape the<br />
climatic zones <strong>of</strong> Africa and, changes in vegetation result in alteration <strong>of</strong> surface properties and<br />
the efficiency <strong>of</strong> ecosystem exchange <strong>of</strong> water, energy and CO 2 with the atmosphere<br />
(Christensen et al. 2007). As a result <strong>of</strong> these limitations, available climate models might<br />
underestimate the impacts <strong>of</strong> global warming in regions facing land degradation and reduction in<br />
the vegetation cover.<br />
Among the regions <strong>of</strong> the world, Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest rate <strong>of</strong> land<br />
degradation (World Meteorological Organization (WMO) 2005). In Africa, land degradation<br />
affects 67 percent <strong>of</strong> total land area with 25 percent characterized as severe and very severely<br />
degraded and 4 to 7 percent as non-reclaimable. Some <strong>of</strong> the countries that have the worst rates<br />
<strong>of</strong> soil degradation are: Rwanda and Burundi (57 percent), Burkina Faso (38 percent), Lesotho<br />
(32 percent), Madagascar (31 percent), Togo and Nigeria (28 percent), Niger and South Africa<br />
(27 percent) and Ethiopia (25 percent) (Bwalya et al. 2009). Defries (2002) estimates that land<br />
cover change, such as continued de<strong>for</strong>estation expected to occur in the tropics and subtropics<br />
will have a warming effect as a result <strong>of</strong> reduced carbon assimilation.<br />
2.5 Impact <strong>of</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> Change on Agriculture and Food Security in Sub-<br />
Saharan Africa<br />
Sub-Saharan Africa is expected to face the largest challenges regarding food security as a result<br />
<strong>of</strong> climate change and other drivers <strong>of</strong> global change (Easterling et al. 2007). Overall, Fischer et<br />
al. (2005) estimate that as a result <strong>of</strong> climate change, agricultural GDP in Africa is expected to<br />
fall by between -2 to -8 percent (HadCM3 and CGCM2) and -7 to -9 percent (CSIRO model)<br />
(Fischer et al. 2005). Many farmers in Africa are likely to experience net revenue losses as a<br />
result <strong>of</strong> climate change, particularly as a result <strong>of</strong> increased variability and extreme events.<br />
Dryland farmers, especially the poorest ones, are expected to be severely affected.<br />
Kurukulasuriya and Mendelsohn (2006) estimated that a 10 percent increase in temperature will<br />
lead to a loss in net revenues per hectare, on average, <strong>of</strong> 8.2 percent <strong>for</strong> rainfed production. On<br />
the other hand, irrigated farmers are likely to have slight gains in productivity (as higher<br />
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temperatures support yield growth in most <strong>of</strong> Africa as long as sufficient water is available),<br />
which suggests that irrigation might be an effective adaptation strategy 2 .<br />
Output from 20 GCMs shows that many food crops in Southern Africa will be negatively<br />
affected without adaptation (Lobell et al. 2008). During extreme El Niño years (drought years),<br />
productivity in southern Africa is expected to drop by 20 to 50 percent, with maize being the<br />
crop most drastically affected (Stige et al. 2006). Crops and regions likely to be particularly<br />
adversely affected from climate change include: maize and wheat in Southern Africa, groundnuts<br />
in West Africa and wheat in the Sahel (Lobell et al. 2008). Fischer et al. (2005) even suggest that<br />
by 2080 suitable land <strong>for</strong> wheat might completely disappear in Africa. However, these<br />
predictions do not take into account improvements in crop technologies and changes in farm<br />
management practices, and thus might overestimate adverse impacts. On the other hand, these<br />
predictions likely underestimate the potential impacts <strong>of</strong> extreme events, including storms, fires,<br />
and floods, and are not well suited to model the long-term effect <strong>of</strong> droughts on river flows and<br />
groundwater availability.<br />
According to Fischer et al. (2005), most climate model scenarios agree that Sudan,<br />
Nigeria, Senegal, Mali, Burkina Faso, Somalia, Ethiopia, Zimbabwe, Chad, Sierra Leone,<br />
Angola, Mozambique and Niger are likely to lose cereal production potential by the 2080s.<br />
Those countries account <strong>for</strong> 45 percent <strong>of</strong> the total number <strong>of</strong> undernourished people in sub-<br />
Sahara Africa, or 87 million undernourished people. On the other hand, Zaire, Tanzania, Kenya,<br />
Uganda, Madagascar, Ivory Coast, Benin, Togo, Ghana and Guinea (accounting <strong>for</strong> 38 percent <strong>of</strong><br />
the undernourished population in SSA) are projected to gain cereal-production potential by the<br />
2080s (Fischer, Shah, and Van Velthuizen 2002; Fischer et al. 2005).<br />
<strong>Climate</strong> variations tend to disproportionately affect livelihoods <strong>of</strong> the rural poor as a<br />
result <strong>of</strong> their reduced capacity to buffer against climate risk through assets or the financial<br />
market (Brown et al. 2008). <strong>The</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e, appropriate adaptation measures targeted at this group<br />
should be a priority.<br />
<strong>Sustainable</strong> land management measures are among the important approaches that<br />
households can use to adapt to climate vulnerability and change. For example, most farmers in<br />
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% !<strong>The</strong> authors used the Ricardian model, linking land rents and climate, proxied by the present value <strong>of</strong><br />
future net revenue, <strong>for</strong> this analysis. This is somewhat controversial <strong>for</strong> the context in SSA given poor<br />
land and other markets. !<br />
!<br />
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!<br />
Ethiopia consider soil and water conservation techniques a key strategy to adapt to global<br />
warming (Deressa 2008). SLM measures can also help to mitigate GHG emissions and climate<br />
change by sequestering carbon in the soil and vegetation, or by reducing emissions <strong>of</strong> carbon<br />
dioxide, nitrous oxide or methane caused by poor land management practices.<br />
However, climate change adaptation strategies that do not involve sustainable land<br />
management approaches, such as land expansion into <strong>for</strong>est areas or excessive crop input<br />
applications, including pesticides, might exacerbate land degradation and contribute to GHG<br />
emissions. For instance, in the Morogoro region <strong>of</strong> Tanzania, environmental degradation has<br />
increased as a result <strong>of</strong> farmers’ responses to droughts and other environmental stresses, which<br />
have involved agricultural intensification and extensification, livelihood diversification and<br />
migration (Paavola 2004). While these strategies have been instrumental <strong>for</strong> farmers’ survival,<br />
they have also contributed to increased de<strong>for</strong>estation, soil nutrient depletion, soil erosion and<br />
reduced water retention. <strong>The</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e, by increasing environmental degradation, short-term<br />
adaptation strategies adopted to cope with current climate changes might increase the<br />
vulnerability <strong>of</strong> the population to future impacts <strong>of</strong> climate change.<br />
It is there<strong>for</strong>e critical to examine the potential <strong>for</strong> SLM approaches to help mitigate and<br />
adapt to climate change in SSA, as well as to reverse land degradation. <strong>The</strong> next section<br />
addresses these issues in detail.<br />
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3. <strong>The</strong> role <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Land</strong> <strong>Management</strong> in Sub-Saharan Africa<br />
Key messages<br />
• <strong>Land</strong> degradation is widespread in Africa, especially in drylands and <strong>for</strong>est margin<br />
areas.<br />
• <strong>Land</strong> degradation in SSA is caused mainly by conversion <strong>of</strong> <strong>for</strong>ests, woodlands and<br />
rangelands to crop production; overgrazing <strong>of</strong> rangelands; and unsustainable<br />
agricultural practices on croplands.<br />
• <strong>Climate</strong> variability and change can contribute to land degradation by making current<br />
land use practices unsustainable and inducing more rapid conversion <strong>of</strong> land to<br />
unsustainable uses. However, climate change also can <strong>of</strong>fer new opportunities <strong>for</strong><br />
sustainable land management, by increasing temperature and rainfall in some<br />
environments, through CO 2 fertilization effects, or through the development <strong>of</strong> markets<br />
<strong>for</strong> mitigating greenhouse gas emissions.<br />
• <strong>Land</strong> degradation increases the vulnerability <strong>of</strong> rural people in SSA to climate variability<br />
and change, while SLM can reduce it.<br />
• SLM also provides major opportunities to mitigate climate change by sequestering<br />
carbon or reducing greenhouse gas emissions.<br />
3.1 <strong>Land</strong> Degradation in sub-Saharan Africa<br />
It is widely accepted that management <strong>of</strong> African lands is much less productive and sustainable<br />
than what is possible or desirable. <strong>The</strong> strong evidence <strong>for</strong> this comes from data on land<br />
degradation and its effects.<br />
<strong>The</strong> first attempt to quantify the extent and severity <strong>of</strong> land degradation in Africa was<br />
from a “convergence <strong>of</strong> evidence” and expert consensus through the Global Assessment <strong>of</strong> Soil<br />
Degradation (GLASOD) project (Oldeman, 1994). That ef<strong>for</strong>t generated data which revealed<br />
that by 1990 some 20 percent <strong>of</strong> the region was affected by slight to extreme land degradation.<br />
<strong>The</strong> data indicate that the land degradation in different classes is light (one percent), moderate<br />
(four percent), severe (five percent) and very severe (seven percent) such that seven percent <strong>of</strong><br />
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the region is degraded to such an extent as to directly affect its productive potential. All land<br />
uses have significant degraded areas, with agriculture and rangeland estimated to have the<br />
greatest proportion.<br />
A more recent assessment <strong>of</strong> human induced land degradation was made by Vlek et al<br />
(2008) using analyses <strong>of</strong> changes in the normalized difference vegetative index (NDVI) between<br />
1981 and 2003. <strong>The</strong> NDVI is a measure <strong>of</strong> “greenness” based on analyses <strong>of</strong> satellite images.<br />
Changes in the NDVI over time are caused both by changes in rainfall as well as by changes in<br />
management/exploitation by humans and animals. <strong>The</strong>y found that in more than 50% <strong>of</strong> the sites,<br />
there was an increase in NDVI, or a greening phenomenon. For the most part, these areas<br />
correspond to increases in annual rainfall amounts, <strong>of</strong>ten starting from historically low levels in<br />
the early 1980s. In these cases, it is not possible to determine whether land management is<br />
improving or worsening and there<strong>for</strong>e whether land degradation is occurring; it is possible that<br />
the increased rainfall is <strong>of</strong>f-setting negative effects <strong>of</strong> exploitation in terms <strong>of</strong> overall vegetation<br />
estimates.<br />
Vlek et al (2008) find that overall in sub-Saharan Africa, about 10% <strong>of</strong> the land showed<br />
clear declines in NDVI which were unrelated to rainfall decline and were thus classified as<br />
degraded areas (the authors conjecture that total degraded area in sub-Saharan Africa should<br />
include another 10% <strong>of</strong> land identified as severely degraded by GLASOD, because that land<br />
would not have shown further decline in NDVI). <strong>The</strong>se areas are home to about 60 million<br />
people and a large proportion can be found in the Sahelian semi-arid belt south <strong>of</strong> the Sahara and<br />
extending eastward into Sudan and Ethiopia (see Figure 2.1). In terms <strong>of</strong> land use, the areas with<br />
the highest rates <strong>of</strong> degradation were mixed <strong>for</strong>est/savanna (24%), mixed <strong>for</strong>est/cropland (15%)<br />
and agriculture (9%) 3 . Thus, there have been clear patterns <strong>of</strong> vegetation decline in <strong>for</strong>est<br />
margin areas. On the other hand, though woodlands and grasslands have sizeable degraded<br />
areas, as a percent <strong>of</strong> total land area, they are more likely to have had stable or increasing<br />
vegetation cover over the period studied.<br />
Table 3-1 provides additional evidence on specific <strong>for</strong>ms <strong>of</strong> land degradation. Soil loss<br />
from erosion is high and water stress is widespread. Eswaran et al. (1997) estimated that only<br />
14% <strong>of</strong> the continent is relatively free <strong>of</strong> moisture stress. Soil phosphorus deficiency is<br />
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3 A land unit was classified as agriculture if more than 50% <strong>of</strong> the area was agriculture – with clearly demarcated<br />
crop or pasture fields. !<br />
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widespread in all regions and remains a major constraint to agricultural productivity (Verchot et<br />
al. 2007) and aluminum toxicity and low cation exchange capacity are major constraints on the<br />
continent (FAO 2000). Henao and Banaante (2006) estimate that 85 percent <strong>of</strong> African<br />
farmland had nutrient mining rates <strong>of</strong> more than 30 kg/ha <strong>of</strong> nutrients annually and 40% <strong>of</strong> land<br />
had mining rates <strong>of</strong> over 60 kg/ha per year. If these figures are extrapolated to the roughly 190<br />
million hectares <strong>of</strong> cultivated land in Africa, this would translate into a fertilizer replacement<br />
cost <strong>of</strong> well over $500 million in 2006 and even more in 2008, with soaring fertilizer prices.<br />
Increases in agricultural production have largely been met through opening up new land to<br />
cultivation and have been obtained at the cost <strong>of</strong> soil degradation as soils are mined <strong>for</strong> their<br />
nutrients.<br />
<strong>The</strong> consequences are enormous. Agricultural productivity has been stagnant on the<br />
continent, whereas it has increased markedly elsewhere. As much as 25% <strong>of</strong> land productivity<br />
has been lost to degradation in the second half <strong>of</strong> the 20th century in Africa (Oldeman 1998).<br />
Because <strong>of</strong> the importance <strong>of</strong> agriculture to African economies, this has cost between 1% to 9%<br />
<strong>of</strong> GDP, depending on the country (Dregne and Kassas 1991; Dreschel et al 2001). Few African<br />
countries are self-sufficient in food production, resulting in massive annual food imports. At the<br />
household level, rural poverty rates in Africa remain high, with an increase <strong>of</strong> the number <strong>of</strong><br />
rural poor between 1993 and 2002 (World Bank 2007). In 2001, about 28 million Africans faced<br />
food emergencies due to catastrophic events (e.g. flooding) that were caused or exacerbated by<br />
land degradation (FAO 2001b).<br />
3.1.1. Causes <strong>of</strong> land degradation<br />
<strong>The</strong> important proximate causes <strong>of</strong> land degradation are:<br />
• Conversion <strong>of</strong> <strong>for</strong>ests, woodlands, and bushlands which are ill-suited to permanent<br />
agriculture;<br />
• Overgrazing <strong>of</strong> rangelands;<br />
• Excessive exploitation <strong>of</strong> natural habitats (e.g. harvesting <strong>for</strong> fuelwood in woodlands);<br />
and<br />
• Unsustainable agricultural practices (e.g., farming on steep slopes without sufficient use<br />
<strong>of</strong> soil and water conservation measures, excessive tillage, declining use <strong>of</strong> fallow<br />
without application <strong>of</strong> soil nutrients).<br />
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In terms <strong>of</strong> affected area, UNEP (1997) estimated that overgrazing was the most<br />
important contributor to degradation, followed by poor agricultural practices and then by overexploitation<br />
(see Table 3-2). It is useful to explore these causes in more detail because they shed<br />
light on useful technological, institutional, and policy interventions that can reverse land<br />
degradation processes and as well contribute positively to climate change adaptation and<br />
mitigation.<br />
In terms <strong>of</strong> land conversion, 15 million hectares <strong>of</strong> <strong>for</strong>ests were cleared annually in<br />
Africa during the 1980s, reducing slightly to 12 million per year in the 1990’s (FAO 2001a).<br />
<strong>The</strong> rate <strong>of</strong> de<strong>for</strong>estation <strong>of</strong> 0.6% per year <strong>for</strong> the past 15 years is among the highest globally.<br />
About 26% <strong>of</strong> de<strong>for</strong>estation is estimated to pave the way <strong>for</strong> smallholder agriculture (FAO<br />
2001a). Studies have found that population growth is a good predictor <strong>of</strong> land use change, <strong>for</strong><br />
example in Uganda and Malawi (Otsuka and Place 2001). Between 1961 and 1999, agricultural<br />
expansion accounted <strong>for</strong> two-thirds <strong>of</strong> crop production increase in sub-Saharan Africa, compared<br />
to only 29% globally (MEA 2005). In the absence <strong>of</strong> growth in employment opportunities in<br />
urban areas, rural population continues to grow rapidly in sub-Saharan Africa (at about 2.3%),<br />
fueling the quest <strong>for</strong> new agricultural land.<br />
With respect to rangelands, WRI (1994) estimated that between 1945 and 1992, almost<br />
500 million hectares <strong>of</strong> African rangelands became degraded. Overgrazing was estimated to<br />
have accounted <strong>for</strong> half <strong>of</strong> the degradation. However there is much unsettled debate about how<br />
much <strong>of</strong> the observed degradation (e.g. vegetation loss) is due to management and how much to<br />
climate changes. Both are clearly related, as climate change shocks, like a prolonged drought,<br />
will lead to reduced vegetation to which herd size cannot be easily adjusted in the short term.<br />
Hiernaux (1993) and Behnke and Scoones (1993) both indicate that unanticipated changes in<br />
climate have had a more important impact on rangeland vegetation than rangeland management,<br />
arguing there<strong>for</strong>e that rangeland degradation is not irreversible in most cases.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are not many studies that quantify the extent <strong>of</strong> excessive exploitation <strong>of</strong> natural<br />
habitats. Instead, studies <strong>of</strong>ten point towards the dependence <strong>of</strong> rural populations on the<br />
resources found in natural habitats. In Zambia, <strong>for</strong> example, more than half the country’s<br />
fuelwood is converted to charcoal, requiring the clearance <strong>of</strong> some 430 km 2 <strong>of</strong> woodland every<br />
year to produce more than 100,000 tonnes <strong>of</strong> charcoal (Chenje 2000). In 2000, over 175 million<br />
m 3 <strong>of</strong> wood were used in Western Africa <strong>for</strong> fuelwood and charcoal production (Broadhead et al<br />
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2001). Similarly, high percentages <strong>of</strong> energy are met from fuelwood and charcoal in most<br />
African countries such as <strong>The</strong> Gambia (85 %), Niger (90 %), Uganda (96%) and Kenya (75%)<br />
(Broadhead et al 2001). !<br />
Many case studies have shown that the rate <strong>of</strong> adoption <strong>of</strong> soil fertility, soil conservation,<br />
and water management practices is low in SSA, although substantial numbers <strong>of</strong> farmers do use<br />
particular practices. Within SSA, there are at least 167,000 certified organic farms operating a<br />
total organic area <strong>of</strong> about 231,000 ha (Willer, Yussefi-Menzler and Sorensen 2008). According<br />
to UNEP-UNCTAD (2008), at least 1.9 million farmers in Africa use practices that could be<br />
classified as “near organic” on nearly 2 million hectares; i.e., traditional sustainable land<br />
management practices that apply similar principles as those applied in organic agriculture. This<br />
estimate is based on a review <strong>of</strong> nearly 300 interventions promoting such practices in developing<br />
countries (Pretty et al. 2006; Pretty et al. 2003). In East Africa, Kruseman et al (2006) show that<br />
fewer than 5% <strong>of</strong> farmers in Tigray practice long fallows, improved fallows, mulch, or apply<br />
green manures and only 7% plowed crop residues back into the soil. Benin (2006) finds<br />
similarly low percentages <strong>of</strong> plots having been improved by farmers in the Amhara region <strong>of</strong><br />
Ethiopia. Pender et al. (2004) found in Uganda that fewer than 20% <strong>of</strong> plots had received<br />
inorganic fertilizer, manure, compost, or mulch and only one quarter incorporated crop residues.<br />
In the Sahel, some technologies, such as contour ridging and zai pits are becoming widespread.<br />
But still, many practices, especially in terms <strong>of</strong> adding nutrients to soils, remains low (Shapiro<br />
and Sanders, 2002). In a study in central Malawi, Place et al (2001) found that just 21% <strong>of</strong><br />
farmers invested in water management. Wyatt (2002) found terracing investment in the past five<br />
years on just 33% <strong>of</strong> plots, despite the hilly terrain.<br />
On the other hand, there have been a few land management practices where adoption<br />
rates have expanded noticeably. <strong>The</strong> expansion <strong>of</strong> the zai pit system in Burkina Faso and Niger<br />
has been well documented (e.g. Shapiro and Sanders 2002; Franzel, et al. 2004). Stone terracing<br />
was found to be practiced by almost half <strong>of</strong> farmers in Tigray (Kruseman et al 2006) and<br />
Deininger et al (2003) estimated that 47% <strong>of</strong> all Ethiopian farmers had built or maintained<br />
terraces between 1999 and 2001. Rainwater harvesting methods is another that has been found<br />
to be widely used, e.g. in semi-arid Tanzania (Hatibu et al 2001). 4 Various other conservation<br />
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' !It should be noted that adoption rates <strong>of</strong> relatively recently developed technologies are <strong>of</strong>ten bolstered by<br />
significant investment in dissemination.!!!<br />
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techniques, like bunding (e.g. Kenya), minimal tillage (e.g. Zambia), agr<strong>of</strong>orestry (e.g.<br />
Tanzania), or terracing (e.g. Madagascar), are <strong>of</strong>ten practiced by at least 20% <strong>of</strong> farmers across a<br />
range <strong>of</strong> African sites, putting total adoption in the millions. Despite these bright spots, what is<br />
considered to be a good adoption rate <strong>for</strong> recently introduced technologies is tens <strong>of</strong> thousands <strong>of</strong><br />
farmers and <strong>for</strong> mature technologies, upwards <strong>of</strong> 50% <strong>of</strong> plots/farmers. Hence, there remains<br />
quite a large amount <strong>of</strong> land without significant improvement. Based on a review <strong>of</strong> these and<br />
other studies, Pender (2008) estimated that at least 6 million smallholder farmers in SSA are<br />
using low-cost, productivity-enhancing land management practices on at least 5 million ha <strong>of</strong><br />
land. Although this appears to be a large number, it still represents less than 3% <strong>of</strong> total cropland<br />
in SSA (191 million ha in 2005 [FAOSTAT 2008]).<br />
<strong>The</strong> reasons <strong>for</strong> low adoption are many. <strong>The</strong>re are certainly cases where technologies are<br />
not attractive to farmers, <strong>for</strong> example, those which require significant labor, land, or cash and<br />
those which may seem to pay <strong>of</strong>f only well into the future. But a large number <strong>of</strong> technologies<br />
are found to be ‘technically’ effective and used in certain communities, by certain farmers, or on<br />
certain crops. That suggests that it may not be the technology per se, but the conditions that<br />
shape costs, benefits and risks from the technology. For example, investments in land have been<br />
found many times to be related to improved market access or production <strong>of</strong> higher value crops<br />
(Place et al 2003). Certainly, the lack <strong>of</strong> strong pr<strong>of</strong>it potential <strong>of</strong> many traditional crops coupled<br />
with high risks (e.g. from variable rainfall and markets) reduces incentives <strong>for</strong> investments <strong>of</strong><br />
any kind in agriculture. Kassie, et al. (2008) and Kato et al. (2009) both find <strong>for</strong> the Nile basin in<br />
Ethiopia that soil and water conservation investments per<strong>for</strong>m differently in different rainfall<br />
areas and regions, which underscores the importance <strong>of</strong> careful geographical targeting when<br />
promoting and scaling up soil and water conservation technologies. Lastly, even where<br />
technologies and incentives are sufficient, there may still be missed opportunities <strong>for</strong> adoption<br />
due to poor in<strong>for</strong>mation flows to farmers. This is especially a consideration <strong>for</strong> SLM practices<br />
that are knowledge intensive.<br />
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3.2 <strong>Sustainable</strong> <strong>Land</strong> <strong>Management</strong> under <strong>Climate</strong> Change<br />
<strong>The</strong> relationships between land degradation and sustainable land management and climate<br />
change are complex and multi-directional. Briefly, they can be described by 4 distinct processes:<br />
<strong>Climate</strong> change effects on land management and land degradation<br />
• <strong>Climate</strong> change and variability can contribute to land degradation by making current land<br />
management practices unsustainable (e.g, through increased rainfall/flooding) or through<br />
inducing more rapid conversion <strong>of</strong> land into unsustainable practices.<br />
• <strong>Climate</strong> change may <strong>of</strong>fer new opportunities <strong>for</strong> sustainable land management by<br />
enhancing rainfall or growing periods in some places or through creating markets that<br />
might pay farmers <strong>for</strong> improved sustainable land management practices.<br />
Effects <strong>of</strong> land degradation/sustainable land management on climate change impacts<br />
• <strong>Land</strong> degradation increases vulnerability <strong>of</strong> people to climate variability and change, by<br />
restricting the range <strong>of</strong> viable rural enterprises, reducing average agricultural productivity<br />
and incomes, increasing production vulnerability, and reducing local resource asset<br />
levels, thus undermining people’s ability to adapt to climate change.<br />
• <strong>Sustainable</strong> land management can reduce vulnerability to climate change and increase<br />
people’s ability to adapt and in many cases can contribute to climate change mitigation<br />
through improved carbon sequestration and reduced greenhouse gas emissions.<br />
analyses.<br />
Each <strong>of</strong> these relationships is discussed in turn, drawing on both conceptual and empirical<br />
3.2.1: <strong>Climate</strong> variability and change may exacerbate land degradation<br />
<strong>The</strong> types <strong>of</strong> climate change predicted <strong>for</strong> sub-Saharan Africa – increased temperatures, reduced<br />
rainfall in many places, prolonged droughts, reduced growing periods, and increased high<br />
intensity rainfall events–can intensify degradation from unprotected sites and strain the ability <strong>of</strong><br />
existing land management practices to maintain resource quality. Some examples <strong>of</strong> likely<br />
climate change effects are increased extreme rainfall events causing increased erosion and<br />
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flooding in sloping lands and prolonged drought periods causing depletion <strong>of</strong> vegetation and soil<br />
micr<strong>of</strong>auna in cultivated lands and rangelands. In general, increased temperatures and reduced<br />
rainfall will increase aridity. ICRISAT estimates that with a 2 o C increase in temperature coupled<br />
with a 10 percent decline in rainfall, 1.6 million km 2 <strong>of</strong> sub-humid areas in Africa will become<br />
semi-arid and 1.1 million km 2 <strong>of</strong> semi-arid areas will become arid (Cooper et al. 2009). <strong>The</strong><br />
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA 2005) notes that both effects are likely to alter<br />
vegetation cover, both in terms <strong>of</strong> reducing overall levels, but also by altering the diversity <strong>of</strong><br />
species (those which can thrive on higher temperatures and increased carbon dioxide levels will<br />
outcompete others).<br />
<strong>The</strong>se effects are quite evident in the rainfall – vegetation cover relationships in the<br />
Sahelian rangelands. Between 1970 and 2000, annual rainfall in 26 <strong>of</strong> the 30 years was below<br />
the historic long term average (Brooks 2004) creating what many observed as desertification (see<br />
also section 2). Droughts, in combination with human or livestock population pressure, have<br />
induced a conversion from grasslands to more degraded shrublands (MEA 2005).<br />
<strong>The</strong> flipside <strong>of</strong> prolonged and frequent droughts are floods. In 2007 and 2008, over 20<br />
African countries have been severely affected by floods causing great crop loss and dozens <strong>of</strong><br />
deaths. One <strong>of</strong> the latest examples was in southern Africa from December 2007-January 2008.<br />
That experience showed that prevailing topography and soil characteristics in the region can lead<br />
quickly to soil saturation and flooding, even with modest increases in rainfall above the norm.<br />
<strong>Climate</strong> change may also lead to more rapid conversion <strong>of</strong> natural habitats into agriculture or to<br />
unsustainable use/harvesting <strong>of</strong> natural resources. As trends over the past 20 years have shown,<br />
expansion <strong>of</strong> agricultural area remains high in Africa. By contrast, the Green Revolution in Asia<br />
is estimated to have saved as much as 271 million <strong>of</strong> hectares <strong>of</strong> land from conversion to<br />
cropland compared to the absence <strong>of</strong> global cereal productivity increases (UNFCCC 2008). Low<br />
productivity is undoubtedly a contributing factor to high rates <strong>of</strong> land clearing, and climate<br />
change is expected to put even more downward pressure on yields <strong>of</strong> major crops in much <strong>of</strong><br />
Africa. Studies in Africa have also shown that in times <strong>of</strong> drought and other hardships,<br />
communities <strong>of</strong>ten resort to harvesting <strong>of</strong> wild resources – fruits, fodders, grasses, and other<br />
marketable products – <strong>for</strong> survival. Where climate change increases the frequency and scale <strong>of</strong><br />
demand <strong>for</strong> natural resource harvesting, there is greater likelihood <strong>of</strong> resource degradation.<br />
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However, degradation is not an inevitable result <strong>of</strong> climate variability and change. For<br />
example, many <strong>of</strong> the predicted rainfall and length <strong>of</strong> growing season decreases will not be new<br />
to communities although they will increase in prevalence. <strong>The</strong> impact <strong>of</strong> such events much<br />
depends on the capacity <strong>of</strong> households and communities to mitigate and adapt to such changes.<br />
As an example, in the Makindu area <strong>of</strong> Kenya, the average length <strong>of</strong> growing period (LGP) could<br />
decrease by 5-10% by the year 2050, when temperatures are predicted to have increased by 1-<br />
2 o C (Thornton et al 2006). However, Cooper et al (2009) note that even today farmers at<br />
Makindu experience LGP’s ranging from 25 days (crop failure) to over 175 days. Thus, a 5-10%<br />
decrease in the average LGP is unlikely to result in farmers having to cope in the future with a<br />
situation that they have not and are not already experiencing; existing sustainable land and water<br />
management technologies to meet current climate variability can there<strong>for</strong>e help farmers<br />
immensely to cope with future climate change (Cooper et al 2009). Thus, adapting to more<br />
frequent extreme climate events will likely be the larger challenge <strong>for</strong> African farmers. This will<br />
require concerted ef<strong>for</strong>ts on the part <strong>of</strong> local institutions and national policy makers, a theme<br />
which will be addressed in section 4.<br />
3.2.2 <strong>Climate</strong> change also may <strong>of</strong>fer new opportunities <strong>for</strong> improved land management and<br />
livelihoods<br />
While much <strong>of</strong> sub-Saharan Africa is expected to face harsher agro-climatic conditions, some<br />
areas are predicted to improve. For example, under certain climate change scenarios through<br />
2050, large areas <strong>of</strong> Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda and Nigeria are<br />
predicted to experience an increase in the length <strong>of</strong> growing period (Thornton et al, 2006),<br />
leading to potentially higher agricultural productivity in such areas. This in turn may <strong>of</strong>fer<br />
greater incentives <strong>for</strong> investment in agriculture and land management. Increased carbon dioxide<br />
from climate change is expected to have a positive effect on plant growth <strong>for</strong> many C3 plants<br />
such as rice, wheat, soybeans, legumes, and most trees (Cline 2007). This is through the<br />
stimulus <strong>of</strong> CO 2 , <strong>for</strong> a given level <strong>of</strong> water and sunlight, on the photosynthesis process which<br />
produces energy <strong>for</strong> plant growth.<br />
With climate change markets <strong>for</strong> greenhouse gas emission reduction and carbon<br />
sequestration have emerged, promoted by the Kyoto Protocol and voluntary markets.<br />
Furthermore, in late 2005, a process was initiated to develop a <strong>for</strong>mal program <strong>for</strong> financing <strong>of</strong><br />
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Reducing Emissions from De<strong>for</strong>estation and Degradation in developing countries (REDD). This<br />
may be <strong>for</strong>mally approved by countries in Copenhagen 2009 to set the stage <strong>for</strong> a financial<br />
mechanism to be implemented in the post-2012 climate change framework. 5 Improved<br />
management <strong>of</strong> <strong>for</strong>ests would there<strong>for</strong>e possibly be rewarded in terms <strong>of</strong> carbon<br />
maintained/increased. SLM on non-<strong>for</strong>ested lands could help enable this to happen through<br />
increased provision <strong>of</strong> <strong>for</strong>est products on farms and through improving land productivity and<br />
reducing incentives <strong>for</strong> <strong>for</strong>est conversion.<br />
Concurrently, there are discussions <strong>for</strong> rewarding carbon sequestration in all landscapes,<br />
including agriculture, <strong>for</strong>estry and other land uses (AFOLU). While AFOLU is not being<br />
considered to fall under REDD or other <strong>for</strong>mal carbon market mechanisms in the 2009<br />
negotiations, ef<strong>for</strong>ts are underway to develop a framework and timetable <strong>for</strong> its future inclusion.<br />
In addition, standards <strong>for</strong> AFOLU are being prepared, and pilot projects are already under<br />
development using voluntary carbon markets, including the Voluntary Carbon Standard (VCS).<br />
SLM will be vital <strong>for</strong> such AFOLU programs to succeed, as it is only with improved SLM that<br />
increased carbon sequestration in vegetation and soils can occur (see section 3.2.4 below <strong>for</strong><br />
some concrete examples).<br />
3.2.3 <strong>Land</strong> degradation increases the vulnerability <strong>of</strong> rural people to climate change<br />
<strong>Land</strong> degradation increases vulnerability <strong>of</strong> people to climate variability and change, by<br />
restricting the range <strong>of</strong> viable rural enterprises, reducing average agricultural productivity and<br />
incomes, increasing production vulnerability (e.g., by reducing soil water holding capacity and<br />
organic matter content), and reducing local resource asset levels (broadly defined), thus<br />
undermining people’s ability to adapt to climate change (e.g., reduced ability to collect <strong>for</strong>est<br />
products or produce livestock in response to shortfalls in crop production due to climate<br />
variation). Ample studies show that crop yields are lower on degraded lands (e.g. Vanlauwe et<br />
al. 2007; Shepherd and Soule 1998)). Moreover, the yield response to fertilizer applications is<br />
lower on degraded land (Bationo et al. (2003) in Niger and Marenya (2008) in Kenya).<br />
Degraded areas are <strong>of</strong>ten widespread, affecting entire communities (Shepherd and Walsh, 2007)<br />
and have been found to be related to the length <strong>of</strong> time under cultivation (Marenya 2008). But<br />
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( !<strong>The</strong> prospects <strong>for</strong> promoting SLM through carbon markets, REDD payments, and other policy approaches are<br />
discussed further in section 4 <strong>of</strong> the paper.!<br />
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other studies have found that the degree <strong>of</strong> degradation can also vary within farm units. For<br />
example, greater land degradation <strong>of</strong>ten occurs on the more distant fields from the household<br />
compound, since application <strong>of</strong> manure and other organic materials tends to be concentrated<br />
close to the residence (Tittonell et al. 2005, Prudencio 1993, Bamwerinde et al 2006). Thus, the<br />
effect <strong>of</strong> degradation on vulnerability to climate change may be multifaceted – reaching many<br />
more households than what might be predicted from land degradation maps.<br />
A study by Place et al (2006) contrasting the central and western highlands <strong>of</strong> Kenya<br />
demonstrates how differences in land stewardship and productivity can make a huge difference<br />
in enterprise opportunities and poverty. While they have similar rainfall patterns, the western<br />
Kenya highlands are characterized by depleted soils, poor yields, and lack <strong>of</strong> commercial<br />
enterprises, while in the central highlands, soil conservation and fertility inputs are high, a wide<br />
range <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>itable crop, livestock and tree enterprises are tested and grown, and rural poverty<br />
rates are the lowest in all <strong>of</strong> Kenya. <strong>The</strong> adaptive capacity <strong>of</strong> central Kenya to climate change is<br />
much greater as a result.<br />
Finally, it is worthwhile to review the CEEPA (Centre <strong>for</strong> Environmental Economics and<br />
Policy in Africa) studies <strong>of</strong> climate impacts on agriculture. Though the studies used crosssectional<br />
household data, the results from across 8 different countries consistently found that<br />
households received lower income from agriculture where rainfall was lower, and also <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
when temperatures were higher, controlling <strong>for</strong> several other factors (e.g. Deressa 2006, <strong>for</strong><br />
Ethiopia). This shows that pr<strong>of</strong>itable agricultural opportunities in the more challenging climates<br />
are either not generally available or are underutilized by farmers, even where they are available.<br />
Hence, communities are already economically vulnerable to climates that are predicted to<br />
become more prevalent. <strong>Land</strong> degradation which restricts the types <strong>of</strong> enterprises which are<br />
viable worsens this. Bamwerinde et al (2005), <strong>for</strong> example, found that plots <strong>of</strong> lower quality<br />
(e.g. stoney lands) in southwest Uganda were dominated by a single land use, woodlots.<br />
3.2.4 <strong>Sustainable</strong> land management is effective in climate change adaptation and mitigation<br />
<strong>Sustainable</strong> land management <strong>of</strong>fers opportunities <strong>for</strong> enhancing the adaptation capacity <strong>of</strong><br />
communities and <strong>for</strong> mitigating the effects <strong>of</strong> climate change. Many practices can<br />
simultaneously achieve both adaptation and mitigation goals, especially those which increase soil<br />
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organic carbon. Principles <strong>of</strong> diversification (especially <strong>for</strong> adaptation) and revegetation<br />
(especially <strong>for</strong> mitigation) are critical in applying SLM practices under climate change.<br />
Adaptation<br />
Most, if not all <strong>of</strong> the practices currently promoted under the heading <strong>of</strong> sustainable land<br />
management practices, are likely to be even more necessary and beneficial under the specter <strong>of</strong><br />
climate change. This is illustrated in Figure 3.2, which shows generally likely impacts on Africa<br />
crop yields from climate change, from sustainable land management practices, and from the<br />
interaction <strong>of</strong> both. Note that predicted negative yield impacts from climate change are still<br />
dwarfed by positive proven yield impacts from sustainable land management practices (Cooper<br />
et al 2009). To illustrate this more clearly, Cooper et al (2009) explore the situation in a semi<br />
arid area <strong>of</strong> Kenya where the average LGP under current climate and normal soil management is<br />
110 days. This is reduced by 8%, with a 3 o C rise in temperature, to 101 days under an average<br />
climate change scenario. However, the application <strong>of</strong> maize residue mulch under the climate<br />
change scenario in fact raises the average LGP to 113 days. Thus, while research must continue<br />
to improve land management options <strong>for</strong> farmers, there are ample technologies available that can<br />
effectively help farmers adapt to climate change (and in some cases overcome climate change).<br />
Table 3.3 lists a number <strong>of</strong> beneficial SLM practices, under the sub-headings <strong>of</strong> improved<br />
crop and livestock management, improved soil management, and improved water management.<br />
Many <strong>of</strong> the technologies will help to increase average productivity (e.g. improved agronomic<br />
practices, nutrient management, enriched pastures, and water management), some <strong>of</strong> those and<br />
others will also reduce variability <strong>of</strong> production (e.g irrigation and integrated pest management<br />
(IPM)) and yet others may serve to diversify agricultural portfolios (e.g. agr<strong>of</strong>orestry systems,<br />
crop rotations). <strong>The</strong> processes through which the SLM practices affect productivity vary across<br />
different practices and thus there are <strong>of</strong>ten additive and possibly synergistic effects through<br />
integration <strong>of</strong> two or more practices. For example, ICRISAT (1985) found that water<br />
management and nutrient management together increased water use efficiency by a large amount<br />
in Niger. Long term trials at Kabete in Kenya found that soil carbon stocks were 30% greater<br />
through a combination <strong>of</strong> animal manure and mineral fertilizer application than on any single<br />
nutrient management method (Nandwa and Bekunda 1998). With predictions <strong>of</strong> increased<br />
droughts, higher temperatures (and evaporation rates), and more frequent catastrophic rainfall<br />
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events, the incremental impact <strong>of</strong> many <strong>of</strong> the SLM practices is likely to increase, e.g. those<br />
which better manage scarce water resources, those that preserve soil moisture (e.g. zero tillage),<br />
and those which can prevent soil erosion. In addition to the anticipated impacts <strong>of</strong> SLM on<br />
agricultural productivity, SLM practiced on farms and <strong>of</strong>f farms, especially if coordinated at<br />
catchment or watershed scales, can have important impacts <strong>of</strong>f-site, such as on hydrological<br />
flows, hydroelectric power generation, and flooding risk, all <strong>of</strong> which are expected to be affected<br />
by climate change.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is mixed evidence on farmer adoption <strong>of</strong> SLM specifically as an adaptation<br />
strategy to climate change. For example, in South Africa, Thomas et al (2007) found that<br />
farmers and communities focused on diversification <strong>of</strong> enterprises and enhancing networks but<br />
not on investing in SLM practices (also found in Senegal, Sene et al 2006). However, Benhin<br />
(2006) found that farmers in other South African sites were in fact increasing use <strong>of</strong> irrigation<br />
and soil conservation practices as part <strong>of</strong> adaptation strategies (also found in Kenya by Kabubo-<br />
Mariara and Karanja, 2006). In the Nile Basin <strong>of</strong> Ethiopia, Yesuf, et al. (2008) found that 31%<br />
<strong>of</strong> farmers who perceived long term declines in rainfall (most farmers surveyed) reported<br />
investing in soil and water conservation measures – the most common adaptation measure<br />
adopted – while 4% reported adopting water harvesting and 3% planted trees as adaptation<br />
measures.<br />
One clear adaptation practice appears to be the choice <strong>of</strong> crops grown. Kurukulasuriya<br />
and Mendelsohn (2006) found that crop choice across 11 African countries is highly related to<br />
temperature and precipitation. <strong>The</strong> conclusion they draw is that more attention must be given to<br />
expanding the range <strong>of</strong> crops suitable to warmer and drier climates. However, this ignores the<br />
strong role that some SLM practices can play in overcoming or reversing the productivity<br />
decreasing impact <strong>of</strong> harsher climate change (even without making a crop choice change), as<br />
shown above. Inattention to the potential <strong>of</strong> SLM as an adaptation strategy in current literature<br />
(e.g. <strong>for</strong> Zambia, Jain 2006) could lead the prioritization <strong>of</strong> lead future research and development<br />
investments astray.<br />
Mitigation<br />
<strong>Sustainable</strong> land management can play a significant role in climate change mitigation through<br />
reducing emissions <strong>of</strong> greenhouse gases and sequestering carbon in vegetation, litter, and soils.<br />
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A first major impact in Africa would be on the rate <strong>of</strong> land conversion to cultivation, which as<br />
noted above, is still high. In fact, according to Figure 3.3, land use change and de<strong>for</strong>estation<br />
accounts <strong>for</strong> the overwhelming amount <strong>of</strong> greenhouse gas emissions in Africa, about 64%, which<br />
is a much greater share <strong>of</strong> GHG emissions than elsewhere in the world. As will be discussed<br />
below, many <strong>of</strong> the SLM practices which are useful <strong>for</strong> climate change adaptation and mitigation<br />
are also productivity enhancing, and as such would depress the push factors which have long<br />
induced rapid land conversion in Africa, as has been the experience in Asia.<br />
In addition to their effects on land use change, SLM practices can also have important<br />
mitigation effects in situ, on the agricultural lands themselves. <strong>The</strong> UNFCCC (2008) estimates<br />
that <strong>for</strong> Africa, 924 mega tons <strong>of</strong> additional CO 2 could be stored with the adoption <strong>of</strong> improved<br />
agricultural practices. Much <strong>of</strong> this (89%) is predicted to come from soil carbon, because<br />
although the amount <strong>of</strong> additional carbon that can be sequestered in soils is less than the potential<br />
above ground (e.g. through trees),<strong>for</strong> a given size <strong>of</strong> land, the total volume <strong>of</strong> soil is high. <strong>The</strong><br />
types <strong>of</strong> practices that can build soil carbon almost always represent win-win outcomes because<br />
improved soil carbon has been proven to contribute positively to plant growth and agricultural<br />
productivity (Swift and Shepherd 2007).<br />
Table 3.3 provided a list <strong>of</strong> many types <strong>of</strong> land and water management practices that can<br />
contribute to soil carbon build up (last column). Table 3.4 enriches that by providing estimates<br />
<strong>of</strong> the amount <strong>of</strong> soil carbon sequestration that could be achieved through effective application <strong>of</strong><br />
alternative land management practices (Smith and Martino 2007). First, it should be noted that<br />
the potential <strong>for</strong> increased carbon sequestration is higher in humid areas than in dry areas, <strong>for</strong><br />
most SLM practices. For example, many SLM practices that are being practiced by some<br />
farmers in Africa, such as improved agronomy, minimum tillage, nutrient management, and<br />
agr<strong>of</strong>orestry can each store between 0.26 and 0.33 tons per hectare <strong>of</strong> additional CO 2 equivalent<br />
per year, per hectare in the drier areas and between 0.55 and 0.80 in more humid areas. Second,<br />
more significant restoration activities are likely to be much more effective in soil carbon<br />
sequestration than practices that support intensive agriculture. Hence, table 3.4 shows much<br />
higher per hectare carbon storage from set asides (i.e. exclosures), and restoration <strong>of</strong> organic<br />
soils (e.g. peats) and degraded lands. <strong>The</strong> same can hold true <strong>for</strong> rehabilitation <strong>of</strong> degraded<br />
rangeland where set aside practices and revegetation ef<strong>for</strong>ts could significantly increase carbon<br />
storage. <strong>The</strong> table also indicates that farmers are likely to be able to enhance soil carbon<br />
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sequestration through the integrated use <strong>of</strong> several SLM practices and communities are likely to<br />
benefit more from possible carbon projects through integrated use <strong>of</strong> on-farm and <strong>of</strong>f-farm SLM<br />
practices.<br />
In parallel to discussions to identify beneficial SLM practices, there is also some debate<br />
about potential harmful practices. One receiving significant attention is the agricultural<br />
intensification model <strong>of</strong> irrigation and high fertilizer use. Smith and Martino (2007) review<br />
findings that irrigation and nitrogen fertilizers contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. In fact, in<br />
South Asia, increased use <strong>of</strong> fertilizer is a main source <strong>of</strong> emissions from agriculture. Further,<br />
there is additional contribution to greenhouse gases during the production <strong>of</strong> fertilizers.<br />
However, Vlek et al. (2004) point out that in a landscape context, if the use <strong>of</strong> fertilizers can<br />
enable the removal <strong>of</strong> land from agriculture and possible re<strong>for</strong>estation on that land, then fertilizer<br />
use can have a clear positive effect on net carbon sequestration. But whether agricultural land<br />
could be reduced on a large scale in Africa following yield increases is debatable, given the<br />
limited extent <strong>of</strong> non-agricultural employment opportunities.<br />
Lastly, various land management practices can contribute to climate change mitigation<br />
through above ground carbon sequestration. <strong>The</strong> most important <strong>of</strong> these practices is the<br />
planting <strong>of</strong> woody vegetation in landscapes or on farms (agr<strong>of</strong>orestry). In Africa, while tree<br />
cover has been shown to be decreasing in <strong>for</strong>ests and woodlands (see above), tree planting or<br />
protection <strong>of</strong> naturally occurring trees by farmers has been shown to be increasing in many<br />
regions (Place and Otsuka 2002; Holmgren et al. 1994; Mortimore et al. 2001; Larwanou,<br />
Abdoulaye and Reij 2006). <strong>The</strong> ability <strong>of</strong> agr<strong>of</strong>orestry to increase carbon depends ultimately on<br />
the type and density <strong>of</strong> trees and the length <strong>of</strong> time be<strong>for</strong>e they are harvested. At one extreme,<br />
multi-strata agr<strong>of</strong>orests in humid zones (e.g. homegardens on Mt. Kilimanjaro) can store up to 40<br />
tons <strong>of</strong> carbon per hectare – or roughly between 11 – 15 tons <strong>of</strong> tons <strong>of</strong> CO 2 equivalent per<br />
hectare per year (UNFCCC 2008). Those which are harvested more frequently or sparse<br />
woodlands in dryland areas (e.g. the parklands <strong>of</strong> the Sahel) will sequester much less over a<br />
similar period <strong>of</strong> time. In contrast, annual crop fields and pastures will <strong>of</strong>ten store below 10 tons<br />
<strong>of</strong> carbon per hectare (Palm et al. 1999).<br />
A much more detailed analysis <strong>of</strong> the adaptation and mitigation potential <strong>of</strong> specific land<br />
and livestock management practices can be found in Woodfine (2009). In addition to describing<br />
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the practices and qualitatively assessing their adoption and adaptation potential, that paper<br />
provides quantitative evidence (where available) <strong>for</strong> mitigation benefits and costs.<br />
In conclusion, sustainable land management presents the necessary integrated response<br />
<strong>for</strong> securing land and water quality in a changing climate. Managing land resources productively<br />
over the long-term requires (i) addressing environmental and socio-economic issues,<br />
incorporating climate and drought risk (ie., diversification <strong>of</strong> production and livelihoods can<br />
accommodate greater climate uncertainty and vulnerability), (ii) balancing trade-<strong>of</strong>fs between<br />
different land uses within the landscape (ie., watershed planning), and (iii) greater uptake <strong>of</strong><br />
locally appropriate and generally pr<strong>of</strong>itable productive practices (ie, intercropping, agr<strong>of</strong>orestry,<br />
soil moisture management, terracing, low-till, etc.).<br />
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4. Policies and Strategies to Promote <strong>Climate</strong> Change Mitigation and<br />
Adaptation in SSA through SLM<br />
While elements <strong>of</strong> SLM have had some success in isolated settings in Africa, a range <strong>of</strong> policy,<br />
institutional, and knowledge barriers prevent larger uptake. In this section we discuss policies<br />
and strategies to promote climate change mitigation and adaption in sub-Saharan Africa through<br />
promoting sustainable land management. First we review existing policies and strategies, and<br />
the extent <strong>of</strong> their implementation. <strong>The</strong>n we consider opportunities and constraints to scaling up<br />
mitigation and adaptation using SLM approaches, and based on this, identify options to take<br />
advantage <strong>of</strong> the opportunities and overcome the constraints. <strong>The</strong> key messages are summarized<br />
at the beginning <strong>of</strong> each major subsection.<br />
4.1. Existing Policies and Strategies Related to <strong>Climate</strong> Change and SLM<br />
Key messages<br />
• <strong>The</strong>re are many policy frameworks, strategies, institutions and programs affecting<br />
opportunities and constraints to promote climate change mitigation and adaptation<br />
through SLM in SSA. Among the most potentially important are the CDM, the voluntary<br />
carbon market, climate mitigation and adaptation funds, the UNCCD, NEPAD/<strong>CAADP</strong>,<br />
TerrAfrica and regional, sub-regional and national policy processes linked to these. SLM<br />
can provide an integrative framework <strong>for</strong> the various policy conventions and available<br />
financing mechanisms.<br />
• <strong>The</strong> current use <strong>of</strong> these mechanisms to support SLM projects in SSA is very limited:<br />
o Only 10 af<strong>for</strong>estation or re<strong>for</strong>estation projects in SSA are in the CDM pipeline.<br />
o No <strong>of</strong>fsets are supplied to the CCX by SLM projects in SSA, and only about 0.2<br />
MtCO 2 e were <strong>of</strong>fset through other voluntary transactions involving land<br />
management in SSA in 2007 (less than 0.5% <strong>of</strong> global voluntary transactions).<br />
o Many carbon mitigation funds have been established, but most do not support<br />
AFOLU activities in SSA.<br />
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o Several adaptation funds have been established, but they are small compared to<br />
the total need, and access to these funds in SSA has been very limited so far.<br />
o Implementation <strong>of</strong> National Action Programmes <strong>of</strong> the UNCCD has been limited<br />
by funding constraints and other factors.<br />
• NEPAD’s <strong>CAADP</strong> and TerrAfrica are working in partnership to promote upscaling <strong>of</strong><br />
SLM in Africa, with increasing focus on climate change mitigation and adaption.<br />
o TerrAfrica has mobilized $150 million in funds that are expected to leverage an<br />
additional $1 billion to support this goal.<br />
o <strong>CAADP</strong> and TerrAfrica are working with African governments to develop and<br />
support CSIFs <strong>for</strong> SLM. Integrating strategies and programs to promote SLM<br />
and address climate change with each other and with national development<br />
strategies and policies is a major challenge. Addressing this challenge is a major<br />
emphasis <strong>of</strong> the CSIFs.<br />
<strong>The</strong> existing policies and strategies that affect climate change mitigation and adaptation activities<br />
in SSA through SLM include multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs), such as the<br />
UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol, the UNCCD, the CBD, and other relevant MEAs; and voluntary<br />
carbon markets and related mitigation projects and activities. <strong>The</strong>se also include regional<br />
initiatives to promote SLM, including the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development<br />
Programme (<strong>CAADP</strong>) and the Environment Action Plan <strong>of</strong> the New Partnership <strong>for</strong> African<br />
Development (NEPAD), the TerrAfrica partnership, and the Alliance <strong>for</strong> a Green Revolution in<br />
Africa (AGRA). Most <strong>of</strong> these initiatives involve consultative planning processes at the subregional<br />
level, usually involving the regional economic communities (RECs), as well as detailed<br />
planning and implementation processes at the national level. In addition, most nations have<br />
broader policy and development strategy frameworks that initiatives related to climate change<br />
and SLM must be consistent with and support, such as their poverty reduction strategies, rural<br />
development strategies, environmental policy frameworks, and others.<br />
We discuss each <strong>of</strong> these policies and strategies briefly, focusing on aspects most relevant<br />
to promoting climate change mitigation and adaptation in SSA through SLM.<br />
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4.1.1. UNFCCC<br />
Mitigation<br />
<strong>The</strong> United Nations Framework Convention on <strong>Climate</strong> Change (UNFCCC) was developed at<br />
the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in 1992 (also called<br />
the “Rio Earth Summit”) and entered into <strong>for</strong>ce in 1994, with its main objective “to stabilize<br />
GHG concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent further human-induced<br />
global warming”. Parties to the convention adopted the Kyoto Protocol (KP) in 1997, which<br />
required reductions <strong>of</strong> emissions <strong>of</strong> four GHGs (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and<br />
sulphur hexafluoride) by “Annex 1” (industrialized) countries relative to their emission levels in<br />
1990 (an aggregate 5.2% reduction, with varying reductions required <strong>of</strong> different countries). <strong>The</strong><br />
KP entered into <strong>for</strong>ce in February 2005 and will expire in 2012. As <strong>of</strong> January 2009, 183<br />
countries had ratified the Protocol 6 , with the United States being the sole Annex 1 country not to<br />
ratify it.<br />
In addition to requiring emissions reductions by Annex 1 countries, the KP provided <strong>for</strong><br />
emissions trading through three market mechanisms: i) emissions trading within Annex 1<br />
countries; ii) the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), through which Annex 1 countries can<br />
purchase certified emission reductions (CERs) by supporting projects implemented in developing<br />
countries; and iii) Joint Implementation (JI), through which Annex 1 countries can purchase<br />
emission reduction units (ERUs) through projects in other developed countries or transition<br />
economies. Emissions trading in the European Union (EU) is by far the largest market, with a<br />
total volume <strong>of</strong> more than 2 billion tons <strong>of</strong> CO 2 equivalent (CO 2 e) in emission allowances worth<br />
$50 billion traded in the EU Emissions Trading Scheme in 2007, accounting <strong>for</strong> more than twothirds<br />
<strong>of</strong> the entire carbon market (Table 4.1). <strong>The</strong> CDM is the second largest market,<br />
accounting <strong>for</strong> CERs <strong>of</strong> nearly 800 million tons <strong>of</strong> CO 2 e valued at nearly $13 billion in 2007.<br />
Of these mechanisms, only the CDM supports projects in SSA. <strong>The</strong> rules <strong>of</strong> the CDM<br />
allow support to projects that reduce emissions <strong>of</strong> GHG, such as installation <strong>of</strong> more efficient<br />
industrial processes or replacement <strong>of</strong> hydrocarbon fuels by renewable energy sources. In the<br />
agricultural sector, eligible projects include those that reduce GHG emissions through improved<br />
manure management, reduction <strong>of</strong> enteric fermentation in livestock (e.g., through improved<br />
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!<br />
) !Technically, these countries had ratified, accepted, approved or acceded to the terms <strong>of</strong> the Kyoto Protocol (see<br />
http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/status_<strong>of</strong>_ratification/items/2613.php). All <strong>of</strong> these terms imply that the terms <strong>of</strong><br />
the agreement are legally binding.!<br />
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feeding practices), improved fertilizer usage or improved water management in rice cultivation<br />
(http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2005/cmp1/eng/08a01.pdf, p. 45). Most agricultural CDM<br />
projects involve flaring <strong>of</strong> biogas produced by intensive livestock operations (UNEP Risoe<br />
2009). Af<strong>for</strong>estation and re<strong>for</strong>estation projects are also eligible <strong>for</strong> emission reduction credits<br />
under the CDM. Other AFOLU activities, such as revegetation <strong>of</strong> grasslands or soil carbon<br />
sequestration in agricultural lands, are not eligible <strong>for</strong> the CDM.<br />
By March 2009 there were only three registered CDM projects related to af<strong>for</strong>estation or<br />
re<strong>for</strong>estation, accounting <strong>for</strong> less than 0.2% <strong>of</strong> all registered CDM projects and about 200,000<br />
tCO 2 e <strong>of</strong> CERs. None <strong>of</strong> these registered CDM af<strong>for</strong>estation/re<strong>for</strong>estation projects was in Africa<br />
(http://cdm.unfccc.int/Statistics/index.html). Many more af<strong>for</strong>estation/re<strong>for</strong>estation projects are<br />
in the CDM pipeline, however, including several in Africa. Globally, there were 35<br />
af<strong>for</strong>estation/re<strong>for</strong>estation projects in the pipeline by early March 2009, <strong>of</strong> which 10 were in SSA<br />
(UNEP Risoe 2009). <strong>The</strong>se include five projects in Uganda, two in Tanzania, and one each in<br />
Ethiopia, the Democratic Republic <strong>of</strong> Congo and Mali. By 2012, these projects are expected to<br />
generate about 3 MtCO 2 e <strong>of</strong> emission <strong>of</strong>fsets; mostly due to a large re<strong>for</strong>estation project in<br />
Tanzania (Ibid.). <strong>The</strong> total emissions reductions from these 10 projects is a very small fraction<br />
<strong>of</strong> the total emission reductions from all CDM projects in SSA, estimated at about 32 Mt CO 2 eq<br />
by 2012. This total is itself a small fraction <strong>of</strong> the total amount <strong>of</strong> emission reductions purchased<br />
under CDM.<br />
Adaptation<br />
Although the main emphasis <strong>of</strong> the UNFCCC is on GHG mitigation, in recent years there has<br />
been increasing attention paid to the need <strong>for</strong> adaptation. <strong>The</strong> UNFCCC requires all signatory<br />
countries to take appropriate actions to facilitate adaptation, and developed country parties are<br />
required to provide financial resources to developing countries to meet these obligations, with<br />
particular emphasis on assisting small island developing countries, least developing countries,<br />
and countries otherwise highly vulnerable to climate variability. As part <strong>of</strong> their obligations<br />
under the UNFCCC, most countries in SSA have developed National Adaptation Programmes <strong>of</strong><br />
Action (NAPAs), which identify strategies and priority projects <strong>for</strong> adapting to climate change.<br />
However, these programs have yet to be fully implemented in most cases, in part due to lack <strong>of</strong><br />
funds to support the prioritized activities.<br />
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Several international funds have been established to support climate change adaptation.<br />
Three <strong>of</strong> these are under the control <strong>of</strong> the Global Environment Facility (GEF). <strong>The</strong> Strategic<br />
Priority <strong>for</strong> Adaptation (SPA) fund is a $50 million fund that supports demonstration projects in<br />
non-Annex 1 countries on adaptation activities with global environmental benefits (Ambrosi<br />
2009). <strong>The</strong> Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF) is a $180 million fund that supports<br />
priority adaptation projects identified by the NAPA’s <strong>of</strong> the poorest countries, which includes<br />
most countries in SSA. <strong>The</strong> Special <strong>Climate</strong> Change Fund (SCCF) is a $90 million fund similar<br />
to the LDCF, but which is available to all non-Annex 1 countries (Ibid.). In addition to these<br />
funds, the UNFCCC manages a new Adaptation Fund that was established under the Kyoto<br />
Protocol and financed by a 2 percent levy on CDM projects. <strong>The</strong> size <strong>of</strong> the fund will depend on<br />
the total value <strong>of</strong> CDM projects that are approved, but this fund is expected to reach $100 million<br />
to $500 million by 2012 (UNFCCC 2007).<br />
Other funds that support climate change adaptation include the Global Facility <strong>for</strong><br />
Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR), which works in partnership within the UN<br />
International Strategy <strong>for</strong> Disaster Reduction (ISDR) and focuses on building capacities to<br />
enhance disaster resilience and adaptive capacities in changing climate (fund amount $40 million<br />
in fiscal year 2008); the United Nations Development Program’s (UNDP) adaptation facilities<br />
<strong>for</strong> Africa ($90 - $120 million); various trust funds and partnerships housed in multi-lateral<br />
development banks (MDBs); and climate related research led by the Consultative Group <strong>for</strong><br />
International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) ($77 million) (Ambrosi 2009). In addition, several<br />
new funds have been established supporting both climate change adaptation and mitigation<br />
activities, including two <strong>Climate</strong> Investment Funds (CIF) managed by the World Bank and<br />
regional development banks, and the Global <strong>Climate</strong> Change Alliance (GCCA) supported by the<br />
European Community (EC) (with funds <strong>of</strong> about !300 million) (Ibid.).<br />
<strong>The</strong> CIF were established in 2008 and include two funds: the Clean Technology Fund<br />
(CTF), which will focus on financing projects and programs in developing countries which<br />
contribute to the demonstration, deployment, and transfer <strong>of</strong> low-carbon technologies (mainly<br />
clean energy technologies); and the Strategic <strong>Climate</strong> Fund (SCF), which will be broader and<br />
more flexible in scope and will serve as an overarching fund <strong>for</strong> various programs to test<br />
innovative approaches to climate change (http://go.worldbank.org/FHNFBC0W10). By<br />
September 2008, donor governments had pledged $6.3 billion to these two funds, including $4.3<br />
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billion <strong>for</strong> the CTF and $2.0 billion <strong>for</strong> the SCF (Op cit.; “CIF Financial Status as <strong>of</strong> January 26,<br />
2009”). Of the two CIF funds, the SCF is the most relevant to supporting SLM activities. Under<br />
the SCF, three programs are envisioned so far – a Pilot Program <strong>for</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> Resilience (PPCR),<br />
a Forest Investment Program (FIP), and a program <strong>for</strong> Scaling up Renewable Energy (SRE).<br />
<strong>The</strong> PPCR is intended to be complementary to other adaptation funds, focusing on providing<br />
programmatic finance <strong>for</strong> developing and implementing country-led national climate resilient<br />
development plans, and providing lessons that can be taken up by countries, the development<br />
community and the future climate change regime. <strong>The</strong> FIP is intended to mobilize significantly<br />
increased funds to reduce de<strong>for</strong>estation and <strong>for</strong>est degradation and to promote sustainable <strong>for</strong>est<br />
management. Of the $2 billion pledged to the SCF, $240 million was specifically targeted to the<br />
PPCR, $58 million to the FIP, and $70 million to the SRE (most <strong>of</strong> the pledged funds were not<br />
allocated to any specific program).<br />
In addition to funds specifically targeted to promoting climate change adaptation (and<br />
mitigation), increasing attention is being paid to addressing climate issues in regular flows <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong>ficial development assistance (ODA). <strong>The</strong> integration <strong>of</strong> climate change adaptation and<br />
mitigation concerns into broader economic development programs <strong>of</strong>fers an important<br />
opportunity to scale up investments that will have beneficial impacts on adapting to and<br />
mitigating climate change, including investments in sustainable land management. We discuss<br />
this opportunity further in a subsequent section.<br />
Although these adaptation funds are available and growing in size, they represent only a<br />
small fraction <strong>of</strong> the funds that will be needed to finance adaptation activities in developing<br />
countries. According to a UNFCCC study <strong>of</strong> the costs required <strong>for</strong> climate change mitigation<br />
and adaptation, $28 billion to $67 billion per year will be required to finance adaptation activities<br />
in developing countries by 2030 (UNFCCC 2007). About $14 billion per year is estimated to be<br />
needed <strong>for</strong> adaptation in the agriculture, <strong>for</strong>estry and fisheries sector, with about half <strong>of</strong> this in<br />
developing countries. Most <strong>of</strong> these expenditures ($11 billion) will be needed to finance capital<br />
assets; <strong>for</strong> example <strong>for</strong> irrigation, adoption <strong>of</strong> new practices or to relocate processing facilities,<br />
and much <strong>of</strong> this (especially in developed countries) is expected to be financed by private<br />
sources. $3 billion is estimated to be needed annually <strong>for</strong> agricultural and natural resource<br />
management research, development and extension, primarily in developing countries, with<br />
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public sources expected to provide most <strong>of</strong> this. <strong>The</strong> additional expenditures to protect natural<br />
ecosystems are estimated to be $12 to $22 billion globally (Ibid.).<br />
4.1.2. Other carbon compliance markets and voluntary carbon markets<br />
In addition to the carbon markets that have arisen as a result <strong>of</strong> the Kyoto Protocol’s emission<br />
reduction requirements, other compliance markets as well as voluntary carbon markets have<br />
arisen as a result <strong>of</strong> buyers who want to prepare <strong>for</strong> expected future requirements (<strong>for</strong> example,<br />
industries in the United States), who want to <strong>of</strong>fset their “carbon footprint”, to demonstrate<br />
corporate social responsibility, <strong>for</strong> public relations, or other reasons. Other non-Kyoto<br />
compliance markets include Australia’s New South Wales (NSW) Greenhouse Gas Abatement<br />
Scheme, which began in 2003 and is focused on reducing GHG emissions from the power sector,<br />
and emerging markets in North America resulting from state or provincial level regulations <strong>of</strong><br />
GHGs, such as the Oregon Standard, the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative <strong>of</strong> ten states in the<br />
eastern United States, the Global Warming Solutions Act in Cali<strong>for</strong>nia, the Western <strong>Climate</strong><br />
Initiative <strong>of</strong> six western U.S. states and three Canadian provinces, and the Midwestern Regional<br />
GHG Reduction Program <strong>of</strong> six Midwestern U.S. states and Manitoba province <strong>of</strong> Canada<br />
(Capoor and Ambrosi 2008; Hamilton, et al. 2008). 7<br />
Voluntary markets include the Chicago <strong>Climate</strong> Exchange (CCX), which is based on a<br />
voluntary cap and trade system, project-based transactions <strong>for</strong> “pre-CDM” projects (i.e., those<br />
that are in the process <strong>of</strong> seeking registration under CDM), and other emission reduction<br />
projects. Transactions occurring outside <strong>of</strong> the CCX are referred to as the “over the counter”<br />
(OTC) market by Hamilton, et al. (2008). In 2007, 16% <strong>of</strong> OTC transactions were based on<br />
projects meeting CDM or JI standards, while 7% were based on CCX standards. A growing<br />
number <strong>of</strong> third party standards are used in voluntary carbon markets. In 2007 about 87% <strong>of</strong><br />
OTC transactions were verified by a third party (Hamilton, et al. 2008). <strong>The</strong> most commonly<br />
used standards are the Voluntary Carbon Standard (VCS) (29% <strong>of</strong> OTC transactions in 2007),<br />
the VER+ standard (9%), and the Gold Standard (9%) (Ibid.). Of these commonly used<br />
standards, only the Gold Standard requires certification <strong>of</strong> a project’s social and environmental<br />
benefits in addition to certified reductions <strong>of</strong> greenhouse gases. Other third party standards also<br />
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* !Forty-four state and provincial governments in the U.S. and Mexico have already established GHG emission<br />
reduction targets and/or renewable portfolio standard targets, or are participating in one <strong>of</strong> three emerging regional<br />
GHG emissions trading programs in North America (Capoor and Ambrosi 2008).!<br />
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require social and environment benefits (e.g., CCB standards, Plan Vivo and Social Carbon<br />
standards), but were much less commonly used in 2007. Most <strong>of</strong> the third party standards<br />
include or accept methodologies <strong>for</strong> certifying projects related to land use, land use change and<br />
<strong>for</strong>estry (LULUCF).<br />
<strong>The</strong>se other carbon markets are growing rapidly, but are still a very small proportion <strong>of</strong><br />
the total carbon market, compared to the Kyoto based markets. For example, the volume <strong>of</strong><br />
emissions reductions transacted in the CCX in 2007 was less than 1 percent <strong>of</strong> the total volume<br />
<strong>of</strong> emissions reductions traded that year, and only about 0.1 percent <strong>of</strong> the total value <strong>of</strong><br />
exchanges (Table 4-1). This reflects not only the relatively small size <strong>of</strong> this market, but also the<br />
low prices obtained <strong>for</strong> voluntary emissions reductions compared to the prices <strong>for</strong> emissions<br />
reductions in the compliance markets, especially under the EU ETS. In early 2008, the mean<br />
price <strong>for</strong> emission allocations under the EU ETS ranged between 20 and 25 Euros per tCO 2 e,<br />
while prices <strong>for</strong> CERs under the CDM ranged between 8 and 13 Euros per tCO 2 e and prices on<br />
the CCX were in the $1 to $4 (1 to 3 Euros) per tCO 2 e range <strong>for</strong> most <strong>of</strong> 2007 (Capoor and<br />
Ambrosi 2008). 8<br />
Although voluntary markets are small in scale and <strong>of</strong>fer much lower prices, almost all<br />
carbon finance <strong>for</strong> LULUCF or AFOLU related projects is through these markets. 9 In 2007, at<br />
least 5 MtCO 2 e were <strong>of</strong>fset through land use projects in the OTC market (Hamilton, et al. 2008).<br />
Although this is a tiny fraction <strong>of</strong> the entire CDM market (nearly 800 MtCO 2 e in 2007), it is<br />
much larger than the CDM market <strong>for</strong> land use projects (0.2 MtCO 2 e <strong>for</strong> the three registered<br />
CDM land use projects in 2007). In addition, about half <strong>of</strong> the <strong>of</strong>fsets purchased through the<br />
CCX between 2003 and 2007 (amounting to about 17 MtCO 2 e) were <strong>for</strong> land use projects –<br />
primarily soil carbon sequestration projects (Ibid.). However, none <strong>of</strong> the CCX <strong>of</strong>fsets and fewer<br />
than 5 percent <strong>of</strong> the OTC <strong>of</strong>fsets <strong>for</strong> land use projects were <strong>for</strong> projects in Africa.<br />
Voluntary markets are important in fostering innovation in the carbon market by<br />
demonstrating the feasibility <strong>of</strong> new types <strong>of</strong> trades and contracts that are not allowed under the<br />
Kyoto Protocol. For example, contracts are traded on the CCX <strong>for</strong> soil carbon sequestration in<br />
croplands and rangelands and <strong>for</strong> reducing de<strong>for</strong>estation and <strong>for</strong>est degradation (REDD), even<br />
though such projects do not qualify under CDM (Bryan, et al. 2008). Eligible projects <strong>for</strong><br />
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+ !Projects with a Gold Standard certification or pre-CDM projects compliant with CDM requirements obtain higher<br />
prices in the voluntary market, but still below the levels <strong>of</strong> registered CDM projects (Capoor and Ambrosi 2008). !<br />
9 <strong>The</strong> term LULUCF has been replaced by the more encompassing term AFOLU (Jindal, et al. 2008).!<br />
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agricultural soil carbon sequestration include projects promoting conservation tillage and grass<br />
planting. Standard contracts have been developed <strong>for</strong> these projects, and <strong>for</strong> conservation tillage,<br />
emissions reductions are credited at a rate between 0.2 and 0.6 tCO 2 per acre per year (0.5 to 1.5<br />
tCO 2 per hectare per year). REDD projects earn <strong>of</strong>fsets <strong>for</strong> additional net carbon sequestered<br />
compared to the previous year. Although such markets appear to <strong>of</strong>fer little to African nations<br />
and farmers because <strong>of</strong> their small size and limited trading <strong>of</strong> AFOLU projects in Africa, they<br />
may be very important in demonstrating the feasibility <strong>of</strong> such contracts to the negotiations in<br />
Copenhagen on the post-Kyoto climate treaty.<br />
4.1.3. Carbon mitigation funds<br />
Various carbon mitigation funds have been established by multilateral and bilateral donors and<br />
development banks, which can be particularly important to finance development <strong>of</strong> carbon<br />
mitigation projects in SSA. <strong>The</strong>re are at least 17 funds and facilities managed by multilateral<br />
development banks with a value <strong>of</strong> close to US$3 billion, <strong>of</strong> which a large part (about two-thirds)<br />
is already committed (Ambrosi 2009). <strong>The</strong> World Bank has established three carbon funds –<br />
including the BioCarbon Fund (BCF), the Community Development Carbon Fund (CDCF), and<br />
the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) – which are targeted to poorer countries and, in<br />
the case <strong>of</strong> the BCF, to rural areas <strong>of</strong> developing countries. <strong>The</strong> CDCF, which was established in<br />
2003 and currently totals about $129 million, focuses on financing projects related to AFOLU<br />
that also provide significant development benefits to communities in the project vicinity. <strong>The</strong><br />
BCF, which was established in 2004 and totals about $54 million, focuses mainly on financing<br />
af<strong>for</strong>estation and re<strong>for</strong>estation activities eligible under CDM projects and the broader set <strong>of</strong><br />
AFOLU activities eligible under JI projects; but it also has a smaller window to explore and<br />
finance options not eligible under the KP mechanisms but that may be creditable under other<br />
programs (such as restoration <strong>of</strong> degraded land, rehabilitation <strong>of</strong> dryland grazing lands, etc.).<br />
<strong>The</strong> FCPF was launched at the UNFCCC meeting in Bali in December 2007, but is not yet<br />
operational. It is intended to focus on financing REDD activities. In addition, the GEF is<br />
providing about $250 million per year in grant financing <strong>for</strong> mitigation activities during 2006-<br />
2010.<br />
Many other carbon mitigation funds have been established by particular governments<br />
(especially in Europe and Japan), development banks and private investors. Almost all <strong>of</strong> these<br />
!<br />
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!<br />
focus on financing CDM and/or JI projects. Many <strong>of</strong> these focus on financing projects in<br />
particular geographic regions or particular sectors. Few <strong>of</strong> these target SSA or AFOLU<br />
activities, although several permit financing <strong>of</strong> any project that is eligible <strong>for</strong> the CDM or JI.<br />
Some <strong>of</strong> these funds – <strong>for</strong> example, the European, Dutch and Danish government funds –<br />
specifically exclude AFOLU projects because <strong>of</strong> concerns about the technical, business and<br />
political feasibility <strong>of</strong> such projects.<br />
4.1.4. UNCCD<br />
Like the UNFCCC, the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) was<br />
established as an outcome <strong>of</strong> the UNCED in 1992. It was adopted by the United Nations in 1994<br />
and entered into <strong>for</strong>ce in December 1996. <strong>The</strong> objective <strong>of</strong> the convention is to combat<br />
desertification – defined as land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas due to<br />
various factors, including human causes and climate variability – and mitigate the effects <strong>of</strong><br />
drought in countries experiencing serious drought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa.<br />
192 countries have ratified (or approved, accepted or acceded to) the convention. A major<br />
emphasis <strong>of</strong> the UNCCD is to integrate objectives <strong>of</strong> poverty reduction and economic and social<br />
development with the objective <strong>of</strong> combating desertification and mitigating drought. In recent<br />
years, the UNCCD Secretariat and the Global Mechanism (which focuses on financial resource<br />
mobilization <strong>for</strong> implementing the convention) have increasingly emphasized the synergies<br />
between the UNCCD and other MEAs, especially the UNFCCC.<br />
Under the UNCCD, affected developing countries are required to develop National<br />
Action Programmes (NAPs) to combat desertification and mitigate drought, which diagnose the<br />
causes <strong>of</strong> these problems and identify strategies, enabling policies and specific actions and<br />
investments to address them. <strong>The</strong>se programs have been generally developed through<br />
consultative and participatory processes involving stakeholders from governments at different<br />
levels, civil society, the private sector, and representatives <strong>of</strong> communities. To date, NAPs have<br />
been developed by 34 countries in SSA.<br />
In addition to the NAPs, Sub-regional Action Programmes (SRAPs) and a Regional<br />
Action Programme (RAP) have also been developed in Africa under the UNCCD. <strong>The</strong>se subregional<br />
and regional programs are intended to ensure adequate coordination <strong>of</strong> the national<br />
programs and address issues that aren’t adequately addressed within national programs, such as<br />
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management <strong>of</strong> transboundary resources, drought warning systems, in<strong>for</strong>mation collection and<br />
dissemination, sub-regional or regional research priorities, and others.<br />
Although many NAPs, SRAPs and a Regional Action Programme have been developed<br />
in Africa, progress in implementing these programs has been slow. In some cases, this may be<br />
due to the relatively recent development <strong>of</strong> these programs. For example, the NAPs <strong>for</strong><br />
Botswana, Congo, the Democratic Republic <strong>of</strong> Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Guinea were not<br />
submitted until 2006, and the SRAP <strong>for</strong> Central Africa was not submitted until 2007. However,<br />
in most cases, NAPs and SRAPs were submitted by 2002.<br />
<strong>The</strong> most serious constraint to implementation <strong>for</strong> many years was the lack <strong>of</strong> financial<br />
support <strong>for</strong> the convention, either from international donors or national governments. This<br />
situation has been changing in recent years, since the Global Environment Facility (GEF) was<br />
designated a financial mechanism <strong>of</strong> the UNCCD (in 2003), and since establishment <strong>of</strong> important<br />
new partnerships to promote SLM in Africa, including the Comprehensive African Agriculture<br />
Development Programme (<strong>CAADP</strong>) and the Environment Action Plan (EAP) <strong>of</strong> the New<br />
Partnership <strong>for</strong> African Development (NEPAD), and the TerrAfrica partnership. <strong>The</strong>se<br />
initiatives are raising substantial amounts <strong>of</strong> funds to support SLM and the UNCCD. Since<br />
October 2006, the Global Mechanism <strong>of</strong> the UNCCD (GM), the GEF Secretariat and its<br />
Implementing and Executing Agencies have developed a pipeline <strong>of</strong> 20 projects addressing land<br />
degradation in Africa, Asia and Latin America, <strong>for</strong> which the envisaged financing exceeds $3<br />
billion over ten years (http://www.global-mechanism.org/work-with-us/strategicpartnerships/gef).<br />
<strong>The</strong> TerrAfrica partnership has mobilized $150 million in GEF funds to<br />
support SLM activities in SSA, which is expected to leverage up to $1 billion in funds from other<br />
sources. <strong>The</strong>se activities are discussed further in a later subsection. In addition, there are<br />
opportunities to substantially increase SLM investments that contribute to climate change<br />
mitigation and adaption through the CDM mechanism and climate adaptation funds, highlighting<br />
the potential synergies between the UNCCD and UNFCCC.<br />
4.1.5. CBD<br />
<strong>The</strong> Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was also born at the 1992 UNCED, and entered<br />
into <strong>for</strong>ce in 1993. <strong>The</strong> goal <strong>of</strong> the CBD is to conserve biodiversity, ensure sustainable use <strong>of</strong> its<br />
components, and ensure equitable sharing <strong>of</strong> the benefits <strong>of</strong> use <strong>of</strong> genetic resources. 191<br />
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nations have ratified (or adopted, accepted or acceded to) the CBD, with the United States the<br />
only major nation not to have done so (it has signed but not ratified the treaty). Among the issues<br />
addressed by the convention include<br />
• Measures and incentives <strong>for</strong> conservation and sustainable use <strong>of</strong> biological<br />
diversity;<br />
• Regulated access to genetic resources;<br />
• Access to and transfer <strong>of</strong> technology, including biotechnology; and others (e.g.,<br />
technical and scientific cooperation, impact assessment, education and public<br />
awareness, provision <strong>of</strong> financial resources, national reporting on<br />
implementation).<br />
<strong>The</strong> CBD has thematic programs focusing on biodiversity in many particular ecosystems,<br />
including agriculture, dry and sub-humid lands, <strong>for</strong>ests, inland waters, islands, marine and<br />
coastal areas, and mountains.<br />
<strong>The</strong> CBD is implemented mainly at the national level by the parties. Most countries –<br />
including more than 40 countries in SSA – have developed Biodiversity Strategy and Action<br />
Plans (BSAPs) to fulfill their obligations under the CBD. Funding <strong>for</strong> implementation <strong>of</strong> these<br />
strategies and plans is provided by the GEF as well as national governments and other donors.<br />
<strong>The</strong> GEF allocations to SSA countries <strong>for</strong> biodiversity activities under fourth replenishment <strong>of</strong><br />
the GEF trust fund (GEF-4) range from $3.4 to $24.9 million.<br />
As with other MEAs, the CBD is actively pursuing linkages to UNFCCC, UNCCD and<br />
other agreements to increase synergies in biodiversity conservation. Developing REDD is a<br />
major new area <strong>of</strong> emphasis <strong>for</strong> the CBD, and one <strong>of</strong> the areas most relevant to SLM and climate<br />
change issues (his will be discussed further below). <strong>The</strong> CBD is also promoting development <strong>of</strong><br />
habitat networks and biological corridors in agricultural landscapes, which also has synergies<br />
with addressing SLM and climate change.<br />
4.1.6. Other Multilateral Environmental Agreements<br />
<strong>The</strong> UNFCCC, UNCCD, and CBD are the most important and relevant MEAs to issues <strong>of</strong><br />
climate change and SLM in SSA, but several others are relevant as well. Among these are the<br />
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, the Convention <strong>for</strong> Cooperation in Protection and<br />
Development <strong>of</strong> the Marine and Coastal Environment <strong>of</strong> the West and Central African Region,<br />
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the Convention <strong>for</strong> the Protection, <strong>Management</strong> and Development <strong>of</strong> the Marine and Coastal<br />
Environment <strong>of</strong> the Eastern African Region, the Global Programme <strong>of</strong> Action <strong>for</strong> the Protection<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Marine Environment from <strong>Land</strong>-Based Activities, and the International Coral Reef<br />
Initiative. Strategies and activities related to SLM and climate change mitigation and adaptation<br />
are likely to have impacts on the resources covered by these MEAs; hence coordination is<br />
needed to ensure that synergies are promoted and trade<strong>of</strong>fs minimized among the objectives <strong>of</strong><br />
these different agreements.<br />
4.1.7. NEPAD: <strong>CAADP</strong> and EAP<br />
<strong>The</strong> New Partnership <strong>for</strong> Africa’s Development (NEPAD) is a vision and strategic framework<br />
<strong>for</strong> Africa’s renewal. <strong>The</strong> NEPAD strategic framework document was adopted in 2001 by the<br />
Organization <strong>for</strong> African Unity (now the African Union). NEPAD’s primary objectives are to<br />
eradicate poverty, promote sustainable growth and development, integrate Africa in the world<br />
economy, and accelerate the empowerment <strong>of</strong> women. NEPAD has undertaken several<br />
initiatives to achieve its objectives. Among these, those most directly relevant to issues <strong>of</strong> SLM<br />
and climate change are the Environment Action Plan (EAP) and the Comprehensive African<br />
Agriculture Development Programme (<strong>CAADP</strong>).<br />
<strong>The</strong> EAP, which was adopted in 2003, proposes strategies and activities to promote<br />
sustainable management <strong>of</strong> environmental resources in Africa, focusing on the following themes:<br />
combating land degradation, drought and desertification; wetlands; invasive species; marine and<br />
coastal resources; cross-border conservation <strong>of</strong> natural resources; climate change; and crosscutting<br />
issues. <strong>The</strong> program <strong>of</strong> the EAP on combating land degradation, drought and<br />
desertification was based on the action programs <strong>of</strong> the UNCCD, with the objective <strong>of</strong><br />
facilitating implementation <strong>of</strong> the UNCCD through support to finalizing and implementing<br />
NAPs and SRAPs, strengthening in<strong>for</strong>mation collection and knowledge sharing systems,<br />
harnessing indigenous knowledge <strong>of</strong> land management, strengthening and mobilizing scientific,<br />
technical, institutional and human capacities; establishing regional centers <strong>of</strong> excellence,<br />
enhancing public awareness and education in support <strong>of</strong> the convention, promoting participation<br />
<strong>of</strong> civil society and local communities in implementing the convention, and promoting South-<br />
South cooperation. Implementation <strong>of</strong> this program area is achieved in collaboration with the<br />
implementing agencies <strong>of</strong> the UNCCD. <strong>The</strong> program <strong>of</strong> the EAP on climate change focuses on<br />
!<br />
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vulnerability assessment, development <strong>of</strong> adaptation strategies, implementation <strong>of</strong> pilot projects<br />
and capacity strengthening activities. Projects prioritized by the EAP on climate change include<br />
promotion <strong>of</strong> renewable energy; establishment <strong>of</strong> linkages between climate change experts and<br />
energy initiative capacity development <strong>for</strong> sustainable development and the CDM; and<br />
evaluating synergies <strong>of</strong> climate adaptation and mitigation activities through pilot projects in<br />
agr<strong>of</strong>orestry.<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>CAADP</strong> is the most ambitious and comprehensive agricultural re<strong>for</strong>m ef<strong>for</strong>t yet<br />
undertaken in Africa, addressing policy and capacity issues in agriculture across the entire<br />
continent. Development <strong>of</strong> the <strong>CAADP</strong> began in 2002, and was given major impetus by the<br />
Maputo Declaration in 2003, in which the African Union leaders endorsed <strong>CAADP</strong> and<br />
committed to increasing agriculture’s share <strong>of</strong> their national budgets to at least 10% and achieve<br />
a 6% annual growth in agricultural production by 2015. <strong>The</strong> <strong>CAADP</strong> program was developed<br />
through a series <strong>of</strong> consultations (“roundtables”) at regional, sub-regional and national levels. It<br />
is based on four pillars:!i) sustainable land and water management; ii) improving market access;<br />
iii) increasing food supply and reducing hunger; and iv) improving agricultural research and<br />
technology adoption.<br />
Although there has been great progress in developing the overall program and the content<br />
<strong>of</strong> the specific pillars, these have not been fully operationalized yet. To operationalize Pillar 1 on<br />
sustainable land and water management, the proposed focus is to be on addressing various<br />
barriers to upscaling SLM in Africa, including knowledge management barriers, institutional and<br />
governance barriers, financial resource bottlenecks, legislative and regulatory barriers, and<br />
monitoring and evaluation (M&E) barriers (Bwalya, et al. 2009). <strong>The</strong> road map envisioned to<br />
achieve the goal <strong>of</strong> sustainable land and water management (SLWM) includes steps to build a<br />
regional consensus about SLWM, conduct an awareness raising and consensus building<br />
campaign, building African-owned coalitions and partnerships, developing a mechanism <strong>for</strong><br />
coordinating and harmonizing grants, developing a Strategic Investment Program (SIP) <strong>for</strong><br />
SLWM in Africa, developing a regional knowledge base, developing generic country specific<br />
SLWM investment framework (CSIF) guidelines, developing generic M&E guidelines,<br />
providing a plat<strong>for</strong>m <strong>for</strong> providing comprehensive support to agricultural water in SSA, and<br />
leveraging the political dialogue and addressing international rivers and riparian issues (Ibid.).<br />
<strong>The</strong>se steps are to be taken in the context <strong>of</strong> the TerrAfrica partnership.<br />
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4.1.8. TerrAfrica<br />
TerrAfrica is a partnership <strong>of</strong> African governments, NEPAD, regional and sub-regional<br />
organizations, the UNCCD, multilateral and bilateral donors, civil society and research<br />
organizations, to promote scaling up <strong>of</strong> SLM in SSA. It was initiated in 2005 to support<br />
implementation <strong>of</strong> UNCCD, <strong>CAADP</strong>, and the Environment Action Plan <strong>of</strong> NEPAD. <strong>The</strong><br />
establishment <strong>of</strong> TerrAfrica was motivated by several lessons from past ef<strong>for</strong>ts to address land<br />
degradation in Africa:<br />
• <strong>The</strong>re are too many overlapping and scattered programs with conflicting<br />
objectives.<br />
• <strong>Land</strong> degradation is too large <strong>for</strong> a single institution to address.<br />
• Narrow approaches have had a limited and unsustained impact.<br />
• Poor knowledge management has constrained scaling up <strong>of</strong> SLM.<br />
TerrAfrica focuses on three activity lines: i) coalition building, ii) knowledge<br />
management, and iii) investments in SLM. As mentioned earlier, TerrAfrica has mobilized $150<br />
million investment from GEF, which is expected to leverage up to $1 billion in additional funds<br />
from donors, governments and private sources.<br />
TerrAfrica is working with many countries to develop Country Strategic Investment<br />
Frameworks (CSIFs) <strong>for</strong> scaling up SLM. Progress is most advanced in four pilot countries:<br />
Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Ghana and Uganda. By the end <strong>of</strong> 2007, all <strong>of</strong> these countries had made<br />
substantial progress to develop their CSIF; priority SLM investments had been identified and in<br />
some countries mobilized; and analytical work completed to support decision making <strong>for</strong><br />
mainstreaming SLM in government programs and expenditures (Table 4.2). <strong>The</strong>se countries<br />
have all moved to Phase 2 <strong>of</strong> TerrAfrica implementation, with an increased focus on<br />
implementing investment projects. For example, in Ethiopia, a large watershed development<br />
project financed by the World Bank and GEF was approved and initiated in 2008, drawing upon<br />
the Country Partnership Program <strong>for</strong> SLM developed via the TerrAfrica partnership. Eleven<br />
other countries – Eritrea, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal,<br />
Mauritania, Lesotho, Tanzania – were involved in Phase 1 <strong>of</strong> TerrAfrica implementation in 2007,<br />
during which the focus was on planning, coalition building, and analytical activities (TerrAfrica<br />
2007). Most <strong>of</strong> these countries made substantial progress in 2008 in developing their CSIFs and<br />
building the basis <strong>for</strong> programming SLM investments in the future.<br />
!<br />
'$!
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<strong>The</strong> TerrAfrica partnership is playing an increasing role in promoting climate change mitigation<br />
and adaptation in Africa through SLM. Because <strong>of</strong> the linkages between SLM and climate<br />
change, as explained in sections 2 and 3 <strong>of</strong> this paper, TerrAfrica can help to improve climate<br />
resilience in SSA by strengthening national capacities to incorporate SLM into their plans and<br />
programs to mitigate and adapt to climate change, and to access funding to support these plans<br />
and programs.<br />
4.1.9. Alliance <strong>for</strong> a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA)<br />
<strong>The</strong> Alliance <strong>for</strong> a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA) is an African-led partnership to boost<br />
agricultural productivity in Africa in an environmentally sustainable way. It was established by<br />
the Rockefeller Foundation and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation in 2006. <strong>The</strong><br />
Department <strong>for</strong> International Development (DfID) joined as a partner in 2008. AGRA works<br />
with African governments, other donors, NGOs, the private sector and African farmers to<br />
achieve its objectives. AGRA’s focus areas include<br />
• Developing better and more appropriate seeds;<br />
• Improving soil health;<br />
• Improving income opportunities through better access to agricultural markets;<br />
• Improving access to water and water-use efficiency;<br />
• Encouraging government policies that support small-scale farmers;<br />
• Developing local networks <strong>of</strong> agricultural education; and<br />
• Understanding and sharing the wealth <strong>of</strong> African farmer knowledge.<br />
To date, most AGRA grants have focused on promoting development and marketing <strong>of</strong><br />
improved germplasm. Of about $80 million in grants that had been provided by the end <strong>of</strong><br />
March 2009, $2.9 million was targeted to soil health research. <strong>The</strong> emphasis <strong>of</strong> AGRA’s Soil<br />
Health Initiative will be on promoting integrated soil fertility management. This may include<br />
promotion <strong>of</strong> “smart” fertilizer subsidies and other actions to increase effective use <strong>of</strong> inorganic<br />
fertilizers in Africa, as well as promotion <strong>of</strong> complementary organic practices.<br />
4.1.10. Sub-regional and national level strategies and policies<br />
As noted above, many <strong>of</strong> the MEAs and regional initiatives involve consultations and<br />
development <strong>of</strong> strategies and plans at a sub-regional level. <strong>The</strong>se have involved the Regional<br />
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!<br />
Economic Communities (RECs) (e.g., in the <strong>CAADP</strong> roundtable process) and other sub-regional<br />
bodies appropriate to the issue (e.g., CILSS and IGAD in developing strategies <strong>for</strong> adapting to<br />
climate variability and change). <strong>The</strong> primary focus <strong>of</strong> all <strong>of</strong> these agreements and initiatives is at<br />
the national level, where specific strategies, policies and plans must be developed and<br />
implemented. At the national level, strategies and programs related to climate change and SLM<br />
must be integrated with other key strategies, policies and processes such as countries’ poverty<br />
reduction strategies, agricultural and rural development strategies, national environmental and<br />
land policies, medium term expenditure frameworks, annual budgetary processes, and others.<br />
Achieving harmonization <strong>of</strong> all <strong>of</strong> these different strategies and policies, and translating<br />
them into specific budgets and activities that are effectively implemented, monitored and<br />
evaluated within the governance processes <strong>of</strong> governments at different levels, is a major<br />
challenge. Addressing this challenge has been a major emphasis <strong>of</strong> TerrAfrica, the UNCCD and<br />
<strong>CAADP</strong> in their ef<strong>for</strong>ts to promote development <strong>of</strong> Country Strategic Investment Frameworks<br />
<strong>for</strong> SLM that are well mainstreamed within the overarching strategies and ongoing planning and<br />
budgetary processes <strong>of</strong> governments. As indicated above, substantial progress has been made in<br />
this regard in several countries, but much remains to be done. Similar ef<strong>for</strong>ts to achieve<br />
harmonization <strong>of</strong> climate change mitigation and adaptation activities with broader government<br />
strategies and governance processes are being pursued under the framework <strong>of</strong> the UNFCCC; <strong>for</strong><br />
example, in the process <strong>of</strong> developing the NAPAs. More work will be needed to ensure that the<br />
policies and programs promoting SLM and those promoting climate change mitigation and<br />
adaptation are coherent and synergistic with each other, as well as with other government<br />
strategies, policies, and processes.<br />
4.2. Opportunities and Constraints to Mitigate and Adapt to <strong>Climate</strong><br />
Change through SLM<br />
Key messages<br />
• <strong>The</strong> major current opportunities to increase funding <strong>for</strong> climate mitigation and<br />
adaptation through SLM include<br />
o increased use <strong>of</strong> the CDM to finance af<strong>for</strong>estation and re<strong>for</strong>estation (A/R)<br />
projects;<br />
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!<br />
o increased use <strong>of</strong> voluntary carbon markets and carbon mitigation funds to test<br />
and demonstrate methodologies <strong>for</strong> a wider range <strong>of</strong> AFOLU activities;<br />
o increased use <strong>of</strong> adaptation funds to support SLM activities that have been<br />
prioritized by countries’ NAPAs;<br />
o increased funding <strong>for</strong> climate change mitigation and adaptation through<br />
programs promoting SLM in Africa; and<br />
o increased integration <strong>of</strong> climate change mitigation and adaptation activities,<br />
including SLM, into development strategies <strong>of</strong> African governments and donors.<br />
• Major new opportunities to support climate change mitigation and adaptation through<br />
SLM may arise as a result <strong>of</strong> development <strong>of</strong> a cap and trade system in the United States,<br />
and inclusion <strong>of</strong> REDD and AFOLU projects in the post-Kyoto CDM framework. <strong>The</strong><br />
prospects <strong>for</strong> these opportunities are uncertain, however.<br />
• <strong>The</strong> main constraints to expanded use <strong>of</strong> the CDM to support SLM in the present<br />
framework include CDM eligibility restrictions; high transactions costs <strong>of</strong> registering<br />
and certifying CDM projects; low prices <strong>for</strong> certified emissions reductions (CERs),<br />
especially <strong>for</strong> A/R projects; long time lags in achieving CERs; uncertainty about the<br />
benefits <strong>of</strong> projects and the future <strong>of</strong> the CDM; and land tenure insecurity in many<br />
African contexts. <strong>The</strong>se constraints are exacerbated by the limited technical, financial<br />
and organizational capacities <strong>of</strong> key actors in SSA.<br />
• Many <strong>of</strong> the same constraints apply to supporting AFOLU investments through voluntary<br />
and other compliance carbon markets, although to a lesser degree in some cases.<br />
• Constraints to increased use <strong>of</strong> adaptation funds to support SLM activities <strong>for</strong> climate<br />
adaptation include the limited size <strong>of</strong> these funds; lack <strong>of</strong> coordination among key<br />
government ministries; lack <strong>of</strong> technical and human capacity to implement adaptation<br />
activities; and others.<br />
• Challenges to U.S. participation in the global carbon market include the political<br />
challenge <strong>of</strong> achieving ratification <strong>of</strong> a post-Kyoto treaty; concerns about the<br />
effectiveness and risks <strong>of</strong> emissions reductions purchased from developing countries; and<br />
possible opposition by U.S. lobby groups to <strong>of</strong>fset payments to <strong>for</strong>eign land users.<br />
• Challenges to REDD payments include the technical difficulties and costs <strong>of</strong> defining<br />
baselines and assuring additionality; concerns about leakages; potential adverse<br />
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incentives caused by such payments; concerns about the fairness <strong>of</strong> paying countries with<br />
a poor record <strong>of</strong> protecting <strong>for</strong>ests and not paying those that have protected their <strong>for</strong>ests;<br />
possible negative impacts on poor people, especially where they have insecure land and<br />
<strong>for</strong>est tenure; and concerns about flooding the carbon market with cheap <strong>of</strong>fsets.<br />
• Many <strong>of</strong> the same challenges will affect payments <strong>for</strong> AFOLU activities. Many <strong>of</strong> these<br />
concerns are likely to be less problematic than <strong>for</strong> REDD payments, except the size <strong>of</strong><br />
transaction costs relative to the value <strong>of</strong> payments per hectare. Given the low payments<br />
per hectare possible <strong>for</strong> many AFOLU activities, projects will need to focus on promoting<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>itable AFOLU activities by addressing other constraints to adoption, such as lack <strong>of</strong><br />
technical, financial and organizational capacity.<br />
4.2.1. Opportunities<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are many opportunities to both mitigate and adapt to climate change in SSA through<br />
sustainable land use and management approaches, such as those discussed in previous sections.<br />
In the present environment, the major funding opportunities include<br />
• increased use <strong>of</strong> the CDM to finance af<strong>for</strong>estation, re<strong>for</strong>estation and other projects that<br />
promote sustainable land management 10 and meet the criteria <strong>of</strong> the CDM;<br />
• increased use <strong>of</strong> voluntary carbon markets and the various carbon mitigation funds to test<br />
and demonstrate project methodologies <strong>for</strong> a wider range <strong>of</strong> AFOLU activities in SSA,<br />
such as agr<strong>of</strong>orestry, conservation tillage, improved rangeland management, and REDD;<br />
• increased use <strong>of</strong> adaptation funds to support SLM activities that have been prioritized in<br />
African countries’ NAPAs;<br />
• increased funding <strong>for</strong> SLM activities supporting climate change mitigation and adaptation<br />
in SSA through the TerrAfrica partnership, UNCCD, <strong>CAADP</strong>, AGRA, and other publicly<br />
and privately funded programs promoting sustainable land and water management in<br />
SSA; and<br />
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!<br />
10 For example, CDM rural energy projects could potentially contribute to SLM by reducing demand <strong>for</strong> fuelwood,<br />
thus reducing degradation <strong>of</strong> <strong>for</strong>ests and woodlands caused by tree cutting <strong>for</strong> fuelwood. However, a review <strong>of</strong> the<br />
CDM project pipeline and approved methodologies did not identify any projects or methodologies that would clearly<br />
have this impact (UNEP Risoe 2009). <strong>The</strong> only approved methodologies <strong>for</strong> projects to improve household energy<br />
efficiency are related to distribution <strong>of</strong> energy efficient light bulbs or manufacture <strong>of</strong> energy efficient refrigerators,<br />
while projects and methodologies <strong>for</strong> improving the efficiency <strong>of</strong> energy supply are oriented towards industrial uses.!<br />
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• increased integration <strong>of</strong> climate change adaptation and mitigation activities, including<br />
SLM investments, into the broader development and poverty reduction strategies and<br />
programs <strong>of</strong> African governments and in multilateral and bilateral ODA. <strong>The</strong><br />
commitment <strong>of</strong> governments and development partners to substantially increase funding<br />
<strong>for</strong> agricultural research and development in Africa, as advocated in the 2008 World<br />
Development Report and in line with the Maputo Declaration and the <strong>CAADP</strong> agenda,<br />
represents a particularly important opportunity <strong>for</strong> achieving increased SLM investment<br />
<strong>for</strong> climate change mitigation and adaptation, if these activities are fully integrated into<br />
the agricultural development strategies <strong>of</strong> African countries and development partners.<br />
In pursuing these opportunities, it will be essential to continue to build on the momentum<br />
that has been established by partnerships and coalitions such as TerrAfrica, strengthening the<br />
linkages among organizations traditionally focused more on climate change, biodiversity or other<br />
environmental issues; those traditionally focused more on land degradation and sustainable land<br />
management issues; and those traditionally focused more on agricultural productivity issues.<br />
Success will depend greatly upon the ability <strong>of</strong> governments, donors, civil society organizations,<br />
the private sector and land users to work together to achieve the synergies that are possible<br />
among the objectives <strong>of</strong> mitigating and adapting to climate change and variability, promoting<br />
sustainable management <strong>of</strong> land and other natural resources, ensuring biodiversity conservation,<br />
increasing agricultural productivity, and reducing poverty in SSA.<br />
In the future, many new opportunities to expand these ef<strong>for</strong>ts may become available.<br />
Particularly important are opportunities that may result from the post-Kyoto treaty on climate<br />
change. Among the exciting new opportunities are the potential development <strong>of</strong> a cap and trade<br />
system in the United States, and inclusion <strong>of</strong> REDD and AFOLU projects in the post-Kyoto<br />
CDM framework. We discuss each <strong>of</strong> these opportunities briefly.<br />
Involvement <strong>of</strong> the United States in climate mitigation<br />
With the election <strong>of</strong> President Barack Obama and Democratic majorities to both houses <strong>of</strong><br />
Congress in November, 2008, the prospects <strong>for</strong> the United States to ratify a post-Kyoto treaty on<br />
climate change appear to have significantly improved. President Obama has announced that one<br />
<strong>of</strong> the top priorities <strong>of</strong> his administration will be addressing U.S. energy security and global<br />
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climate change by establishing a cap and trade system <strong>for</strong> carbon emissions. <strong>The</strong> president’s<br />
proposal envisions reducing GHG emissions by selected industries (representing about 80<br />
percent <strong>of</strong> estimated U.S. emissions) by 14 percent below 2005 levels by 2020 and 83 percent<br />
lower by 2050. Under the plan, the government would auction GHG emission permits to these<br />
industries. According to one estimate, the price <strong>of</strong> these allowances would average about $14<br />
per tCO 2 e allowance in the first year <strong>of</strong> implementation (2012) and would increase to about<br />
$16.50 per allowance by 2020 (http://www.carbon<strong>of</strong>fsetsdaily.com/usa/carbon-costs-underobama-cap-and-trade-4953.htm),<br />
although there is <strong>of</strong> course great uncertainty about what<br />
impacts the proposal would have on carbon market prices.<br />
A U.S. cap and trade system would likely allow <strong>of</strong>fsets from a broader set <strong>of</strong> AFOLU<br />
activities than are allowed under the CDM. <strong>The</strong> United States has historically favored inclusion<br />
<strong>of</strong> such activities in carbon compliance markets, and leading bills that have been proposed in the<br />
U.S. Congress would include such activities. For example, the Boxer-Lieberman-Warner<br />
climate security bill in the Senate directs that several AFOLU activities should be considered <strong>for</strong><br />
emission <strong>of</strong>fsets, including altered tillage practices; winter cover cropping, continuous cropping<br />
and other means to increase the biomass returned to the soil instead <strong>of</strong> winter fallowing; and<br />
conversion <strong>of</strong> cropland to rangeland.<br />
<strong>The</strong> implications <strong>of</strong> a U.S. cap and trade system <strong>for</strong> developing countries are not yet<br />
clear, however, as it will depend on whether <strong>of</strong>fsets from projects in developing countries<br />
through the CDM or another mechanism would be allowed. If they are allowed, one estimate is<br />
that this could result in trade <strong>of</strong> 1 billion <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>fsets (tCO 2 e) per year with developing countries<br />
(larger than the total volume <strong>of</strong> CDM exchanges in 2007), worth about $10 billion<br />
(http://southasia.oneworld.net/todaysheadlines/indian-firms-may-capitalise-on-obamas-cleanenergy-drive/).<br />
Based on analysis <strong>of</strong> the two cap and trade bills that had advanced the furthest in<br />
the last Congress (Lieberman – Warner and Bingaman – Specter) and their provisions <strong>for</strong><br />
international <strong>of</strong>fsets, Capoor and Ambrosi (2008) estimate that the potential increased demand<br />
<strong>for</strong> <strong>of</strong>fsets in the global carbon market from U.S. enactment <strong>of</strong> such proposals could be in the<br />
range <strong>of</strong> 400 – 900 Mt CO 2 e by 2020. This is <strong>of</strong> the same order <strong>of</strong> magnitude as the total volume<br />
<strong>of</strong> the CDM market in 2007 (Table 4.1).<br />
Such a large increase in demand <strong>for</strong> emission <strong>of</strong>fsets obviously could have large impacts<br />
on the global carbon market. However, the prices initially predicted by some observers <strong>for</strong> these<br />
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allowances and <strong>of</strong>fsets are within the range <strong>of</strong> prices currently observed <strong>for</strong> CERs under the<br />
CDM. It may be that transactions costs and uncertainties affecting the CDM market will<br />
continue to keep prices <strong>for</strong> CERs low in the future and hence limit farmers’ incentives to<br />
participate, although prices are likely to be higher with <strong>of</strong>ficial U.S. participation in the carbon<br />
market than without it (as long as <strong>of</strong>fsets from other countries are allowed). Furthermore, U.S.<br />
cap and trade legislation may restrict the prices allowable <strong>for</strong> emission <strong>of</strong>fsets to no more than a<br />
maximum amount (e.g., $20 per tCO 2 e). With limited increase in carbon market prices, and<br />
given the very small number <strong>of</strong> projects related to SLM in SSA under the current CDM, even a<br />
substantial expansion <strong>of</strong> the CDM market may have small impacts on such activities in SSA,<br />
unless other changes to the CDM are enacted in the post-Kyoto treaty.<br />
Beyond the impacts on the volume and prices <strong>of</strong> trades in the global carbon market, U.S.<br />
leadership in climate change mitigation and adaptation activities could mean substantially greater<br />
commitments <strong>of</strong> U.S. <strong>for</strong>eign assistance to support such activities in SSA and other developing<br />
regions. This might prove to have larger impacts on support <strong>for</strong> SLM activities related to climate<br />
change in SSA in the near to medium term than the global market impact <strong>of</strong> U.S. ratification <strong>of</strong> a<br />
post-Kyoto treaty.<br />
Reducing emissions from de<strong>for</strong>estation and <strong>for</strong>est degradation<br />
<strong>The</strong> 2007 Bali Action Plan, which was adopted at 13 th session <strong>of</strong> the Conference <strong>of</strong> Parties<br />
(COP) <strong>of</strong> the UNFCCC in Bali, Indonesia, established a process <strong>for</strong> developing the post-Kyoto<br />
treaty and specifically proposed consideration <strong>of</strong> payments <strong>for</strong> reducing emissions from<br />
de<strong>for</strong>estation and <strong>for</strong>est degradation (REDD). 11 <strong>The</strong> potential magnitude <strong>of</strong> such payments is<br />
very large. According to one estimate, global REDD markets could be as large as $46 billion,<br />
assuming a carbon price <strong>of</strong> $30 per tCO 2 and that annual de<strong>for</strong>estation rates are reduced by 50%<br />
(Figure 4-1). With more conservative (and probably more realistic) assumptions about<br />
reductions in de<strong>for</strong>estation rates and carbon prices the size <strong>of</strong> this market would be smaller, but<br />
still could be very substantial. For example, with a carbon price <strong>of</strong> $10 per tCO 2 and assuming a<br />
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!<br />
$$ !Among other actions to mitigate GHG emissions, the Bali Action Plan urged consideration <strong>of</strong> “Policy approaches<br />
and positive incentives on issues relating to reducing emissions from de<strong>for</strong>estation and <strong>for</strong>est degradation in<br />
developing countries; and the role <strong>of</strong> conservation, sustainable management <strong>of</strong> <strong>for</strong>ests and enhancement <strong>of</strong> <strong>for</strong>est<br />
carbon stocks in developing countries”. !<br />
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10 percent reduction in the annual rate <strong>of</strong> de<strong>for</strong>estation, the REDD market would still be about<br />
$3 billion.<br />
SSA has a large potential to contribute to reduced GHG emissions through REDD.<br />
According to Nabuurs, et (2007), Africa’s potential <strong>for</strong> GHG mitigation through reduced<br />
de<strong>for</strong>estation is 1,160 Mt CO 2 per year in 2030 (at costs <strong>of</strong> $100 per t CO 2 or less), representing<br />
29% <strong>of</strong> the global total; while reduced <strong>for</strong>est degradation resulting from improve <strong>for</strong>est<br />
management could reduce emissions by 100 Mt CO 2 per year. If half <strong>of</strong> these potential<br />
emissions reductions were achieved, this could result in payments <strong>of</strong> more than $6 billion per<br />
year, assuming a carbon price <strong>of</strong> $10 per tCO 2 . Most <strong>of</strong> the potential <strong>for</strong> REDD is in humid<br />
<strong>for</strong>est areas, where carbon losses from de<strong>for</strong>estation and <strong>for</strong>est degradation are greatest.<br />
Probably less than 10% <strong>of</strong> the potential REDD market is in drylands (Ecosecurities and Global<br />
Mechanism 2008).<br />
REDD payments could have many beneficial impacts on ecosystem services in SSA<br />
resulting from reducing de<strong>for</strong>estation and <strong>for</strong>est degradation, such as preserving biodiversity,<br />
protecting watersheds, and reducing soil erosion, sedimentation <strong>of</strong> watercourses and threats <strong>of</strong><br />
floods. <strong>The</strong>y may also be used to help to preserve and improve the livelihoods <strong>of</strong> <strong>for</strong>est<br />
dependent people, and they provide potentially large new funding sources to help finance rural<br />
development investments. However, there are also many potential challenges and constraints<br />
that may limit how well such benefits are achieved, and whether they reach poor people. <strong>The</strong>se<br />
are discussed in a subsequent subsection.<br />
Many design issues will need to be decided in designing a REDD payment system.<br />
Among these are questions about the scope <strong>of</strong> the system (what resources, activities and<br />
countries are eligible), the baseline that reduced de<strong>for</strong>estation will be measured against (how it<br />
will be measured, over what time period and spatial scale), how the payments will be distributed<br />
(where and to whom, what assets will be rewarded, at what scale), and how the payments will be<br />
financed (whether by a market, a fund, or a combination <strong>of</strong> mechanisms) (Parker, et al. 2008).<br />
<strong>The</strong> impacts <strong>of</strong> whatever system is adopted (if any) will <strong>of</strong> course depend on how these issues<br />
are resolved. For example, if payments are made <strong>for</strong> sub-national level projects, the ease <strong>of</strong><br />
monitoring and verifying reductions may be greater and the developmental impacts easier to<br />
assure, but problems <strong>of</strong> leakage (shifting <strong>of</strong> de<strong>for</strong>estation to nearby sub-national areas) may be<br />
greater. If a market mechanism is used to finance payments (as with the CDM), this may harness<br />
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greater financial resources than if financing depends on a fund established by donor governments<br />
and multilateral organizations; but the initial costs <strong>of</strong> capacity strengthening and project<br />
development may prove difficult <strong>for</strong> project developers in developing countries to finance if only<br />
a market mechanism is in place.<br />
Many proposals <strong>for</strong> REDD payment systems have already been developed by<br />
governments and by non-governmental organizations, with differing propositions on these issues.<br />
Almost all propose that REDD systems should include payments <strong>for</strong> both reduced de<strong>for</strong>estation<br />
and reduced <strong>for</strong>est degradation, while a few propose going further to also include carbon<br />
enhancement activities (Ibid.). Most propose that reductions should be measured at the national<br />
level, while some propose measuring reductions at a sub-national level (combined with national<br />
level measurement) or at a more global level. Most propose that reductions should be measured<br />
relative to de<strong>for</strong>estation rates during an historical period, while some advocate measuring<br />
relative to projected future de<strong>for</strong>estation and degradation, and one advocates measuring relative<br />
to current levels. Many <strong>of</strong> those that advocate measuring relative to historic rates propose<br />
allowing <strong>for</strong> adjustments <strong>for</strong> expected development, which brings those closer to the proposals to<br />
use projected rates (Ibid.). With regard to the distribution <strong>of</strong> payments, most proposals do not<br />
specify an explicit distributional mechanism, which implies that payments would be distributed<br />
solely on the basis <strong>of</strong> emission reductions. Some proposals argue <strong>for</strong> some explicit distribution<br />
<strong>of</strong> payments to countries who would not benefit much from a REDD payment scheme, such as<br />
low emitting developing countries. With regard to funding mechanisms, most proposals<br />
advocate multiple mechanisms, with special funds used to finance capacity strengthening and<br />
project development costs and markets providing payments once projects are established.<br />
Agriculture, <strong>for</strong>estry and land use (AFOLU)<br />
As with REDD, AFOLU activities have large potential to impact GHG levels in the atmosphere.<br />
Smith, et al. (2008) estimate that GHG reductions <strong>of</strong> more than 5 billion t CO 2 e per year by 2030<br />
are possible globally through improved agricultural and land management practices, assuming<br />
carbon prices <strong>of</strong> up to $100 per t CO 2 e (Figure 4-2). Most <strong>of</strong> these reductions are from soil and<br />
biomass carbon sequestration activities, including restoration <strong>of</strong> organic/peaty soils, improved<br />
cropland management, improved grazing land management, and restoration <strong>of</strong> degraded lands,<br />
which together account <strong>for</strong> more than three-fourths <strong>of</strong> the total reduction from agriculture and<br />
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land management. <strong>The</strong> technical potential <strong>for</strong> mitigation through such activities in Africa is<br />
estimated to be about one-fifth <strong>of</strong> the global total – 970 Mt CO 2 e per year by 2030 – while the<br />
economic potential (assuming carbon prices <strong>of</strong> up to $20 per t CO 2 e) in Africa is estimated to be<br />
265 Mt CO 2 e (Smith 2008). This is nearly four times the level <strong>of</strong> emissions reductions expected<br />
in 2012 from all CDM projects (including projects in the pipeline) in SSA, and one third <strong>of</strong> total<br />
emission reductions purchased under the CDM globally in 2007. Almost all <strong>of</strong> this economic<br />
potential <strong>for</strong> reductions in Africa is from agricultural and land management options in sub-<br />
Saharan Africa (Table 4-2). <strong>The</strong> potential flow <strong>of</strong> funds to SSA <strong>for</strong> such activities is thus more<br />
than $5 billion per year, assuming a price <strong>of</strong> $20 per t CO 2 e <strong>for</strong> soil carbon sequestration. With<br />
lower carbon prices, this potential would be less, but still appears likely to be on the order <strong>of</strong> at<br />
least $2 billion per year.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se impacts are in addition to the potential impacts <strong>of</strong> af<strong>for</strong>estation or re<strong>for</strong>estation<br />
ef<strong>for</strong>ts in Africa, which are estimated by the IPCC to be able to sequester 665 Mt CO 2 in 2030 (at<br />
opportunity costs <strong>of</strong> up to $100 per tCO 2 ) (Nabuurs, et al. 2007). If half <strong>of</strong> this potential were<br />
achieved at payments <strong>of</strong> $10 per tCO 2 , this would result in payments <strong>of</strong> more than $3 billion per<br />
year.<br />
Combining the potential <strong>for</strong> REDD and AFOLU activities in Africa, the total emissions<br />
reduction potential is estimated to be nearly 2.2 billion tCO 2 e in 2030. This is equivalent to<br />
6.5% <strong>of</strong> total GHG emissions in 2000 (33.7 billion tCO 2 e (Baumert, Herzog and Pershing<br />
2005)); a considerable impact even if this will not solve GHG emissions by itself. Considering<br />
the potential payments <strong>for</strong> REDD and <strong>for</strong> improved agricultural land management practices<br />
discussed above, together with the potential <strong>for</strong> af<strong>for</strong>estation and re<strong>for</strong>estation payments, total<br />
payments <strong>of</strong> more than $10 billion per year <strong>for</strong> these activities in Africa (assuming only 50% <strong>of</strong><br />
the potential reductions are achieved) appear possible.<br />
Un<strong>for</strong>tunately, consideration <strong>of</strong> including a broader set AFOLU activities in the post-<br />
Kyoto treaty appears to be less far advanced than consideration <strong>of</strong> REDD payments. <strong>The</strong> Bali<br />
Action Plan made no mention <strong>of</strong> AFOLU activities among activities to consider <strong>for</strong> climate<br />
change mitigation or adaptation. This oversight may reflect scientific uncertainties about the<br />
level <strong>of</strong> carbon sequestered by agricultural and land management practices or concerns about the<br />
ability to monitor and verify emissions reductions at low enough cost, contributing to skepticism<br />
among the COP <strong>of</strong> the UNFCCC about the potential and feasibility <strong>of</strong> payments <strong>for</strong> AFOLU<br />
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activities (these challenges are discussed in the next subsection). However, the large technical<br />
and economic potential estimated by the IPCC <strong>for</strong> AFOLU activities and demonstration <strong>of</strong> the<br />
feasibility <strong>of</strong> contracts <strong>for</strong> AFOLU projects by the Chicago <strong>Climate</strong> Exchange can help to<br />
counter such skepticism. Another reason <strong>for</strong> the lack <strong>of</strong> mention <strong>of</strong> this option may simply be a<br />
lack <strong>of</strong> sufficient involvement in earlier UNFCCC meetings <strong>of</strong> persons and organizations<br />
focusing on the potentials <strong>of</strong> SLM to help mitigate and adapt to climate change. This can be<br />
addressed in the current UNFCCC Copenhagen process by involvement <strong>of</strong> the UNCCD,<br />
coalitions such as TerrAfrica and NEPAD, and representatives <strong>of</strong> African and other developing<br />
countries supportive <strong>of</strong> recognizing and building on the synergies between SLM and climate<br />
change mitigation and adaptation.<br />
4.2.2. Challenges and constraints<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are many challenges and constraints to achieving the potential <strong>of</strong> these opportunities. We<br />
consider first the constraints applicable under the current Kyoto protocol, and then constraints to<br />
expanded realization <strong>of</strong> the potentials under a new post-Kyoto climate change regime.<br />
Constraints to expansion <strong>of</strong> af<strong>for</strong>estation/re<strong>for</strong>estation CDM projects in SSA<br />
<strong>The</strong> restriction <strong>of</strong> CDM eligibility <strong>of</strong> AFOLU activities to include only af<strong>for</strong>estation or<br />
re<strong>for</strong>estation (A/R) projects is <strong>of</strong> course a major barrier. But there are many other challenges and<br />
constraints limiting development and implementation <strong>of</strong> A/R CDM projects. <strong>The</strong>se include the<br />
transaction costs <strong>of</strong> registering, verifying and certifying projects relative to carbon prices; the<br />
temporary nature <strong>of</strong> CERs awarded <strong>for</strong> A/R projects and requirements that apply only to A/R<br />
CDM projects; uncertainty about the benefits <strong>of</strong> projects and the future <strong>of</strong> the CDM; the length<br />
<strong>of</strong> time required be<strong>for</strong>e CERs can be awarded <strong>for</strong> A/R projects; the “sunk” (unrecoverable)<br />
nature <strong>of</strong> costs <strong>of</strong> many <strong>of</strong> the investments involved (e.g., costs <strong>for</strong> investments in nonmarketable<br />
assets such as communal land), which tends to inhibit investments in the face <strong>of</strong><br />
uncertainty; and insecurity <strong>of</strong> property rights, which can undermine the ability <strong>of</strong> land based<br />
investments such as re<strong>for</strong>estation, or lead to negative impacts on poor households and<br />
communities (Baalman and Schlamadinger 2008; Bryan, et al. 2008; Jindal, et al. 2008).<br />
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Transaction costs can prohibit the viability <strong>of</strong> many projects, especially small ones. Most<br />
project developers responding to a recent study <strong>of</strong> the cost <strong>of</strong> AFOLU mitigation projects<br />
indicated that the cost <strong>of</strong> registering carbon units with the CDM were greater than $200,000,<br />
roughly twice the cost <strong>of</strong> certification in voluntary markets (Baalman and Schlamadinger 2008).<br />
According to the project developers interviewed, the high costs <strong>of</strong> CDM registration are due<br />
largely to the need to use expensive specialists to develop methodologies and project design<br />
documents, because <strong>of</strong> the complexity <strong>of</strong> the issues and procedures involved (Ibid.). Among the<br />
complex issues that must be addressed are the needs to show “additionality” <strong>of</strong> the investment<br />
(i.e., that it increases carbon sequestration relative to what would have occurred in absence <strong>of</strong> the<br />
project) and that “leakages” (shifting <strong>of</strong> carbon emissions to other locations as a result <strong>of</strong> the<br />
project) are avoided. Simplified procedures are allowed <strong>for</strong> addressing these issues <strong>for</strong> small<br />
scale projects (i.e., use <strong>of</strong> default values or assumptions to address them), but even so, the main<br />
methodology used <strong>for</strong> small scale A/R CDM projects typically requires completion <strong>of</strong> a 30 page<br />
document, comparable to large scale methodologies in other sectors (Ibid.). Besides the costs <strong>of</strong><br />
complying with such requirements, lack <strong>of</strong> availability <strong>of</strong> qualified experts to assist with<br />
developing project methodologies and plans, or to validate and verify project plans and<br />
implementation, can also be a major constraint, especially in SSA.<br />
Because many <strong>of</strong> these transaction costs are relatively independent <strong>of</strong> project size, they<br />
result in higher average costs per unit <strong>of</strong> emission reduction in smaller projects. According to<br />
one study, transaction costs <strong>of</strong> CDM projects range from $1.48 per tCO 2 e <strong>for</strong> large projects to as<br />
high as $14.78 per tCO 2 <strong>for</strong> small projects (Michaelowa and Jotzo 2005). With prices <strong>for</strong> CERs<br />
falling below 10 Euros ($12.70) in late February, 2009<br />
(http://www.carbonpositive.net/viewarticle.aspxarticleID=1472), it is clear that such high<br />
transaction costs make many potential CDM projects non-viable. As a result, few new CDM<br />
projects are being considered in the present depressed price environment (Ibid.).<br />
<strong>The</strong> problem <strong>of</strong> high transaction costs relative to CER prices is worse <strong>for</strong> A/R projects<br />
because A/R projects do not qualify <strong>for</strong> regular CERs, due to the impermanence <strong>of</strong> the emission<br />
reductions achieved (since planted trees may be cut or destroyed by fires). Two separate types <strong>of</strong><br />
CERs are applied to A/R projects, either a temporary CER (tCER) or a long-term CER (lCER).<br />
Current tCERs expire at the end <strong>of</strong> the current commitment period in 2012, while lCERs expire<br />
at the end <strong>of</strong> the project crediting period (e.g., 30 years) (Jindal, et al. 2008). Neither type <strong>of</strong><br />
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CER can be carried over to subsequent commitment periods, and a buyer who retires an lCER<br />
credit bears the responsibility <strong>for</strong> CER replacement in the event <strong>of</strong> subsequent removals <strong>of</strong><br />
planted trees or other violations <strong>of</strong> the agreement (Baalman and Schlamadinger 2008). As a<br />
result, the prices <strong>of</strong> tCERs and lCERs are substantially lower than regular CERs, with both<br />
typically valued at only about 25% <strong>of</strong> standard CERs (Ibid.). Contributing to these low prices is<br />
the fact that emission reductions from CDM A/R projects in developing countries are not<br />
accepted by the EU Emission Trading Scheme.<br />
Long time lags and uncertainty about receiving certification also inhibit development <strong>of</strong><br />
CDM projects. Because <strong>of</strong> the time required <strong>for</strong> trees to become established, A/R projects<br />
typically require at least 5 years be<strong>for</strong>e they are eligible <strong>for</strong> certification. CDM verification<br />
requirements at subsequent five-year intervals can further delay creation <strong>of</strong> CER credits (Ibid.).<br />
Risks can also be very substantial <strong>for</strong> such projects, especially when effective collective action is<br />
required to assure adequate management <strong>of</strong> the project (e.g., to establish and protect tree<br />
plantations to ensure tree survival), and local capacities <strong>for</strong> such collective management may be<br />
limited. Such risks are compounded by uncertainties about the future <strong>of</strong> the CDM after the<br />
Kyoto agreement expires and about future prices <strong>of</strong> CERs in the global market. Combining these<br />
concerns with the sunk costs involved in financing such investments, the shortage <strong>of</strong> financial<br />
capital and technical expertise in countries <strong>of</strong> SSA, and insecurity <strong>of</strong> property rights in many<br />
areas <strong>of</strong> SSA, it is easy to understand why the number <strong>of</strong> CDM projects related to land<br />
management is so small. We discuss options to address these constraints in a later sub-section.<br />
All <strong>of</strong> these challenges and constraints do not imply that investing in A/R CDM is<br />
hopeless, particularly if there is financial and technical support from development partners to<br />
help overcome them. A/R projects can earn high private and social rates <strong>of</strong> return in Africa,<br />
despite these costs and barriers. For example, a recent evaluation <strong>of</strong> impacts <strong>of</strong> SLM project<br />
investments in Niger estimated that community tree plantations promoted by projects earn an<br />
average internal rate <strong>of</strong> return <strong>of</strong> at least 28 percent (Pender and Ndjeunga 2008). However, they<br />
estimated that including the value <strong>of</strong> carbon payments <strong>for</strong> such plantations would only increase<br />
the rate <strong>of</strong> return by a few percentage points (assuming a payment <strong>of</strong> $4.20 per tCO 2 eq based on<br />
the rate <strong>of</strong>fered by the World Bank’s BioCarbon Fund <strong>for</strong> an af<strong>for</strong>estation project in Niger). <strong>The</strong><br />
additionality <strong>of</strong> such project-promoted tree plantations is clear in Niger, given that very few<br />
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communities have a plantation without a project. 12 Thus, even though projects may contribute<br />
little to the pr<strong>of</strong>itability <strong>of</strong> an A/R project, the involvement <strong>of</strong> the project may be essential in<br />
providing technical expertise, finance, and access to essential inputs such as seedlings, or by<br />
facilitating effective collective action. <strong>The</strong> potential <strong>for</strong> scaling up A/R or other SLM<br />
investments in Africa through the CDM (or otherwise) will depend on identifying such<br />
potentially pr<strong>of</strong>itable investments and helping to provide such essential inputs.<br />
Constraints to increased AFOLU investments through voluntary carbon markets<br />
Many <strong>of</strong> the constraints that apply to CDM investments also apply to the prospect <strong>of</strong> increasing<br />
AFOLU investments supported other compliance markets or by voluntary carbon markets,<br />
although to a different degree. For example, the transaction costs <strong>of</strong> obtaining certification <strong>of</strong><br />
third party standards are still an important constraint, although the costs may not be as high as <strong>for</strong><br />
CDM certification. Limited technical capacity <strong>of</strong> potential project developers and limited<br />
availability <strong>of</strong> qualified experts to validate proposals and certify projects also constrain the<br />
ability to develop and implement projects and certify compliance with voluntary standards in<br />
SSA.<br />
Some <strong>of</strong> the constraints imposed by the CDM regime are being addressed through<br />
voluntary market development. As noted earlier, voluntary markets are not limited to only A/R<br />
projects, and have been used to support projects related to other AFOLU activities such as<br />
conservation tillage and grassland management, and <strong>for</strong> REDD activities. Time lags and the<br />
need <strong>for</strong> initial finance are being addressed through financing provided by carbon mitigation<br />
funds. <strong>The</strong> need <strong>for</strong> future verification <strong>of</strong> project emission reductions does not prevent<br />
marketing <strong>of</strong> emissions reductions in the near term, although buffer reserves <strong>of</strong> non-tradable<br />
credits are required to insure against future uncertainties and possible reversals. For example,<br />
the VCS applies a buffer incorporating a longevity component, which is the same across projects<br />
and declines over time, and a project specific risk component based on assessments by auditors<br />
during each verification (Baalman and Schlamadinger 2008). <strong>The</strong> longevity buffer requirement<br />
can be as large as 30% in the first year <strong>of</strong> the project while risk buffers can be as large as 60%<br />
(Ibid.).<br />
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12 <strong>The</strong> same is not true <strong>of</strong> farmer-managed natural regeneration <strong>of</strong> trees, which is a widespread traditional practice in<br />
Niger (Larwanou, et al. 2006; Pender and Ndjeunga 2008).!<br />
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However, the limited extent <strong>of</strong> such projects in SSA suggests that transaction costs and<br />
limited technical and financial capacities in SSA, combined with even lower carbon prices on the<br />
voluntary market than in the CDM market, continue to be major barriers to expansion <strong>of</strong> these<br />
projects in SSA. As a result <strong>of</strong> limited technical and financial capacities as well as limited<br />
experience with such projects in SSA, the perceived risks <strong>for</strong> such projects are likely higher in<br />
SSA than in developed countries, further reducing the demand and potential price <strong>for</strong> such<br />
<strong>of</strong>fsets in the voluntary market. <strong>The</strong>se perceived risks can be reduced over time as a result <strong>of</strong><br />
investments in increasing the technical and financial capacities <strong>of</strong> project developers and<br />
intermediaries in SSA, and as experience with such projects increases.<br />
Constraints to expanding funding <strong>for</strong> adaptation<br />
<strong>The</strong> limited size <strong>of</strong> available adaptation funds compared to the need is the most important<br />
constraint. Besides lack <strong>of</strong> funds, many other constraints also inhibit implementation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
NAPAs, as identified by many <strong>of</strong> these documents themselves. <strong>The</strong>se include in many cases the<br />
complex and difficult procedures required to obtain funds from the available funding sources;<br />
lack <strong>of</strong> awareness <strong>of</strong> the problems and adaptation options among policy makers and the general<br />
population; lack <strong>of</strong> political will and support <strong>of</strong> policy makers; lack <strong>of</strong> coordination among key<br />
government ministries involved in promoting adaptation; the need <strong>for</strong> involvement <strong>of</strong> key<br />
ministries such as finance ministries; lack <strong>of</strong> scientific and technological capacity to identify,<br />
monitor and learn from actions taken to facilitate adaptation; lack <strong>of</strong> human capacity to<br />
implement adaptation activities at all levels, including government, the private sector, civil<br />
society and local communities; failure to sufficiently involve local communities and farmers in<br />
planning actions to address climate change; and the constraints underlying many <strong>of</strong> these<br />
problems in SSA, including poverty, low levels <strong>of</strong> education, poor infrastructure, governance<br />
problems and others.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se challenges and constraints can and are being addressed by ef<strong>for</strong>ts <strong>of</strong> governments<br />
in SSA, their development partners, civil society, local communities and the private sector to<br />
develop their technical and financial capacities to identify, plan and implement programs and<br />
projects <strong>for</strong> climate change mitigation and adaptation, and to integrate such programs and<br />
projects with the broader development strategies and policies being pursued in these countries.<br />
Partnerships such as TerrAfrica and NEPAD/<strong>CAADP</strong> are playing a critical role in this process<br />
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by facilitating development <strong>of</strong> Country Strategy Investment Frameworks <strong>for</strong> SLM that are<br />
integrated with African countries’ development, and supporting the development <strong>of</strong> financial and<br />
technical capacities to implement these frameworks. This is a long term process, and success is<br />
likely to be incremental, although substantial progress is already occurring in many countries.<br />
Many <strong>of</strong> these constraints, as well as additional challenges and constraints, may inhibit<br />
realization <strong>of</strong> the large potential new opportunities <strong>for</strong> the post-Kyoto period that were discussed<br />
above. We consider these next.<br />
Challenges to United States participation in climate markets<br />
<strong>The</strong> political feasibility <strong>of</strong> U.S. ratification <strong>of</strong> a post-Kyoto climate treaty is by no means certain,<br />
although the chances <strong>of</strong> success have improved. In the last Congress, the Warner – Lieberman<br />
cap and trade bill received only 48 yes votes in the Senate, far short <strong>of</strong> the 60 votes needed to<br />
allow passage <strong>of</strong> a bill in the Senate and the two-thirds (67) votes required to ratify a treaty.<br />
Especially in the current deep economic recession, any proposal that increases the cost <strong>of</strong> energy<br />
will be seen by many as a new “tax” and will face strong opposition.<br />
Arguments on the merits and difficulties <strong>of</strong> a cap and trade scheme may undermine<br />
support <strong>for</strong> participation in a post-Kyoto treaty or <strong>for</strong> continuing or expanding the CDM as a part<br />
<strong>of</strong> a treaty, even among some advocates <strong>of</strong> measures to address climate change. For example,<br />
the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) recently released a critical report on the EU<br />
Emissions Trading Scheme and the CDM that, although acknowledging the positive impacts that<br />
these regulatory schemes have had in promoting development <strong>of</strong> the carbon market, argues that<br />
the impacts <strong>of</strong> these schemes on emission reductions and economic development are unclear,<br />
because <strong>of</strong> problems such as high transaction costs, difficulty <strong>of</strong> demonstrating additionality <strong>of</strong><br />
CDM projects, and the short term nature <strong>of</strong> the CDM (GAO 2008). Such arguments may be<br />
persuasive with many members <strong>of</strong> the U.S. Congress. Hence, even if a treaty or law is passed<br />
establishing a cap and trade system in the United States, such concerns may limit the extent to<br />
which emissions <strong>of</strong>fsets purchased from developing countries will be allowed.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is also a risk that farm advocacy groups in the United States (and other developed<br />
countries) will seek to have all <strong>of</strong>fset payments made domestically, to increase the benefits <strong>for</strong><br />
their own farmers, even if this increases the cost <strong>of</strong> achieving emissions reductions. If there are<br />
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doubts about the verifiability and permanence <strong>of</strong> carbon <strong>of</strong>fsets in developing countries,<br />
environmental groups may also prefer to restrict <strong>of</strong>fsets to domestic sources, which may be seen<br />
as more easily verified.<br />
Challenges to REDD payments<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are many challenges to the effective use <strong>of</strong> REDD payments to mitigate climate change<br />
and benefit countries and poor people in SSA. <strong>The</strong>re will be serious technical difficulties and<br />
costs <strong>of</strong> defining baselines and measuring and verifying reduced de<strong>for</strong>estation and <strong>for</strong>est<br />
degradation. Measurement <strong>of</strong> changes in <strong>for</strong>est degradation, as opposed to de<strong>for</strong>estation (which<br />
can be measured using remote sensing techniques), is likely to be especially difficult.<br />
A particularly thorny problem is the issue <strong>of</strong> additionality, which hinges on the question<br />
<strong>of</strong> what level <strong>of</strong> de<strong>for</strong>estation would have occurred without the payments. Addressing this issue<br />
is important not only to assure the effectiveness <strong>of</strong> the payments in reducing GHG emissions, but<br />
also because this determines the level <strong>of</strong> payments to be made. If a country with a high rate <strong>of</strong><br />
past de<strong>for</strong>estation is paid to reduce future de<strong>for</strong>estation rates below that level, large payments<br />
could be paid even though no actual reduction in emissions occurred as a result, if the rate <strong>of</strong><br />
de<strong>for</strong>estation would have declined anyway (<strong>for</strong> example, because <strong>of</strong> a halt in road building in<br />
<strong>for</strong>ested areas that was planned even without the payments). <strong>The</strong> hypothetical nature <strong>of</strong> the<br />
counterfactual situation (what would de<strong>for</strong>estation have been without the payments) may make<br />
REDD payments seem to be arbitrary and ineffective to many observers.<br />
A related issue is the potential <strong>for</strong> adverse incentives to be caused by REDD payments.<br />
If payments are made based on changes relative to current or recent de<strong>for</strong>estation rates (at the<br />
time <strong>of</strong> treaty implementation), this could create incentives <strong>for</strong> countries to promote or allow<br />
increased de<strong>for</strong>estation until the post-Kyoto treaty is ratified and begins to be implemented. This<br />
problem could be addressed by advocating and using a historical baseline that is be<strong>for</strong>e the<br />
current date, so that decisions related to de<strong>for</strong>estation made from now until the new treaty begins<br />
implementation could not affect future REDD payments. However, the longer the time period<br />
between the historical reference period and whenever the future treaty begins to be implemented,<br />
the less likely it is that the reference period will adequately represent what future de<strong>for</strong>estation<br />
would have been without the payments, especially in rapidly developing (or economically<br />
declining) countries. This problem could be addressed to some extent by predicting future<br />
!<br />
(+!
!<br />
de<strong>for</strong>estation rates based on some kind <strong>of</strong> model, although how well this will represent the<br />
counterfactual will not be observable, so concerns about arbitrariness <strong>of</strong> the payments and their<br />
impacts will remain.<br />
Another political and moral concern relates to the fairness <strong>of</strong> the distribution <strong>of</strong> REDD<br />
payments. Countries that have made ef<strong>for</strong>ts to reduce their de<strong>for</strong>estation rates in the past may<br />
see little benefit from a REDD payment scheme, while countries that have caused high<br />
de<strong>for</strong>estation rates through poor or uncaring policies may receive high payments. 13 Many may<br />
regard such a scheme as unfair, even if the adverse incentives problem can be avoided. This<br />
concern is why several <strong>of</strong> the proposals made to date <strong>for</strong> REDD payment schemes incorporate<br />
some kind <strong>of</strong> distributional mechanism. Such distributional payments, while helping to assure<br />
the political feasibility <strong>of</strong> a scheme, do nothing to reduce emissions and hence reduce the cost<br />
effectiveness <strong>of</strong> the scheme.<br />
<strong>The</strong> possibility <strong>of</strong> leakages is another serious challenge, especially if payments are made<br />
<strong>for</strong> projects in sub-national regions or in small countries. Payments to reduce de<strong>for</strong>estation and<br />
degradation in one location may result in shifting the location <strong>of</strong> de<strong>for</strong>estation and degradation to<br />
another location, whether it is elsewhere in the same country or in other countries. To help<br />
address this problem, it may work better to make payments <strong>for</strong> REDD in larger geographical<br />
units, whether nations or even supra-national units, especially among small neighboring <strong>for</strong>ested<br />
countries (<strong>for</strong> example, in Central America). However, making REDD payments to larger<br />
geographical and political units may undermine the goal <strong>of</strong> using such payments to help improve<br />
the livelihoods <strong>of</strong> poor people (more on this below). Furthermore, leakages can still occur even<br />
between countries or continents that are distant from each other. To the extent that such<br />
payments are effective in increasing the prices <strong>of</strong> <strong>for</strong>est products or other products that are<br />
promoted by de<strong>for</strong>estation (<strong>for</strong> example, cattle in Latin America), market level effects may cause<br />
leakages even to areas far away from where REDD payments are applied. For example, if<br />
REDD payments cause the price <strong>of</strong> Brazilian cattle to increase as a result <strong>of</strong> reduced <strong>for</strong>est land<br />
available <strong>for</strong> ranching, cattle ranching <strong>for</strong> export markets may shift to other countries or<br />
continents, possibly contributing to increased de<strong>for</strong>estation in those locations.<br />
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!<br />
13 Of course, this criticism also can be applied to payments <strong>for</strong> emissions reductions through other types <strong>of</strong> projects,<br />
such as energy projects; i.e., countries that have polluted more in the past qualify <strong>for</strong> larger payments.!<br />
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REDD payments also could have negative impacts on poor people in developing<br />
countries. <strong>The</strong> prospects <strong>of</strong> receiving large payments may encourage governments or powerful<br />
private interests to <strong>for</strong>cibly evict land users from <strong>for</strong>ests and <strong>for</strong>est margin areas, with severe<br />
negative impacts on their well being. Such problems are particularly likely to arise where<br />
communities and households do not have secure tenure to their land, and where corruption is a<br />
serious problem, both <strong>of</strong> which are common in <strong>for</strong>est areas <strong>of</strong> many developing countries. Such<br />
negative impacts could be <strong>of</strong>fset or even outweighed by investments in improving the livelihoods<br />
<strong>of</strong> poor rural people, especially those who depend on <strong>for</strong>ests. Whether such investments will<br />
actually take place and be effective in helping poor people depends greatly on the real (as<br />
opposed to the stated) objectives <strong>of</strong> policy makers or other elite groups (that is, whether<br />
benefiting the rural poor is a real objective supported by political will), on the extent <strong>of</strong><br />
corruption, on the capacity <strong>of</strong> governments to identify and implement policies and investments<br />
that will benefit the affected rural poor, and on the costs <strong>of</strong> carrying out such policies and<br />
investments. Un<strong>for</strong>tunately, the developing countries that have the most to gain from a REDD<br />
payment scheme also tend to have greater problems <strong>of</strong> corruption and weak capacity (Figure 4-<br />
3).<br />
A final concern with REDD payments is that they may substantially increase the supply<br />
<strong>of</strong> available <strong>of</strong>fsets, flooding the market and crowding out other emissions reductions<br />
(Ecosecurities and Global Mechanism 2008). This is not necessarily a problem if the emissions<br />
reductions from REDD are real and additive, if the objective is to obtain the most emissions<br />
reductions at the lowest cost (which is the main economic rationale <strong>for</strong> allowing emissions<br />
trading). But, as noted above, assuring the additionality <strong>of</strong> emissions reductions purchased<br />
through REDD payments will be difficult. This may undermine the effectiveness <strong>of</strong> emissions<br />
reduction ef<strong>for</strong>ts globally (if the reductions are not additive) and hence may erode support <strong>for</strong> the<br />
entire cap and trade system if the targeted global reductions in GHG emissions are not achieved<br />
as a result.<br />
Solutions to this problem could be to keep the REDD market separate from other carbon<br />
markets (that is, not allow REDD payments to <strong>of</strong>fset other emissions reductions), support REDD<br />
payments through a separate fund rather than carbon markets, or discount the value <strong>of</strong> REDD<br />
emissions reductions relative to other emissions reductions considered to be more certain and<br />
verifiable (<strong>for</strong> example, one ton <strong>of</strong> CO 2 e reduction through REDD could be set to equal 0.5 ton<br />
!<br />
)-!
!<br />
<strong>of</strong> CO 2 e reduction in the EU ETS or CDM). <strong>The</strong> first two options have the advantage <strong>of</strong> limiting<br />
the potential negative impacts <strong>of</strong> REDD payments on other carbon markets, but will greatly<br />
reduce the total amount <strong>of</strong> potential payments. <strong>The</strong> last option could maintain a large market <strong>for</strong><br />
REDD emissions reductions, albeit at an arbitrarily set discount, and would reduce but not<br />
eliminate the risk to other carbon markets. A sequence <strong>of</strong> the first and third options could also<br />
be used, with the first (segmented market) option used to allow price discovery in the REDD<br />
market, which could be used to establish a market-based discount factor to apply in the third<br />
option. Alternatively, the price <strong>for</strong> REDD payments in voluntary markets, where trades based on<br />
REDD projects are allowed, could be used to establish a discount factor.<br />
Challenges to payments <strong>for</strong> AFOLU activities<br />
Incorporating payments <strong>for</strong> AFOLU activities such as conservation tillage, agr<strong>of</strong>orestry, and<br />
rangeland management into a post-Kyoto regime and successfully reaching small scale farmers<br />
in SSA would also face many challenges and constraints. <strong>The</strong> transactions costs <strong>of</strong> establishing<br />
projects, monitoring and verifying emissions reductions could be prohibitive relative to the<br />
potential payments that farmers might receive. For example, consider the range <strong>of</strong> emissions<br />
reductions credit <strong>of</strong>fered by the CCX <strong>for</strong> conservation tillage (0.5 to 1.5 t CO 2 e per hectare) and<br />
a carbon price <strong>of</strong> $5 to $10 per t CO 2 e. With this range <strong>of</strong> credits and price <strong>of</strong> carbon, farmers<br />
could earn between $2.50 and $15 per hectare <strong>for</strong> adopting conservation tillage. This may well<br />
be worth it in terms <strong>of</strong> the farmers’ opportunity costs, since in many cases conservation tillage is<br />
more pr<strong>of</strong>itable than conventional tillage. Nevertheless, the transaction costs <strong>of</strong> participating in a<br />
payment scheme could easily swamp the value <strong>of</strong> the payment, especially <strong>for</strong> small farmers with<br />
only a few hectares <strong>of</strong> land.<br />
For small farmers in Africa (and elsewhere) to benefit substantially from AFOLU<br />
payments, the transaction costs per farmer must be very small. This means that expensive<br />
measurements <strong>for</strong> verification, such as soil and biomass samples to measure carbon sequestration<br />
levels on individual farms, are not likely to be feasible. A less costly approach, if measurement<br />
is desired, would be to have community or farmer organizations participate in a payment scheme,<br />
and use a sampling approach within these organizations to measure and verify carbon<br />
sequestration. Even less costly would be to establish norms <strong>for</strong> soil carbon sequestration<br />
achieved by particular types <strong>of</strong> land management practices, such as used by the CCX and the<br />
!<br />
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!<br />
VCS, rather than trying to measure soil and biomass carbon levels. Given that carbon<br />
sequestration depends on many factors besides the land management practice (<strong>for</strong> example, the<br />
type <strong>of</strong> soil and the local climate), it would be important to establish norms <strong>for</strong> emissions<br />
reductions due to particular practices under different biophysical conditions, drawing upon<br />
existing and, as needed, new research. <strong>The</strong>re will still be monitoring and verification costs<br />
required, but these could focus on monitoring changes in land management practices and<br />
assessing the applicable biophysical context, to establish the appropriate emission reduction<br />
norm to apply. Ef<strong>for</strong>ts to develop such a monitoring approach <strong>for</strong> soil carbon are underway, and<br />
these <strong>of</strong>fer promise <strong>of</strong> achieving a cost effective approach to enable small farmers in developing<br />
countries to benefit from AFOLU payments. 14<br />
Given the importance <strong>of</strong> managing such payments through farmer or community<br />
organizations to minimize transaction costs per farmer, an important constraint <strong>for</strong> implementing<br />
these will be the presence and effectiveness <strong>of</strong> such organizations, and how well they serve the<br />
interests <strong>of</strong> the rural poor. In most <strong>of</strong> SSA, farmer and community organizations are not well<br />
developed, and in some cases have been undermined by policies that politicized or manipulated<br />
such organizations. Developing the capacity <strong>of</strong> and people’s confidence in such organizations is<br />
a long term need that is important in general <strong>for</strong> achieving rural development in SSA, and not<br />
only <strong>for</strong> implementing payments <strong>for</strong> climate mitigation or adaptation. But where such<br />
organizations exist and are effective, or could become effective with moderate support <strong>for</strong><br />
capacity strengthening, payment schemes <strong>for</strong> AFOLU activities (as well as REDD and other<br />
climate mitigation activities) could provide valuable new opportunities <strong>for</strong> these organizations to<br />
provide benefits to their members while promoting broader social and environmental benefits.<br />
Many <strong>of</strong> the challenges and constraints affecting REDD payments and other payment<br />
schemes under the CDM would also apply to AFOLU payments. For example, concerns about<br />
additionality and leakages <strong>of</strong> the impacts <strong>of</strong> such payments must be addressed. Assuring<br />
additionality appears easier in this case than in the case <strong>of</strong> REDD payments, since it is mainly a<br />
matter <strong>of</strong> showing that farmers begin to use practices that they weren’t using be<strong>for</strong>e the payment<br />
scheme (such as minimum tillage), rather than trying to project how much de<strong>for</strong>estation would<br />
have occurred without the payments. Of course, there is still the problem that the counterfactual<br />
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!<br />
14 For example, a workshop on Reduced Emissions and Adaptation in <strong>Land</strong>scapes (REAL) held at the World Bank<br />
in January 2009 reviewed methodologies <strong>for</strong> measuring and monitoring soil carbon and proposed a practical<br />
approach to monitoring soil carbon, along the lines suggested here (Sara Scherr, personal communication).!<br />
!<br />
)%!
!<br />
is not known. For example, even if farmers did not use minimum tillage be<strong>for</strong>e a payment<br />
scheme, it doesn’t prove that they wouldn’t have started using it even without the payments,<br />
especially if the practice is pr<strong>of</strong>itable without the payments.<br />
Indeed, given the small value <strong>of</strong> payments per hectare that are likely to be available <strong>for</strong><br />
most AFOLU activities and the transaction costs required to obtain them, AFOLU payments are<br />
likely to have at best a marginal impact on the pr<strong>of</strong>itability <strong>of</strong> such practices. 15 For widescale<br />
adoption to occur, AFOLU projects there<strong>for</strong>e will need to focus on promoting practices that are<br />
already pr<strong>of</strong>itable. Assuring additionality in this case will require emphasizing promotion <strong>of</strong><br />
practices that are limited by other constraints than low pr<strong>of</strong>itability, such as farmers’ lack <strong>of</strong><br />
awareness <strong>of</strong> the practices or their lack <strong>of</strong> technical, financial or organizational capacity to use<br />
them effectively. Hence, rather than making payments directly to farmers, AFOLU payment<br />
schemes are more likely to be effective (and to limit transaction costs) if the payments are used<br />
to support development <strong>of</strong> effective agricultural extension or credit mechanisms or farmer<br />
organizations that can overcome such constraints.<br />
Potential problems <strong>of</strong> leakages resulting from AFOLU payments also appear to be less <strong>of</strong><br />
a concern than leakages potentially caused by REDD payments. If a group <strong>of</strong> farmers begins to<br />
use conservation tillage or some other sustainable land management practice on their own land, it<br />
does not seem likely that this would cause other farmers to start using less sustainable land<br />
management practices. One exception to this could be if the new management practice causes<br />
farmers to obtain lower yields, which might require them to farm more extensively, potentially<br />
causing land degradation as cultivation expands into rangelands or <strong>for</strong>est areas. Another source<br />
<strong>of</strong> leakage could be if the new SLM practice involves restricting access to some resource (<strong>for</strong><br />
example, controlled access to grazing areas), which could cause livestock herders to shift to other<br />
areas, potentially causing degradation <strong>of</strong> other grazing areas. Such potential negative impacts <strong>of</strong><br />
promoting particular land management practices need to be carefully considered within the<br />
context in which the payment scheme is used. Applied research and knowledge management<br />
would be needed to better understand how and in what contexts such impacts are likely to occur,<br />
and the lessons incorporated into the design <strong>of</strong> payment schemes.<br />
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!<br />
15 Agr<strong>of</strong>orestry, especially in more humid areas, is an exception because <strong>of</strong> large above ground biomass potential.<br />
For example, the farmers participating in the Nhambita Community Carbon Project in Mozambique receive a cash<br />
payment <strong>of</strong> $243 per ha over seven years; averaging $34.70 per household per year and representing a significant<br />
increase in cash incomes <strong>for</strong> most households (Jindal, et al. 2008).!<br />
!<br />
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Applied research and knowledge management would also be needed to assess impacts <strong>of</strong><br />
AFOLU payments on the rural poor in different contexts, to help ensure that unintended negative<br />
impacts do not arise, and that any negative impacts that do arise are mitigated. For example,<br />
payments that support restricting access to grazing land could have negative impacts on livestock<br />
herders. It will be important to use an inclusive process when negotiating agreements <strong>for</strong> such<br />
schemes, to ensure that all affected groups have a voice and can find ways to avoid or<br />
compensate <strong>for</strong> costs imposed on particular groups.<br />
4.3. Options to Address Opportunities and Constraints to <strong>Climate</strong><br />
Mitigation and Adaptation through SLM in SSA<br />
Key messages<br />
Several options appear promising to exploit the opportunities and address the constraints to<br />
increasing climate mitigation and adaptation in sub-Saharan Africa through SLM activities:<br />
• Advocate improvements in the post-Kyoto agreement that address these opportunities and<br />
constraints. Particular improvements to consider advocating include<br />
o Expanding eligibility in the CDM to include all activities that sequester carbon or<br />
reduce emissions <strong>of</strong> GHGs, including REDD and AFOLU activities;<br />
o Agreeing to national targets <strong>for</strong> GHG levels <strong>of</strong> developing countries, and use a<br />
full GHG national accounting approach to credit reductions relative to baselines;<br />
and<br />
o Increasing funding <strong>for</strong> adaptation measures.<br />
• Simplify and improve the procedures to access funds under the CDM, adaptation funds<br />
and other relevant funds.<br />
• Explore existing opportunities to increase participation in voluntary markets such as the<br />
CCX and VCS.<br />
• Expand knowledge generation and outreach ef<strong>for</strong>ts on the problems <strong>of</strong> climate variability<br />
and change, land degradation, their linkages, and options <strong>for</strong> solution.<br />
• Engage local community leaders, farmers and other land users in planning and rule<br />
making processes.<br />
!<br />
)'!
!<br />
• Promote increased coordination <strong>of</strong> ef<strong>for</strong>ts to address climate variability, climate change,<br />
and land degradation and integration with key government strategies and processes,<br />
including agricultural and environmental strategies.<br />
• Expand investment in strengthening technical, organizational and human capacity<br />
relevant to climate and land management issues in SSA.<br />
• Address specific policy, institutional and other constraints to SLM and climate change<br />
mitigation and adaptation at national and local level in the context <strong>of</strong> country strategic<br />
investment frameworks (CSIFs).<br />
4.3.1. Advocate improvements in the post-Kyoto agreement<br />
In the post-Kyoto agreement, there are opportunities to substantially increase funding <strong>for</strong> SLM<br />
activities related to climate change mitigation and adaptation, but realizing these opportunities<br />
will require effective advocacy by stakeholders most concerned about achieving this. Ensuring<br />
the continuation <strong>of</strong> the CDM will be essential, including improvements to expand its scope and<br />
improve its accessibility to Africans. Three particularly important opportunities <strong>for</strong> this are to i)<br />
expand eligibility <strong>for</strong> the CDM to include all include all activities that sequester carbon or reduce<br />
emissions <strong>of</strong> GHGs, including REDD and AFOLU activities; ii) agree to national targets <strong>for</strong><br />
GHG levels <strong>of</strong> all countries, including developing countries, and use a full GHG national<br />
accounting approach to credit reductions relative to baselines; and iii) increase funding <strong>for</strong><br />
adaptation measures.<br />
Expand eligibility <strong>for</strong> the CDM to include REDD and AFOLU activities<br />
Making all activities that sequester carbon or reduce GHG emissions eligible <strong>for</strong> the<br />
CDM, including REDD and AFOLU activities, would dramatically increase the potential <strong>of</strong> the<br />
CDM to help promote SLM <strong>for</strong> climate change mitigation and adaptation in Africa and other<br />
developing regions. <strong>The</strong>re has already been substantial progress towards developing a scheme<br />
<strong>for</strong> REDD payments, with many proposals already circulated and being discussed by major<br />
stakeholders. It is critical that the many challenges and constraints that could undermine the<br />
effectiveness <strong>of</strong> such payments or cause unintended negative consequences are adequately<br />
considered and addressed, and not allowed to undermine the potential <strong>of</strong> the approach. Potential<br />
problems <strong>of</strong> leakages and negative impacts on poor and vulnerable populations are particularly<br />
!<br />
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important to address, so that the ultimate impacts on sustainable natural resource management<br />
and poverty reduction are as positive as possible. Given that they have comparable potential to<br />
REDD to help mitigate climate change, and probably greater potential to help improve rural<br />
livelihoods and facilitate adaptation, it is un<strong>for</strong>tunate and somewhat surprising that AFOLU<br />
activities have not received the same support in the UNFCCC process as REDD or other<br />
activities. Although there are difficult challenges and constraints that would affect the feasibility<br />
<strong>of</strong> payments <strong>for</strong> AFOLU activities, the previous discussion illustrates that these challenges are<br />
not likely to be any more difficult to address than those that face a REDD payment scheme (and<br />
in many cases may be easier to address).<br />
Active advocacy by African governments and other stakeholders concerned about SLM<br />
in SSA, including the UNCCD, <strong>CAADP</strong>, and TerrAfrica partners, will be essential to raise the<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>of</strong> AFOLU payments so that they receive serious consideration. To the extent that such a<br />
coalition contributes to acceptance <strong>of</strong> REDD payments, it may also receive greater cooperation<br />
and support from other stakeholders that are more focused on promoting <strong>for</strong>estry activities but<br />
haven’t yet supported including AFOLU payments in the post-Kyoto agreement. If these<br />
overlapping but somewhat distinct groups <strong>of</strong> stakeholders join <strong>for</strong>ces to effectively advocate both<br />
REDD and AFOLU payments, the chances <strong>of</strong> success <strong>for</strong> both initiatives are likely be greater.<br />
Agree to national GHG targets <strong>for</strong> developing countries and use national GHG accounting<br />
One major way to increase the contribution to climate change mitigation <strong>of</strong> farmers and other<br />
resource users in Africa and other developing regions would be <strong>for</strong> all countries, including<br />
developing countries, to agree to national GHG emission targets that are used as the basis <strong>for</strong><br />
crediting emissions reductions. Such an approach is <strong>of</strong> course already applied to Annex I<br />
countries under the Kyoto protocol. Including targets <strong>for</strong> developing countries in a post-Kyoto<br />
agreement does not imply that developing countries would have to accept binding commitments<br />
to reduce GHG emissions that could retard their development and would be unfair (considering<br />
much higher GHG emissions per capita in developed countries). Targets could be based on<br />
projected increases in GHG emissions needed to achieve sustainable development, considering<br />
population and economic growth and available technologies and capacities <strong>of</strong> each country. A<br />
“no lose” approach could be used in which developing countries are credited if they achieve<br />
reductions in emissions below their target, but are not penalized if they fail to do so. A full<br />
!<br />
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!<br />
national carbon or GHG accounting approach would be used to monitor and verify emissions<br />
reductions below the targets. Suggestions <strong>of</strong> this nature have been proposed by a few groups<br />
(e.g., Trines, et al. 2006; <strong>The</strong> Terrestrial Carbon Group 2008).<br />
This approach would have the advantage <strong>of</strong> being comprehensive, including all GHG<br />
sources and sinks, including AFOLU, REDD and others. If <strong>of</strong>fsets across different sources and<br />
sinks within and across countries are allowed, this would promote use <strong>of</strong> the most cost effective<br />
ways <strong>of</strong> reducing GHG emissions. By using national level accounting and including all<br />
countries in the system, problems <strong>of</strong> leakages <strong>of</strong> emissions within and across countries would be<br />
reduced. To the extent that baseline emission targets are well justified and reductions relative to<br />
those baselines real and verifiable, additionality <strong>of</strong> payments would be assured.<br />
However, there would be substantial challenges to overcome in order to enact and<br />
implement such an approach. Reaching agreement on country-specific GHG targets would be a<br />
major political challenge. Compounding this would be the technical difficulties <strong>of</strong> reliably<br />
measuring or estimating current and projected future GHG emissions, and political and<br />
administrative difficulties <strong>of</strong> achieving real emission reductions in ways that benefit poor people<br />
and avoid negative environmental trade<strong>of</strong>fs. Assuring the additionality <strong>of</strong> payments <strong>for</strong><br />
reductions below target GHG emissions levels would be difficult, especially where the technical<br />
and administrative difficulties are major hurdles. Absence <strong>of</strong> solid scientific data and consensus<br />
on the GHG emission impacts <strong>of</strong> various AFOLU practices or other activities in different<br />
contexts also could undermine confidence in the approach. <strong>The</strong>se difficulties are likely to be<br />
especially challenging in the least developed countries where data, technical and administrative<br />
capacities are very limited.<br />
Given the challenges as well as potential <strong>of</strong> such an approach, it would be advisable to<br />
assess the potential <strong>of</strong> this approach in more detail, considering different options <strong>for</strong> its use. For<br />
example, considerations <strong>of</strong> political and technical feasibility may argue <strong>for</strong> limiting the<br />
application <strong>of</strong> this approach, at least initially, to certain countries and certain activities. If the<br />
feasibility <strong>of</strong> the approach could be established on such a pilot basis, it could subsequently be<br />
expanded to more countries and activities as warranted by the methods and capacities available.<br />
Increase adaptation funds<br />
!<br />
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As shown earlier in this report, the level <strong>of</strong> funding available to support adaptation activities in<br />
developing countries is woefully inadequate compared to the need. This has important<br />
implications <strong>for</strong> the potential to finance SLM activities in SSA, since such activities have been<br />
identified as high priority in most <strong>of</strong> the NAPAs prepared by African countries. Although the<br />
funds available in the UNFCCC Adaptation Fund are projected to increase with the size <strong>of</strong> the<br />
CDM, these funds are still quite limited because <strong>of</strong> the limited scope <strong>of</strong> the CDM and the low<br />
2% rate <strong>of</strong> assessment on CDM projects. Expanding the scope <strong>of</strong> CDM to include REDD and<br />
AFOLU activities potentially will substantially increase the amount <strong>of</strong> funds available <strong>for</strong><br />
adaptation, and hence <strong>for</strong> SLM activities that are priority <strong>for</strong> adaptation (as well as other<br />
adaptation activities). This illustrates an additional synergy between climate change mitigation<br />
and adaptation, in which increased mitigation activities related to SLM contribute to additional<br />
funds <strong>for</strong> adaptation, some <strong>of</strong> which also will be used to promote SLM. Beyond expanding the<br />
scope <strong>of</strong> CDM, increasing the level <strong>of</strong> the levy on CDM projects <strong>for</strong> the Adaptation Fund could<br />
also be considered as an option to increase the size <strong>of</strong> this fund.<br />
4.3.2. Simplify and improve procedures to access funds <strong>for</strong> climate mitigation and adaptation<br />
A common criticism <strong>of</strong> the CDM is the complexity, high transactions costs and uncertainty <strong>of</strong><br />
procedures <strong>for</strong> registering these projects. Some complexity, transaction costs and uncertainty are<br />
<strong>of</strong> course unavoidable in any program that seeks to achieve additional and verifiable emission<br />
reductions or GHG sequestration. But it may be possible to reduce some <strong>of</strong> these burdens<br />
without greatly sacrificing these objectives though some improvements in procedures.<br />
An example <strong>of</strong> a change going in this direction is the option allowing Programmes <strong>of</strong><br />
Activities (PoA) to act as umbrellas <strong>for</strong> groups <strong>of</strong> similar activities, thus helping to reduce<br />
transaction costs per activity. <strong>The</strong> requirements <strong>for</strong> PoA were approved by the Executive Board<br />
<strong>of</strong> the CDM at the end <strong>of</strong> 2007, so there is limited experience with these so far. As <strong>of</strong> January,<br />
2009, only 16 PoA had been initiated, with all still in the validation stage, and none related to<br />
A/R activities (UNEP Risoe 2009). A recent survey <strong>of</strong> project developers found some who felt<br />
PoAs could help to streamline the process and make some projects feasible, while others felt that<br />
this does not solve the main problems with the CDM and that its impacts would be negligible<br />
(Baalman and Schlamadinger 2008). Nearly all developers interviewed were reticent about<br />
being a “pioneer” in pursuing a PoA, since it involves additional processes <strong>of</strong> unknown cost and<br />
!<br />
)+!
!<br />
complexity (Ibid.). One way a PoA could help with A/R projects could be by enabling<br />
developers to avoid having to specify fixed boundaries <strong>of</strong> the project (as they do under normal<br />
procedures), which can limit participation in the project since the set <strong>of</strong> interested potential<br />
participants may not be known during the design stage. However, it could be simpler if the<br />
CDM were to allow flexible boundaries in A/R projects, in which additional planting areas could<br />
be added to the project without new proposal requirements as long as the same project<br />
methodology were used and participants were involved (Ibid.). Such a flexible approach is<br />
allowed by the New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme (GGAS) in Australia.<br />
Another change in the CDM that could increase its attractiveness to A/R project<br />
developers in SSA would be to replace the non-fungible tCERs and lCERs <strong>for</strong> these activities by<br />
permanent CERs, as issued <strong>for</strong> other CDM projects (Ibid.). Risks <strong>of</strong> non-permanence <strong>of</strong><br />
emission reductions could be addressed by requiring a risk buffer similar to that used under the<br />
VCS. This would address the problem caused by expiring credits while still addressing the risks<br />
<strong>of</strong> non-permanence.<br />
Supporting the development and demonstration <strong>of</strong> simplified methodologies <strong>for</strong><br />
establishing baselines and verifying emissions reductions would likely be helpful, especially <strong>for</strong><br />
areas where there has been little CDM activity to date (like A/R projects) or new areas (like<br />
REDD and AFOLU activities) and <strong>for</strong> smaller projects. Acceptance <strong>of</strong> standardized simple<br />
methodologies, supported by sufficient research and tailored to local contexts, to estimate<br />
emissions reductions based on readily observed indicators could greatly reduce the complexity,<br />
costs and uncertainties associated with CDM projects. <strong>The</strong> CDM could draw lessons from the<br />
experience <strong>of</strong> the Chicago <strong>Climate</strong> Exchange and other compliance and voluntary markets that<br />
have developed simple standardized contracts and norms <strong>for</strong> emissions reductions from various<br />
AFOLU activities. Costs and delays associated with verifying compliance could also be reduced<br />
by following examples from other schemes. For example, the GGAS uses an approach that<br />
allows a proportion <strong>of</strong> certified units to be credited on the basis <strong>of</strong> previous verification reports<br />
and satisfactory annual on-site monitoring reports, with full on-site verifications occurring at no<br />
more than 5 year intervals (Ibid.).<br />
Other changes in the CDM that could increase participation <strong>of</strong> A/R projects would be to<br />
remove or relax restrictions on the amount <strong>of</strong> CERs from such projects that can be retired by any<br />
Party; change the threshold <strong>for</strong> small-scale A/R projects to be equivalent to the threshold <strong>for</strong><br />
!<br />
),!
!<br />
non-A/R projects (a lower threshold presently is used <strong>for</strong> A/R projects); and provide support <strong>for</strong><br />
capacity building <strong>of</strong> designated national authorities (DNAs) and host party project participants<br />
(Ibid.).<br />
With regard to accessing adaptation funds, part <strong>of</strong> the concern <strong>of</strong> developing country<br />
stakeholders may be the large amount <strong>of</strong> ef<strong>for</strong>t that was required to prepare NAPAs, without any<br />
assurance <strong>of</strong> what funds would be available or clear procedures on how to access those funds.<br />
<strong>The</strong> preparation <strong>of</strong> NAPAs in most cases followed the preparation <strong>of</strong> other strategies and action<br />
plans, such as the NAPs required under the UNCCD, the BSAPs required under the CBD, etc.<br />
Stakeholders may be concerned about the numerous planning exercises that <strong>of</strong>ten take place<br />
without sufficient commitment <strong>of</strong> funds to implement the plans. Thus, the more important issue<br />
may be assuring sufficient funds are available to support adaptation, rather than the procedures to<br />
access them. Nevertheless, simplifications in such procedures may also be possible and helpful,<br />
such as clarifying what activities are eligible <strong>for</strong> funds, what criteria are used to allocate funds<br />
and how they are applied.<br />
4.3.3. Explore existing opportunities to increase participation in voluntary carbon markets<br />
As noted previously, African participation in voluntary markets <strong>for</strong> AFOLU activities is very<br />
limited, due to transaction costs <strong>of</strong> obtaining third party certification, limited technical capacity<br />
<strong>of</strong> project developers, limited availability <strong>of</strong> qualified designated operational entities (DOEs) to<br />
validate projects and certified emissions reductions, and the high perceived risks <strong>of</strong> projects in<br />
Africa. Support <strong>for</strong> developing the capacity <strong>of</strong> project developers and increasing the availability<br />
<strong>of</strong> qualified DOEs in SSA will there<strong>for</strong>e be particularly important to be able to increase access to<br />
the opportunities available. As these capacities are developed and experience with implementing<br />
such activities in SSA increases, the transaction costs and perceived risks <strong>of</strong> these projects<br />
should decline, contributing to further development <strong>of</strong> new opportunities.<br />
4.3.4. Expand knowledge generation and outreach ef<strong>for</strong>ts related to climate and SLM<br />
One <strong>of</strong> the important constraints to addressing climate variability and change through SLM (and<br />
other means) is lack <strong>of</strong> full awareness <strong>of</strong> the problems, and especially lack <strong>of</strong> knowledge <strong>of</strong><br />
effective responses that are suitable in different contexts. In the absence <strong>of</strong> such awareness and<br />
knowledge (especially on the part <strong>of</strong> policy makers), responses are <strong>of</strong>ten insufficient, ineffective,<br />
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!<br />
or in some cases, can make the problems worse. Top-down promotion <strong>of</strong> “one-size-fits-all”<br />
approaches to land management or climate mitigation activities in contexts where these are not<br />
suited, can result in increased land degradation and opposition by local people. An example <strong>of</strong><br />
this problem occurred in the Ethiopian highlands during the <strong>for</strong>mer Marxist Derg regime, when<br />
farmers were <strong>for</strong>ced to construct terraces, even though this reduced crop production in some<br />
places because <strong>of</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> land on steep slopes, increased waterlogging, pests, and other problems.<br />
Because <strong>of</strong> these problems, farmers sometimes did not adequately maintain the terraces,<br />
contributing to problems <strong>of</strong> gully <strong>for</strong>mation.<br />
It is important that ef<strong>for</strong>ts to promote SLM <strong>for</strong> climate mitigation and adaptation be<br />
adequately in<strong>for</strong>med about the potential and actual impacts <strong>of</strong> interventions in different contexts.<br />
Applied research, technology development and knowledge generation and dissemination about<br />
“what works where when and why” in land management can help ensure that these ef<strong>for</strong>ts are as<br />
effective and pro-poor in their impacts as possible. This research and knowledge dissemination<br />
can and should draw upon a considerable base <strong>of</strong> indigenous knowledge on these issues, as well<br />
as upon scientific research and rigorous evaluations <strong>of</strong> program interventions.<br />
4.3.5. Improve coordination <strong>of</strong> ef<strong>for</strong>ts to address climate and land degradation, and<br />
integration with key government strategies and processes<br />
Substantial ef<strong>for</strong>ts are taking place to coordinate programs addressing climate change within the<br />
context <strong>of</strong> the UNFCCC, while programs to address land degradation in Africa are being<br />
coordinated by the UNCCD, NEPAD and TerrAfrica. However, coordination between these<br />
focal areas can still be improved, although significant steps have begun in this direction. <strong>The</strong><br />
processes <strong>of</strong> developing and implementing strategies and plans related to these areas are largely<br />
separate. For example, it is not clear how and to what extent many <strong>of</strong> the NAPAs developed<br />
under the UNFCCC build upon or are linked to the NAPs developed under the UNCCD.<br />
Involvement <strong>of</strong> key stakeholders from the SLM community in the current UNFCCC processes is<br />
very useful in addressing this need. It would also be useful to increase the involvement <strong>of</strong><br />
stakeholders from the climate change community in the processes to develop SLM strategies and<br />
plans, such as the development <strong>of</strong> CSIFs.<br />
Even more important is effective integration <strong>of</strong> strategies and plans related to both<br />
climate change and SLM with the overarching strategies and policy processes in African<br />
!<br />
*$!
!<br />
countries, including national poverty reduction strategies, rural development strategies,<br />
agricultural and environmental strategies, among others. Although references are <strong>of</strong>ten made to<br />
particular strategy documents or policies in national level plans on climate change adaptation or<br />
combating land degradation, actual integration <strong>of</strong> these plans with government strategies,<br />
financial planning and budgetary processes is usually less clear. Thus, the level <strong>of</strong> actual<br />
commitment <strong>of</strong> governments to supporting these plans, in terms <strong>of</strong> financial and human<br />
resources, <strong>of</strong>ten remains ambiguous. TerrAfrica and NEPAD/<strong>CAADP</strong> are seeking to address<br />
this shortcoming through the process <strong>of</strong> developing CSIFs. Development <strong>of</strong> broad programmatic<br />
rather than project approaches to promote SLM under the CSIF’s by TerrAfrica and<br />
NEPAD/<strong>CAADP</strong> will help to facilitate integration <strong>of</strong> SLM activities with the broader strategies<br />
<strong>of</strong> governments. TerrAfrica is also supporting analytical work to estimate public expenditures on<br />
SLM activities in several countries, in<strong>for</strong>mation which will support the process <strong>of</strong> CSIF<br />
development.<br />
4.3.6. Expand investments in technical, organizational and human capacity relevant to climate<br />
and SLM issues<br />
As noted in many <strong>of</strong> the NAPs, NAPAs, and other documents, inadequate scientific, technical,<br />
organizational and human capacity is a major constraint to implementation <strong>of</strong> strategies and<br />
plans to mitigate and adapt to climate change and combat land degradation. A high level <strong>of</strong><br />
scientific and technical capacity is required to identify the nature and extent <strong>of</strong> climate change<br />
and vulnerability and land degradation in particular contexts; diagnose the main causes; prescribe<br />
and implement options to address these problems; and monitor, evaluate and synthesize lessons<br />
from these experiences. Achieving such capacity will require substantial investments in national<br />
agricultural research systems (NARS), investments that have been lacking in recent decades but<br />
which African governments have committed to increasing within the framework <strong>of</strong> NEPAD.<br />
Donor governments and multilateral organizations are also increasingly recognizing the need to<br />
increase their investments in these systems, as articulated by the World Bank in its 2008 World<br />
Development Report.<br />
Probably even more important than development <strong>of</strong> scientific and technical capacity is<br />
investment in development <strong>of</strong> organizational and human capacity at all levels. Government<br />
organizations that are responsible <strong>for</strong> implementing action plans related to climate and land<br />
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*%!
!<br />
management will require increased capacity to provide advisory and other services to large<br />
numbers <strong>of</strong> people in dispersed locations. Local governments in particular need to strengthen<br />
their capacity to identify and respond to local problems and needs related to climate and land<br />
degradation (as well as in many other areas), especially in the context <strong>of</strong> decentralization policies<br />
being carried out in many countries. Governments and project developers need to strengthen<br />
their capacities to identify funding opportunities <strong>for</strong> climate mitigation and adaptation, develop<br />
proposals, link to existing sources and scale up funding. Training <strong>of</strong> private or public sector<br />
actors is needed to increase the availability <strong>of</strong> qualified Designated Operational Entities (DOEs)<br />
to validate mitigation project proposals and verify emissions reductions. Development <strong>of</strong><br />
effective civil society organizations such as farmer and community organizations will be<br />
essential <strong>for</strong> small farmers and herders to be able to benefit from the opportunities <strong>of</strong>fered by<br />
carbon markets and adaptation programs. Community and organizational leaders, farmers,<br />
herders and other resource users need investments in their human capacity to diagnose problems<br />
related to climate and land management and identify and implement the most effective<br />
responses. Private sector actors, such as agricultural input dealers and advisory service providers<br />
(where private providers are used) also need training on how their products and services can help<br />
farmers and herders to respond to problems caused by climate variability and change and land<br />
degradation.<br />
International private sector actors, such as agribusinesses and <strong>for</strong>eign investors, can be very<br />
important in contributing to capacity development in African countries, and can also have a large<br />
impact by incorporating SLM approaches into their investments strategies. Effective<br />
engagement <strong>of</strong> these actors can there<strong>for</strong>e be very helpful.<br />
4.3.7. Engage civil society, farmers and other resource users in program and project<br />
development<br />
Top-down approaches to promoting SLM <strong>for</strong> climate change mitigation and adaptation are<br />
unlikely to be successful. As has been shown by a large body <strong>of</strong> empirical research and practical<br />
experience with community driven natural resource management and development programs,<br />
farmers, pastoralists, and other land resource users, as well as leaders <strong>of</strong> communities and civil<br />
society organizations, are more likely to contribute to climate change mitigation and adaptation<br />
ef<strong>for</strong>ts if they are actively engaged in defining the problem, identifying and assessing options,<br />
!<br />
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!<br />
and developing programs and projects to implement their preferred options. Government<br />
agencies and development partners can promote this approach by promoting the use <strong>of</strong> best<br />
practices in community driven development by project and program developers. Provision <strong>of</strong><br />
best practice guidelines and investments to strengthen the capacity <strong>of</strong> such agents in assessing<br />
local needs, facilitating local groups and other relevant skills can be helpful in this regard.<br />
4.3.8. Address specific constraints to SLM <strong>for</strong> climate change mitigation and adaptation at<br />
national and local levels through CSIFs<br />
<strong>The</strong> specific priorities <strong>for</strong> policy changes and investments to support SLM activities are being<br />
identified at the national and local levels in several African countries through the TerrAfrica<br />
process <strong>of</strong> developing Country Strategic Investment Frameworks (CSIFs) <strong>for</strong> SLM. This process<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten identifies key policy changes, such as changes in land tenure policies or implementation <strong>of</strong><br />
such policies that are needed, as well as specific investment priorities to promote SLM. Such<br />
priorities usually include many <strong>of</strong> the needs highlighted above, such as investments in<br />
strengthening technical, organizational and human capacity, improving knowledge generation<br />
and management, and others. By incorporating climate issues and key stakeholders concerned<br />
about these issues into the process <strong>of</strong> developing CSIFs, this process can help to integrate<br />
approaches to jointly address climate change, land degradation and other environmental<br />
concerns, and economic development and poverty.<br />
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5. CONCLUSIONS<br />
In this report, we have reviewed available evidence on climate variability and change and land<br />
degradation in SSA; assessed the potential <strong>for</strong> SLM approaches to help mitigate and adapt to<br />
these problems; reviewed the policies and strategies being used to promote climate mitigation<br />
and adaptation; identified key opportunities and constraints to improve mitigation and adaptation<br />
through SLM; and identified options to achieve the opportunities and overcome the constraints.<br />
Several key messages emerge from the review:<br />
<strong>Climate</strong> change and variability in SSA<br />
• SSA is highly vulnerable to climate variability and change.<br />
o <strong>The</strong> impacts <strong>of</strong> climate variability have increased in SSA in recent decades, and<br />
are expected to continue to do so as a result <strong>of</strong> climate change.<br />
o <strong>The</strong> impacts <strong>of</strong> climate change on future land use, agriculture and food security<br />
are predicted to be negative throughout much <strong>of</strong> Africa, as a result <strong>of</strong> rising<br />
temperatures everywhere, and declining and more variable rainfall in many<br />
locations.<br />
• <strong>The</strong>se impacts will exacerbate and be exacerbated by widespread land degradation in<br />
SSA.<br />
Linkages between land degradation, SLM and climate change in SSA<br />
• <strong>Land</strong> degradation is widespread in SSA, especially in drylands and <strong>for</strong>est margin areas,<br />
caused mainly by conversion <strong>of</strong> <strong>for</strong>ests, woodlands and rangelands to crop production;<br />
overgrazing <strong>of</strong> rangelands; and unsustainable agricultural practices on croplands.<br />
• <strong>Climate</strong> variability and change can contribute to land degradation by making current land<br />
use practices unsustainable and inducing more rapid conversion <strong>of</strong> land to unsustainable<br />
uses.<br />
• However, climate change also can <strong>of</strong>fer new opportunities <strong>for</strong> sustainable land<br />
management, by increasing temperature and rainfall in some environments, through CO 2<br />
fertilization effects, or through the development <strong>of</strong> markets <strong>for</strong> mitigating greenhouse gas<br />
emissions.<br />
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!<br />
• <strong>Land</strong> degradation increases the vulnerability <strong>of</strong> rural people in SSA to climate variability<br />
and change, while SLM can reduce it.<br />
• SLM also provides major opportunities to mitigate climate change by sequestering<br />
carbon or reducing greenhouse gas emissions.<br />
Policies and strategies affecting climate change mitigation and adaptation through SLM<br />
• <strong>The</strong>re are many policy frameworks, strategies, institutions and programs affecting<br />
opportunities and constraints to promote climate change mitigation and adaptation<br />
through SLM in SSA. Among the most potentially important are the CDM, the voluntary<br />
carbon market, climate mitigation and adaptation funds, the UNCCD, NEPAD/<strong>CAADP</strong>,<br />
TerrAfrica and regional, sub-regional and national policy processes linked to these. SLM<br />
can provide an integrative framework <strong>for</strong> the various policy conventions and available<br />
financing mechanisms.<br />
• <strong>The</strong> current use <strong>of</strong> these mechanisms to support SLM projects in SSA is very limited:<br />
o Only 10 af<strong>for</strong>estation or re<strong>for</strong>estation projects in SSA are in the CDM pipeline.<br />
o No <strong>of</strong>fsets are supplied to the CCX by SLM projects in SSA, and only about 0.2<br />
MtCO 2 e were <strong>of</strong>fset through other voluntary transactions involving land<br />
management in SSA in 2007 (less than 0.5% <strong>of</strong> global voluntary transactions).<br />
o Many carbon mitigation have been established, but most do not support AFOLU<br />
activities in SSA.<br />
o Several adaptation funds have been established, but they are small compared to<br />
the total need, and access to these funds in SSA has been very limited so far.<br />
o Implementation <strong>of</strong> National Action Programmes <strong>of</strong> the UNCCD has been limited<br />
by funding constraints and other factors.<br />
• NEPAD’s <strong>CAADP</strong> and TerrAfrica are working in partnership to promote up-scaling <strong>of</strong><br />
SLM in Africa, with increasing focus on climate change mitigation and adaption.<br />
o TerrAfrica has mobilized $150 million in funds that are expected to leverage an<br />
additional $1 billion to support this goal.<br />
o <strong>CAADP</strong> and TerrAfrica are working with African governments to develop and<br />
support CSIFs <strong>for</strong> SLM. Integrating strategies and programs to promote SLM and<br />
address climate change with each other and with national development strategies<br />
!<br />
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!<br />
and policies is a major challenge. Addressing this challenge is a major emphasis<br />
<strong>of</strong> the CSIFs.<br />
Opportunities and constraints to increase SLM investment <strong>for</strong> climate mitigation and<br />
adaptation<br />
• <strong>The</strong> major current opportunities to increase funding <strong>for</strong> climate mitigation and adaptation<br />
through SLM include<br />
o increased use <strong>of</strong> the CDM to finance af<strong>for</strong>estation and re<strong>for</strong>estation (A/R)<br />
projects;<br />
o increased use <strong>of</strong> voluntary carbon markets and carbon mitigation funds to test and<br />
demonstrate methodologies <strong>for</strong> a wider range <strong>of</strong> AFOLU activities;<br />
o increased use <strong>of</strong> adaptation funds to support SLM activities that have been<br />
prioritized by countries’ NAPAs;<br />
o increased funding <strong>for</strong> climate change mitigation and adaptation through programs<br />
promoting SLM in Africa; and<br />
o increased integration <strong>of</strong> climate change mitigation and adaptation activities,<br />
including SLM, into development strategies <strong>of</strong> African governments and donors.<br />
• Major new opportunities to support climate change mitigation and adaptation through<br />
SLM may arise as a result <strong>of</strong> development <strong>of</strong> a cap and trade system in the United States,<br />
and inclusion <strong>of</strong> REDD and AFOLU projects in the post-Kyoto CDM framework. Total<br />
annual payments <strong>for</strong> such activities in Africa could exceed $10 billion per year if these<br />
opportunities are realized. <strong>The</strong> prospects <strong>for</strong> these opportunities are uncertain, however.<br />
• <strong>The</strong> main constraints to expanded use <strong>of</strong> the CDM to support SLM in the present<br />
framework include CDM eligibility restrictions; high transactions costs <strong>of</strong> registering and<br />
certifying CDM projects; low prices <strong>for</strong> certified emissions reductions (CERs), especially<br />
<strong>for</strong> A/R projects; long time lags in achieving CERs; uncertainty about the benefits <strong>of</strong><br />
projects and the future <strong>of</strong> the CDM; and land tenure insecurity in many African contexts.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se constraints are exacerbated by the limited technical, financial and organizational<br />
capacities <strong>of</strong> key actors in SSA.<br />
• Many <strong>of</strong> the same constraints apply to supporting AFOLU investments through voluntary<br />
and other compliance carbon markets, although to a lesser degree in some cases.<br />
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!<br />
• Constraints to increased use <strong>of</strong> adaptation funds to support SLM activities <strong>for</strong> climate<br />
adaptation include the limited size <strong>of</strong> these funds; lack <strong>of</strong> coordination among key<br />
government ministries; lack <strong>of</strong> technical and human capacity to implement adaptation<br />
activities; and others.<br />
• Challenges to U.S. participation in the global carbon market include the political<br />
challenge <strong>of</strong> achieving ratification <strong>of</strong> a post-Kyoto treaty; concerns about the<br />
effectiveness and risks <strong>of</strong> emissions reductions purchased from developing countries; and<br />
possible opposition by U.S. lobby groups to <strong>of</strong>fset payments to <strong>for</strong>eign land users.<br />
• Challenges to REDD payments include the technical difficulties and costs <strong>of</strong> defining<br />
baselines and assuring additionality; concerns about leakages; potential adverse<br />
incentives caused by such payments; concerns about the fairness <strong>of</strong> paying countries with<br />
a poor record <strong>of</strong> protecting <strong>for</strong>ests and not paying those that have protected their <strong>for</strong>ests;<br />
possible negative impacts on poor people, especially where they have insecure land and<br />
<strong>for</strong>est tenure; and concerns about flooding the carbon market with cheap <strong>of</strong>fsets.<br />
• Many <strong>of</strong> the same challenges will affect payments <strong>for</strong> AFOLU activities. Many <strong>of</strong> these<br />
concerns are likely to be less problematic than <strong>for</strong> REDD payments, except the size <strong>of</strong><br />
transaction costs relative to the value <strong>of</strong> payments per hectare. Given the low payments<br />
per hectare possible <strong>for</strong> many AFOLU activities, projects will need to focus on promoting<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>itable AFOLU activities by addressing other constraints to adoption, such as lack <strong>of</strong><br />
technical, financial and organizational capacity.<br />
Options to increase use <strong>of</strong> SLM to mitigate and adapt to climate change in SSA<br />
Based on this review, we have identified eight options to help take advantage <strong>of</strong> the<br />
opportunities and overcome the constraints to increased use <strong>of</strong> SLM in SSA to mitigate and<br />
adapt to climate change. <strong>The</strong>se include:<br />
1. Advocate improvements in the post-Kyoto agreement that address these opportunities and<br />
constraints, including<br />
o Expanding eligibility in the CDM to include all activities that sequester carbon or<br />
reduce emissions <strong>of</strong> GHGs, including REDD and AFOLU activities;<br />
o Agreeing to national targets <strong>for</strong> GHG levels <strong>of</strong> developing countries, and use a<br />
full GHG national accounting approach to credit reductions relative to baselines<br />
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!<br />
(approach could be pilot tested in a few countries and <strong>for</strong> a specific set <strong>of</strong><br />
activities first); and<br />
o Increasing funding <strong>for</strong> adaptation measures.<br />
2. Simplify and improve the procedures to access funds under the CDM, adaptation funds<br />
and other relevant funds.<br />
3. Explore existing opportunities to increase participation in voluntary carbon markets.<br />
4. Expand knowledge generation and outreach ef<strong>for</strong>ts on the problems <strong>of</strong> climate variability<br />
and change, land degradation, their linkages, and options <strong>for</strong> solution.<br />
5. Improve coordination <strong>of</strong> ef<strong>for</strong>ts to address climate and land degradation and integration<br />
with key government strategies and processes.<br />
6. Expand investment in strengthening technical, organizational and human capacity<br />
relevant to climate and land management issues in SSA.<br />
7. Engage community leaders, farmers and other resource users in program and project<br />
development.<br />
8. Address specific policy, institutional and other constraints to SLM and climate change<br />
mitigation and adaptation at national and local level in the context <strong>of</strong> country strategic<br />
investment frameworks (CSIFs).<br />
<strong>The</strong> first and second <strong>of</strong> these options are specifically related to the UNFCCC process <strong>for</strong><br />
negotiating the post-Kyoto agreement on climate change (although the second option to simplify<br />
CDM procedures could also be pursued immediately in the context <strong>of</strong> the Kyoto Protocol). For<br />
the first option, it will be quite important <strong>for</strong> stakeholders concerned about SLM issues in SSA,<br />
including African governments, the UNCCD, NEPAD, the TerrAfrica partnership, and civil<br />
society organizations to be actively involved in advocating a continuation <strong>of</strong> the CDM, inclusion<br />
<strong>of</strong> AFOLU and REDD projects in the CDM, and expansion <strong>of</strong> adaptation funds. <strong>The</strong> third option<br />
can be addressed outside <strong>of</strong> the UNFCCC process (although developments in voluntary markets<br />
can help in<strong>for</strong>m improvements in the CDM and the post-Kyoto treaty), and involves investments<br />
in improving technical, financial and organizational capacities in SSA to reduce transaction costs<br />
and risks <strong>of</strong> mitigation projects related to SLM.<br />
<strong>The</strong> remaining five options address perennial concerns and are not closely bound to the<br />
UNFCCC process. In SSA, these can be addressed within the context <strong>of</strong> the NEPAD/<strong>CAADP</strong><br />
!<br />
*,!
!<br />
and TerrAfrica process to develop CSIFs <strong>for</strong> SLM in each country. To achieve effective<br />
linkages to climate change issues in these processes, it will be important to involve key<br />
stakeholders from the climate change community in these processes, where they are not yet<br />
involved.<br />
!<br />
+-!
!<br />
Table 2-1. Regional averages <strong>of</strong> temperature increases in Africa from a set <strong>of</strong> 21 global<br />
models. Comparisons between 1980-90 and 2080-99<br />
West Africa<br />
Season<br />
Region DJF MAM JJA SON Annual<br />
Temperature Response(oC) 3 3.5 3.2 3.3 3.3<br />
East Africa<br />
Temperature Response(oC) 3.1 3.2 3.4 3.1 3.2<br />
South Africa<br />
Temperature Response(oC) 3.1 3.1 3.4 3.7 3.4<br />
Sahara<br />
Temperature Response(oC) 3.2 3.6 4.1 3.7 3.6<br />
Source: Christensen et al. (2007)<br />
!<br />
+$!
!<br />
Table 2-2. Projected mean temperature increases in African countries<br />
Countries<br />
1961-90<br />
o C<br />
Temperature<br />
2070-99<br />
o C<br />
0 C increase<br />
Angola 21.52 25.53 4.01<br />
Burkina Faso 28.16 32.38 4.22<br />
Cameroon 24.6 28.16 3.56<br />
Democratic Republic <strong>of</strong> Congo 23.95 27.93 3.98<br />
Ethiopia 23.08 26.92 3.84<br />
Ghana 27.15 30.87 3.72<br />
Ivory Coast 26.19 29.79 3.60<br />
Kenya 24.33 27.83 3.50<br />
Madagascar 22.28 25.53 3.25<br />
Malawi 21.79 25.72 3.93<br />
Mozambique 23.44 27.28 3.84<br />
Niger 27.13 31.53 4.40<br />
Nigeria 26.73 30.46 3.73<br />
Other Equatorial Africa 24.81 28.46 3.65<br />
Other Horn <strong>of</strong> Africa 26.79 30.35 3.56<br />
Other Southern Africa 20.57 24.91 4.34<br />
Other West Africa 25.77 29.29 3.52<br />
Senegal 27.8 31.51 3.71<br />
South Africa 17.72 21.89 4.17<br />
Sudan 26.7 30.87 4.17<br />
Tanzania 22.25 26.01 3.76<br />
Uganda 22.36 26.04 3.68<br />
Zimbabwe 21.03 25.39 4.36<br />
Source: Cline (2007)<br />
!<br />
+%!
!<br />
Table 2-3. Regional averages <strong>of</strong> change in rainfall in Africa from a set <strong>of</strong> 21 global models.<br />
Comparisons between 1980-90 and 2080-99<br />
West Africa<br />
Season<br />
Region DJF MAM JJA SON Annual<br />
Precipitation Response (%) 6 -3 2 1 2<br />
East Africa<br />
Precipitation Response (%) 13 6 4 7 7<br />
South Africa<br />
Precipitation Response (%) 0 0 -23 -13 -4<br />
Sahara<br />
Precipitation Response (%) -18 -18 -4 6 -6<br />
Source: Christensen et al. (2007)<br />
Table 2-4. Transition matrix <strong>of</strong> changes in environmental constraints to crop agriculture <strong>of</strong><br />
land in sub-Saharan Africa (scenario HadCM3-A1F1, 2080s)<br />
Area<br />
HadCM3-A1F1, 2080s<br />
Reference<br />
climate 1,000 km 2 No constraint Slight Moderate Severe<br />
No<br />
constraint 535 457 66 6 6<br />
Slight 2,704 11 2,395 262 36<br />
Moderate 6,061 3 67 5,379 612<br />
Severe 15,128 0 0 80 15,048<br />
Total 471 2,528 5,727 15,702<br />
Source: Fischer et al. (2002)<br />
!<br />
+&!
!<br />
Table 2-5. Severe environmental constraints <strong>for</strong> rain-fed crop production (reference<br />
climate, 1961-1990 and scenario HadCM3-A1F1 in 2080s)<br />
<strong>Land</strong> with severe constraints <strong>for</strong> rain-fed cultivation <strong>of</strong> crops %<br />
African<br />
Region<br />
Total<br />
extent<br />
10 6 ha<br />
Total with<br />
constraints Too cold Too dry Too wet Too steep Poor soils<br />
1961-<br />
1990 2080<br />
1961-<br />
1991 2080<br />
1961-<br />
1992 2080<br />
1961-<br />
1993 2080<br />
1961-<br />
1994 2080<br />
1961<br />
-<br />
1995 2080<br />
Eastern 888 52.1 52.5 0 0 27.0 27.3 0 0 3.1 3.1 22 22<br />
Middle 657 58.9 60.3 0 0 12.9 14.4 0.2 0.8 0.5 0.4 45.3 44.8<br />
Northern 547 91.3 96.8 0 0 88.0 95.4 0 0 2.2 1.2 1 0.2<br />
Southern 266 75.3 88.4 0 0 58.7 78.8 0 0 6.5 5.7 10.1 4<br />
Western 632 73.3 74.8 0 0 50.6 54.3 0 0 0.1 0.1 22.7 20.5<br />
Source: Fischer et al. (2002)<br />
Table 2-6. Percentage <strong>of</strong> land with severe versus slight or no constraints <strong>for</strong> reference<br />
climate (1961-1990) and maximum and minimum values occurring in four GCM climate<br />
projections <strong>for</strong> the 2080s based on SRES A2 emission scenario<br />
Severe constraints % <strong>of</strong> total land Slight or no constraints % <strong>of</strong> total land<br />
African<br />
Region Ref Min Max Ref Min Max<br />
Eastern 52.1 50.5 54.5 18.9 16.7 18.9<br />
Middle 58.9 58.8 60.1 12.2 11.3 11.8<br />
Northern 91.3 93.2 94.7 1.8 0.4 0.9<br />
Southern 75.3 74.6 86.2 1.6 0.1 0.6<br />
Western 73.3 72.6 75 11.3 9.7 11.1<br />
Maximum and minimum values across constraints do generally not add up to 100 percent, since values are not<br />
necessarily from the same scenario<br />
Source: Fischer et al. (2002)<br />
!<br />
+'!
!<br />
Table 3-1. <strong>The</strong> extent <strong>of</strong> land degradation and its effects in sub-Saharan Africa<br />
State <strong>of</strong> <strong>Land</strong> Degradation<br />
• <strong>Land</strong> degradation affects roughly 20 percent <strong>of</strong> the total land area <strong>of</strong> the region. Degradation affects land<br />
productivity on 17 percent <strong>of</strong> the continent.<br />
• Between 4-7 percent <strong>of</strong> the land area <strong>of</strong> SSA is already so severely degraded that it is believed to be largely<br />
non-reclaimable 16 . This is the highest proportion <strong>of</strong> any region in the world.<br />
• Erosion rates in Africa range from 5-100 tonnes per hectare per year.<br />
• Soil erosion and high rates <strong>of</strong> run <strong>of</strong>f have dramatically reduced the water held in the soil. Some 86 percent<br />
<strong>of</strong> African soils are under soil moisture stress.<br />
• <strong>The</strong>re is a negative nutrient balance in SSA’s croplands with at least 4 million tons <strong>of</strong> nutrients removed in<br />
harvested products compared to the 1 million tons returned in the <strong>for</strong>m <strong>of</strong> manure and fertilizer.<br />
Illustrative Impacts<br />
Economic<br />
• Estimates vary between under 1% and 9% <strong>of</strong> GDP lost from land degradation; a related estimate is that<br />
over three percent <strong>of</strong> Africa’s agricultural GDP is lost annually - equivalent to US$ 9 billion per year - as a<br />
direct result <strong>of</strong> soil and nutrient loss. 17<br />
• <strong>The</strong> productivity loss in Africa from soil degradation since 1945 has been estimated at 25 percent <strong>for</strong><br />
cropland and 8 to 14 percent <strong>for</strong> cropland and pasture together. 18<br />
• In the decade 1990-2000, cereal availability per capita in SSA decreased from 136 to 118 kg/year. African<br />
cereal yields have stagnated over the last 60 years 19 .<br />
• Africa spent US$18.7 billion on food imports in the year 2000 alone. Current food imports are expected to<br />
double by 2030.<br />
Environmental<br />
• African countries represent some <strong>of</strong> the highest de<strong>for</strong>estation rates in the world<br />
• Degradation <strong>of</strong> water resources due to sediment loads and pollution severely impact aquatic ecosystems.<br />
• Increased surface run<strong>of</strong>f has decreased groundwater recharge – water tables have dropped, many <strong>for</strong>mer<br />
perennial rivers, streams and springs have been reduced to an intermittent flow, and many wells and<br />
boreholes have dried up.<br />
• Up to 70 percent (in many countries) <strong>of</strong> energy comes from fuel wood and charcoal, and newer<br />
technologies using cellulosic sources <strong>of</strong> bi<strong>of</strong>uel will result in even greater demands on woody resources<br />
Social<br />
• In 2001, 28 million people in Africa faced food emergencies due to droughts, floods and strife, with 25<br />
million needing emergency food and agricultural assistance.<br />
• In sub-Saharan Africa, 15 percent <strong>of</strong> the population or 183 million people will still be undernourished by<br />
2030 – by far the highest total <strong>for</strong> any region and only 11 million less than in 1997-99. Malnutrition is<br />
expected to increase by an average <strong>of</strong> 32 percent. 20<br />
• Conflicts (between settled farmers, herders and <strong>for</strong>est dwellers) over access to land resources have<br />
increased as households and communities search <strong>for</strong> productive land <strong>for</strong> their crops and/or livestock.<br />
• Hunger and malnutrition in SSA and degradation <strong>of</strong> water resources has increased susceptibility to life<br />
threatening diseases.<br />
Source: World Bank (2008)<br />
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!<br />
16 Data from GLASOD and TERRASTAT!<br />
17 Dregne 1991, Dreschel et al 2001. !<br />
18 Oldemann, 1998!<br />
19 World Bank, 2007b!<br />
20 <strong>CAADP</strong>, 2002!<br />
!<br />
+(!
!<br />
Table 3-2. Importance <strong>of</strong> Causes <strong>of</strong> Degraded <strong>Land</strong>s by Continent<br />
Source: UNEP (1997)<br />
!<br />
!<br />
Cause<br />
Africa Asia Oceania Europe<br />
(million ha)<br />
North<br />
America<br />
De<strong>for</strong>estation 18.60 115.5 4.20 38.90 4.30 32.20<br />
Overgrazing 184.6 118.8 78.50 41.30 27.70 26.20<br />
Agricultural 62.20 96.70 4.80 18.30 41.40 11.60<br />
Over exploitation 54.00 42.30 2.00 2.00 6.10 9.10<br />
Bio-industrial 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.90 0.00 0.00<br />
Total degraded 319.4 370.3 87.50 99.40 79.50 79.10<br />
Total 1286 1671.8 663.3 299.6 732.4 513.0<br />
South<br />
America<br />
!<br />
+)!
!<br />
Table 3-3. Examples <strong>of</strong> sustainable land management practices <strong>for</strong> climate change<br />
adaptation and mitigation<br />
!<br />
Practice Adaptation aspects Mitigation aspects<br />
Improved<br />
crop/plant/livestock<br />
management<br />
Crop rotations<br />
Ag<strong>of</strong>orestry systems<br />
mixed with crops /<br />
pastures<br />
IPM<br />
Use <strong>of</strong> more resource<br />
efficient crops, livestock<br />
and trees<br />
Exclosures<br />
Improved grazing systems<br />
Pasture/rangeland<br />
enrichment<br />
Fire protection <strong>of</strong><br />
vegetation<br />
Improved soil management<br />
Cover cropping<br />
Use <strong>of</strong> mulch and compost<br />
Can reduce competition from<br />
weeds and pest impacts and<br />
possibly reduce mining <strong>of</strong><br />
specific nutrients<br />
Increases water infiltration,<br />
slows soil drying and can<br />
provide nutrients through<br />
leaves.<br />
Reduces losses from pests<br />
Increases water use or nutrient<br />
use efficiency under current or<br />
future climate shifts<br />
Enables regeneration <strong>of</strong><br />
vegetation cover, useful plants,<br />
and possibly spring recovery<br />
Protection and regeneration <strong>of</strong><br />
vegetation cover, reduced soil<br />
compaction<br />
Promotion <strong>of</strong> vegetation cover<br />
and soil carbon build up<br />
Preservation <strong>of</strong> vegetation and<br />
important species<br />
Helps to reduce soil erosion,<br />
reduce weed growth, and<br />
contributes to soil carbon<br />
buildup<br />
Reduces soil erosion and helps<br />
to maintain/improve soil<br />
moisture, nutrients, and organic<br />
matter<br />
Woody biomass<br />
Reduces need <strong>for</strong> nutrients and<br />
possible N2O emission<br />
reductions<br />
Some above ground carbon<br />
storage, soil carbon improvement<br />
Soil carbon improvement<br />
Prevention <strong>of</strong> GHG emissions<br />
Soil carbon improvement<br />
Manuring Enhances soil organic matter Soil carbon improvement<br />
Crop residue incorporation Adds nutrient and soil organic Soil carbon improvement<br />
matter into soils<br />
Intercropping with<br />
legumes<br />
Helps to improve infiltration,<br />
soil carbon, and soil nutrients<br />
Soil improving<br />
agr<strong>of</strong>orestry<br />
Vegetative strips<br />
Terracing/bunding<br />
(through nitrogen fixation)<br />
Helps to reduce weed growth,<br />
improve infiltration, soil<br />
carbon, and soil nutrients<br />
(through nitrogen fixation)<br />
Prevents soil erosion<br />
Prevents soil erosion<br />
Enhances soil carbon but<br />
possible NO2 emission increases<br />
Some soil carbon impacts but<br />
also provides woody biomass;<br />
possible N2O emission increases<br />
with legumes<br />
!<br />
+*!
!<br />
Practice Adaptation aspects Mitigation aspects<br />
Minimum tillage<br />
Increases soil moisture and Soil carbon improvement<br />
builds soil carbon<br />
Windbreaks and<br />
shelterbelts<br />
Reduces erosion due to high<br />
winds and rains<br />
Improved above ground carbon<br />
storage with trees<br />
Improved water<br />
management<br />
Rainwater harvesting Storage <strong>of</strong> water from ro<strong>of</strong>top<br />
or ground into tanks/ponds –<br />
<strong>of</strong>fset prolonged droughts on<br />
high value enterprises<br />
Earth catchments<br />
In-situ entrapment <strong>of</strong> rainwater Soil carbon improvement<br />
minimises loss <strong>of</strong> valuable<br />
rainwater and erosive run<strong>of</strong>f<br />
Localised improvement <strong>of</strong> soil<br />
structure through activity <strong>of</strong> soil<br />
organisms<br />
Tied ridges/ zai<br />
In-situ entrapment <strong>of</strong> rainwater<br />
minimises loss <strong>of</strong> valuable<br />
rainwater and erosive run<strong>of</strong>f<br />
Localised improvement <strong>of</strong> soil<br />
structure through activity <strong>of</strong> soil<br />
Soil carbon improvement<br />
Contour ridging / planting<br />
Formal irrigation systems<br />
Watershed management<br />
Adapted from World Bank (2008)<br />
organisms<br />
Evenly distributes water on<br />
sloping areas and enables<br />
infiltration<br />
Reduces run<strong>of</strong>f<br />
Offsets effects <strong>of</strong> drought<br />
periods<br />
Also can prevent fields from<br />
accumulating excess water<br />
Effective management <strong>of</strong><br />
rainwater, surface, and ground<br />
waters need to be implemented<br />
at scales above the household<br />
Soil carbon improvement in<br />
selected niches<br />
<strong>Land</strong>scape level improvement in<br />
soil carbon and possibly in<br />
woody vegetation<br />
!<br />
++!
!<br />
Table 3-4. Mitigation potential <strong>of</strong> alternative land management practices on soil carbon<br />
SLM<br />
Warm – dry<br />
Areas<br />
Warm – moist<br />
Areas<br />
Practice tCO2/ha/yr All GHG<br />
tco2~eq/ha/yr<br />
tCO2/ha/yr All GHG<br />
tco2~eq/ha/yr<br />
Agronomic practices 0.29 0.39 0.88 0.98<br />
Nutrient management 0.26 0.33 0.55 0.62<br />
Tillage and residue 0.33 0.35 0.70 0.72<br />
management<br />
Water management 1.14 1.14 1.14 1.14<br />
Set aside 1.61 3.93 3.04 5.36<br />
Agr<strong>of</strong>orestry 0.33 0.35 0.70 0.72<br />
Pasture management 0.11 0.11 0.81 0.81<br />
Restoration <strong>of</strong> organic 73.33 70.18 73.33 70.18<br />
soils<br />
Restoration <strong>of</strong> degraded 3.45 3.45 3.45 3.45<br />
land<br />
Manure application 1.54 1.54 2.79 2.79<br />
Source: Smith and Martino (2007) !<br />
!<br />
!<br />
!<br />
!<br />
!<br />
!<br />
!<br />
+,!
!<br />
Table 4-1. Carbon markets, volumes, and values<br />
Scheme<br />
Allowances<br />
EU Emissions Trading<br />
Scheme<br />
New South Wales<br />
Greenhouse Gas<br />
Abatement Scheme<br />
Chicago <strong>Climate</strong><br />
Exchange<br />
UK Emissions Trading<br />
System<br />
Volume<br />
(MtCO2e)<br />
2005 2006 2007<br />
Value Volume Value Volume<br />
(MUS$) (MtCO2e) (MUS$) (MtCO2e)<br />
Value<br />
(MUS$)<br />
324 8,204 1,104 24,436 2,061 50,097<br />
6 59 20 225 25 224<br />
1 3 10 38 23 72<br />
0 1 NA NA NA NA<br />
Subtotal 332 8,268 1,134 24,699 2,109 50,394<br />
Project-based transactions<br />
Clean Development<br />
Mechanism<br />
359 2,651 562 6,249 791 12,877<br />
Joint Implementation 21 101 16 141 41 499<br />
Other compliance and 5 37 33 146 42 265<br />
voluntary transactions<br />
- Voluntary “over the<br />
14 59 42 259<br />
counter” (OTC) market 21<br />
Subtotal 384 2,789 611 6,536 874 13,641<br />
TOTAL 717 11,057 1,745 31,235 2,983 64,035<br />
Sources: Capoor and Ambrosi (2007) and (2008)<br />
Note: MtCO2e = million tons <strong>of</strong> carbon dioxide or equivalent<br />
MUS$ = million U.S. dollars<br />
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!<br />
21 Source: Hamilton, et al. (2008)!<br />
!<br />
,-!
!<br />
Table 4-2. Estimated economic mitigation potential by agricultural and land management<br />
practices in Africa<br />
Economic mitigation potential by 2030 at carbon prices <strong>of</strong> up to $20/t <strong>of</strong> CO22e<br />
(MtCO2e/yr)<br />
Region Cropland Grazing Restoration <strong>of</strong> Restoration <strong>of</strong> Other<br />
mgmt land mgmt organic soils degraded land practices Total<br />
East Africa 28 27 25 13 15 109<br />
Central<br />
Africa 13 12 11 6 7 49<br />
North Africa 6 6 6 3 3 25<br />
South Africa 6 5 5 3 3 22<br />
West Africa 16 15 14 7 8 60<br />
Total 69 (26%) 65 (25%) 61 (23%) 33 (12%) 37 (14%) 265<br />
Source: Smith, et al. (2008).<br />
!<br />
,$!
!<br />
Table 4-3. Summary <strong>of</strong> Progress during 2007 in Phase 2 TerrAfrica countries<br />
Country<br />
Burkina<br />
Faso<br />
Ethiopia<br />
Ghana<br />
Lead<br />
Government<br />
body<br />
Lead<br />
partner<br />
agency<br />
Status <strong>of</strong> Country<br />
SLM Investment<br />
Framework (CSIF)<br />
preparation<br />
CONEDD UNDP <strong>The</strong> alignment <strong>of</strong><br />
CPP with TerrAfrica<br />
is under discussion;<br />
a preliminary CSIF<br />
is under preparation<br />
with support from<br />
TerrAfrica partners. It<br />
is expected that a full<br />
CSIF will be prepared<br />
during the time frame<br />
<strong>of</strong> CCP Phase 1 which<br />
will then guide the<br />
development <strong>of</strong> a CPP<br />
phase 2.<br />
MoARD:<br />
National<br />
SLM Plat<strong>for</strong>m<br />
MOFEP<br />
and<br />
MLGRDE:<br />
SLM<br />
Task<strong>for</strong>ce<br />
Analytical work and<br />
SLM mainstreaming<br />
to support decision<br />
making<br />
As part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
preparatory<br />
activities <strong>of</strong> the five<br />
CPP sub-projects,<br />
analytical<br />
and diagnostic<br />
activities have been<br />
undertaken - Public<br />
Expenditure Review<br />
and a Gap/Institutional<br />
Analysis done in 2007<br />
WB Under preparation Economic Sector<br />
Work on Poverty and<br />
<strong>Land</strong> Degradation<br />
(published in 2007)<br />
WB<br />
Draft Terms <strong>of</strong><br />
Reference<br />
prepared and<br />
agreed with<br />
Government<br />
as an outcome <strong>of</strong><br />
the 19-29 March 2007<br />
FAO/WB mission.<br />
Final<br />
draft endorsed in May<br />
2007<br />
Uganda MAAIF WB Under discussion with<br />
Government.<br />
Alignment<br />
and integration<br />
with the broader<br />
<strong>CAADP</strong><br />
implementation<br />
process being<br />
pursued<br />
!Source: TerrAfrica (2007)<br />
Country Environmental<br />
Analysis endorsed<br />
by Government in<br />
February 2007 (being<br />
published)<br />
Public Expenditure<br />
Review <strong>for</strong> SLM being<br />
finalized<br />
Investment<br />
development,<br />
mobilization<br />
and harmonization<br />
Within the CPP four<br />
targeted investment<br />
projects cover four key<br />
ecological areas <strong>of</strong> BF.<br />
Donor and national<br />
co-financing has been<br />
mobilized to support<br />
the implementation <strong>of</strong><br />
these projects.<br />
Wide range <strong>of</strong> ongoing<br />
and planned<br />
investments<br />
to be coordinated<br />
under the country<br />
program<br />
GEF-SIP funding to be<br />
blended and<br />
harmonized<br />
with ongoing<br />
budget support and<br />
sector wide programs<br />
(i.e. NREGP, FABS,<br />
and AgDPL)<br />
SLM Country Program<br />
supported by blended<br />
IDA/GEF funding<br />
under a Natural<br />
Resource <strong>Management</strong><br />
SWAp. UNDP is<br />
preparing an operation<br />
targeting the Cattle<br />
Corridor.<br />
!<br />
!<br />
,%!
!<br />
Figure 2-1. Number <strong>of</strong> flood events per decade, by continent<br />
Figure 2-2. Total Number <strong>of</strong> People Affected by Droughts in Africa. 1964-2005<br />
Source: EM-DAT: <strong>The</strong> OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database (Gautam 2006)<br />
!<br />
,&!
!<br />
Figure 2-3. Projected increases in rainfall from 1961-90 to 2070-99 (%)<br />
Source: Cline (2007).<br />
Figure 2-4. Changes in sub-Saharan land with no or slight environmental constraints<br />
versus increasing atmospheric CO2 concentrations.<br />
Source: Fischer et al. (2002)<br />
!<br />
,'!
!<br />
!<br />
Figure 2-5. Probabilistic projections <strong>of</strong> production impacts in 2030 from climate change<br />
(expressed as a percentage <strong>of</strong> 1998 to 2002 average yields).!<br />
!<br />
!<br />
Source: Lobell et al. (2008)!<br />
!<br />
Note: WAF stands <strong>for</strong> West Africa, SAH <strong>for</strong> Sahel, CAF <strong>for</strong> Central Africa, EAF <strong>for</strong> East Africa, and<br />
SAF <strong>for</strong> Southern Africa. !<br />
!<br />
!<br />
,(!
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Figure 3-1. NDVI based estimates <strong>of</strong> land degradation in sub-saharan Africa in 2003!<br />
!<br />
Source: Vlek et al (2008)!<br />
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!<br />
,)!
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Figure 3-2. Effect <strong>of</strong> improved land management and climate change on crop yields<br />
!<br />
!<br />
Source: Cooper et al (2009)<br />
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,*!
!<br />
Figure 3-3. Greenhouse gas emission sources by location<br />
!<br />
!<br />
!<br />
Source: World Bank (2007)<br />
!<br />
!<br />
,+!
!<br />
Figure 4-1. Potential size <strong>of</strong> REDD payments, under various levels <strong>of</strong> emission reduction<br />
and carbon price<br />
!<br />
Source: Ecosecurities and the Global Mechanism <strong>of</strong> the UNCCD (2008)<br />
!<br />
!<br />
,,!
!<br />
Figure 4-2. Potential savings by 2030 from mitigation options in agriculture <strong>for</strong> carbon<br />
prices <strong>of</strong> up to US$100 per t CO 2 or equivalent<br />
Source: Smith, et al. (2008)<br />
!<br />
$--!
!<br />
Figure 4-3. Income potential from REDD payments (as a fraction <strong>of</strong> GDP) vs. governance<br />
indices (higher values <strong>of</strong> governance indices indicate greater governance capacity and less<br />
corruption)<br />
Source: Ebeling and Yasue (2008)<br />
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