CATEGORIES OF FORAGE CROPS - Department of Plant Sciences

Plant Sciences Handbook
2009 Edition
1

Table of Contents
Corn and Sorghum ............................................................. 3
Cotton Production .............................................................. 18
Forages ................................................................................ 54
Gardening............................................................................ 70
Soybean and Oilseed Crops ............................................... 98
Burley Tobacco ................................................................... 110
Turfgrass ............................................................................. 112
Vegetables............................................................................ 131
Wheat ................................................................................... 142
2

Corn and Sorghum
3

Field Corn
Land Selection .....................................................................................................................5
Hybrid Selection .................................................................................................................5
How the Corn Plant Grows .................................................................................................6
Planting Dates and Rates ....................................................................................................7
Planting Dates and Row Widths ..........................................................................................8
Planting Depths ...................................................................................................................8
Irrigation ..............................................................................................................................8
Estimating Yield Prior to Harvest ......................................................................................10
Harvesting .........................................................................................................................10
Storage ..............................................................................................................................11
Marketing ..........................................................................................................................11
Corn Facts .........................................................................................................................11
USDA Grade Requirements ..............................................................................................12
Moisture Conversion Factors ............................................................................................13
Isolation, Maturity and Planting Date Considerations for Growing White Corn .............13
Grain Sorghum
Land Selection ..................................................................................................................15
Varieties ............................................................................................................................15
Planting Dates ...................................................................................................................15
Planting Depth ..................................................................................................................15
Planting Rates ...................................................................................................................15
Fertilization and Liming ...................................................................................................16
Row Width ........................................................................................................................16
Insect Control ....................................................................................................................16
Harvesting .........................................................................................................................17
Storing ...............................................................................................................................17
Marketing ..........................................................................................................................17
4

CORN
Field Corn
(Zea mays)
Corn is an annual. It belongs to the grass family and is a native American crop. The seed weighs
56 pounds per bushel and ear corn 70 to 72 pounds per bushel. Commercial field corn is a hybrid;
therefore, seed from the current year should not be saved for planting the following year.
Emergence time is six to ten days depending on soil temperature.
Land Selection
Select level to slightly sloping land that will supply large amounts of moisture in summer. Do not
plant corn on droughty soils which may be steep or shallow or both. Poorly drained bottom soils
are poor choices due to excess spring moisture, which delays planting and increases nitrogen
fertilizer loss.
Hybrid Selection
Corn hybrids are selected based on days to maturity, yield across specific environments, disease
and insect resistance, and sometimes herbicide tolerance.
Maturity Relative maturity means the number of days a hybrid takes to reach physiological
maturity (black layer) after emergence. This number is based on designated maturity zones in the
United States. In Tennessee, early-season hybrids reach physiological maturity in

when planting corn in May or later. Newer Bt events provide more armyworm, earworm and
black cutworm protection or control of corn rootworm in addition to southwestern and European
corn borer control. Growers who plant Bt hybrids are required to plant a non-Bt refuge. Refuges
are designed to produce insects that are susceptible to the Bt toxins, thus preserving Bt corn
technology and managing resistance development. In cotton-growing counties, growers can plant
up to 50% of their acreage in corn borer Bt corn. In non-cotton-growing counties, up to 80% of
corn acreage can be Bt hybrids. Corn rootworm refuges must be located in the same field or in an
adjacent field separated by a road or ditch. Corn borer refuges can be accomplished by splitting
the planter, alternating refuge strips or placing the refuge field within ½ mile of the Bt cornfield.
There are several planting configurations that are acceptable including splitting the planter to
alternate a minimum of 4 rows (at least 6 rows preferred) of non-Bt corn with a Bt-protected
hybrid.
Herbicide-tolerant hybrids were introduced to producers in the 1990's with tolerance to
postemergence applications of selected herbicides:
* Clearfield ® or “IMI” corn– non GMO trait developed by traditional plant breeding, these
hybrids are tolerant to the imidazolinone herbicides Pursuit ® or Lightning ® . Seed is
labeled ‘IT’ for imidazolinone tolerant or ‘IR’ for imidazolinone resistant. IR hybrids have
the most built in herbicide tolerance.
* Liberty Link ® -- Genetically modified to have tolerance to glufosinate (Ignite ® or Liberty ® )
herbicide.
* Roundup Ready ® -- Genetically modified for tolerance to glyphosate. Earliest hybrids
included the GA21 event for glyphosate tolerance. ‘Roundup Ready ® 2' hybrids utilize the
NK603 event, which improves tolerance to glyphosate applications.
How the Corn Plant Grows
Vegetative Growth
* Germination occurs at soil temperature >50F with adequate moisture.
* A corn seed absorbs 20-30% of its weight in water, swells, the root or radicle elongates and
forms temporary root system
* The coleoptile (contains shoot structure) is pushed through soil by elongation of the mesocotyl
below ground..
* The crown or growing point is below ground in young corn and above ground after stalk
elongation.
* New leaves and tassel are formed below ground at the growing point before V6 or stalk
elongation.
* A new leaf emerges every 3-5 days. Each leaf with a visible collar is assigned a ‘V’ number.
* V6-Stalk elongates and growing point is above ground. Corn is usually 12-15" tall.
* V6-V10 – immature kernels are formed at growing point before the ear is visible.
* V12-14 – plant determines ear size (number of potential kernels) on immature ear.
* V15-V18 – silks start to grow from immature kernels. Silks grow from base of ear first and tip
last.
* VT – tassel completely emerged 2-3 days before silks are visible.
6

Reproductive Growth
* R1- Silking − silks emerge at tips of husk and pollination occurs. Silks pollinate at the base of
the ear first and the tip of the ear last.
* Tassel releases pollen for 7-10 days depending on hybrid. Pollen is released in late morning
when temperatures are optimal and humidity is lower.
* R2 − Blister- 85% grain moisture; beginning of starch accumulation
* R3 − Milk- milky fluid inside kernel with rapid starch accumulation
* R4 − Dough - 70% grain moisture; cob turns pink or red
* R5 − Full Dent- 55% grain moisture; nearly all kernels dented
* R6 − Physiological Maturity − 30-35% grain moisture; approximately 55-65 days after silking;
The “black layer” forms where kernels attach to the cob indicating plant is no longer sending
nutrients to the kernel; black layer forms at tip kernels first and base kernels last.
Planting Dates
Corn should be planted when soil temperature reaches 55F at a 2-inch depth by 9 a.m. for three
consecutive days. Plant as early as practical for best results. This can be as early as late March to
May 1 in West Tennessee and April 15 to June 1 in East Tennessee and Middle Tennessee. Earlyplanted
corn usually pollinates when soil moisture is more plentiful and temperatures are not
unduly hot.
Areas that commonly become infested with the southwestern corn borer should be planted as
early as practical to minimize crop damage.
The average reduction in grain
yield for delayed planting has
been about one bushel per day for
planting after May 1. In areas
where the southwestern corn borer
infestation is high or Gray Leaf
Spot pressure is great, the average
yield reduction can be more than
one bushel per day.
The average reduction in silage
yield for planting after May 1 has
been about two-tenths ton per day.
Planting Rates
Seeding rates in corn should be
adjusted to the yield potential of
the field and the row width.
Irrigated fields can be seeded at
higher rates regardless of row
spacing as moisture is not a
limiting factor to production. Seeding rate should be adjusted up in productive fields where the
7

planting date is optimal. Seeding rate should be adjusted down in late planted fields or less
productive soils that yield below 125 bushels.
Planting Rates and Row Widths
Data does not show consistent large yield increases with the use of narrow rows in the Southeast.
The advantage of a narrow row is that seeding rates can be increased somewhat because seed
spacing within a row is greater at higher seeding rates. However, soil moisture must be able to
keep up with demand and care should be taken to not over plant dryland corn in narrow or twin
row systems. Producers should use the row width which fits their machinery and adjust their
seeding rate for the yield potential of the field. The number of plants per acre is more important
than the row widths in most cases.
Planting Depths
Plant corn seed at least 2 inches deep under most conditions. In cold, wet ground planting depth
may be adjusted to 1½ inches. Never plant corn shallower than 1½ inches deep.
For lime and fertilizer recommendations, please see the chapter on Soil Fertility and Soil Testing.
Fit Number of Plants to Row Spacing Used:
Seeding
Seed Spacing (inches)
Final Stand
Rate
20" rows 30" rows 38" rows 5% loss 10%
loss
24000 13.1 8.7 6.9 22800 21600
26000 12.1 8.0 6.3 24700 23400
28000 11.2 7.5 5.9 26600 25200
30000 10.5 7.0 5.5 28500 27000
32000 9.8 6.5 5.2 30400 28800
34000 9.1 6.1 4.9 32300 30600
Darker-shaded area denotes suggested seeding rate at optimal planting date in productive
fields.
Lighter-shaded area denotes suggested seeding rate at late planting date or in less productive
fields.
Irrigation in Corn
Field corn responds well to irrigation in Tennessee. Corn has a narrow window (approximately 7-
10 days) for tassel emergence and silking, and dry conditions at this time can be very harmful to
yield. Field corn needs between 18 to 22 inches of soil moisture during most growing seasons to
achieve maximum yield potential. In Tennessee, fewer than 10% of corn acres are irrigated but
interest in supplementing moisture is growing.
8

Terminating Irrigation in Corn
Adequate water is most critical at pollination/silking. Grain fill is the second most critical time to
provide supplemental watering in a dry year. It is vital that adequate water be available as needed
until physiological maturity or ‘black layer’ formation to avoid any late season yield losses. Early
termination of irrigation will prohibit kernels from reaching full potential size and weight and
some data indicate 15% or more yield loss when irrigation is terminated too early in hot, dry
conditions. After dent, corn requires less than one inch per week to maintain kernel development
until maturity.
Black layer forms about 60 days after silking when a thin layer of cells die where the kernel
attaches to the cob, turning a dark brown color. This process separates the kernel from the cob and
the plant stops sending sugars into the kernels. Irrigation is no longer needed. The black layer can
sometimes be seen visually by breaking a cob in half and gently scraping kernel tissue at the base
(cob end) of the kernel where the seed attaches to the cob.
Another way to estimate maturity is to use the starch or ‘milk’ layer of kernels to estimate when
black layer will be reached. The milk layer indicates the progression of sugar conversion to hard
starch from the top towards the base (cob end) of the kernel. It usually takes about 20 days for the
line to progress from the top to base. Break a cob in half and look at the cross section of the top
(tip) half of the ear (flat side of kernels) for the milky line. A milk line about half way down the
kernel indicates black layer should be reached in another 10 days. At black layer, seed moisture is
still high (>30%) requiring time to dry to desired moisture before harvest.
Growth Stage Avg. Water Use
(inches/day)
4-leaf 0.10
12-leaf 0.25
Early tassel 0.32
Silking 0.32
Blister Kernel 0.32
Beginning Dent 0.25
Full Dent 0.20
Black layer 0.10
9

Use the following steps to estimate corn grain yield prior to harvest:
1. Count the number of harvestable ears in 1/1000th of an acre. Do this in at least 4
areas of the field and calculate an average.
Row Spacing Length of Row Equal to 1/1000th Acre
(inches)
15 34 ft 10 inches
20 26 ft 2 inches
30 17 ft 5 inches
36 14 ft 6 inches
38 13 ft 9 inches
2. Count the number of kernel rows per ear from your locations in Step 1 and
calculate an average.
3. Count the number of kernels per row from your locations in Step 1 and calculate
an average. Do not count tip and butt end kernels or kernels that are less than
half size.
4. Yield (bushels/acre) = (average number ears) X (average kernel rows per ear)
X (average kernels per row) X (Seed Weight constant)
Seed Weight Constant:
0.013= Good irrigated corn or corn exposed to little stress
0.01116= Average stress value in an average rainfall situation
0.009= Dryland corn subjected to greater stress
Harvesting
At black layer (about 30% moisture), the corn seed coat or pericarp is soft and prone to mechanical
damage during harvest. Warm, dry weather speeds up the drying rate in the field, while wet, cool
weather or late planting slows down the rate of drying in the field. Both pre-harvest and
mechanical losses increase as grain moisture decreases below 20%.
Grain---with heat drying facilities available, harvest at 23 to 25 percent moisture for lowest field
loss when early harvest is desirable.
Without drying facilities, harvest shelled corn closer to 16% moisture. Grain can also be harvested
at a maximum of 18 to 20 percent moisture and blended with drier grain to avoid discounts;
harvest ear corn at a maximum of 18 to 20 percent moisture.
High moisture corn---For air-tight storage in silos, harvest at 25 to 30 percent moisture or higher
for either ear or shelled corn. This moisture content is needed for good preservation. For
preservation of high-moisture corn in open cribs or structures with organic acids, harvest up to 25
10

to 30 percent moisture. The higher the moisture, the more acid it will take to preserve the corn.
Silage---Harvest for silage at the dough to mid dent stage---65 to 70 percent moisture. Check with
a moisture tester for more accurate harvest.
Storage
For safe, long-term storage, shelled corn should be 13 percent moisture or below. Ear corn can be
stored at a slightly higher moisture content in a well-ventilated crib.
Marketing
The maximum allowable moisture content for No. 2 corn is 15.5 percent. Corn sold to the
elevators, etc. with a higher moisture content is usually discounted and sometimes discounts are
taken on corn with a moisture content above 15%. No. 2 grade corn is the general standard for the
corn market.
Corn Facts
1. The growing point inside a corn plant stem is about at the ground level when the corn plant
is 12 to 15 inches tall.
2. Brace roots start forming on the lower nodes usually after tasseling.
3. Pollen from the tassel usually starts shedding two to three days before the first silks are
visible. Pollen shedding continues for five to eight days. A single tassel produces from two
to five million pollen grains.
4. There is a silk for each grain of corn on an ear. The average ear has from 500 to 1,000
kernels and silks.
5. The tassel is the male reproductive portion and the ear the female reproductive portion of
the corn plant.
6. An ear of corn has an even number of rows of kernels about the center of the ear. The
average number of rows ranges from 16 to 20 in most hybrids.
7. Silks from the base of the ear emerge from the shuck first. All silks emerge in three to five
days. The kernels are pollinated at the base of the ear first and at the tip last.
8. It is estimated that about 97 percent of the kernels on an ear of corn are pollinated by other
plants in the field.
9. The silks turn brown as soon as the kernel is pollinated. The pollen lands on the silk and
then produces a tube down the center of the silk and pollinates the kernel.
10. About three weeks after pollination the ear is in the “roasting ear” stage.
11

11. A single corn kernel can produce a single ear which has 500 to 1,000 kernels---a
reproduction ratio of 1 to 500-1,000.
Grade
USDA GRADE REQUIREMENTS
For Yellow Corn, White Corn and Mixed Corn
Effective October 1, 1958
Minimum
Test Weight
per Bushel
Moisture
MAXIMUM LIMITS OF
Damaged Kernels
Cracked Total
Corn
Foreign
Material
Heat
Damaged
Pounds Percent Percent Percent Percent
1 56 14.0 2 3 0.1
2 54 15.5 3 5 0.2
3 52 17.5 4 7 0.5
4 49 20.0 5 10 1.0
5 46 23.0 7 15 3.0
SAMPLE: Sample grade shall be corn which does not meet the requirements for any of the grades
from No. 1 to No. 5, inclusive, or which contains stones; or which is musty, or sour, or heating; or
which has any commercially objectionable foreign odor; or which is otherwise of low quality.
12

MOISTURE CONVERSION FACTORS FOR CORN
To convert bushels (or pounds) of corn with X% moisture to bushels (or pounds)
with 15.5% moisture, multiply by the following factors:
%
.0
11
1.053
12
1.041
13
1.030
14
1.018
15
1.006
16
.994
17
.982
18
.970
19
.959
20
.947
.1 1.052 1.040 1.028 1.017 1.005 .993 .981 .969 .957 .946
.2 1.051 1.039 1.027 1.015 1.004 .992 .980 .968 .956 .944
.3 1.050 1.038 1.026 1.014 1.002 .991 .979 .967 .955 .943
.4 1.048 1.037 1.025 1.013 1.001 .989 .977 .966 .954 .942
.5 1.047 1.035 1.024 1.012 1.000 .988 .976 .964 .953 .941
.6 1.046 1.034 1.022 1.011 .999 .987 .975 .963 .951 .940
.7 1.045 1.033 1.021 1.009 .998 .986 .974 .962 .950 .938
.8 1.044 1.032 1.020 1.008 .996 .985 .973 .961 .949 .937
.9 1.043 1.031 1.019 1.007 .995 .983 .972 .960 .948 .936
% 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
0 .935 .923 .911 .899 .888 .876 .864 .852 .840 .828
.1 .934 .922 .910 .898 .886 .875 .863 .851 .839 .827
.2 .933 .921 .909 .897 .885 ..873 .862 .850 .838 .826
.3 .931 .920 .908 .896 .884 .872 .860 .848 .837 .825
.4 .930 .918 .906 .895 .883 .871 .859 .847 .835 .824
.5 .929 .917 .905 .893 .882 .870 .858 .846 .834 .822
.6 .928 ..916 .904 .892 .880 .869 .857 .845 .833 .821
.7 .927 .915 .903 .891 .879 .867 ..856 .844 .832 .820
.8 .925 .914 .902 .890 ..878 .866 .854 .843 .831 .819
.9 .924 .912 .901 .889 .877 .865 .853 .841 .830 .818
% 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
.0 .817 .805 .793 .781 .769 .758 .747 .735 .724 .713
.1 .815 .804 .792 .780 .768 .757 .746 .734 .723 .712
.2 .814 .802 .791 .779 .767 .756 .745 .733 .722 .711
.3 .813 .801 .789 .777 .766 .755 .743 .732 .721 .710
.4 .812 .800 .788 .776 .765 .754 .742 .731 .720 .709
.5 .811 .799 .787 .775 .764 .753 .741 .730 .719 .708
.6 .809 .798 .786 .774 .763 .752 .740 .729 .718 .707
.7 .808 .796 .785 .773 .762 .751 .738 .727 .716 .706
.8 .807 .795 .783 ..772 .760 .749 .737 .726 .715 .705
.9 .806 .794 .782 .770 .759 .748 .736 .725 .714 .704
Example 1 Corn testing 12.9% moisture --- multiply weight of corn by 1.031 to convert to 15.5%
moisture. Example 2 Corn testing 20.1% moisture --- multiply weight of corn by .946 to convert.
Isolation, Maturity and Planting Date Considerations for Growing White Corn
Producers need to know how far white corn should be planted from yellow corn and GMO hybrids
in order to prevent pollen transfer from a GMO hybrid or development of yellow grains on the
white corn ears from cross pollination.
13

Several factors affect the transfer of pollen from the tassel and the acceptance of the pollen by the
silks and the resulting fertilization and formation of the grain.
1. The minimum necessary distance between yellow and white corn varieties for certification
is 660 feet. The greater the distance, the less likely pollen from undesirable hybrids will
reach white corn.
a. Put white corn on southwest side of yellow corn. Prevailing winds are normally southwest
to northeast and would blow pollen away from white varieties.
b. If yellow corn is planted across the fence by a neighbor, then plant white corn as close as
you can to your property line if you want to produce corn in the field instead of leaving a
wide buffer area or planting another crop. The pollen will not blow through a corn field as
easily as it will over a fallow field or short growing crop. At harvest time, check the white
corn ears for yellow kernels and determine how far the yellow pollen contaminated the
corn. Then, start your white corn harvest at the point where the yellow kernels stop.
2. Plant a later maturing or earlier maturing white corn variety compared to the yellow corn
variety when planting on the same date.
a. Most of the time, tassels will start shedding pollen before the silks come out of the shuck.
b. Most of the silks will be pollinated rather quickly by the pollen from plants close by and,
therefore, will prevent other pollen from fertilizing the grain. A single tassel will produce
between two and five million pollen grains. An ear of corn usually has between 500 and
1,000 kernels per ear.
c. By the difference in maturity dates, white corn can be protected from the yellow pollen due
to either earlier tasseling or later tasseling of the yellow corn.
3. Plant the same maturity of yellow and white corn, but plant the yellow corn at least 7 to 10
days later than the white corn.
Summary
1. Plant the white corn on the southwest side of yellow corn or on the side of the prevailing
winds.
2. Plant 600 to 700 feet from yellow corn if possible.
3. Use a different maturity for the yellow and white corns to keep from having the yellow
pollen being shed while the white silks are being pollinated.
4. If the same maturity of white and yellow corn is used, delay planting of yellow corn 7 to 10
days after white corn is planted.
5. If yellow and white corn are to be planted next to each other then follow the other
suggestions except for distance between yellow and white. Examine the corn before
combining to check to see how far the yellow pollen contaminated the white corn. Plant
extra rows of white corn as border rows to help protect the rest of the white corn area.
14

GRAIN SORGHUM
(Sorghum vulgare)
Grain sorghum is an annual. It belongs to the grass family. The seed weight is 56 pounds per
bushel and the emergence time is from five to ten days depending on soil temperature. Grain
sorghum is a good rotational crop because the dense fibrous root system helps stabilize soil and it
is relatively drought tolerant compared to field corn. Sorghum requires less nitrogen fertilizer than
corn, has a shorter growing season and can be an option for double cropping after wheat.
Land Selection
Select land that supplies some moisture in summer. Even though grain sorghum is a relatively
drought resistant plant, it produces higher yields on moist, level areas than on droughty hill
ground. Fields should also be free of heavy populations of rhizome johnson grass. There are no
herbicides registered for grain sorghum that will manage rhizome johnson grass, which is a host
for insects and diseases that affect sorghum.
Variety Selection
Grain sorghum varieties are developed by plant breeders for grain color and quality, drought
tolerance and disease resistance. Grain color ranges from bronze and red to white/cream. The
white/cream grain sorghum is used in specific human food products. Most sorghum varieties have
limited resistance to stalk diseases and head mold. Azoxystrobin (Quadris) was recently labeled for
prevention of leaf and other diseases in sorghum. Varieties sold in Tennessee typically mature in
100 to 128 days. If grain sorghum is planted extremely late, a short season variety should be
considered.
Planting Dates
Plant May 1 to June 15 for best results when soils reach 65 to 70 F. Sorghum does not germinate
well under cool conditions. Early May planting helps avoid sorghum midge insect damage. Later
planting (after May 20) usually results in a 1 bushel per acre per day yield reduction due to less
favorable environmental conditions during blooming and heavier insect pressure.
Planting Depth
Plant 1¼ to 1½ inches deep in warm soils and 1 inch in cool soils.
Planting Rates
A final stand of 50,000 to 75,000 plants per acre is adequate for dryland production. Dense stands,
particularly in narrow rows, result in weaker stalks with less tiller development and more lodging.
15

Grain Sorghum Seeding Rate Information. Number of seeds per 10 ft of Row
at Different Row Widths
Seeding
Rate
(Seeds
per
Acre)
Final
Stand
with
80%
germ
(Plants
per Acre)
Number of Seeds Per 10 Foot of Row with Different Seeding Rates
7 in row 10 in row 15 in row 20 in row 30 in row 38 in row
60,000 48,000 8.0 11.5 17.2 23.0 34.4 43.6
65,000 52,000 8.7 12.4 18.7 24.9 37.3 47.3
70,000 56,000 9.4 13.4 20.1 26.8 40.2 50.9
75,000 60,000 10.0 14.3 21.5 28.7 43.0 54.5
80,000 64,000 10.7 15.3 23.0 30.6 45.9 58.2
85,000 68,000 11.4 16.3 24.4 32.5 48.8 61.8
90,000 72,000 12.1 17.2 25.8 34.4 51.7 65.4
Fertilization and Liming
For fertilization and liming recommendations, see chapter on Soil Fertility and Soil Testing.
Row Width
Based on dryland production research in other states, planting sorghum on narrow rows can
increase grain yields slightly. Grain sorghum can be planted in a wide range of row spacings and
is usually planted with the same equipment used for soybeans or corn. Planting in narrow rows
does help speed up canopy closure and reduce weed competition and surface moisture loss.
Cultivation for weed control is not an option in narrow rows.
Insect Control
The sorghum midge is generally the most destructive insect on grain sorghum in Tennessee, but
heavy infestations of the sorghum webworm, fall armyworm or corn earworm can severely
reduce yields. Planting grain sorghum by June 1 reduces midge damage because sorghum plants
finish blooming before midge adults are present in the fields. The sorghum midge reproduces on
johnsongrass heads and grain sorghum heads. Plant all of the grain sorghum at the same time if
possible to prevent heavy damage to the second crop from the buildup of sorghum midge on the
first crop.
See PB1768 Insect Control Recommendations for Field Crops for additional insect control and
scouting information.
16

Harvesting
When heat drying facilities are available, grain sorghum can be harvested at up to 30 percent
moisture.
Without drying facilities, grain should be around 14 percent moisture or below at harvest time.
Generally, during harvest, the moisture of the combine-run grain is about one percent higher than
the grain in the field due to the harvesting of some green or high moisture plant parts. Harvest
aid products should be considered when sorghum is weedy. Harvest aids act as desiccants and
help dry down green material and may help reduce grain moisture.
Storing
Grain sorghum should contain 12 percent moisture or less for safe storage. Grain sorghum is
more difficult to dry than corn. It can be dried best in depths of 4 feet or less.
Marketing
Grain sorghum is generally sold by the hundred-weight instead of by the bushel. If grain
sorghum is to be sold rather than being fed on the farm, then a definite market and marketing
arrangement should be secured before planting grain sorghum. Some receiving and storage
stations are no longer equipped to dry or handle grain sorghum in West Tennessee.
17

Cotton
18

Cotton Growth and Development
Cotton has many unique qualities as a commercial crop. Understanding the history, growth habit,
and development of cotton allows for more efficient and profitable production system. Cotton is
a perennial plant adapted to tropical and subtropical areas of the world. It has an indeterminant
growth habit in which both vegetative and reproductive growth occur at the same time. The
indeterminent habit allows cotton to endure environmental stresses and continue to produce
fibers. There are two main commercial species of cotton grown in the United Sates; Gossypium
hirsutum L., or upland cotton and Gossypium barbadense L., or pima cotton.
Heat Units or DD 60 ’s
Cotton growth milestones are often given in terms of days after planting or between growth
stages, but the development rate of cotton is strongly influenced by temperature. A cotton crop
grows more slowly on cool days than on warm days, so temperature measurements during the
cropping season help estimate when a crop reaches a specific developmental stage. Heat units, or
DD 60 s, are an estimation of this accumulated temperature effect during a day, based on the
average of the maximum and minimum daily temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit (ºF max and
ºF min , respectively). The number 60 is subtracted from this average, because 60 degrees F is
generally accepted as the lowest temperature at which cotton growth occurs. The formula for
calculating heat units per day is as follows:
Calculating the accumulated heat units of a crop over time can then be used to estimate the
growth of the cotton during the season. Table 1 demonstrates how to calculate accumulated heat
units over a 5-day period. Table 2. Provides basic benchmarks in heat unit accumulation for
different developmental stages of cotton growth.
Table 1. Calculation of daily and accumulated heat units based on daily high and low
temperatures.
Day
Daily High
Temperature
(ºF max )
Daily Low
Temperature
(ºF min )
Average Daily
Temperature
(ºF max +ºF min )/2
Daily Heat Units
(ºF max +ºF min )/2 – 60
Accumulated
Heat Units
1 89 60 74.5 14.5 14.5
2 91 59 75 15 29.5
3 90 64 77 17 46.5
4 85 68 76.5 16.5 63
5 82 70 76 16 79
19

Table 2. Average heat units required for various cotton growth stages.
Growth stage
Heat units
Planting to seedling establishment 50-60
Nodes up the main stem 45-65
Emergence to first square 425-475
Square to white flower 300-350
Planting to first flower 775-850
White flower to open boll 850
Planting to harvest 2300
Germination and Emergence
Cotton seeds contain all the essential ingredients for germination except one, water. Cotton seed
begin to germinate when seed weight increases by 50% due to water entering the seed. As the
seed swells the seed coat splits
allowing the radical to emerge
approximately three days after
planting. Tissues between the
elongating radical and the
cotyledon leaves (seed leaves)
swell rapidly and the hypocotyl
extends to the soil surface the
seedling is said to be in the
‘crook’ stage (Figure 2). The term
‘crook’ comes from the
appearance of the curvature of the
hypocotyl as it pulls the
Figure 1. Cotton seedling establishment.
cotyledons from beneath the soil
surface. At this stage cotton is
extremely susceptial to soil crusting preventing the cotyledons from emerging.
Seed germination and successful emergence is favored by adequate soil oxygen, moisture, and
warm soil temperatures (above 65°F).
Problems with germination are typically
related to dry or wet soil conditions, soil
crusting, salinity, herbicide residue, cool
temperatures and poor seed quality. In
Tennessee we typically have marginal soil
temperatures when planting begins since we
have a short growing season. Also, the high
percentage of no-till production acres in
Tennessee present problems with maintaining
adequate seed-to-soil contact across various
soil types, moisture conditions, soil residue,
and compaction zones.
Figure 2. Seedling cotton.
20

Cotton Planting Forecast
To aid in making planting decisions, a cotton planting forecast can be calculated. A planting
forecast will consider the predicted temperatures, DD 60 accumulation, rainfall, and potential for
drying winds. Forecasts are subject to the inaccuracies associated with trying to predict the
weather. This information should be used along with good judgment for making a planting
decision (Table 3).
Table 3. Probability of cotton stand establishment based on DD 60 accumulation.
Predicted DD 60 accumulation
5 days after planting
Outlook for stand establishment
50 Very good
Once the cotyledons unfold, photosynthesis promotes development of new plant tissues from the
apical meristems located between the cotyledons. The next structure to develop is the first trueleaf
which is ovate in shape (Figure 4). It typically develops 7-14 days after the seedling
becomes established. The emergence of the first true-leaf shifts the plants energy supply to gain
carbohydrates from photosynthesis instead of the stored carbohydrates in the cotyledons. The
first several true-leafs to develop are
important to proper plant development
and need protecting from insect
damage since the carbohydrates
created are responsible for the
development of a deep, healthy root
system that will supply nutrients and
water to the plant throughout its life
cycle. Roots may extend as deep as 12
Figure 3. Cotton leaf shapes.
21
inches into the soil by the time that
cotyledons fully expand. Cold soil,
seedling disease, nematodes, low soil
pH, water stress, hard pans, and herbicide residues can inhibit root development. Root
development continues during the early season and peak root mass is achieved during early
flowering and then declines into the late season. Carbohydrates are re-directed to metabolic sinks
associated with boll formation instead of root and vegetative growth at this time.
Vegetative Growth
Cotton has an indeterminate growth habit and can grow very tall under conditions of unrestrained
growth. Growth regulators, such as mepiquat chloride, are generally applied to cotton to slow
internode elongation, especially for well-fertilized, irrigated cotton. Increased vegetative growth
promotes boll rot, fruit abscission, and makes a cotton crop difficult to harvest. The first
vegetative structures that appear on the main stem are main stem leaves (Figure 4 and 5). Main
stem leaves and branches form at points of attachment on the main stem called nodes. As a
general rule, a new node is produced from the apical meristem an average of every 3 days,

although nodes develop more quickly early in the growing season than later in the season.
Leaves that arise directly from the main stem are referred to as main stem leaves, while leaves
that arise from the fruiting branch are referred to as subtending leaves. The fruit produced by a
branch will primarily receive carbohydrates produced by the leaf subtending that fruit. However,
the main stem leaf also supplies carbohydrate for fruit development. A fruiting structure, called a
square, begins to form at the initiation of the fruiting branch. The first square produced on a
fruiting branch is referred to as a first-position square. As this square develops, the portion of the
fruiting branch between the main stem and the square also elongates. This portion of the fruiting
branch is also called the internode, similar to the portion of the main stem between main-stem
nodes. An axillary meristem also develops adjacent to this square. The axillary meristem
produces a second position square and subtending leaf. As many as four squares may be
produced in this fashion on a fruiting branch.
Leaf and Canopy Development
As a cotton plant develops, new leaves appear and expand, increasing sunlight interception.
Initially the carbohydrates produced by the leaves are used to produce roots and more leaves.
This production of new leaves causes the leaf area of the cotton plant to increase rapidly. Once
reproductive structures begin to develop, carbohydrate supplies are slowly shifted to the
developing fruit. As the fruit load on the plant increases and ages, the carbohydrate demand
increases, and the development rate of new leaves declines. Premature aging of the cotton leaf
canopy due to water stress, low fertility and other stresses further reduces the photosynthetic
capacity of the crop.
Photosynthate Partitioning
Most of the cotton plant’s carbohydrate energy is directed to root growth prior to the time
reproductive growth begins. This is a function of source to sink relationships. Carbohydrates are
transported from supply areas (leaves), called sources,
to areas of growth or storage (roots, shoots, bolls),
called sinks. As bolls develop, they become
carbohydrate sinks. Root and shoot growth slow, and
boll development dominates plant growth, and roots
continue to water and nutrients to the shoot.
The branches on a cotton plant can be classified as
either vegetative branches (monopodia) or fruiting
branches (sympodia). Because vegetative branches
have only one meristem, they grow straight and erect,
much like the main stem (Figure 5). Vegetative
branches can also produce fruiting branches.
The branches from which fruiting buds arise are called
fruiting branches, or sympodia, because each fruiting
branch contains multiple meristems. Fruiting branches
have a “zig-zag” growth habit, as opposed to the
straight growth habit of the vegetative branches. The
initial growth of a fruiting branch is terminated once a
fruiting bud forms. The fruiting branch, however,
Figure 4. Stem arrangement.
initiates a new growing point, called an axillary
22

meristem. The axillary meristem is located at the base of a leaf that subtends the newly formed
fruiting bud. The first fruiting branch will generally arise at main-stem node 5 or 6. A cotton
plant will mainly produce fruiting branches, but several common environmental factors such as
low population density, insect and disease pressure and over-fertilization can cause vegetative
branches to form. Vegetative branches are produced after fruiting branches, and develop at nodes
directly below the node at which the first fruiting branch was developed. For instance, if the first
fruiting branch is initiated at main-stem node 5, a vegetative branch may develop at main-stem
node 4. New fruiting branches generally develop approximately every 3 days, although recent
studies show that this developmental rate varies. Squares are produced at new positions on a
fruiting branch approximately every 6 days. The age of fruiting structures on a cotton plant can
be mapped according to this time sequence (Figure 7).
Squaring Through Boll Development
During the 21-day period from
square to bloom, there are several
recognized developmental stages of
the cotton flower bud. A pinhead
square is the first stage at which the
square can be identified. The next
stage of square growth is matchhead
square. Just prior to the time
the flower opens, a candle shape can
be seen (Figure 6). This period of
square development prior to bloom
is called squaring.
Figure 5. Pinhead square, matchhead square, candle and white
bloom.
A cotton plant typically blooms or flowers for about 6 weeks. Thus, until the cotton begins to
produce fruit, the stage of development is discussed in terms of leaves or nodes. Once fruiting
begins, the stage of cotton development is discussed
in terms of square development and the number of
nodes. Once blooms are present, the stage of cotton
development is discussed in terms of weeks of
bloom. The cotton square is actually a flower bud.
The first visible structures of the square are the leaflike
bracts, or epicalyx. Three bracts surround the
flower bud in a pyramid-like shape. The cotton plant
produces perfect flowers, meaning the flower
contains both male and female organs (Figure 16).
The first square is typically visible on node 5 to 7
about 35 days after planting. Anthesis, or a flower
bloom, occurs approximately 21 days after the first
square appears. Flowering is important to cotton
production because pollinated flowers form cotton
bolls. The bloom process takes several days, and
bloom age can be estimated by the bloom
Figure 6. Fruiting development. characteristics. On the day a flower opens it is white.
23

Pollination of that flower usually occurs within a few hours after the white flower opens. The
second day the flower will have a pink-like color, and a red color on the third day.
Approximately 5 to 7 days after a flower appears it usually dries and falls from the plant
exposing the developing boll. Occasionally a flower will stay attached to the developing boll for
a longer period of time. This is referred to as a bloom tag.
The development of the cotton plant in terms of leaf number, node number and fruiting stage is
discussed in previous sections. During the flowering period, the stage of cotton development can
also be discussed in terms of Nodes Above White Flower (NAWF). This is a measurement
documenting the number of nodes separating the uppermost first position bloom and the terminal
of the plant. When the cotton plant first begins to bloom, there will be approximately 9 to 10
NAWF. As the season progresses, the number of NAWF decreases. NAWF generally decreases
more quickly after bloom in early-maturing varieties than in mid or full season varieties. As the
flowers develop into bolls, they become stronger sinks for carbohydrates and their combined
demand for carbohydrates increases. Eventually the carbohydrate supply produced by the leaves
will be used primarily by developing bolls, leaving less available for the production of new
vegetative growth. As flowering progresses up the plant, less top growth is produced, allowing
the NAWF to decrease. As the flowering approaches the top of the plant, the plant eventually
puts all of its energy into boll development and ceases flower development. This event is termed
cutout. Cutout generally occurs at 4 or 5 NAWF. Cutout occurs when carbohydrate supply equals
demand and vegetative growth ceases. At cutout, no more harvestable fruit is set.
Fruit Shedding
A phenomenon often seen in a cotton field is square shedding (Figure 19). The shedding of
squares may be the result of several factors, including water stress, shading (from prolonged
cloudy weather), nutrient deficiencies (especially N), high temperatures, high plant populations,
high percent fruit set and insect damage.
Flowers and young bolls may also be shed from the plant due to the same factors that lead to
square shedding. Generally, though, the sensitivity of squares, flowers and bolls to shedding can
be related to their age. Small squares are more likely to be shed than are more developed squares
and bolls. After pollination occurs the boll begins to develop. Under optimum conditions it
requires approximately 50 days for a boll to “open” after pollination occurs. Boll development
can be characterized by three phases: enlargement, filling, and maturation.
The enlargement phase of boll development lasts approximately 3 weeks. During this time the
fibers produced on the seed are elongating and the maximum volume of the boll and seeds
contained therein are attained. The filling phase of boll development begins during the fourth
week after flowering. Fiber elongation ceases and secondary wall formation of the fiber begins.
Cellulose is deposited inside the elongated fiber filling the void space of the elongated fiber.
During the boll enlargement and fiber elongation phase, the development of fiber is very
sensitive to adverse environmental conditions. Low water availability, extremes in temperature
and nutrient deficiencies (especially potassium) can reduce the final fiber length, strength and
micronaire.
24

The boll maturation phase begins as the boll reaches its full size and maximum weight. During
this phase, fiber and seed maturation take place and boll dehiscence occurs. The capsule walls of
the boll dry, causing the cells to shrink unevenly. This shrinking causes the suture between the
carpel walls to split, and the boll opens.
Yield Distribution
The contribution of a single fruiting structure to the overall yield of the cotton plant depends
largely upon its position on the plant. First position bolls are heavier and produced in higher
quantities than bolls at any other position. In cotton populations of three plants per foot of row,
first position bolls contribute from 66 to 75 percent of the total yield of the plant, and second
position bolls contribute 18 to 21 percent.
Yield distribution research is an intensive, detailed process that involves counting and weighing
bolls from each fruiting position on many plants. First position bolls tend to fill out more and be
heavier than bolls from other positions, so the majority of boll weight on plants generally comes
from the first position fruit between nodes 7 and 20.
Cotton Production in Tennessee
Cotton production ranks third in terms of cash receipts from crops for Tennessee producers. For
the last five years, cotton harvests have ranged from 525,000 to 695,000 acres. The lint yields per
acre for the same time period varied from a high of 945 pounds of lint in 2006 to a low of 741
pounds in 2002. Tennessee cotton production is hampered by a short growing season and
frequent cool, wet weather in both spring and fall seasons.
25

Table 4. Tennessee cotton production since 1980.
Year Planted acres Harvested acres Bales produced Lint yield
pounds/acre
1980 290,000 275,000 200,000 349
1981 325,000 305,000 315,000 496
1982 260,000 255,000 339,000 638
1983 220,000 215,000 151,000 337
1984 340,000 325,000 337,000 498
1985 340,000 335,000 419,000 600
1986 340,000 335,000 396,000 567
1987 440,000 435,000 634,000 700
1988 535,000 530,000 584,000 529
1989 465,000 460,000 476,000 497
1990 525,000 515,000 495,000 461
1991 620,000 610,000 701,000 552
1992 625,000 615,000 864,000 651
1993 625,000 615,000 545,000 425
1994 590,000 585,000 885,000 726
1995 700,000 660,000 724,000 527
1996 540,000 530,000 675,000 611
1997 490,000 480,000 662,000 662
1998 450,000 445,000 546,000 589
1999 570,000 565,000 595,000 505
2000 570,000 565,000 710,000 603
2001 620,000 615,000 978,000 763
2002 565,000 530,000 818,000 741
2003 560,000 530,000 890,000 806
2004 530,000 525,000 984,000 900
2005 640,000 635,000 1,122,000 848
2006 700,000 695,000 1,368,000 945
2007 515,000 510,000 600,000 565
Field Selection and Preparation
Cotton is best adapted to soils that are fertile, moderately deep to deep with good drainage, and
high moisture-supplying capacity. Well-drained soils will tend to warm up early in the spring.
Selecting fields with long rows, easy access, few obstacles allows for efficient use of equipment.
In No-tillage production systems, erosion problems should be addresses by implementing
practices such as waterways, contour planting and filter strips along drainage ditches. Sub-soiling
is only beneficial if tillage pans exist and/or heavy traffic has occurred. However, three or four
years of continuous no-till production has been found to reduce or eliminate traffic pans.
Good cotton stands may be obtained by no-tillage or conventional methods of seedbed
preparation. A firm, well-prepared seedbed is important for fast seedling emergence and uniform
stands. On soils with erosion problems no-tillage production practices should be utilized. In
conventional tillage areas delay tillage until late winter or early spring. However, prepare
seedbeds early enough so they will settle and firm up before planting. To prepare a seedbed on
26

heavy-textured Delta soils, bed the land in the fall or winter. At planting use burndown
herbicides to kill weeds prior to planting.
Crop residues from cotton, corn, soybeans or grain sorghum may provide sufficient cover on
some fields for erosion control. Where crop residues are not adequate, cover crops may be
needed. Cover crops that have been used in Tennessee include small grain (wheat and rye) and
legumes (vetch, crimson clover or Austrian winter peas). Small grains, especially wheat, are
usually preferred for no-till cotton. Small grains have a fibrous root system and will do a better
job of binding the soil particles together than clovers, thereby reducing soil erosion. Rye tends to
grow tall and produce more ground cover. Excessive growth can interfere with planting, cause
slow cotton emergence and could also produce tall, thin cotton plants. Legumes can be more
difficult to manage. They are usually more difficult to kill and the nitrogen produced may cause
the cotton to be difficult to manage in late season. Do not plant cotton until cover crops and
weeds are killed.
Soil Fertility
Cotton is very sensitive to soil fertility and production level. It is important to supply all the
nutrients that may be needed in each field. Many problems can be related either directly or
indirectly to acid soils and low levels of plant nutrients. Fertilization and liming programs should
be based on the fertility of the soil. A soil test is the first step in a sound fertility program.
Samples should be taken during fall or early winter and sent to a soil testing laboratory for
analysis and recommendations.
Lime
Yields will be highest
and fertilizers used
most efficiently when
the pH is 6.0 to 6.5.
Calcium supplied by
ground limestone aids
in setting fruit and
proper maturing of
bolls. Soil acidity will
also influence the
availability of some
plant nutrients,
herbicide activity,
seedling development
and seedling diseases.
Figure 7. Nutrient uptake at differing soil pH.
Applying high rates of acid-forming fertilizers will gradually lower the soil pH. A 100-pound per
acre application of nitrogen in the form of anhydrous ammonia, ammonium nitrate or urea would
require approximately 400 pounds of limestone to neutralize the acidity resulting from the
nitrogen application.
27

Nitrogen
General nitrogen recommendations are based on research by The University of Tennessee
Agricultural Experiment Station. The amount of nitrogen needed depends on the soil and its
previous cropping history. Generally, 60 to 80 pounds of nitrogen are needed on upland soils
where excessive growth and late maturity are not a problem. On bottom soils or sites where
excessive growth is a problem, 45- to 60-pound of nitrogen should be considered.
The various nitrogen sources are similar in supplying nitrogen for plant growth. Nitrogen can be
applied at or just prior to planting or may be split with sidedressing applications no later than
early square stage. Nitrogen deficiency symptoms first appear on the lower leaves. The leaves of
nitrogen-deficient plants become light green to pale yellow. As they age, shades of red develop
and then they turn to brown. Leaves then dry out and shed from the plant. The entire plant will
be stunted and weak in appearance and fruit set will be reduced. Under nitrogen-deficient
conditions, nitrogen can be applied to the soil as a sidedressing until about the third week of
bloom. Foliar applied fertilizer, while costly, can supply in season nutreients for cotton plants.
However, they should not be the sole source of nutrient supply for the crop. Mid-season
applications of nitrogen may increase the risk of late-season growth.
Phosphorous (P 2 0 5 )
The amount of phosphorous in a cotton plant is low compared to levels of nitrogen and
potassium. Phosphorus fertilization is important to cotton production because it is essential for
root development and early growth. Some cotton soils tend to be low in available phosphorus.
Phosphorous is an immobile nutrient, so it must be available in the rooting zone for root contact
and uptake into the plant. Low phosphorous levels in the soil result in stunted plants. The leaves
will be smaller than normal and dark green. Fruiting and maturity may be delayed, making the
plant more vulnerable to insects and diseases. Low levels of phosphorous may reduce lint yield,
fiber strength and micronaire. The availability of phosphate to the cotton plant is dependent on a
good liming program, as pH levels below 6.0 or above 7.0 result in reduced availability.
Potassium (K 2 O)
Many soils on which cotton is grown are low in available potassium. It is not uncommon to see
potash-deficient plants. Low levels of potassium cause stunted plants and leaves that fail to
develop a normal green color. Mature leaves are often mottled after turning light yellowishgreen,
then reddish-brown between the veins of the leaf, before the discoloration spreads to the
leaf margins. The tips and edges of the leaves curl downward. The leaves become reddishbrown,
and are scorched and blackened by the time they are prematurely shed. Bolls are small,
immature and may fail to open or only partially open. Lint yield and fiber properties are reduced.
The availability of potassium is influenced by the soil pH. Soil tests are necessary to determine
both the lime and potassium needed for productive yields. Over the last 10 years there has been
an increase in potassium deficiency symptoms in cotton grown in West Tennessee. Problem
fields may have adequate levels of potassium in the top 6 inches, but a low level in the subsoil.
In some cases the pH level was also low, helping create the deficiency.
Boron (B)
Boron deficiency on cotton is more likely to occur on limed soil, particularly after heavy lime
applications. Apply boron at the rate of 0.5 pound per acre when soil pH is above 6.0 or where
lime is used. Boron can be applied in mixed fertilizer or preemergence herbicides. To obtain .5
28

pound per acre of boron, apply 2.44 pounds "Solubor" per acre. For foliar application, apply 0.1
pound boron beginning at early bloom making three to five applications at weekly intervals.
Some boron deficiency symptoms may be:
• Abnormal shedding of squares and young bolls.
• Ruptures at the base of squares, blooms, or on the stem (peduncle) that supports the
squares.
• A darkened area at the base of bolls, extending inside the boll. (can be detected by cutting
across the base of the boll.)
• Mature bolls that are small, deformed and do not fluff normally.
• Death of the terminal bud and shortened internodes near the top of the plant.
• Dark green rings on leaf petioles ("coon -tail" petioles). When petioles are sliced, a
discoloration of the pith can be seen in conjunction with the rings.
• Dark green, often thicker leaves. Leaves remain until frost and may also be difficult to
chemically defoliate.
• Poor response to nitrogen and potassium.
Sulfur (S)
Sulfur is absorbed by roots in the divalent anion form (SO -2 4). While atmospheric sulfur (SO 2 ) is
taken up and utilized by the aerial parts of higher plants, root absorbed sulfur is much more
important in plant health and nutrition. Sulfur is a constituent of some amino acids and
ultimatelty protein synthesis. Sulfur is also an important component of many co-enzymes and
secondary metabolites. Inhibition of protein synthesis associated with sulfur deficiency leads to
cholrosis (yellowing) of leafs similar to that of nitrogen deficiency. However, sulfur deficiency is
equally associated with old and young leaves, where nitrogen deficiency is generally limited to
older leaves. Soil test for sulfur content and fertilizer needs in areas where sulfur deficiencies are
apparent or expected.
Fertilizer Recommendations
Fertilizer Placement
Research has shown that where soil fertility is high, broadcast application of fertilizer is just as
effective as band application. If the soil fertility is low, best results would be obtained by
broadcasting about one-half and banding one-half of the fertilizer. As the fertilizer rate increases,
distance of the band placement from the seed should also be increased.
General fertilizer recommendations: In absence of a soil test, apply 60 to 80 pounds of nitrogen,
60 pounds phosphate (P 2 0 5 ), 90 pounds of potash (K 2 0) and .5 pound of boron (B) per acre at
planting. Nitrogen may be split-applied one-half at planting and one half as side-dress.
29

Table 5. Fertilizer recommendations.
Soil Test Level
Phosphate (P 2 O 5 ) Potash (K 2 O)
lbs/ac
bs/ac
Low 90 120
Medium 60 90
High 30 60
Very High 0 0
Variety Selection
Cotton variety tests are conducted each year at five locations in Tennessee to obtain performance
information, which is then used to assist the producer in selecting varieties to grow (See PB
1742). Lint yield is the most important consideration in selecting a variety. Increased emphasis is
being placed on fiber strength, length, length uniformity and micronaire. The relative yield of a
variety is influenced by a number of conditions such as soil type, fertility, cultural practices,
insect control, weather, etc. Early maturity of varieties is important in Tennessee because of the
relatively short growing season. Varieties that mature earlier perform well in most Tennessee
growing environments. Many cotton producers find obtaining and maintaining a good stand of
vigorous plants a problem each year in at least some fields. Seed quality may help determine the
rate of emergence, vigor and even the yield of a crop of cotton. Obtain all available information
when selecting cotton seed. Make sure the seed has at least 80 percent germination and a cool
test rating of at least 50. Seed with a good vigor rating will germinate and grow under a wide
range of soil and field conditions. Also make sure the seed are treated with fungicide.
In-Plant Technologies
Many factors are considered when making varietal selections including the inclusion of valueadded
transgenic traits. Bollgard, Bollgard II, Widestrike, Liberty Link, Roundup Ready,
Roundup Ready Flex are traits for either insect control or herbicide tolerance. All have strengths
and weaknesses and are extremely important consideration for producers when selecting
varieties to plant. However, these technologies are not the most important factors to consider in
variety selection. In addition to yield potential and transgenic traits, other plant characteristics
such as yield stability, maturity, fiber quality, lint turnout perecentage, leaf pubescence (presence
or absence of hairs), stormproofness, and growth and fruiting habit should all be considered
when choosing a variety. Producers are encouraged to plant new varieties and multiple
technologies on their acres, but at a conservative scale.
Planting Date
Satisfactory planting dates in Tennessee are April 20 to May 10. Weather conditions, soil type,
the use of fungicides, etc. will help determine whether to plant early or late. Planting after May
20 will tend to reduce yields, require more insecticide applications and result in delayed harvest.
The minimum temperature necessary for cotton seed germination is near 60 degrees, while
optimum germination temperatures range from 85-95 degrees. With seed of average quality, the
soil temperature should be 65 degrees or higher for good rate of emergence of healthy vigorous
plants. Check soil temperature at a 2-3 inch depth at 8:00 - 10:00 a.m. for three to five days to
make sure the seedbed has reached 65 degrees and warm dry weather is predicted for the next
five to seven days.
30

For maximum efficiency in weed and disease control, harvesting, etc., establish a population of
30,000 to 60,000 plants per acre. Excessive plant populations will cause higher fruiting on the
plants, shorter limbs, smaller bolls and fewer bolls per plant. A stand of three to five plants per
foot of row will require four to six seeds per foot of row under normal conditions. The following
table will help determine the row spacing required to obtain a desired plant population.
Rate and Spacing
Table 6. Plant populations at various row spacings.
Row Spacing (inches)
Plants
per 7.5 10 15 30 36 38 40
foot
Plants per Acre
1.0 69696 52272 34848 17424 14520 13756 13068
1.5 104544 78408 52272 26136 21780 20634 19602
2.0 139392 104544 69696 34848 29040 27512 26136
2.5 174240 130680 87120 43560 36300 34390 32670
3.0 209088 156816 104544 52272 43560 41268 39204
3.5 243936 182952 121968 60984 50820 48146 45738
4.0 278784 209088 139392 69696 58080 55024 52272
4.5 313632 235224 156816 78408 65340 61902 58806
5.0 348480 261360 174240 87120 72600 68780 65340
* Plant populations for UNR cotton should be evaluated by plants per square foot.
Depth of Planting
After carefully calibrating the cotton planter to plant the desired number of seed, check the depth
seed are placed. Set the planter to place seed 0.5 to 1 inch deep. The depth will have to be
rechecked when soil conditions change. Factors such as moisture, soil temperature, soil texture,
crusting potential and type of seedbed should be considered. When planting 0.5 to 0.75 inch
deep, take care to insure the seed are covered to prevent injury from surface-applied herbicides.
As the soil warms and moisture is lost, the seed may be planted 1 to 12 inches deep to allow
planting in moist soil. Never plant cotton seed deeper than 1.5 inches.
Making Re-plant Decisions
Each year many producers are forced to replant cotton due to adverse conditions the most
difficult decisions to make and second guessing is very common.
Calendar Date
The recommended planting window for Tennessee is April 20-May 10. Although boll weevil
eradication, Bt cotton and early-maturing varieties may have extended the planting window,
most researchers agree that planting after May 25 is beyond the optimum planting window. A
poor stand may be replanted on May 1 but will more likely be kept on May 25. Regardless of the
advances in technology, an early freeze can be devastating to an immature crop (Table 1.).
Setting a two bale crop on the plant and harvesting that same cotton are two different things.
31

Evaluate the existing stand
Go to at least 10 places within the field and measure 1/1000 th of an acre. For example, 13 feet, 9
inches is 1/1000 th of an acre for 38” rows. For more row spacings see table 2. Once the desired
length has been measured, count the number of plants. Multiply the number of plants X 1000 to
determine your plant population per acre. Remember, go to several places and count not only the
number of plants but also observe your stand for uniformity. Take note of any skips longer than
three feet in length. Once this has been done, you then have to make the decision about those
plants that will live and those that will die. If the plant has severe lesions on the stem and the
plant is brittle, it will probably die. If the roots are discolored but remain white or green when the
brown tissue is scraped away, it will probably live. Also, examine the plant terminal. How do the
new leaves look If there appears to be new growth emerging, the plant may live. If the plant
looks sick and you can't make a decision, assume it will die. However, cotton has a tremendous
ability to survive if conditions favor growth.
How many plants are needed to make a crop
Research has shown that cotton yields are fairly flat when uniform populations of 20,000-70,000
plants per acre are found. Uniform populations are critical and fields with large skips may need
to be replanted. What is the yield potential of the field Fertile, bottomland fields may have
more compensation ability than eroded, droughty hills. Remember, it's getting late and yield
potential is decreasing every day. Uniform populations of 1-2 plants per foot (Table 3.) can be
satisfactory provided the stand in UNIFORM.
What are your costs and what cultural practices have been used
Sometimes replanting to cotton is not the best option. However there are several factors that will
determine this decision. Has a residual herbicide been applied Some herbicides like Cotoran,
Caparol or Diuron will essentially lock you into cotton. Is the land leased or under a gin
contract Lease agreements are often crop specific and offer no alternatives. Also, the type of
rental agreement can play a role. Extremely high rent will not allow a grain alternative. Has
fertilizer been applied Another factor that has become more important in recent years is the
technology fee. Before replanting, determine whether the additional technology fees will be
waived. Another factor to consider if replanting to a different crop is that payments in the current
farm bill are decoupled from production and payments are made regardless of crop planted.
Manage for earliness
Choose an early maturing variety with Bt technology if you decide to replant. It is imperative
that the variety be early enough to mature and provide late season worm control. Do not cut
corners. If the stand was lost due to disease, use the full rate of fungicide when replanting and try
to plant beside the old row. The old furrow will contain disease inoculum and conditions for
disease can be worse than the first time. It is imperative that to achieve a uniform stand with this
planting because time is precious. Fields that are not replanted will likely be stunted. Fruit
retention will be crucial, as time may not allow for late season blooms to mature. Overtop
glyphosate applications should be made within the recommended window. Late applications will
delay fruiting and maturity. In addition to early square retention, timely mepiquat chloride (Pix,
Pentia, Mepichlor, Mepex, etc.) or Stance applications will help improve earliness. If the stand is
partially lost to hail, some of these plants with damaged terminals may lose apical dominance
and become "crazy". This vegetative growth will need special care to achieve good fruiting and
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earliness. In cases when the decision to replant is made, match the correct nitrogen rate to the
realistic yield potential of the late planted crop. Adding more nitrogen than necessary will delay
maturity and increase the potential for damage from inclement weather.
Other points to consider:
Weather forecast. Does the 5-7 day forecast look promising Will conditions be conducive to
plant growth or rapid germination and emergence Weather forecast can play a big role in
replant decision making.If the decision to replant is made, destroy the old stand. Plants from the
first planting will mature differently and may become weeds and compete with the replanted
population. Some control options are:
• 24-32 oz Gramoxone Max
• 24-32 oz Gramoxone Max + 32 oz Cotoran or Caparol
• 32-40 oz Ignite
• 32-40 oz Ignite + 32 oz Cotoran or Caparol
• 22-32 oz Glyphosate for Liberty Link or non-glyphosate cotton
Should the whole field or portions of the field be replanted Spot re-planting is a means of
reducing seeding costs and time. However, this often complicates crop management since several
maturity ranges will be found within one field. If spot planting, try to block out parts of the field
so that management inputs can be directed to larger areas. Also, choose varieties whose growth
habits and maturity will closely follow the first planting.
Remember that cotton is very forgiving and you can make a crop with some luck. Just remember
to make your decision and commit to it. Once you make the decision to either replant or not you
must believe that you have made the correct decision and do everything to ensure its success. A
common rule of thumb among most university Extension specialists is “If the decision to replant
is difficult, then there are probably enough plants to keep the stand.”
Table 7. Date and Probability of a fall freeze by location.
Probability
Location 50% 25% 10%
Bolivar 11-Oct 31-Oct 18-Nov
Brownsville 8-Oct 5-Nov 30-Nov
Covington 26-Oct 12-Nov 26-Nov
Jackson 24-Oct 31-Oct 7-Nov
Martin 15-Oct 7-Nov 28-Nov
Memphis 6-Nov 13-Nov 19-Nov
Milan 17-Oct 7-Nov 26-Nov
Murfreesboro 13-Oct 4-Nov 25-Nov
Newbern 13-Oct 6-Nov 28-Nov
Samburg 15-Oct 6-Nov 25-Nov
Savannah 20-Oct 10-Nov 29-Nov
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Table 8. Length of row need for 1/1000 th of an acre.
Row Spacing (inches)
7.5 10 15 30 36 38 40
row length needed for 1/1000th acre
69' 8" 52' 3" 34' 10" 17' 5" 14' 6" 13' 9" 13' 8"
*Plant populations for UNR cotton should be evaluated by plants per square foot
Plant Growth Regulators
Mepiquat choloride (Pix) plant growth regulator benefits cotton production in the management of
boll rot and excessive vegetative growth. The use of mepiquat chloride may result in one or more
of the following: height reduction, shorter limbs, more open canopy, better boll retention, less
boll rot, improved defoliation and a darker green leaf color. Mepiquat-type plant growth
regulators (PGRs) are products containing mepiquat chloride (such as Pix ® ; Mepex ® ; or
Mepichlor ® ), mixtures of mepiquat chloride with other materials (such as Pix Plus ® ; Mepex
Plus ® ; or Pix Ultra ® ), or other mepiquat-based compounds ( Pentia ® ).
Like any agricultural PGR, applying mepiquat-type PGRs to cotton alters the internal hormone
balance of the plant. Specifically, the mepiquat ion reduces plant synthesis of gibberellic acid by
partially inhibiting one of the enzymes involved in its synthesis. One of the roles of gibberellic
acids in plants is to promote cell expansion during growth, which is limited by cell wall
development. Cell walls exposed to mepiquat develop and harden faster, so cells do not expand
as much as untreated cells. The smaller cells in growing shoots of cotton result in shorter
internodes in stems and branches. Therefore shoot growth is more compact if mepiquat-type
PGRs are applied. For the reduction of cell size to affect plant height, at least 10 parts per million
of mepiquat ion is required according to research by Juan Landivar and colleagues in Texas.
Larger plants require a higher application rate to reach this concentration. Plant concentration of
mepiquat ion may be reduced by growth dilution, which is observed as plants “grow out of”
earlier mepiquat applications. Table 8 indicates plant growth vigor at different stages of
development.
Table 9. Height to node ratios for cotton PGR decisions. (Jost et al 2005)
Growth Stage Normal Stressed Vegetative
HNR (inches/node)
Seedling 0.5-0.75 - -
Early Squaring 0.75-1.2 0.7 >1.3
Large Square - First
Flower
1.2-1.7 1.9
Early Bloom 1.7-2.0 2.5
Early Bloom + 2 weeks 2.0-2.2 2.5
Jost, P., S. M. Brown, S. Culpepper, G. Harris, B Kermerait, P. Roberts, D. Shurley, and J.
Williams. 2005. 2005 Georgia Cotton production guide p 37-39.
Reduction of stem cell size and plant height with mepiquat has many other effects on the plant.
Total leaf area is reduced, and a greater proportion of sunlight penetrates to lower leaves, which
34

can reduce the occurrence of boll rot. Resources such as energy and nutrients that would
otherwise go into cell expansion and vegetative growth is available to support reproductive
development. Together, these effects shift a greater proportion of boll production to lower nodal
positions than in untreated cotton. This shift can lead to earlier cutout and maturity of the crop,
which is often beneficial to cotton grown in short-season environments like Tennessee.
The producer has the option of a single, dual, or up to four low-rate multiple applications of
mepiquat chloride. When cotton is under stress from dry soil conditions, insect or mite pressure,
disease, herbicide injury or fertility stress, the application of mepiquat chloride should be
avoided. Wait for rain to reduce plant stress or treat to reduce insects before treating with
mepiquat chloride.
Mepiquat chloride can be applied using either water or oil as a diluent. When using water, apply
at least three gallons per acre by air or 10 gallons with ground equipment. Thorough coverage of
the cotton foliage is required. When using oil as a diluent for ultra low volume (ULV) aerial
application be sure to use a nonphytotoxic oil concentrate with either a petroleum or vegetable
oil base. Follow the mepiquat chloride label closely for purchasing oil and mixing instructions.
The use of a good quality surfactant with mepiquat chloride application can reduce the rain-safe
period from eight to four hours. Mepiquat chloride has an aqueous base and is compatible with
most insecticides and miticides. Compatibility can be checked by adding a teaspoon of
insecticide or miticide to one pint of ready-to-use spray solution of mepiquat chloride.
Restrictions and Limitations
Insect or mite damage before, at or after application of mepiquat chloride can lead to yield
decreases.
• Do not make a single application of 0.5 to 1 pint of mepiquat chloride to cotton that is
drought stressed. If using the low rate multiple option, discontinue use until the moisture
stress is alleviated.
• Do not apply more than 1.5 pints of mepiquat chloride per acre per season.
• Do not apply mepiquat chloride within 30 days of harvest.
• Do not graze or feed cotton foliage to livestock within 30 days of application, or after
applying mepiquat chloride in oil as a ULV application by air.
• Do not tank mix with other products other than mentioned on label.
• Do not apply mepiquat chloride through any type of irrigation system.
Under good growing conditions the recommendation would be to get some mepiquat into the
plant early and follow up 10-14 days later with another application. Once you have a fruit load
and some plant growth control then make another application during early bloom. The best
advice is to get the plant under control right around bloom. A single application of 12-16 oz has
shown to be effective at early bloom then followed up as needed. The tricky part will be on
rolling hills. A at bloom application should work well in most situations. For vigorous varieties
that can get rank in good growth environments, a low rate (2-4 oz broadcast) application at early
match-head square with follow up applications based on plant vigor should suffice. The at-bloom
treatment will also work well with these varieties. Some varieties much less aggressive and at
bloom applications will likely suffice for growth control. However, under the correct growing
35

conditions all varieties will need growth control and situations like poor fruit load or late
planting will require a more aggressive approach. A good rule of thumb is to make applications
based on field history, plant vigor, variety, fruit load and weather forecast. Remember, growth
control should take place before and very near bloom. PGRs can do a lot of things but they can’t
shrink the plant. Take all of these into consideration when making the decision and when in
doubt call an extension agent or specialist for help.
Table 10. Plant growth regulator application strategies.
Single or Dual Application
First Application
Apply when cotton is actively growing and is between 20"
and 30" tall, provided cotton is not more than 7 days beyond
early bloom stage (5-6 blooms per 25 row feet). If cotton is
24" tall and has no blooms apply Mepiquat chloride plant
regulator. Use 2 pint per acre on cotton where excessive
vegetative growth is not likely to be a problem, and 1 pint per
acre in areas tending to have excessive vegetative growth.
Second Application
Field has a history of excessive growth, and/or conditions
after the first application are favorable for excessive growth,
apply a second application 2 to 3 weeks after the first
application.
Multiple Low-rate applications
First Application:
Match head square stage of growth.
Second Application:
14 days later, or when excessive re-growth occurs.
Third Application:
14 days later, or when excessive re-growth occurs.
Fourth Application:
14 days later, or when excessive re-growth occurs.
Rate per acre
Mepiquat Stance
0.5-1.0 pint 2.0-3.0 oz
0.5 pint 2.0 oz
Mepiquat
2.0-4.0 oz
2.0-4.0 oz
2.0-4.0 oz
2.0-4.0 oz
Defoliation and Harvest Timing
Defoliation is an often-overlooked process that if done properly, can pay large dividends.
Defoliation is relatively easy in some situations and extremely difficult in others. Defoliation is
the application of chemicals to encourage or force cotton leaves to drop from the plant in order to
harvest the crop in a timely manner. Proper defoliation requires a balancing act between killing
the leaves too quickly or not affecting the leaf at all. Successful defoliation requires that the leaf
must stay alive long enough to begin the formation of an abscission zone resulting in leaf drop.
Killing the leaf too rapidly results in a leaf that is frozen or "stuck" to the plant, creating
unnecessary trash.
Proper defoliation is a profitable part of a total cotton management system. Benefits include:
1. Elimination of the main source of stain and trash, resulting in better grades.
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2. Faster and more efficient picker operation.
3. Quicker drying of dew, allowing picking to begin earlier in the day.
4. Straightening of lodged plants for more efficient picking.
5. Retardation of boll rot.
6. Potential stimulation of boll opening, which can increase earliness, yield, and profit.
When to defoliate
There are many ways to determine proper defoliation timing but the following have proven to be
effective.
NAWF 5 + 850 DD60’s
Using heat unit accumulation after NAWF 5 has some merit when determining defoliation
timing. Calculating DD60’s after NAWF is a good way to gauge crop maturity and should only
be used in combination with other techniques. This method is almost certainly the first to
recommend defoliation and can sometimes be too early. DD60 accumulation after NAWF should
always be accompanied by % open boll and the sharp knife technique to ensure that premature
defoliation does not occur. Early defoliation can reduce micronaire but it has also shown to
reduce yield in many situations. One must first weigh the benefits of decreased micronaire vs.
the potential yield loss.
Percent Open Boll
Measuring percent open boll has been the standard defoliation technique for many years and is
still the “old standby”. It is generally safe to defoliate when 60 percent of the bolls are open.
However this strategy may not work well in situations where fruit has been set over a varying
period of time due to plant stresses. In some situations, defoliation at 60 percent open would be
premature and cut short the development of the top bolls, therefore reducing yield and
micronaire. On the other hand, a crop set in a short period of time could be safely defoliated at
40 to 50 percent open boll. Many producers under estimate percent open boll and may be waiting
until 70-80% open to defoliate. Measuring % open boll from the truck will generally
underestimate % open boll. I encourage all producers to measure 3 feet of row in 10 places in the
field and actually count open and closed bolls. This is the only way to accurately determine %
open boll.
Node above Cracked Boll (NACB)
A NACB of 4 is usually safe for defoliation. However, low plant populations (less than two
plants per foot of row) may need a NACB count of 3 to be safe. Low plant populations result in
a less evenly distributed crop with high numbers of bolls set on vegetative branches and outer
positions of fruiting branches. To use NACB, find the uppermost first position cracked boll and
count upwards on the plant to the uppermost harvestable boll. Once the NACB has been
determined, cut the uppermost harvestable boll to inspect the lint and seed. If the boll is mature
then defoliation is safe. If the uppermost harvestable boll is immature, wait until NACB of 3.
Sharp Knife Technique
The sharp knife technique should be used to validate all methods of defoliation timing. Choose
the uppermost boll that has a chance of contributing to yield. Make a cross section of the boll
with a sharp knife. Bolls are generally safe when they are difficult to cut and a cross section of
the seed reveals folded cotyledons, absence of jelly and darkened seed coats.
37

The boll on the left illustrates a cross section of an immature boll revealing undeveloped
cotyledons. The boll in the center is nearly mature, while the boll on the right is a fully mature
boll.
Hal Lewis Method
The Hal Lewis Method of timing defoliation has gained momentum over the last several years
and has shown promise in predicting end of season micronaire. The system uses a representative
sample of the bottom four first position bolls and compares the micronaire to a chart which
predicts whole field micronaire. If whole field micronaire is predicted to be in the discount
range, defoliation is recommended. The technique could save a producer from discounts while
maintaining yields. The website highlighted above gives detailed sampling instructions for those
producers interested in using this method.
Regardless of which method you prefer, a combination of several of the techniques should
always be used. All growers are urged to walk as many of their fields as possible and determine
the overall maturity of their crop. Rarely do all portions of a field mature at the same time but
some of the risks of defoliating too early or late can be reduced by using a combination of the
aforementioned techniques.
Once producers decide that defoliation is needed, they must determine when the chemical should
be applied, what material(s) will be applied, and how much material(s) to apply. Crop condition
and air temperatures will largely determine the selection of defoliation materials and rates. Still,
desired defoliation materials and rates of application often change during the season with
changes in crop condition and weather. In the end, the two most important factors in determining
when to defoliate are crop maturity and desired harvest schedule.
Poor defoliation can be economically costly.
Defoliation should be coordinated with picker availability. Applications should be timed so that
harvesting can keep up with defoliation. In general, defoliate only as much acreage as can be
harvested in about 12 days. Early defoliation of excess acreage can decrease yields, expose lint
to weather more than necessary, and increase the likelihood of significant regrowth. When
harvesting capacity is low for the acreage involved, consider abandoning the "once-over"
strategy and plan to "scrap" or "second-pick" the acreage picked during the first week. This may
improve grades and prevent losses should unfavorable weather shorten the harvest season.
38

Defoliants work best on mature cotton under warm, humid, sunny conditions. Cool temperatures
at the time of application and for the 3 to 5 days afterward can retard the activity of defoliants
and cause less than desirable defoliation. If possible, defoliants should not be applied during cool
snaps. Better defoliation will occur if you can wait for a warm spell that is predicted to last for at
least 3 to 4 days. Defoliation is not always justified. Cotton that is completely cutout with
"tough" leaves may not need defoliation if harvested with care. In this situation, it is important
not to pick too early or late in the day to avoid excess moisture. If you are considering picking
without defoliation, pick a trailer full and see how well it cleans up at the gin. If the gin can clean
the lint so that it will grade a 41 or better, then defoliation may not be needed.
Types of Defoliants:
Defoliants can be categorized as having either herbicidal or hormonal activity. Def, Folex,
Harvade, and Aim are herbicidal-type defoliants that injure the plant, causing it to produce
ethylene in response to this injury. The ethylene promotes abscission and leaf drop. If these
defoliants are applied at rates too high for the temperature, they kill the leaf too quickly before
ethylene can be produced. This results in desiccation or "leaf stick" instead of the desired
defoliation (leaf drop). Dropp, FreeFall, Finish, CottonQuik, and Prep are hormonal defoliants
that result in increased ethylene synthesis by the plant. Prep releases ethylene, which stimulates
further ethylene synthesis in the plant, resulting in abscission zone formation in the boll walls
and leaf petioles. Dropp is a type of hormone called a cytokinin. Although cytokinins promote
leaf health in most plant species, in cotton and related species such as velvetleaf, cytokinins
promote ethylene synthesis and act as a defoliant. Because these hormonal-type defoliants
bypass herbicidal injury, they are not as likely to cause desiccation (leaf stick) as herbicidal
defoliants.
Herbicidal Defoliants
Def 6 and Folex 6: These phosphate-type materials have been the standard defoliants in
Tennessee for several years. Their performance is essentially equal and they are effective over a
broad range of environment conditions. Minimum temperature for optimum performance is 55-
60 degrees F. These materials do not inhibit regrowth or appreciably improve boll opening and
activity improves with increased maturity of the crop. Leaf removal with each of these products
is usually rapid and addition of surfactants offers benefit only under adverse conditions. One
thing is certain; both products have a pungent odor.
Labeled Rates: 16—32 oz per acre
Harvade: Harvade has generally provided defoliation of mature cotton equal to Def 6 and Folex
6 but is usually slower. Harvade does not inhibit regrowth or improve boll opening. Addition
crop oil concentrate (1 pt./A) is necessary for acceptable defoliation. Addition of Harvade will
increase desiccation of morningglories and other viney weeds. Harvade has very little odor.
Labeled Rates:
Lintplus: Lintplus is a dimethipin (Harvade) product. Lintplus is a plant growth regulant that
affects certain plant processes, which lead to defoliation and lint maturation. Lintplus is used
primarily as a preconditioning treatment applied at 10-30% open bolls and offers some
desiccation of weed species. Lintplus generally requires a follow up treatment.
Labeled Rate: 20 oz per acre
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Ginstar: Ginstar is an emulsifiable concentrate formulation of thidiazuron (active ingredient in
Dropp and FreeFall) and diuron (Karmex, Direx). It is applied to mature cotton at least 5 days
before harvest, but defoliation may take longer under cool conditions. Addition of adjuvants or
excess rates can cause desiccation or “stuck leaves” under warm conditions. The Ginstar label
does not discuss tank mixtures, but tank mixtures with ethephon have enhanced boll-opening
activity.
Labeled Rates: 6.4—16 oz per acre
Paraquat (Gramoxone Max, Boa): Paraquat can aid in opening of mature bolls when 2.1 to
3.3 oz./A are mixed with Def, Folex, Dropp, Harvade, or Ethephon.
Labeled Rates: 2.1—3.3 oz per acre
Leafless: Leafless is a combination of thidiazuron (Dropp) and dimethipin (Harvade). It
combines the benefits of dimethipin listed above with good to excellent regrowth inhibition, and
removal of juvenile growth provided by thidiazuron. Limited research has also shown that split
applications of Leafless are effective in defoliating rank cotton. The recommended rate of 10-12
ounces per acre delivers the equivalent of 0.125-0.15 lbs. Dropp/Freefall and 6.7-7.7 ounces per
acre Harvade. If morningglory desiccation is desired, additional Harvade and Prep will be
required. Crop oil concentrate at 0.5 to 1.0 pints per acre should be added to Leafless.
Labeled Rates: 10—12 oz per acre
Aim: Aim is a herbicidal defoliant that was registered for use as a defoliant in 2001. Aim has
excellent activity in desiccation of juvenile growth, but does not inhibit regrowth. In mature
cotton, and/or cool conditions, Aim activity has been shown to be similar to Def or Folex. In
warm conditions, however, less than desirable defoliation and excessive desiccation has been
shown with Aim. In situations in which two applications are necessary, Aim has performed very
well as the second application. Aim has shown excellent activity in desiccating morningglories.
In situations with thick vines, Aim alone or in combination with other defoliants will desiccate
morningglories very well. Aim can be tankmixed with any of the other defoliants, and the
addition of 1% v/v crop oil is needed.
Labeled Rates: 1—1.5 oz per acre
glyphosate (many formulations): Glyphosate provides excellent regrowth inhibition of
conventional (non-Roundup Ready) cotton when applied in conjunction with defoliants or
ethephon and results in excellent johnsongrass control. Check specific product labels for
registrations as a harvest aide.
Labeled Rates: 13–51 oz per acre weed and regrowth control in non-RR cotton
Hormonal Defoliants and Boll Opening Materials
Dropp: (Dropp 50WP, FreeFall): These thidiazuron products are formulated as a wettable
powder. They require a 24-hour rainfree period and are also sensitive to cool weather. Dropp
should not be applied when the average 24-hour temperature is predicted to be below 60 degrees
F for two to three days after application. Although Dropp is slower in leaf removal than Def or
Folex and may leave some bottom leaves, Dropp effectively removes younger leaves at the shoot
tips. Dropp does not improve boll opening. However, Dropp will strongly inhibit regrowth when
40

applied under favorable weather conditions. If Dropp is used under less than favorable
conditions, the addition of crop oil concentrate (1 pt./A) or methyl parathion (0.25 lb./A) may
enhance the activity of this material. It is important to follow suggested cleanout procedures with
Dropp or FreeFall.
Labeled Rates: 0.1—0.4 lb ai per acre
Finish 6 Pro: Finish contains ethephon and the synergist cyclanilide that aids in defoliation.
Finish is an excellent boll opener and can be a stand-alone product in cooler temperatures and
well-cutout situations. Finish also exhibits a limited level of regrowth control. Finish is generally
a faster boll opener than ethephon and can be tankmixed with thidiazuron, phosphate materials,
and Ginstar.
CottonQuik: CottonQuik also contains the boll opener ethephon and a synergist different from
the one found in Finish. It is an excellent boll opener. Acceptable defoliation with CottonQuik
alone requires mature cotton with mature leaves. In cases of rank growth, or the potential for
regrowth, the addition of Dropp, Freefall, Def, or Folex is recommended.
Desiccants
Sodium Chlorate: More than one brand of sodium chlorate may be available. Higher rates of
sodium chlorate may act as a desiccant, tending to stick leaves on the cotton plant. At normal use
rates for defoliation, sodium chlorate is generally not as effective as the other defoliants. It is not
a strong inhibitor of terminal growth. Do not mix the chlorates with phosphate defoliants,
phosphate insecticides or Prep.
Paraquat (Gramoxone Max, Boa): Use higher rates for desiccation of weeds and for stripperharvested
cotton.
Defoliating Drought-Stressed and Rank Cotton
Drought-stressed cotton often has thick cuticles and leathery leaves that inhibit the uptake of
many defoliants. The potential for regrowth is often high due to unused nitrogen remaining after
premature cutout. The uptake of Dropp or Freefall appears to be slightly inhibited in droughtstressed
cotton and higher rates may be needed. Leafless and Ginstar both deliver a liquid form
of thidiazuron and limited research suggests that their uptake may be less affected by droughtstressed
cotton than Dropp or Freefall. Tank-mixtures with Def or Folex as well as the addition
of silicone surfactants or ammonium sulfate has been shown to increase the uptake of Dropp or
Freefall on drought stressed cotton. However, use caution when applying higher rates or
adjuvants in warmer weather as desiccation and stuck leaves may result.
Obtaining adequate coverage makes defoliation of rank cotton challenging. A common mistake
is to increase rates in an effort to achieve better defoliation. Increased rates are likely to cause
leaf desiccation at the top of the plant because most spray solution is intercepted there. In rank
situations, the best approach is to apply normal rates, keeping in mind that a second application
is likely to be necessary. Rank cotton is generally more expensive to defoliate than normal
cotton. However, if a good job is done on the first application, the second application may not
require the high rates or complex tank mixes. Additionally, a boll opener can be more effective if
added to the second application.
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Drought-stressed cotton has thicker cuticles that limit the penetration of some products. In high
temperatures, combinations of herbicidal-type defoliants may desiccate leaves. Regrowth is often
a problem if rainfall occurs following application. Regrowth can be a concern with applications
of Def or Folex alone or tank-mixed with ethephon depending on moisture conditions and
temperature following application Activity of most defoliants is reduced under cooler conditions
and higher rates will be needed. Regrowth is generally not as big a concern as with warmer
temperatures. Boll openers should be added to all treatments to ensure boll opening in the event
of freezing temperatures.
Cotton Diseases
Seedling diseases routinely cause losses for cotton producers in Tennessee. They comprise the
number one disease problem. The estimated loss averages 9.3 percent annually, based on a range
of 5 to 18 percent since 1989. The average seedling disease loss for the U. S. Cottonbelt is only 3
percent annually for the same period. During cool, wet planting seasons, such as 1989, 1990,
1993, 1997 and 2008, seedling diseases can become severe. Loss estimates do not include cost of
replanting or losses due to lateness of replanted cotton.
A number of organisms are associated with cotton seedling diseases. The organisms include both
seed- and soil-borne fungi and bacteria. The soil-borne fungi, Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium
spp., are the most important causes of seedling diseases in Tennessee. Rhizoctonia solani is the
fungus most commonly associated with seedling diseases; however, during cool, wet seasons
Pythium spp. may become more prevalent. Thielaviopsis basicola is being found to cause
seedling diseases more frequently each year.
Symptoms
The various phases of seedling diseases include seed-rot, root-rot, preemergence damping-off
and postemergence damping-off. The term "seed-rot" is used to describe the decay of seed before
germination.
Root-rot (or black-root) may occur anytime after germination of the seed, but may not become
conspicuous or cause severe damage until after the emergence of the seedling. Preemergence
damping-off refers to the disease condition in which the seedling is killed between germination
and emergence from the soil. The death of seedlings resulting shortly after their emergence from
the soil is termed postemergence damping-off. The latter is referred to as "sore shin" when
only stem girdling occurs. Rhizoctonia is usually the cause of sore shin.
Seedling Disease Control
Seed treatments: Fungicide seed treatments give control of seed-rot and some control of
preemergence damping-off. However, seed treatment gives little, if any, control of postemergence
damping-off and root-rot. Seed treatment is quite effective in controlling seed-borne
diseases.
Soil treatments: Postemergence damping-off and root-rot can be controlled to some extent by
soil treatment. Three methods of applying soil fungicides are recommended in Tennessee. These
methods are the hopper-box method, the in-furrow spray method and the in-furrow granule
42

method. These methods should be used in addition to the recommended seed treatments.
Producers are advised to use the seedling disease point system on Table 3 to determine if
fungicide application is necessary.
Hopper-Box Method: Mix recommended fungicides thoroughly with fuzzy, re-ginned or acid
delinted seed just before planting. Mixing may be done in a container, such as a tub, or
alternating layers of seed and fungicide as they are placed in the hopper. Hopper-box fungicides
cannot be applied as effectively on acid-delinted seed.
Application of the fungicide in the hopper-box may change the seeding rate, and
recalibration of the planter may be required. Because of handling and mixing the hopper-box
materials, clogging of the planter and abrasive action of the chemical, this method is not as
desirable as the in-furrow methods. Although less expensive, it is also less effective; but when
used properly, gives better results than seed treatments alone, especially under lower disease
pressure.
In-Furrow Spray Method: This method consists of applying a soil fungicide into the seed
furrow and to the covering soil during the planting operation. Application is best accomplished
with two spray nozzles mounted on the planter. A cone-pattern nozzle is suggested for applying
the material into the furrow behind the planter shoe. This nozzle should be placed far enough
behind the shoe to prevent wetting and clogging of the seed spout. The second nozzle should be
placed so as to direct the spray into the covering soil in front of the press wheel. The
recommended height for the front nozzle is 12 inches above the original soil surface, with a
TX6 tip and 2 to 3 inches above the soil for the back nozzle with a TX3 tip. Where space is
limited and two nozzles cannot be used, substitute one nozzle with an TX8 or TX10 tip. Use 3-5
gallons of water per acre.
In-Furrow Granule Method: Granular fungicides or fungicide-insecticide combinations have
given good control of seedling disease. They can be applied with applicators used for other
granular chemicals and eliminate the need for additional spray equipment and water with the
spray method. Effective control with granules depends on proper placement in the furrow
between the seed spout and the covering device.
Leaf Spots and Blights
Several leaf spot and blight diseases occur on cotton and under favorable conditions can cause
considerable damage. The most important of these diseases are Ascochyta blight (wet weather
blight), bacterial blight (blackarm and angular leaf spot), Cercospora leaf spot and Alternaria leaf
spot. These diseases cause various types of leaf-spot and blight symptoms. The following
measures will help control these minor disease problems: (1) use a recommended fungicidal
seed treatment, (2) destroy crop residue by chopping and plowing it under, (3) use suitable
rotations as prescribed for other diseases, (4) plant resistant varieties when they are available,
and (5) keep potassium fertility at a high level according to soil tests.
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Cotton Disease Control Guide
1. PLANT HIGH-QUALITY SEED with 80 percent-plus germination.
2. TREAT SEED with a fungicide to avoid early losses.
3. SOIL TEMPERATURE should be 65-70 F before planting.
4. IN-FURROW SOIL fungicides should be used in addition to seed treatments, not in
place of them.
5. ROTATE to avoid the build up of disease organisms.
6. DISEASE-RESISTANT VARIETIES should be planted.
7. CULTURAL PRACTICES, such as planting on a bed, also helps prevent disease
When using a single delivery tube, attach a flared baffle to the end approximately at a 45- to 90-
degree angle to the row to obtain a 2-3 inch wide band. Granules then fall into the furrow from
the seed drop to the covering device. If hill planting, a single delivery tube may be placed in the
seed spout of some planters rather than using the baffle. If the delivery tube cannot be placed in
the hill-drop attachment, a drill rate is required to be effective. When using either method, be
sure the granules are well-dispersed around the seed and in the covering soil to avoid injury or
ineffective disease control.
Cultural Practices: Certain cultural practices can help considerably in controlling seedling
disease. Turning under crop residues as early as possible is suggested. Also, crop rotation with
soybeans, corn, or grass will help prevent the buildup of organisms pathogenic to cotton
seedlings. A well-prepared seedbed greatly enhances the chances of a good stand. Planting on
beds has been shown to be of considerable value in some seasons by providing better drainage
and warmer soil temperatures.
Use certified seed or high-quality seed with a germination of 80 percent or higher. An important
practice is to plant only when soil temperatures reach 65-70 F and are expected to remain that
high or higher for an extended period of time
Nematode Management
For several years, reinform nematodes (Rotylenchulus reniformis) have been a severe problem in
cotton production in several states south of Tennessee. In the fall of 1997 and 1998 the reinform
nematode was found in several fields in Madison and Crockett counties. This nematode is spread
very easily on farm equipment. Producers should sample their cotton land for this nematode in
the fall after harvest.
No current varieties are resistant to the reniform nematode. If reniform nematode is present,
producers should either rotate with a non-host crop such as corn or grain sorghum or with
soybean varieties resistant to reniform. Temik 15G at 5 lb./acre applied in-furrow at planting will
reduce the reniform nematode population for the early part of the season.
Insect Management
Integrated Pest Management
An Integrated Pest Management (IPM) program integrates control tactics including cultural
practices, variety selection, biological control and insecticides to manage/control insect pest
populations so that economic damage and harmful environmental side effects are minimized.
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Insecticides should only be used on an as-needed basis; therefore, insect scouting must be
conducted regularly throughout the season to determine if an insecticide application is warranted.
Scouting/Monitoring: Insect populations vary from year to year and field to field during the
growing season. All fields should be monitored for both insect pests and beneficial populations
at least weekly during the season, preferably twice weekly after blooming has begun. In areas of
high insect pressure or increasing populations, twice-a-week scouting is recommended.
Monitoring plant growth and development is an important aspect of crop management,
maximizing yield potential and managing insects.
Two basic components of decision making in IPM are the economic injury level (EIL) and the
economic threshold (ET). The EIL is defined as the lowest pest population density that will cause
economic damage. The EIL is a pre-determined number that will justify the cost of treatment.
The ET is defined as the pest population level at which control should be initiated to keep the
pest population from reaching economically damaging numbers.
Economic thresholds have been established for specific insect pests. Multiple pest thresholds are
not well established. Therefore, it is important to monitor the plant for fruit loss and retention
levels to evaluate treatment thresholds, involving either single or multiple pests. When losses
from multiple pests are occurring, fixed individual pest thresholds may become dynamic or
change. Decisions to apply controls should be based on thorough scouting and identification of
pests, cost of insecticide, the price of cotton, yield potential and fruit retention goals. The
economic value of each fruiting form changes on each fruiting branch (node); therefore, it is
important to know how this value is distributed on the plant. The value and placement of fruit
being protected should be considered when making treatment decisions. Monitor fruit retention
levels weekly, along with insects. Scheduled insecticide sprays should be avoided. Unnecessary
applications of insecticide are not cost effective. Applications of insecticides on an as-needed
basis will preserve beneficial insects, reducing the likelihood of secondary pest outbreaks.
Certain production practices can have a significant impact on insect pest infestations. Some
practices may increase the risk of insect attack and should be avoided, while others may have
some level of control value. A production practice that has a negative impact on insect pests is
desirable and is termed a cultural control. Some common cultural control practices include:
• Fall Stalk Destruction: Destruction of cotton stalks as soon as possible following harvest
reduces the food supply for boll weevils, thereby reducing the size of the overwintering
population.
• Pre-plant Vegetation Management: Destruction of weeds and/or cover crops by tillage or
herbicide three or more weeks prior to planting will reduce the risk of cutworm infestations.
• Field Border Maintenance: Plant bugs often build up on flowering plants surrounding
cotton fields and move into fields when these preferred hosts dry up or are destroyed. Timely
mowing of such vegetation can aid in reducing available hosts for plant bugs.
• Managing for Earliness: Early crop maturity decreases the period of crop susceptibility to
yield loss by insects, reduces insect control costs and lowers selection pressure for resistance
development to insecticides.
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Crop Management Considerations
Insecticide Resistance: Management of tobacco budworm in conventional cotton varieties has
become more difficult in Tennessee due to the development of pyrethroid-resistant populations.
Historically, budworm populations have been higher in the southern part of the state, but high
populations can also occur in other areas. In response to tobacco budworm resistance, and the
potential for resistance in bollworm and tarnished plant bug populations, a resistance
management plan will continue to be recommended.
The goal of the Insecticide Resistance Management Plan is to improve the potential of
maintaining effective full-season control of tobacco budworm, bollworm and tarnished plant bug
by the use of different classes of chemistry in a logical sequence throughout the season, without
placing excessive reliance on any single class of chemistry.
In general, levels of resistance are lowest during the early part of the growing season but increase
sharply following repeated exposure to a single class of chemistry. Therefore, repeated use of a
single class of chemistry may no longer provide effective control. As a result, there is a potential
risk of sustaining economic losses. Following a resistance management plan is a recommended
method to reduce the risk.
Because cotton insect pest management is dynamic, these guidelines cannot address all
situations. Therefore, these recommendations are not intended to limit the professional judgment
of qualified individuals. However, the maximum benefit of a resistance management strategy
can only be realized if all producers in a wide geographic area participate.
Selection of insecticides should be based on insect pests present in the field, stage of crop
development, effects on non-target organisms and the risk of contributing to resistance problems
in subsequent generations.
Insecticide selection for bollworm and tobacco budworm control should be made after
determining the population mix and size of the infestation within a community, farm or field.
When dealing with resistance, this determination can mean a control success or failure. Use all
available information and techniques including scouting reports, pheromone trap catches, moth
flushing counts, identification of “worms” and egg test kits.
Phase I (Planting through June): Phase I corresponds to that time between planting and first
bloom. The first field generation of tobacco budworm and bollworm generally occurs during this
time.
The primary objective in Phase I is to preserve the efficacy of the pyrethroids and
organophosphate (OP) insecticides. Use of these insecticides in June will foster resistance in
tobacco budworm, bollworm and tarnished plant bug populations. Insecticides should not be
applied for control of any insect pests unless scouting techniques suggest economic losses are
occurring. Producers should strive for 80 percent square retention during Phase I.
Consider multiple pests and adjust treatment thresholds to achieve square retention goals. A goal
of 100 percent pre-bloom square retention is not realistic if multiple insecticide applications are
46

equired. These additional insecticide sprays may increase cost, flare secondary pests and
increase resistance selection pressure. Selection of specific compounds should consider all insect
pests in the field to be treated, activity on beneficial insects and risks of contributing to control
failures in subsequent generations. Automatic applications are discouraged.
Calculating Percent Square Retention:
• Select 20 representative plants within a field.
• Examine each first fruiting position on the top five fruiting branches (nodes).
• Record the total number of missing fruit from 100 possible positions.
• 100 minus number missing = percent square retention.
Phase II (July to end of season): Phase II includes the blooming and boll development period,
during which the second and subsequent field generations of tobacco budworm/bollworm occur.
It is during this window that cotton is most susceptible to insect injury, and pyrethroid or other
appropriate classes of insecticides should be used whenever pest densities exceed economic
thresholds. However, pyrethroid insecticides should not be used for tobacco budworm.
Pyrethroid resistance in budworm populations is well established in Tennessee. In non-Bt cotton,
adequate control of tobacco budworms cannot be expected with pyrethroids. If tobacco
budworms are not a small percentage of the population, pyrethroid tank mixtures are not
recommended. If a failure occurs with a pyrethroid or pyrethroid tank mixture, a second
application with full rates of a non-pyrethroid insecticide should be made immediately. It is not
realistic to expect follow-up applications made after an insecticide control failure to totally
“clean-up” remaining larvae.
When unsatisfactory control with foliar insecticide occurs: All control problems are not
related to insecticide resistance, and several factors should be considered in response to these
problems. Treatment decisions should consider a variety of factors that influence insecticide
efficacy and damage potential: species composition, population density, population age structure,
application timing, insecticide dosage, application methods, application carriers, treatment
evaluation timing, need for multiple applications, environmental conditions and insecticide
resistance levels. Good coverage using labeled rates adjusted to infestation levels is necessary for
satisfactory control. Do not expect 100 percent control with any insecticide treatment. Attempts
to reduce insect populations to zero damage levels are not cost-effective and result in early fieldcontrol
failures.
Insect Control Termination: The plant physiological stage of “cutout” can be determined
when the uppermost first position white bloom has only five fruiting branches (nodes) above it
(NAWF = 5). Counting from the top, the first branch has an unfolded leaf the size of a quarter.
At “cutout” stage, cotton is not as attractive to late-season insects. Economic thresholds can be
adjusted to higher levels in early August than those used during the critical fruiting period (node
6-16) in June and July. Late insecticide applications can often be terminated when considering
harvestable bolls that contribute to yield. Fall armyworm and European corn borer are exceptions
to this late-season termination and can damage even mature bolls if not controlled. Because
leaves continue to contribute photosynthate for bolls to mature, the crop should be protected
from excessive defoliation due to pest such as loopers or spider mites.
47

Nodes Above White Flower (NAWF): An effective decision-making guide for insecticide
termination is using heat unit accumulation for a measurement of boll maturity. Current research
and demonstrations suggest that accumulating 350 - 450 heat units (DD60s) from the “cutout”
date (NAWF = 5) is enough time to mature yield-contributing bolls beyond the point where
economic losses from bollworm/budworm are likely to occur. Bolls should be protected during
this maturing period, approximately 21 days. Related research indicates that this rule also
generally applies to the tarnished plant bug and stink bugs.
Guidelines to Manage Tobacco Budworm and Bollworm in Non-Bt Cotton
• Promote earliness (plant between April 20 and May 10 with an early-maturing variety, use an
at-planting fungicide and insecticide, avoid excessive fertilization, control all insect pests when
populations exceed thresholds, consider multiple pests and maintain 80 percent square retention
prior to bloom).
• Do not apply automatic applications of insecticides.
• Scout fields twice each week if possible.
• Time insecticide applications against eggs and 1 - 2 day-old larvae.
• Two treatments on a 4 - 5 day interval may be needed.
• Multiple applications, at median rates, are often more effective than a single application at a
high rate.
• Consider pheromone-trapping data and moth-flushing counts to determine species composition
(tobacco budworm vs. bollworm) before choosing an insecticide.
• Pyrethroids are generally not recommended for control of mixed budworm/bollworm
populations.
• Only use pyrethroids, or pyrethroids tank mixed with carbamates or organophosphates, if
tobacco budworms are a small part of the population (< 25 percent) and overall larval and egg
numbers are < 8 - 10 per 100 plants.
• Use insecticides from different classes of chemistry if a pyrethroid failure occurs.
• Improve insecticide coverage by use of hollow-cone nozzles with adequate spray volume and
pressure.
• Monitor crop maturity and terminate insecticide applications when yield-contributing bolls are
no longer susceptible to insect damage.
Bt Cotton Management
Cotton containing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) genes will continue to be available for planting in
Tennessee. The use of Bt cotton is recommended in areas with high occurrence of tobacco
budworm and bollworm. Bt cotton must be monitored on a regular basis for pests, including
bollworm. Tobacco budworm should not cause economic damage to Bt cotton at any time during
the season, and damaging infestations of bollworm are uncommon prior to bloom. Prior to
bloom, concentrate efforts in Bt cotton on monitoring square retention and scouting for pests
such as plant bugs. However, fields should be checked for the presence of surviving larvae if a
bollworm egg lay occurs. Larvae must feed on plant tissue to ingest a toxic dose of Bt toxin. This
feeding is generally superficial and will not cause economic damage. A larva that is 1/4 inch or
greater in length is considered to have survived or “escaped” the toxin.
During the blooming period, bollworms can damage Bt cotton. Twice a week scouting and closer
examination within the plant canopy may be necessary to locate and determine bollworm
48

survival before making a treatment decision. The Bt toxin should be given an opportunity to
work; therefore, treatment based just on the presence of eggs is not usually recommended. An
insecticide treatment may be justified if an unusually high egg lay occurs in Bt cotton, especially
for the original Bollgard technology. Spray coverage and timing are critical for best control.
Resistance Management Plan – Refugia: Acreage of non-Bt cotton will provide a source of
susceptible moths for mating with resistant moths that survive in Bt cotton. Designated refugia
acreage should be located adjacent to or in close proximity of Bt-cotton acreage. The refuge
should be managed with the intent of producing a viable, vigorous crop.
Refuge guidelines allow a producer to select among several refuge options. The information
below is intended only as a summary of these options. Please refer to the grower licensing
agreement and refuge guidelines provided by the company for complete details.
• Option 1 requires a 20 percent or greater acreage planted to non-Bt cotton. This acreage
can be treated with conventional insecticides, except foliar Bt products, to control all
caterpillar species as well as other pests. All Bt fields must be within one mile, but preferably
one half mile, of the refuge field.
• Option 2 is a 5 percent non-Bt refuge that can not be treated for bollworm or tobacco
budworm. The refuge must be 150 feet wide, and all Bt fields must be within one half mile
of the refuge. This refuge acreage should not be treated with insecticides that control
caterpillar pests. Non-caterpillar pests should be treated according to treatment thresholds,
but there are restrictions on the kinds and rates of insecticides that can be used (see current
licensing agreement).
• Option 3 is a 5 percent non-Bt, embedded refuge that can be treated for bollworm and
tobacco budworm only when Bt fields are also treated. If the embedded refuge is treated
for bollworm or tobacco budworm, the associated Bollgard field or field unit must be treated
at the same time with the same insecticide. Foliar Bt products cannot be used on the refuge.
The refuge must be part of a field or field unit and at least 150 feet wide. A “field unit” is
defined as any group of fields that are contained within a one mile square (one mile by one
mile) area.
Bollgard II and WideStrike Cotton
Bollgard II and WideStrike cottons are more effective than the original Bollgard technology,
including better activity on bollworm, armyworms and loopers. Research indicates that Bollgard
II and WideStrike cotton will require fewer insecticide applications for control of caterpillar
pests. New thresholds and scouting procedures are not fully developed for Bollgard II or
WideStrike cotton. If bollworm infestations are found, use the existing thresholds for the original
Bollgard technology. Do not expect control of cutworm infestations. Bt cotton does not control
tarnished plant bugs, stink bugs or other non-caterpillar pests. Refugia requirements are the same
as for Bollgard cotton.
Boll Weevil
Tennessee is currently conducting a boll weevil eradication program, and boll weevils should not
cause economic damage to any cotton fields. Evidence of boll weevil infestations should be
reported immediately to boll weevil eradication officials. Although ULV malathion has
activity on plant bugs and stink bugs, do not rely on applications by the Boll Weevil Eradication
49

Program to control these pests. The timing or frequency of applications may not be adequate to
provide control.
Expected Occurrence of Insect Pests in Cotton
Below is a timetable of when pests are typically encountered in cotton, although conditions vary
from season-to-season or farm-to-farm within a season.
Stages of Plant
Common Pests
Occasional Pests
Development
Emergence to 5 th true leaf Thrips Aphids, Cutworms
5 th true leaf to 1 st square --- Aphids, Plant bugs, Spider
mites
1 st square to 1 st bloom Plant bugs Aphids, Spider mites
Bollworm, Tobacco
budworm,
After 1 st bloom
Bollworm, Tobacco
budworm, Stink bugs, Plant
bugs
Aphids, Loopers, Fall and
beet armyworm, Spider
mites, Whiteflies
Cutworms
Cutworm damage occurs most frequently following legume cover crops or in reduced tillage
systems. Cutworms may become established on existing vegetation and move to emerging cotton
once this vegetation has been killed. Destroying all green vegetation 21 days prior to planting
reduces the likelihood of cutworm attack.
Treat when cutworms are damaging stand and plant population is less than three plants per row
foot. Infestations may be spotty within a field and only require treatment where damage and live
cutworms are found. At-planting insecticides applied in a band (no less than 10 inches) may be
justified if vegetation has not been burned down at least 21 days prior to planting.
Do not expect Bt cotton to control cutworms.
Thrips
Thrips injury causes foliar deformity (leaves crinkle and cup upward), plant stunting and delays
in maturity. Preventative in-furrow or seed treatments are recommended. Under adverse growing
conditions, additional treatment may be needed even when preventative controls have been used.
Treat when cotton is up to a stand and thrips average one or more per plant and damage is
observed.
Under some conditions, in-furrow treatments may adversely affect stand. A recommended
fungicide should be used in fields where in-furrow systemic insecticides are used. Aphids and
early spider mites are also suppressed by in-furrow systemic insecticides. When using in-furrow
materials for hill-dropped cotton, refer to the label for rate changes.
Plant Bugs
The tarnished plant bug and clouded plant bug are the predominant species. Cotton fleahoppers
are observed some years. The sweep net is a very effective tool for monitoring adult plants bugs
50

and detecting movement into the field. The ground cloth is a more effective tool for monitoring
nymphs. The presence of nymphs indicates reproduction is occurring, and they generally are
more common after first bloom. Visual scouting is a less reliable method but may also be used.
Visual sampling should include examining terminals for adults and nymphs, and checking inside
squares, blooms and small bolls for nymphs. Boll injury appears as small, dark sunken spots on
the outside. Seed and lint damage is usually localized to the lock where feeding occurred.
Distinguishing plant bug damage from stink bug based on external symptoms is difficult. “Dirty
blooms” (anthers dark and brown) are a sign of plant bug feeding.
First two weeks of squaring: Treat when plant bugs number eight or more per 100 sweeps
(standard sweep net) or one or more per 6 row feet.
Third week of squaring until first bloom: Treat when plant bugs number 15 per 100 sweeps or
two or more per 6 row feet.
From first square to first bloom: Low or dropping square retention can be a warning of plant
bug problems. If square retention drops below 80 percent and plant bugs are present, treatment
should be considered even if numbers are below threshold. The objective is to maintain the
square retention goal. Consider if multiple pests are contributing to this square loss before
selecting an insecticide.
After first bloom: Treat when plant bugs number four or more per 6 row feet (0.67 per foot) or
20 per 100 sweeps. Count clouded plant bugs as equivalent to 1.5 tarnished plant bugs when
determining if populations are above treatment level. Treatment should also be considered if 15
or more plant bugs are observed per 100 plants during visual examination. Two consecutive
insecticide applications are often required to control high populations of nymphs and adults.
Aphids
Early-season: Parasites and predators usually control aphids on seedling cotton. If aphids are
present on numerous plants and some leaves are curled along the edges (signs of stress),
treatment is suggested, particularly if the crop is already suffering from drought stress. Some infurrow
insecticides and seed treatments used for thrips control can suppress early-season aphid
populations.
Mid-late season: Treat when aphids are very numerous, honeydew is present, plants are
showing signs of stress and natural control agents are not affecting aphid populations. Consider
the possibility of a fungal epizootic (disease) before treating.
Bollworm/Tobacco Budworm
NON-BT COTTON: Insecticides are recommended on the basis of knowing which species
(bollworm vs. tobacco budworm) and how many your have in the field. Prior to bloom, treat
when eight or more small larvae are present per 100 plants (or when populations threaten to
reduce square retention below 80 percent). After first bloom, treat when four or more small
larvae per 100 plants are present (or 5 percent or more of the squares are damaged and larvae are
present).
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In both Bt and non-Bt cotton, the treatment threshold should gradually increase after cotton
reaches cutout (NAWF5) until NAWF5 + 350 - 450 DD60’s at which time insecticide
applications for bollworm and budworm are no longer necessary.
Pyrethroid insecticides are NOT recommended against tobacco budworm infestations because of
insecticide resistance. Time applications to control newly hatched larvae (< 1/4 inch length).
Multiple applications on a 4 - 5 day interval may be needed. Tank-mixing pyrethroids with other
insecticides may improve control of pyrethroid-resistant tobacco budworms but are only
recommended when the budworm ratio is no more than 25 percent and populations are less than
8 - 10 larvae per 100 plants. Change insecticide chemistry if control failures occur.
BT COTTON: Prior to bloom, treat when eight or more surviving larvae (> 1/4 inch or longer)
are present per 100 plants, or when populations threaten to reduce square retention below 80
percent. After first bloom, treat when four or more surviving larvae (> 1/4 inch or longer) per
100 plants are present and/or 2 percent boll damage is found. Treatment based on eggs alone is
not usually recommended (see Bt Cotton Management). Scout fields once each week pre-bloom
and twice per week after blooming has begun (July-August). Whole plant examination may be
necessary to find eggs and/or surviving larvae within the plant canopy.
Stink Bugs
Small, dark spots about 1/16-inch in diameter on the outside of bolls are usually associated with
stink bug feeding. Stink bugs have piercing, needle-like mouthparts that can penetrate even more
mature bolls. Stink bugs are seed feeders and migrate from other host crops into cotton when
bolls begin to develop. Stink bugs are often difficult to detect. Intensively scout for this pest
when stink bugs or bolls with dark feeding spots are observed.
Treat when stink bugs number one or more per 6 row feet. If stink bugs are present, treatment is
recommended when 20 percent or more of 12-16 day old (thumb-sized) bolls have internal
feeding warts and/or stained lint indicating stink bug injury.
Spider Mites
Spider mites are found on the underside of leaves, and close examination is required to detect
their presence. Reddish or yellow speckling of leaves indicates spider mite activity. Infestations
often occur on field edges or in isolated spots and then spread across the field. Treat when 30 -
50 percent of plants are affected and mites are still present. More than one application on a 4 - 5
day schedule may be required if eggs continue to hatch.
Fall Armyworm
Proper identification of fall armyworm larvae is critical for effective control. Look for an
inverted “Y” mark on the head. Treat when four or more larvae are found in 100 blooms and
bolls or when 10-20 larvae are found per 100 plants. Timing applications to control small larvae
is more effective than trying to control larger larvae. Small larvae are often found in white
blooms, pink blooms tags or behind the bracts of medium- or large-sized bolls.
The original Bollgard cotton does not provide adequate control of fall armyworms.
52

However, Bollgard II and WideStrike cotton provide better control of fall armyworms, and
insecticide treatments should not be made unless surviving larvae (> 1/4 inch in length) are
found at the threshold numbers indicated above.
Beet Armyworm
Beet armyworms can be recognized by a characteristic black dot directly above the second true
leg. Newer insecticide chemistries have made established beet armyworm populations easier to
control. Production of an early crop and preservation of beneficial insects will reduce the risk of
a beet armyworm outbreak.
Prior to August 15: Treat for beet armyworm when 5-6 “hits” (active clusters of small larvae)
are found per 300 row feet.
After August 15: Treat when 10 or more “hits” are found per 300 row feet.
The original Bollgard cotton does not provide adequate control of beet armyworms.
Bollgard II and WideStrike cotton provide better control of beet armyworms, and supplemental
applications of insecticide may not be necessary.
Loopers
Two species of loopers (cabbage looper and soybean looper) may occur on cotton. Both are light
green and have two pairs of prolegs; however, the soybean looper is more difficult to control
with insecticides. Looper populations are often held below damaging levels by natural biological
control agents. Treat when loopers cause 25 percent defoliation or populations threaten
premature defoliation prior to boll maturity.
The original Bollgard cotton does not provide adequate control of loopers. Bollgard II and
WideStrike cotton should not require treatment for loopers.
Bandedwinged Whitefly
Treat when whiteflies are present on most plants, particularly if honeydew is accumulating on
leaves. The adults are small, white, moth-like insects feeding on the underside of leaves and
readily fly when disturbed. More than one application on a 4-5 day schedule may be required if
eggs continue to hatch.
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FORAGES
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There are many forage species that can be grown in Tennessee. One of the key points in
successful forage production is deciding which species to use. In order to make this decision, it is
essential to know the ways that forages are classified. Each forage species is distinguished as
being (a) a grass or a legume, (b) an annual or a perennial, and (c) a warm-season or a coolseason
plant. Using these criteria, all forage crops that are used in Tennessee fall into one of
eight basic categories (Tables 1 and 2).
Table 1. Classification of grasses used in Tennessee for forage production.
Warm Season
Perennial Grasses
Bermudagrass
Big Bluestem
Caucasian bluestem
Dallisgrass
Eastern gamagrass
Indiangrass
Johnsongrass
Switchgrass
Perennials
Cool Season
Perennial Grasses
Kentucky bluegrass
Matuagrass
Orchardgrass
Reed canarygrass
Tall fescue
Timothy
GRASSES
Warm Season
Annual Grasses
Browntop millet
Crabgrass
Foxtail millet
Pearl millet
Sorghumsudangrass
hybrids
Sudangrass
Teff grass
Annuals
Cool Season
Annual Grasses
Barley
Oats
Rye
Ryegrass
Triticale
Wheat
Table 2. Classification of legumes used in Tennessee for forage production.
Warm Season
Perennial Legumes
Sericea lespedeza
Perennials
Cool Season
Perennial Legumes
Alfalfa
Birdsfoot trefoil
Red clover
White clover
LEGUMES
Warm Season
Annual Legumes
Korean lespedeza
Kobe lespedeza
Annuals
Cool Season
Annual Legumes
Arrowleaf clover
Berseem clover
Crimson clover
Hairy vetch
Subterranean clover
The following is a short description of the forages listed in Tables 1 and 2. adapted from
"Southern Forages" written by Drs. Don Ball, Garry Lacefield, and Carl Hoveland (1996, Potash
and Phosphate Institute).
55

WARM -EASON PERENNIAL GRASSES
Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon)
Origin: Southeastern Africa
Description: Perennial. Spreads by rhizomes, stolons and (in some types) by seed. Hybrids
are deep-rooted. Grows 15 to 24 inches tall.
Major Uses: Pasture, hay.
Establishment: Hulled seed of common bermudagrass or other seed-propagated varieties or
types should be planted at 5 to 10 lb/A in spring. Hybrids are planted in March-
April with sprigs at 10 bu/A in rows or broadcast at 25 to 40 bu/A and covered.
Fertilization: Highly responsive to nitrogen. Potassium is important for survival and
production.
Production: May-September
Management: Hay should be harvested at about 4 week intervals. With good management, hay
yields of 5 to 7 tons/A can be obtained. Should be closely grazed to maintain
quality. Annual clovers, small grains, and ryegrass should be overseeded in
autumn if winter-spring production is desired.
Big Bluestem (Andropogon gerardii)
Origin: Great Plains and eastern USA.
Description: Perennial bunchgrass, sometimes having rhizomes. Deep-rooted. Grows 3 to 6
feet tall. More drought-tolerant than most warm-season grasses.
Major Uses: Pasture, hay. It remains palatable and nutritious over a longer time than
switchgrass.
Establishment: Slow seedling establishment. Seed should be planted at 5 to 10 lb/A pure live
seed in April-May.
Fertilization: Responsive to nitrogen.
Production: June-August
Management: Will not tolerate close, continuous stocking.
Caucasian Bluestem (Bothriocloa caucasica)
Origin: Former USSR
Description: Perennial bunchgrass, leafy with fine stems, deep-rooted and drought-tolerant.
Grows 2 to 4 feet tall.
Major Uses: Pasture, hay. Less palatable than big bluestem.
Establishment: Seed planted at 2 to 3 lb/A in May or June.
Fertilization: Responsive to nitrogen.
Production: Late May-August.
Management: Stock heavily in early summer when quality is best. Nutritive quality declines
with maturity.
Dallisgrass (Paspalum dilatatum)
Origin: Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil.
Description: Perennial bunchgrass, short rhizomes. Grows 10 to 20 inches tall. Very leafy.
Major Uses: Pasture, but can be harvested for hay.
Establishment: Seed germination is low and establishment is slow. About 10 to 15 lb/A of pure
56

Fertilization:
Production:
Management:
live seed should be broadcast planted in March or April.
Moderately responsive to nitrogen.
April-October.
Best grown with ladino or red clover. Seed heads can be clipped to eliminate
ergot problem if it develops.
Eastern Gamagrass (Tripsacum dactyloides)
Origin: Eastern Great Plains and eastern USA.
Description: Perennial bunchgrass, short rhizomes, 3 to 8 feet tall.
Major Uses: Pasture, hay. Good nutritive quality. Little is planted.
Establishment: Commercial seed production is a problem and establishment is difficult.
Fertilization: High fertility.
Production: June-August.
Management: Rotational stocking.
Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans)
Origin: Native to tall grass prairie of eastern Great Plains and eastern USA.
Description: Perennial bunchgrass. Spreads by rhizomes and seed. Deep rooted. Grows 3 to 6
feet tall. The yellow panicles are 6 to 12 inches long.
Major Uses: Pasture, but can be harvested for hay. Nutritive quality is generally better than
most other warm season perennial grasses.
Establishment: Seedlings grow slowly and compete poorly with weeds. Seed should be planted
at 6 to 10 lb/A pure live seed during April-May.
Fertilization: Nitrogen is the most important fertilizer element. Response to other nutrients is
generally lower than for cool season grasses.
Production: Late June-September.
Management: Rotational stocking is essential if grazed below 6 inches. Can be continuously
stocked if stubble is maintained between 10 to 16 inches. Very light grazing
after September 1.
Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense)
Origin: Mediterranean region.
Description: Perennial. Erect, 3 to 6 feet tall. Spreads by rhizomes and seed. Droughttolerant.
Can be a serious pest in crops.
Major Uses: Best used for hay but can be grazed with good management.
Establishment: Seed are planted in April at 20 to 30 lb/A broadcast or 10 to 15 lb/A drilled.
Fertilization: Responds well to nitrogen.
Production: May-September
Management: Hay should be harvested at heading. If used for pasture, rotational stocking is
needed to maintain stands. Close continuous grazing will reduce vigor and
stands. Prussic acid potential.
Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum)
Origin: Native to Great Plains and most of eastern USA.
Description: Perennial bunchgrass. Spreads by rhizomes and seed. Deep-rooted. Grows 3 to
7 feet tall.
57

Major Uses: Pasture, hay. Develops stems several weeks earlier than other warm season
grasses so may become stemmy and unpalatable early in summer. Improved
varieties have higher yields and nutritive quality.
Establishment: Slow seedling establishment. Seed should be planted at 5 to 6 lb/A pure live
seed in April-May.
Fertilization: Very responsive to nitrogen.
Production:
Management:
Late May-July.
Should be stocked heavily and rotationally stocked with 4 to 6 weeks rest
between grazings to maintain quality and stands.
COOL-SEASON PERENNIAL GRASSES
Kentucky Bluegrass (Poa pratensis)
Origin: Europe
Description: Perennial. Rhizomes produce a dense sod. Grows 1 to 3 feet tall.
Major Uses: Pasture, limited use for hay. High nutritive value.
Establishment: Seed are planted at 10 to 15 lb/A in August-September, or sometimes in
February-March.
Fertilization: Kentucky bluegrass will survive under low fertility, but is not highly productive
unless well fertilized or grown with a legume.
Production: April-October, limited in July and August.
Management: Kentucky bluegrass tolerates close and frequent grazing better than many
grasses. Grazing to a height of 1 to 2 inches favors productivity and maintains a
dense sod. Bluegrass pasture is much more productive when clover is grown
with it.
Matuagrass (Bromus willdenowii)
Origin: Argentina
Description: Short-lived perennial or natural reseeding annual bunchgrass. Grows 2 to 4 feet
tall.
Major Use: Pasture. High nutritive quality. Good winter production.
Establishment: Seed are planted in September at 25 to 30 lb/A, not deeper than 1/4-inch.
Seedling vigor and growth are exceptional.
Fertilization: High fertility requirement.
Production: November to May or June.
Management: Will not perenniate under close continuous grazing. Must be rotationally
stocked to maintain stands.
Orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata)
Origin: Europe
Description: Perennial bunchgrass. Grows 2 to 3 feet tall.
Major Uses: Pasture, hay. Forage quality is high under good management.
Establishment: Seed should be planted in September at 15 to 20 lb/A, preferably with a legume.
Plantings are sometimes made in early spring.
Fertilization: Requires higher fertility than tall fescue. Responds well to nitrogen.
Production: March-June or July; production during September-November is much less than
58

Management:
tall fescue.
Orchardgrass requires better management than endophyte-infected tall fescue.
Close continuous grazing will weaken stands. Moderate stocking is best.
Orchardgrass is less competitive than tall fescue, so adapted legumes persist
better in association with it. The first hay harvest of the season should be in the
boot to early bloom stage, with subsequent harvests as growth permits.
Reed Canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea)
Origin: Europe
Description: Coarse, sod-forming perennial with short rhizomes, 2 to 6 feet tall. Deep-rooted.
Major Uses: Pasture, hay, silage.
Establishment: Seedling vigor is poor so establishment is slow. A seeding rate of 5 to 8 lb/A
planted during April-May in northern U.S. or August-September in Tennessee
should give satisfactory stands.
Fertilization: Highly responsive to nitrogen.
Production: April-September.
Management: Rotational stocking.
Tall Fescue (Festuca arundinacea)
Origin: Europe
Description: Perennial long-lived bunchgrass with short rhizomes. Shiny, dark green, ribbed
leaves. Deep rooted. Grows 2 to 4 feet tall.
Major Uses: Pasture, hay, erosion control. High forage quality if free of fungal endophyte.
Establishment: Seed are drilled at 15 to 20 lb/A or broadcast at 20 to 25 lb/A in September or
October.
Fertilization: Tolerant of low fertility and acid soils but responds well to fertilization.
Production: September-December, March-June.
Management: Tall fescue, if endophyte-infected, will tolerate grazing abuse better than most
grasses. Endophyte-free tall fescue should not be grazed closer than 3 inches
and should especially not be overgrazed during summer. Ladino or red clovers
or alfalfa can be grown with tall fescue. The first harvest of hay should be cut in
the late boot stage for high quality. Subsequent harvests can be made as growth
permits.
Timothy (Phleum pratense)
Origin: Northern Europe
Description: Perennial bunchgrass. Grows 2 to 4 feet tall.
Major Use: Primarily as a hay plant but also used for pasture. It is popular as a hay crop for
horses although other grasses are equally satisfactory.
Establishment: Seed are planted at 6 to 8 lb/A with a clover, alfalfa or trefoil in August or
September, or sometimes in early spring.
Fertilization: Tolerant of low fertility but responds well to fertilization.
Production: April-October with low production in August-October.
Management: Hay should be cut at the boot to early bloom stage to obtain best quality. Latecut
timothy hay is of low quality.
59

WARM-SEASON ANNUAL GRASSES
Browntop Millet (Panicum ramosum)
Origin: Southeast Asia
Description: Annual. Erect, 2 to 3 feet tall, leafy, fine-stemmed.
Major Uses: Pasture, hay.
Establishment: Seed drilled at 15 to 20 lb/A or broadcast at 25 to 30 lb/A in May-August.
Fertilization: Responsive to nitrogen, very tolerant of soil acidity.
Production: June-August. Much less productive than pearl millet or sorghum-sudan hybrids.
Management: Hay should be cut at heading.
Crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis)
Origin: Southern Africa
Description: Annual, creeping-type growth with long runners, very leafy. Grows 2 to 4 feet
tall.
Major Uses: While considered a weed in many farming situations, crabgrass is useful for
pasture and hay. Nutritive quality is superior to warm season perennial grasses.
Establishment: Seed. Reseeds well.
Fertilization: Crabgrass is highly responsive to nitrogen fertilizer.
Production: May-September.
Management: With adequate fertilization, crabgrass will support good stocking rates.
Volunteers after winter annuals.
Foxtail Millet (Setaria italica)
Origin: Southern Asia
Description: Annual. Erect, 3 to 4 feet tall, leafy, fine-stemmed.
Major Uses: Hay. Once was widely grown, but infrequently at present.
Establishment: Seed can be drilled at 15 to 20 lb/A or broadcast at 20 to 30 lb/A in May-July.
Fertilization: Responds to nitrogen fertilization.
Production: Most varieties are ready to be harvested in 60 to 70 days. Less productive than
pearl millet or sorghum-sudan hybrids.
Management: Should be cut for hay near seedhead emergence. Not recommended for horse
hay because of a toxin which can cause kidney and joint problems.
Pearl Millet (Pennisetum glaucum)
Origin: North Central Africa
Description: Annual. Erect, 3 to 8 feet tall, leafy.
Major Uses: Pasture, silage. Difficult to make hay because of thick stems. High nutritive
quality if harvested at immature stage. Nitrate accumulation can cause toxicity
under some circumstances.
Establishment: Seed are drilled at 12 to 15 lb/A or broadcast at 25 to 30 lb/A in April-June.
Fertilization: Much more tolerant of soil acidity than sorghum. Responsive to nitrogen.
Production: Very productive over a short season, generally from June-August.
Management: Requires high stocking rate, preferably with rotational stocking. Stems may
need to be mowed after grazing. Should be cut for hay when plants are 30 to 40
inches tall.
60

Sorghum-Sudangrass Hybrids and Sudangrass (Sorghum bicolor)
Origin: Northeast Africa
Description: Annual. Erect, 4 to 8 feet tall, leafy.
Major Uses: Pasture, hay, silage. High quality if harvested at immature stage. Difficult to
make hay because of thick stems. Nitrate accumulation or prussic acid can cause
toxicity under some circumstances.
Establishment: Seed are drilled at 20 to 25 lb/A or broadcast at 30 to 35 lb/A in May or June.
Fertilization: Very responsive to nitrogen. Needs lime on highly acid soils.
Production: Quite productive over a short season. June-September.
Management: Requires high stocking rate, preferably grazed rotationally, to utilize rapid
growth and maintain high quality. Thin-stemmed varieties recover more rapidly
after cutting or grazing than thick-stemmed varieties. Stems may need to be
mowed after grazing. Hay and silage should be cut when plants are 30 to 40
inches tall.
Teff grass (Eragrostis tef)
Origin: Africa
Description: Annual. Erect, 2 fttall, leafy.
Major Uses: Pasture, hay, silage. High quality if harvested at immature stage. Good choice
for horse hay production. Fine stemmed. Tendency to lodge if allowed to get too
tall. Shallow root system, so grazing management is important.
Establishment: Seed are planted at 6 lb per acre in May or June.
Fertilization: Responsive to nitrogen. Needs lime on highly acid soils.
Production: Quite productive over a short season. June-September.
Management: Preferably grazed rotationally, to utilize rapid growth and maintain high quality.
Minimize damage from pulling plants out of ground.
COOL-SEASON ANNUAL GRASSES
Small Grains
Rye (Secale cereale), Oats (Avena sativa), Wheat (Triticum aestivum), Barley (Hordeum
vulgare), Triticale (Triticum secale)
Origin: Iraq, Turkey, Europe
Description: Annual bunchgrasses 2 to 4 feet tall.
Major Uses: Rye-pasture; Barley, Wheat, Oats - pasture hay, silage; Triticale - hay, silage.
Establishment: Seed are usually planted in September or October. In mixtures, 60 to 90 lb/A are
recommended, but 90 to 120 lb/A if planted alone.
Fertilization: All the small grains are highly responsive to nitrogen and require adequate
amounts of phosphorus and potassium.
Production:
Management:
November to December and February to May.
Stocking rate should be adequate to utilize forage and to allow new leaf growth.
An annual legume such as arrowleaf clover which produces growth in late
spring can be planted as a companion crop to extend the production season and
maintain spring forage quality. If cut for hay or silage, the harvest should be
made in the boot to early heading stage.
61

Ryegrass, Annual (Lolium multiflorum)
Origin: Europe
Description: Annual bunchgrass. Shiny, dark green smooth leaves. Grows 2 to 3 feet tall.
Major Uses: Mainly pasture although sometimes used for hay or silage.
Establishment: Seeding rate is 10 to 15 lb/A in mixtures, or 20 to 30 lb/A alone. September or
early October are generally the best months to plant, but November overseeding
of warm season grasses can be done along the Gulf Coast. Natural reseeding is
common.
Fertilization: Responsive to nitrogen. Tolerant of moderate soil acidity.
Production: In high rainfall areas of the Gulf Coast, high production can be expected
through the winter from November to May. Farther north, most of the
production is concentrated from late February or March through May. Under
favorable conditions, high forage production and excellent animal gains can be
achieved.
Management: Ryegrass may be seeded alone in the Gulf Coast area but farther north it is
usually seeded with a small grain (rye, wheat or oats) and/or a clover. Ryegrass
will tolerate close continuous grazing.
WARM-SEASON PERENNIAL LEGUMES
Sericea Lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneata)
Origin: Eastern China, Korea, Japan
Description: Perennial. Erect-growing, leafy, with fine stems in improved varieties. Grows
18 to 40 inches tall. Deep-rooted and drought tolerant. Small flowers. Nonbloating
legume.
Major Uses: Hay, erosion control, pasture. Most varieties have high levels of tannin which
reduce digestibility, but low-tannin varieties are available.
Establishment: Ideally, seed are planted at 20 to 30 lb/A with a preplant herbicide during late
March-May. Establishment is often slow. Post-emergence herbicide treatment(s)
may also be required.
Fertilization: Very tolerant of low fertility and acid soils; may respond to potassium on some
soils.
Production:
Management:
April to September.
Hay harvests which leave a 4-inch stubble height should be made when plants
are 15 to 24 inches tall, obtaining 2 to 3 cuttings per year. High-tannin sericea
forage has nutritive value similar to bermudagrass; low-tannin types have
superior nutritive value. When cut for hay, the tannin level of forage drops
sharply, improving palatability and digestibility. Vigor and yield of low tannin
sericea tend to be somewhat less than for high-tannin types. Grazing of sericea
should begin when plants are 8 to 10 inches tall, and they should not be grazed
lower than 4 inches. Removal of forage by grazing or hay production between
late August or early September and the first killing frost should be avoided, as
this is a period when food reserves are building in the roots. Tall fescue or
orchardgrass can be overseeded on sericea to provide a longer productive season
than sericea alone. Winter annuals such as cereals, crimson clover, or vetch can
62

also be drilled into sericea in October to provide late winter forage. Grasses
overseeded on sericea should be fertilized with nitrogen.
COOL-SEASON PERENNIAL LEGUMES
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa)
Origin: Iran and central Asia.
Description: Perennial. Erect-growing with many leafy stems arising from large crowns at
the soil surface. Grows 24 to 36 inches tall. Compound leaves with three
leaflets. Flowers of the varieties grown in the South are normally some shade of
purple. Drought-tolerant, long taproot.
Major Uses: Hay and haylage, but has potential for expanded pasture use. Good alfalfa hay
has high nutritive value and is in high demand, particularly for horses and dairy
cattle.
Establishment: Seed. A seeding rate of 15 to 20 lb/A should be used. A cultipacker-seeder is the
best planting equipment for prepared seedbeds. A firm seedbed is critically
important. For sodseeding, a no-till drill is needed. Fall plantings should be
made in conventional seedbed before September 15. Later plantings run greater
risk of sclerotinia crown and stem rot damage. Spring plantings can be made
March through May.
Fertilization: Alfalfa is sensitive to soil acidity, so pH values 6.5 or above are required for
high yields. Where subsoils are very acid and high in aluminum, it may be
possible to offset the toxic subsoil syndrome and promote deeper root
development through deep incorporation of lime or the application of gypsum at
a rate of about 2 ton/A. Potassium, phosphorus, sulfur and boron are the
nutrients which usually need to be applied in order to obtain good alfalfa
production. Alfalfa requires large amounts of potassium. Annual soil tests are
critical in monitoring soil nutrient levels for this crop. Nitrogen fertilization is
not needed, since alfalfa fixes large amounts of nitrogen if properly nodulated.
Production: April-October. Alfalfa has the longest productive season of any Southernadapted
legume.
Management: Successful alfalfa production requires a higher level of management than other
forage crops. For hay production, 4 to 7 cuttings can be made each year
depending on location. Harvesting at the early bloom stage is the best
compromise for obtaining acceptable forage and nutrient yields with good stand
persistence. Stand life is often 3 to 5 years, but alfalfa may persist for up to 8
years if adequately fertilized and cut at the proper stage of growth. If a hay type
alfalfa is to be used for pasture, it should be cross-fenced and rotationally
stocked for 5 to 7 days, followed by a 20 to 35-day recovery period. Continuous
stocking of hay-type varieties will deplete food reserves in the roots and cause
rapid stand loss. Grazing-tolerant varieties can be continuously stocked, but
production will be higher if rotational stocking is practiced. In the upper South,
allow 4 weeks of growth in late summer to replenish root reserves. This may be
grazed in late autumn.
63

Birdsfoot Trefoil (Lotus corniculatus)
Origin: Mediterranean region.
Description: Deep-rooted, short-lived perennial, having finer stems and more leaves than
alfalfa. Grows 12 to 30 inches tall, depending on whether it is a prostrate or
erect variety. Flowers are bright yellow and the brown to purple seed pods
radiate from the stem branch, resembling a bird=s foot. Non-bloating legume.
Reseeds under proper management.
Major Uses: Pasture, erosion control. High-quality forage.
Establishment: Seed are planted at 4 to 6 lb/A with cool season perennial grasses using a
cultipacker-seeder in late August-September.
Fertilization: Lime if soil pH is below 5.5. Responds well to phosphorus and potassium.
Production: April-early October.
Management: Practical grazing management should leave 3 to 4 inches of leaf tissue to
maintain root carbohydrates and assure vigorous regrowth. Since natural
reseeding is essential for maintaining stands and productivity, plants should be
allowed to produce some seed each year.
Red Clover (Trifolium pratenese)
Origin: Southeastern Europe and Turkey
Description: Short-lived perennial, usually 2 years in the South, but may survive only as an
annual in Gulfcoast. Erect-growing, leafy plants 2 to 3 feet tall. Leaves hairy
and marked with a white "V". Flowers are clustered into large pinkish-violet
heads.
Major Uses: Hay, pasture.
Establishment: Seed are planted on prepared land at 6 to 8 lb/A in drill rows or 12 to 15 lb/A
broadcast during September-October and February-March in middle and
northern U.S.. Established grass pastures should be overseeded in October-
November or February-March. Seedling vigor is better than any other clover
and especially well suited for seeding into cool season perennial grass sods.
Fertilization: If soil pH is below 5.5, lime should be applied. Responsive to phosphorus and
potassium.
Production: March-June/July.
Management: Hay should be cut in early bloom stage. Red clover will provide more grazing
than ladino clover during summer. Unlike ladino clover, red clover will not
tolerate continuous close grazing over long periods of time.
Ladino White Clover (Trifolium repens)
Origin: Mediterranean region.
Description: Fairly long-lived perennial in upper South; short-lived perennial or annual in
lower South. Very leafy plants 8 to 12 inches tall that spread by stolons
(runners) and form shallow roots at nodes. Leaves are non-hairy and usually
marked with a white "V". White flowers are clustered into heads. Seed are
extremely small. Intermediate types of white clover can be expected to reseed
naturally while giant or ladino types usually do not reseed well in the lower
South.
Major Uses: Pasture. Very high-quality grazing plant. Bloat can be a problem.
64

Establishment: Established grass pastures can be overseeded in February-March.
Fertilization: Soil should be limed if pH is below 6. Highly responsive to potassium fertilizer.
Production: March-June and October-November if soil moisture is favorable.
Management: Grass competition from undergrazing is one of the major problems in
maintaining productive stands of white clover. Grass should be planted in wide
rows and clover broadcast to reduce competition. Adequate potassium and
phosphorus are important for good production. Grazing should be sufficient to
maintain forage height at 1 to 4 inches, preventing shading of clover by the
grass.
WARM-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUME
Annual Lespedeza
Kobe (Kummerowia striata) and
Korean (Kummerowia stipulacea)
Origin:
Description:
Major Uses:
Eastern China, Korea, Japan.
Annuals. Both species are fine-stemmed, leafy and have shallow taproots.
Leaflets of Kobe are narrower than Korean. Seed of Kobe are in leaf axils while
seed of Korean are borne in clusters at tips of branches. Reseed easily.
Pasture, hay, erosion control. High nutritive quality, furnishing excellent quality
pasture in late summer. Relatively low yield.
Establishment: Seed are planted at 25 to 35 lb/A in February-March.
Fertilization:
Production:
Management:
Tolerant of acidity and low soil phosphorus. Under high fertility, annual
lespedezas are often crowded out by more vigorous and higher yielding grasses
and legumes.
July-September.
High fertilization of a grass/lespedeza mixture reduces potential growth of
lespedeza. Light grazing will allow some seed production for natural reseeding.
Hay should be cut at early bloom stage.
COOL-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES
Arrowleaf Clover (Trifolium vesiculosum)
Origin: Mediterranean region.
Description: Late season winter annual. Long, branching, hollow stems 2 to 4 feet long. The
non-hairy arrow-shaped leaves generally have a large white "V" mark. The
predominately white, but pink and purple-tinged flower heads are large, often 3
inches long. Flowering and seed production occur over a long period in late
spring and summer. The rough brown seed are about twice the size of ladino
clover seed and over 70 percent have very hard seed coats, requiring
scarification for satisfactory germination.
Major Uses: Pasture, hay. Forage quality is high with digestibility generally superior to
crimson clover at all stages of maturity. Bloat is rarely a problem.
Establishment: Scarified seed are planted broadcast at 5 to 10 lb/A in September to early
November. Requires a special seed inoculant. Seed will germinate at lower
temperatures than crimson clover. Reseeds easily.
65

Fertilization:
Production:
Management:
Arrowleaf is not very tolerant of soil acidity and low fertility. Optimum pH
range if 5.8 to 6.5.
March-early July.
Arrowleaf will continue to develop new leaves and remain productive longer in
the spring when grazed to a height of 2 to 4 inches than where large amounts of
forage accumulate. Where hay is desired, clover should be grazed until early to
mid-April, then harvested at early to mid-bloom in May. No regrowth can be
expected after cutting hay.
Berseem Clover (Trifolium alexandrinum)
Origin: Mediterranean region.
Description: Winter annual, resembles alfalfa, hollow stems grow erect to a height of 2 feet
or more. White flowers form small heads.
Major Uses: Pasture, hay. High quality, does not cause bloat.
Establishment: Seed are planted broadcast at 20 lb/A or drilled at 10 to 15 lb/A in September.
Fertilization: Best on loam soils of pH 6 or above. Requires high fertility including boron.
Production: November-December and March-June.
Management: Grazing should begin when 10 inches tall and the stubble maintained at 3 to 4
inches to encourage new leaf production. Rotational stocking is most successful.
The winter-hardy berseem variety produces hard seed and will often reseed.
Crimson Clover (Trifolium incarnatum)
Origin: Mediterranean region.
Description: Winter annual. Plants have dark green leaves densely covered with hairs, and
grow to a height of 1 to 3 feet. Brilliant crimson flowers, long heads, maturing
from bottom to top. Yellow rounded seed about 2.5 times the size of arrowleaf
clover seed. Combine-harvested seed do not need scarification.
Major Uses: Pasture, hay, green manure crop, roadside beautification. Will produce more
forage at low temperatures than other clovers.
Establishment: Seed are broadcast at 20 to 30 lb/A in late August-October.
Fertilization: Fairly tolerant of soil acidity.
Production: November, March-April.
Management: Can be grazed throughout winter but if hay is desired, cattle must be removed
by mid-March.
Hairy Vetch (Vicia villosa)
Origin: Mediterranean region.
Description: Viney winter annuals with stems 2 to 4 feet in length. White, purple, or pale
yellow flowers are borne in clusters.
Major Uses: Pasture, hay, silage (with small grain companion), green manure.
Establishment: Hairy and bigflower vetch seed are broadcast at 20 to 25 lb/A and common
vetch at 30 to 40 lb/A in September-October.
Fertilization: Vetches are tolerant of soil acidity but have a relatively high phosphorus
requirement.
Production: March-May.
Management: Grazing should not begin until plants are at least 6 inches tall. Close grazing
66

will destroy buds needed for regrowth. Vetch should be cut for hay in the early
bloom stage. A small grain seeded at 60 lb/A makes a good companion crop for
vetch grown for hay or silage.
Subterranean Clover (Trifolium subterraneum)
Origin: Mediterranean region.
Description: Dense low-growing winter annual clover with hairy leaves. Small, mainly white
flowers form a small bur which is forced into the surface of the soil. Good
reseeding possible. Seed are large and either black or tan.
Major Uses: Pasture. Lower-yielding than crimson or arrowleaf.
Establishment: Seed are broadcast at 10 to 20 lb/A. Special inoculant required.
Fertilization: Fairly acid tolerant. Requires adequate phosphorus and potassium for growth.
Production: November-December and March-May.
Management: Tolerates close continuous stocking. Tolerates shade better than most clovers.
DETERMINING FORAGE MOISTURE CONTENT USING A MICROWAVE OVEN
1. Chop fresh forage into 1- to 2-inch lengths for ease of handling.
2. Weigh out approximately 100 grams (3.5 ounces of chopped forage.
3. Spread forage thinly on a microwave-safe dish and place into microwave. (Place a cup of
water in the microwave to prevent sample from igniting once dry.)
4. Heat for 2 minutes and reweigh.
a) If forage is not completely dry, reheat for 30 seconds and reweigh. (Microwaves
vary considerably in drying capacity. It is better to dry for short intervals and
reweigh until the last two weights are constant, than to overdry and run the risk of
burning and damage to oven.) Continue this process until back-to-back weights
are the same or charring occurs.
b) If charring occurs, use the previous weight.
5. Calculate moisture content using the following equation:
W 1 − W 2
% Moisture Content = x100
W 1
W1 = weight of forage before heating
W2 = weights of forage after heating
Dry matter (DM) is the percentage of forage that is not water. DM equals 100% minus percent
water.
Results on an “as-fed basis” reflect total nutrient concentration including water of sample
analyzed or to be bed.
SOURCE: Southern Forages 3 rd Edition, Page 303
Nitrate poisoning
Nitrate poisoning occurs when animals consume hay or pasture containing high levels of
free nitrates. All warm-season forages have the potential to accumulate high levels of nitrates
under drought conditions, especially if they have been fertilized with nitrogen. Grazing these
67

plants during a drought, or feeding hay that was cut during or just after a drought should be
avoided.
Nitrate accumulation occurs because the plant continues to take up nitrogen through the
roots, but drought conditions prevent the nitrogen from being used for plant growth. Nitrates are
accumulated in the plant for use in protein formation when adequate water becomes available.
When the animal consumes a plant with high nitrate levels, the nitrogen is converted
from nitrate to a form called nitrite. These nitrites get into the blood stream and interfere with the
ability of red blood cells to carry oxygen. Animals suffering from nitrate poisoning exhibit
labored breathing, muscle tremors and staggering. Membranes of the eyes and mouth are bluish
because of the lack of oxygen. Death can occur relatively quickly.
Prevention is the best way to deal with nitrate toxicity. If any pasture is suspected of
having high nitrate levels, avoid grazing these pastures until seven to 10 days after an adequate
rain. Hay that is suspected of having high nitrate levels can be analyzed. Table 1 lists a scale of
the toxicity of increasing nitrate levels in hay.
Table 1. Guide to determine the potential for nitrate toxicity in hay.
Nitrate level
(ppm, DM basis)
Comments
0 - 2,500
Generally considered safe to feed.
SAFE
Generally safe when fed with a balanced ration. For
2,500 - 5,000
pregnant animals limit to one-half of total dry ration. Do
not feed with liquid feed or other non-protein nitrogen
supplements. Be cautious with pregnant or young
CAUTION animals.
Limit to one-fourth of ration. Should be well fortified
5,000 - 10000
with energy, minerals and Vitamin A. May experience
milk production loss in 4 -5 days, possible occurrence of
DANGER reproduction problems.
Toxic. Do not use in free-choice feeding program. Feed
Over 10,000
with such high levels should be ground and limited to
TOXIC 15% of total ration.
Source: Ball and co-workers. 1991. Southern Forages.
Prussic acid poisoning
Prussic acid poisoning occurs when animals consume plants that contain high levels of
prussic acid, a form of cyanide. Potentially toxic levels can develop in sorghum X sudangrass
hybrids immediately after a frost, or in new growth after a drought. Pearlmillet does not produce
prussic acid.
Prussic acid interferes with the ability of red blood cells to transfer oxygen. Symptoms
include excessive salivation, rapid breathing and muscle spasms. Symptoms may occur within 10
to 15 minutes after the animal consumes the forage high in prussic acid.
68

Plant species
Nitrates
All forages, primarily
summer forages
Prussic acid
Sorghums only
Main times it occurs Drought Frost
Breaks down in hay No Yes
Should you test for it Yes No need to
Will fermentation remove
toxicity
Possibly, depending on
beginning level
yes
It is important to realize that prussic acid poisoning and nitrate poisoning are not the
same thing. Nitrates will remain in hay and silage, while prussic acid will deteriorate over time.
Forage that has been dried to 18 percent moisture for hay or that has fermented for haylage will
not have high levels of prussic acid.
69

GARDENING
70

Creating Container Gardens
Tips:
Design: Try to summarize 7 basic principals of design (proportion, form, texture, color, balance,
rhythm and focal point) with plants, which have several design attributes to create contrast and
harmony.
Thrillers: (focal point) tall or sculptural with some color
Fillers: Great foliage color /texture
Spillers: cascading plants
Pair plants that require similar conditions together (consider water, temperature and sun). As
plants grow they will need more water, especially if they are producing flowers of fruit.
Replace: Mix annuals, perennials, and woody plant in a container. When one plant becomes less
interesting, replace it with another. Recycling the surviving plants and adding back fresh media
when replanting new additions will keep the container healthy and attractive.
Containers: Containers should be strong enough to hold growing media, mature plants and wide
enough to not tip over. Containers should have drain holes to allow excess water to drain out.
The taller the container the longer the water column and better the drainage.
Media: Soiless mixes are best suited for containers because of their light weight and clean
components. Soiless mixes usually include a combination of peat moss, perlite, vermiculite or
sand. Fertilizers and wetting agents are usually added to help these materials retain moisture and
adequate nutrition. Once the wetting agent dries out the mix will be difficult to rewet. Fertilizers
can be added once plants are established.
Placement: Place contained in enough light for the plant’s sunlight requirements. Most
vegetables, sun annuals and perennials require full sun 6+ hours of sunlight. Shade plants usually
require 6 or fewer hours of light. Plants in the container mature and grow their water and
nutritional requirements will increase. Place containers in locations where water is easily
accessible. Allow space for stakes and trellises if necessary.
Great Plant Combinations
As far as plant selection goes, the sky is really the limit in pulling together a great looking
container. The cultivars and varieties of annuals and perennials are endless. And now woody
ornamentals are starting to make container gardening a more permanent statement on the patio.
Consider using dwarf conifers and some deciduous trees and shrubs (like hydrangea, Japanese
maple, or dwarf blueberries) as the bone structure of the container’s design.
71

Thrillers Fillers Spillers
Canna ‘Pretoria’, ‘The Sun Coleous
Dichondra ‘Silver Falls’
President’, ‘Black Night’,
‘Austrailia’
Dwarf arborvitae ‘Morgan’ Lamium Calibracoa
Cardoon/Artichoke Cosmos Verbena
Purple Fountain Grass Persian Sheild ‘Blackie’ or ‘Margarita’
Sweetpotato vine
Mandevilla Alocasia Scaevola
Sweetpea Geranium Nasturtium
Variegated Miscanthus Pentas Creeping Jenny
Japanese blood grass Kales, Cabbage, Swiss
Chard
Wave petunia
Herbs for Containers
Pair herbs together, most have similar environmental requirements (well-drained and dry soils).
Container drainage and potting media will be very important for these plants.
Boxwood Basil, small textured filler (Burpee)
Cameo Basil (Johnny’s Select)
Creeping Thyme
Cilantro
Catmint ‘Walkers Low’
Horehound
Lavender
Lemon Balm
Marjoram
Mint (should always be contained!)
Nasturtiums
Parsley
Prostrate or creeping Rosemary
Tarragon
Sage
Savory (summer or winter)
Scented Geraniums, spillers
Vegetables for Containers
Tomatoes: Determinate (D) or Bush-type tomatoes mature over a few week period and can be
used as fillers. Indeterminate (I) or vining-type tomatoes produce fruit until frost and can be used
tall thrillers but will require a trellis to climb.
BushSteak Hybrid (D, Shepherd’s)
Golden Nugget (D, Johnny’s Select)
Patio Princess Hybrid (D, Burpee)
Super Bush (D, Shepherd’s Seed)
Burpee Bunch Hybrid (I, Burpee)
Super Sweet 100 Hybrid, cherry-type (I, Burpee)
72

Sun Gold (I, Johnny’s Select)
Eggplant: There are so many different varieties of new and heirlooms available. The key is to
choose a plant bears small fruit.
Fairy Tale, lavender & white (Burpee, Johnny’s Select)
Bambino Hybrid, dark purple, rounded fruit (Shepherd’s Seed)
Peppers: All peppers will grow well in containers. Some pepper plants will over-winter if
protected and bear woody stems.
Pizza My Heart, sweet (Shepherd’s Seed)
Hot Lemon, hot (Burpee)
Jalapeño
Super Chile (AAS Winner, Johnny’s Select)
Cherry Bomb (Johnny’s Select)
Numex Twilight, one plant- purples, yellows, reds (Johnny’s Select)
Prairie Fire, bright colored peppers (Johnny’s Select)
Cucumbers: Now there are bush-type cucumbers suitable for containers or gardens with small
spaces.
Bush Champion Cucumber (Burpee)
Bush Slicer (Shepherd’s Seed)
Beans and Peas: Pole beans and peas make excellent vining thrillers. Hybrid and heirloom
varieties are available in a multitude of colors. Peas are planted in the very early spring, as the
pea plants die-off plant beans on the same trellis for a summer crop.
Artichokes: These perennials can be used as fillers in the containers (as well as their cousin the
cardoon). The silver green foliage adds bold contrast to any design.
Greens/Lettuce: These vegetables are great fillers adding texture color and flavor to the
container. Most are cool season, however, moving the container to a cooler area may prolong
Garden Babies Lettuce (Shepherd’s Seed)
Baby Spinach (Burpee)
Gourmet Lettuce Blends
Mesclun Mixes
Heatwave Loose Leaf Lettuce (Burpee)
Kales
Swiss Chard ‘Bright Lights’
Beet Bull’s Blood, red stem, purple leaf (Burpee)
Pac Choy (Johnny’s Select)
Arugula (Johnny’s Select)
Watercress
73

Evergreens for a Screen
Evergreen Shrubs for a Screen (4’- 12’)
Littleleaf Boxwood Buxus microphylla
Common Boxwood Buxus sempervirens
Cotonester Cotoneaster lucidus
Compacta Chinese Holly Ilex crenata ‘compacta’
Convex Chinese Holly Ilex crenata ‘convexa’
Helleri Chinese Holly Ilex crenata ‘Helleri’
Hetzii Chinese Holly Ilex crenata ‘Hetzii’
Ptitzer Juniper Juniperus chinensis ‘Ptitzeriana’, ‘Ptitzeriana aurea’ or ‘Ptitzeriana Glauca’
Common Juniper Juniperus communis cvs.
Silver Spreader Eastern Redcedar Juniperus Virginia ‘Silver Spreader’
Mountain Laural Kalmia latifolia
Leucothoe Leucothoe fontaesiana
Northern Bayberry Myrica pensylvanica
Japanese Pieris Pieris japonica ‘Mountain Fire’
Catawba Rhododendron Rhododenron catabawbiense
English-Japanese Yew Taxus x media cvs.
Emerald Arborvite Thuja occientalis ‘Emerald’
Oriental Arborvitae Thuja orientalis cvs
Prague Viburnum Viburnum x paragense
Lantanaphyllum Viburnum Viburnum x rhytidophylloides
Leatherleaf Viburnum Viburnum rhytidophyllum
Evergreen Trees for a Screen (15’-30’)
Hinoki Falsecypress Chamaecyparis obtusa ‘Filifera’
Smooth Bark Cypress Cupressus glabra ‘Blue Ice’
Foster Holly Ilex x attenuata ‘Foster #2’
Japanese Holly Ilex crenata
Teddy Bear Magnolia Magnolia grandiflora ‘Teddy Bear’
Little Gem Magnolia Magnolia grandiflora ‘Little Gem
Chinese Juniper Juniperus chinensis ‘Hetzii Columnaris’
Japanese Black Pine Pinus thumbergii
Japanese Umbrella Pine Scadopitys verticillata
Woodward Arborvite Thuja occientalis ‘Woodwardii’
Sargentii Eastern Hemlock Tsuga Canadensis ‘Sargentii’
Evergreen Trees for a Screen (30’-50’)
Atlas Cedar Cedrus atlantica
Deodar Cedar Cedrus deodar
Hinoki Falsecypress Chamaecyparis obtusa
Atlantic Whitecedar Chamaecyparis thyoides
Cryptomeria Cryptomeria japonica
Leyland Cypress x Cupressocyparis leylandii
74

Arizona Cypress Cupressus arizonica ‘Blue Pyramid’ ‘Golden Pyramid’
American Holly Ilex opaca
Southern Magnolia Magnolia grandiflora
Eastern Red Cedar Juniperus virginiana ‘Grey Owl’
Norway Spruce Picea abies
Colorado Spruce Picea pungens
Lacebark pine Pinus bungeana
White Pine Pinus strobus
Virgina Pine Pinus virginiana
Eastern Hemlock Tsuga canadensis
75

77
Fact Sheet on Plant Nutrients
Purpose and Sources
Nutrient Class Purpose Source Deficiency Excess
Nitrogen (N) Primary Rapid growth, dark green color,
increased yield (building proteins
and amino acids)
Phosphorus (P) Primary Rapid growth, stimulates
blooming, root growth
Potassium (K) Primary Photosynthesis, plant metabolism,
fruit formation, winter hardiness
Calcium (CA)
Secondary Cell wall structure, leaf and root
growth vigor, correct/neutralize
pH
Fertilizer, Rain
Fertilizer, bone
meal,
superphosphate
Fertilizer
Dolomitic lime,
gypsum,
superphosphate
Light green to
yellow appearance
of leaves, especially
older leaves;
stunted growth;
poor fruit
development.
Leaves may
develop purple
coloration; stunted
plant growth and
delay in plant
development.
Older leaves turn
yellow initially
around margins and
die; irregular fruit
development.
Reduced growth or
death of growing
tips; blossom-end
rot of tomato; poor
fruit development
and production.
Dark green foliage
which may be
susceptible to
lodging, drought,
disease and insect
invasion. Fruit and
seed crops may fail
to yield.
Excess phosphorus
may cause
micronutrient
deficiencies,
especially iron or
zinc.
Excess potassium
may cause
deficiencies in
magnesium and
possibly calcium.
Excess calcium may
cause deficiency in
either magnesium
or potassium.

78
Magnesium
(Mg)
Sulfur (S)
Secondary Chlorophyll mfg., regulates
uptake of nutrients, accelerates
germination and maturity
Secondary Dark green color, root growth,
seed production
Dolomitic
limestone, Epsom
salt
Fertilizer, gypsum,
Epsom salt, copper
sulfate
Initial yellowing of
older leaves
between leaf veins
spreading to
younger leaves;
poor fruit
development and
production.
Initial yellowing of
young leaves
spreading to whole
plant; similar
symptoms to
nitrogen deficiency
but occurs on new
growth.
Death of growing
points and
deformation of
leaves with areas of
discoloration.
High concentration
tolerated in plant;
however, imbalance
with calcium and
potassium may
reduce growth.
Excess of sulfur
may cause
premature dropping
of leaves.
Boron (B) Micro Quality and yield of root crops,
seed production
Organic matter,
borax
Leaf tips become
yellow followed by
necrosis. Leaves get
a scorched
appearance and
later fall off.
Chlorine (Cl) Micro Plant metabolism Soil Foliar root burn.
Iron (Fe) Micro Chlorophyll mfg., respiratory
enzyme
Soil, iron sulfate,
iron chelate
Initial distinct
yellow or white
areas between veins
of young leaves
leading to spots of
dead leaf tissue.
Possible bronzing
of leaves with tiny
brown spots.

Manganese
(Mn)
Micro Photosynthesis, enzyme control Soil Interveinal
yellowing or
mottling of young
leaves.
Molybdenum Micro Utilization of nitrogen Soil
(Mo)
Zinc (Zn) Micro Growth, chlorophyll mfg.,
enzyme reactions, synthesis of
auxin
Soil, zinc oxide,
zinc sulfate, zinc
chelate
Fluoride (F-)
Not a
Micro
Interveianl
yellowing of young
leaves; reduced leaf
size.
Older leaves have
brown spots
surrounded by a
chlorotic circle or
zone.
Excess zinc may
cause iron
deficiency in some
plants.
Water treatment for human health None Foliar burn in
tropical plants,
houseplants
(Easter Lily)
Lime: Lime is added to the soil to adjust the acidity of the soil to bring it to the idea pH of 6.0 to 7.0. At this level nutrients become
readily available to plants, increase the microbial population in the soil, and nitrogen and sulfur are converted to available forms.
79

80
Botanical and common names
Interior Plants
Conditions
L T
i e
g m
h p
t
H
u
m
i
d
i
t
y
Plant characteristics and uses
T p
G c
a l
r o
b a
l n
e t
Asparagus setaceus, plumed asparagus fern H W M
Aspidistra elatior, cast-iron plant L C L
Astrophytum myrostigma, bishop’s cap H CR L
Beaucarnea recurvata (Nolina recurvata), ponytail M W L
plant
Begonia x argenteoguttata, angel-winged begonia H W M
Begonia masoniana, iron-cross begonia M W M
Begonia rex, rex begonia M W M
Calathea species, calathea M W H
Callisia species, Bolivian Jew M W M
Caryota mitis, fishtail palm H W M
Cephalocereus senilis, old-man cactus H CR L
Cereus peruvianus, apple cactus H CR L
S
p
e
c
i
m
e
n
H b
a a
n s
g k
i e
n t
g
o v
u e
n r
d
T t
o r
t a
e i
m n
s e
d
&
D g
i a
s r
h d
e
n
s
U f
n o
i l
q i
u a
e g
e
D p
u l
r a
a n
b t
l
e

81
Chamaedorea elegans, parlor palm H W M
Chlorophytum comosum ‘Vittatum’, white-striped M W H
spider plant
Chrysalidocarpus lutescens, butterfly palm, areca H W M
palm
Cissus antacritica, kangaroo vine M W M
Cissus discolor, begonia cissus M W M
Cissus quandrangularis, winged treebine M W L
Cissus rhombifolia, grape ivy M W M
Clerodendron thomsoniae, glory bower H W M
Codiaeum variegatum, croton H W L
Cordyline terminalis, Hawaiian ti plant M W M
Crassula argentea, jade plant M W L
Cryptanthus acaulis, earthstar M W L
Cryptanthus bivittatus ‘Pink Starlight’, pink M W L
starlight earthstar
Cyanotis kewensis, teddy bear vine M W M
Cycas revoluta, sago palm H W L
Cyrtomium falcatum, holly fern L W M
Davallia species, squirrel’s-foot fern M C H
Dieffenbachia hybrids, dumbcane, dieffenbachia L W L
Dizgotheca elegantissima, false aralia VH W L
Dracaena deremensis ‘Janet Craig’, Janet Craig M W L
dracaena
Dracaena deremensis ‘Warneckei’, Warnecke’s L W L
dracaena
Dracaena fragrans ‘Massangeana’, striped corn M W L
plant
Dracaena marginata, Madagascar dragon tree, rededged
H W L
dracaena
Dracaena marginata ‘Tricolor’, rainbow dracaena VH W M

82
Echinocactus grusonii, barrel cactus H CR L
Episcia species and cultivars, flame violet M W M
Epiphyllum hybrids, orchid cactus H CR M
Epipremnum aureum, pothos L C L
Euphorbia milii, crown-of-thorns H W L
Euphorbia obesa, botanical wonder H W L
Fatshedera lizei, botanical wonder M C M
Fatsia japonica, Japanese fatsia, Japanese aralia M C M
Faucaria tigrina, tiger’s jaws H CR L
Ficus benjamina, weeping fig H W M
Ficus elastica, rubber plant M W L
Ficus lyrata, fiddleleaf fig L W L
Ficus pumila, creeping fig L W M
Fittonia verschaffeltii var. argyroneura, white M W H
nerve plant
Graptopetalum paraguayense, ghost plant M CR L
Grevillia robusta, silky oak H W M
Gynura aurantiaca, purple passion vine H W M
Hatioria salicornioides, drunkard’s dream M CR L
Hedera helix, English ivy M W M
Hemigraphis alternata, red ivy M W M
Hoya cultivars, hoya H W L
Lithops species, living stones H CR L
Mammillaria species, pincushion cactus H CR L
Maranta leuconeura var. kerchoviana, prayer plant M W H
Maranta leuconeura var. erythroneura, red prayer M W H
plant, red nerve plant
Monstera deliciosa, splitleaf philodendron, M W M
Mexican breadfruit
Nematanthus species, gold-fish plant M W M
Neoreglia species H W L
Nephrolepis exaltata, sword fern M W M

83
Opuntia species, prickly pear H CR L
Pandanus veitchii, screwpine H W L
Pedilanthus tithymaloides, red lady slipper flower H W L
Pellionia pulchra, rainbow vine H W M
Pellionia repens, trailing watermelon vine H W M
Peperomia argyreia, watermelon peperomia H W M
Peperomia caperata ‘Emerald Ripple’, emerald H W M
ripple peperomia
Peperomia griseoargentea, ivy-leaf pepper H W M
Peperomia obtusifolia, pepperface, roundleaf H W M
peperomia
Peperomia scandens, serpent peperomia H W M
Philodendron hybrids, philodendron M W L
Philodendron bipennifolium, fiddleleaf
M W L
philodendron
Philodendron bipinnatifidum (P. Selloum), tree M W L
philodendron
Philodendron scandens var. oxycardium, heartleaf M W L
philodendron
Phoenix Roebelenii, dwarf pygmy palm H W M
Pilea Cadierei, aluminum plant M W M
Pilea nummularifolia, creeping Charlie M W M
Pilea repens, black-leaf Panamiga M W M
Pittosporum tobira, Japanese pittosportum VH W L
Platycerium species, staghorn fern M W M
Plectranthus australis, Swedish ivy M W M
Plectranthus fosteri, candle plant M W M
Plectranthus oertendahli ‘Variegatus’, coleus vine M W M
Podocarpus macrophyllus, Japanese yew VH W L
Polyscias guilfoylei, German aralia H W M
Portulacarai afra, elephant bush H W L
Radermachera sinica, China doll M W M

84
Rhapis cultivars, lady palm H W M
Rhoeo spathacea (Tradescantia spathacea), H W H
Moses-in-the-cradle
Sainpaulia ionantha, African violet M W M
Sansevieria cylindrica, cylindrical snakeplant L W L
Sansevieria trifasciata, snakeplant L W L
Sansevieria trifasciata ‘Hahnii’, bird’s-nest M W L
sansevieria
Sansevieria trifasciata ‘Laurentii’, Laurent’s M W L
sansevieria
Sansevieria zeylanica, Ceylon bowstring hemp M W L
Saxifraga stolonifera, strawberry begonia M W H
Schefflera actinophylla, schefflera H W M
Schefflera arboricola, dwarf schefflera M W M
Schlumbergera x buckleyi (S. Bridgesii), M CR M
Christmas cactus
Schlumbergera gaertneri (Hatioria gaertneri), M CR M
Easter cactus
Sedum morganianum, burro’s tail VH W L
Senecio herreianus, green marble vine H W M
Setcreasea purpurea (Tradescantia purpurea), H W M
purple heart
Soleirolia soleirolii, baby’s-tears M W H
Spathipyllum hybrids, peace lily L W M
Strelitzia reginae, bird-of-paradise VH W M
Streptocarpus saxorum, false African violet M W M
Syngonium podophyllum, nephthytis, arrowhead M W L
vine
Tolmiea menziesii, piggy-back plant H W H
Tradescantia species, wandering Jews H W M
Tripogandra multiflora, Tahitian bridal veil H W M
Vriesea splendens, flaming sword H CR L

Zebrina pendula, wandering Jew H W M
Light levels: VH = direct sunlight, a person can read without supplemental lighting at any time during the day; H = bright, indirect sunlight, a person can read without supplemental
lighting for most of the day; M = indirect sunlight, supplemental light needed during the early morning or early evening hours in order to read; L = low sunlight, supplemental light
needed at any time of the day in order to read.
Temperature: W = warm (60 to 65 degrees F days, and 55 to 60 degrees F nights); C = cool (50 to 60 degrees F days, 45 to 55 degrees F nights); CR = cool during winter rest (50 to 60
degrees F days, 45 to 55 degrees F nights).
Humidity: L = plant survives under low humidity conditions; M = moderate or average home humidity conditions; H = supplemental moisture in the air is desirable.
85

Xeriscape: Water-wise Landscaping
Objectives
1. Realize future water demands and how better landscape management can conserve and
improve water sources.
2. Xeriscaping is not desert drought gardening.
3. Learn and understand the seven steps of Xeriscape.
4. Critically evaluate landscapes and be able to divide them into the three water-use zones
(Oasis, Transition & Xeric).
5. Chose proper plant material for specific landscape situations.
6. Promote water-wise gardening and water conservation in your community.
Terms to Know
Nonpoint source (NPS) water pollution - also known as polluted runoff, comes from diffuse or
scattered sources in the environment rather than from a defined outlet such as a pipe. As water
moves across and through the land it picks up and carries away natural and human-made
pollutants depositing them into lakes, rivers, wetlands, coastal waters, and even our underground
sources of drinking water.
Xeriscape- a common sense, quality method of landscaping that conserves water and protects the
environment.
Oasis Zone- high water use zone
Transition Zone- moderate water use zone
Xeric Zone- low to no (supplemental) water use zone
Thinning Cuts- pruning of selected branches to reduce a plant’s water requirements.
Grasscycling- allowing mulched grass to fall on the ground after mowing to offer an excellent
slow-release natural nitrogen source and organic layer to the soil.
For more information on Water-wise Landscaping:
http://mastergardeners.tennessee.edu
Xeriscape Handbook by Gayle Weinstein
Xeriscape Color Guide David Winger
Xeriscape Plant Guide by Denver Water
Xeriscape: a guide to developing a water-wise landscape by Gary Wade & Jim Midcap of the
University of Georgia.
To print a Xeriscape Book: http://www.ces.uga.edu/pubcd/B1073.htm
Create your own Water-wise Plant List
All plants must be in the right place in your landscape. Plants that typically appreciate arid or
drought situations but may not be tolerate wet areas during times of drought. Know the flow of
water before you plant placement. Use Oasis, Transition, Xeric Zone terms to identify plants for
your Xeriscape. Keep adding your own selections and discoveries to this list.
86

Trees
Scientific Name Common Name Zone
Shrubs
Ornamental Grasses
Ground Covers
Perennials
Annuals
87

Ground Cover Calculations
How to figure the number of ground cover plants required: Multiply the number of square feet by
the number of plants required per square foot using this table.
Distance Apart
Plants Per Sq. Ft.
4" 9.11
6" 4
8" 2.25
9" 1.77
10" 1.44
12" 1
18" .45
24" .25
36" .11
One Flat of 100 Plants Will Cover:
Inch Spacing
Square Feet
4" 11
6" 25
8" 44
10" 70
12" 100
15" 156
18" 225
24" 400
88

Ground Covers Plant Lists
Low-growing ground covers for shade
Wild Ginger Asarum europaeum
Japanese Painted Fern Athyrium nipponicum
Lily of the Valley Convallaria majalis
Wood Fern Dryopteris spp.
Prostrate Japanese Plum Yew Cephalotaxus harrington ‘Prostrata’
Barrenwart Epimedium spp.
Galax, Wandflower Galax urcelolata
Sweet Woodruff Galium odoratum
Cranesbill Geranium spp.
Hakone Grass Hanonechloa marca ‘Aureola’
Lenton Rose Helleborous spp.
Alum root Heuchera spp.
Hosta Hosta spp.
Deadnettle Lamium spp.
Creeping Lily Turf Liriope spicata
Lily Turf Liriope muscari
Creeping Jenny Lysimachia nummularia
Mondo Grass Ophiopogon japonicus
Royal, Cinnamon Ferns Osmunda spp.
Allegheny Spurge Pachysandra procumbens
Japanese Spurge Pachysandra terminaltis
Virginia Creeper Parthenocissus quinquefolia
Christmas or Tassel Fern Polystichum spp.
Lungwort Pulmonaria longifolia
Foamflower Tiarella cordifolia
Periwinkle Vinca spp.
Low-growing ground covers for sun
Glossy Abelia Abelia x grandiflora
Wormwood Artemisa spp.
Crimson Pygmy Barberry Berberis thumbergii
Feather Reed Grass Calamagrostis acutifolia ‘Overdam’
Green and Gold Chrysogonum viriginianum
Redoiser Dogwood Cornus sericea ‘Kelsey’
Cotoneaster Cotoneaster spp.
Ice Plant Delosperma cooperi
Dianthus or Pinks Dianthus gratianopolitanus
Blue Oat Grass Helictorichon sempervirens
Daylily Hemerocallis spp.
St. John’s Wort Hypericum calycinum
Candytuff Iberis sempervirens
89

Weeping Winter Jasmine Jasminum nudiflorus
Blue Pacific Juniper Juniperus chinensis ‘Blue Pacific’
Shore Juniper Juniperus conferta cvs.
Creeping Juniper Juniperus horizontais ‘Blue Chip’, ‘Blue Horizon’ ‘Wiltonii’
Dahurian Juniper Juniperus davurica ‘Parsoni’
Dwarf Juniper Juniperus procumbens ‘Nana’
Single-seed Juniper Juniperus squamata ‘Blue Star’, ‘Blue Carpet’
Chinese Silver Grass Miscanthus sinensis
Fountain grass Pennisetum spp.
Creeping Phlox Phlox divaricata
Fragrant Sumac Rhus aromatica
Carpet Rose Rosa ‘Flower Carpet’
Creeping Rosemary Rosemarinus officianalis ‘Prostratus’
Creeping Raspberry Pubus calynoides
Meadow Sage Salivia nemorosa
Stonecrop, Sedum Sedum spp.
Japanese Spirea Spirea japonica
Thyme Thymus x citriodorus
Verbena Verbena spp.
Evergreen ground covers
Glossy Abelia Abelia x grandiflora
Prostrate Japanese Plum Yew Cephalotaxus harrington ‘Prostrata’
Lily of the Valley Convallaria majalis
Cotoneaster Cotoneaster spp.
Dianthus or Pinks Dianthus gratianopolitanus
Sweet Woodruff Galium odoratum
Cranesbill Geranium spp.
Lenton Rose Helleborous spp.
Alum root Heuchera spp.
Candytuff Iberis sempervirens
Weeping Winter Jasmine Jasminum nudiflorus
Dwarf Juniper Juniperus procumbens ‘Nana’
Blue Pacific Juniper Juniperus chinensis ‘Blue Pacific’
Blue Rug Juniper Juniperus horizontais ‘Wiltonii’
Creeping Lily Turf Liriope spicata
Lily turf Liriope muscari
Creeping Jenny Lysimachia nummularia
Mondo grass Ophiopogon japonicus
Allegheny spurge Pachysandra procumbens
Japanese spurge Pachysandra terminaltis
Creeping Raspberry Pubus calynoides
Creeping Rosemary Rosemarinus officianalis ‘Prostratus’
Thyme Thymus x citriodorus
90

Foamflower Tiarella cordifolia
Periwinkle Vinca spp.
Flowering ground covers
Glossy Abelia Abelia x grandiflora
Wild Ginger Asarum europaeum
Lily of the Valley Convallaria majalis
Green and gold Chrysogonum viriginianum
Redoiser Dogwood Cornus sericea ‘Kelsey’
Cotoneaster Cotoneaster spp.
Ice Plant Delosperma cooperi
Dianthus or Pinks Dianthus gratianopolitanus
Galax, Wandflower Galax urcelolata
Sweet Woodruff Galium odoratum
Cranesbill Geranium spp.
Lenton Rose Helleborous spp.
Daylily Hemerocallis spp.
Alum root Heuchera spp.
Hosta Hosta spp.
St. John’s Wort Hypericum calycinum
Candytuff Iberis sempervirens
Weeping Winter Jasmine Jasminum nudiflorus
Creeping Lily Turf Liriope spicata
Lily turf Liriope muscari
Mondo grass Ophiopogon japonicus
Creeping Phlox Phlox divaricata
Creeping Raspberry Pubus calynoides
Carpet Rose Rosa ‘Flower Carpet’
Creeping Rosemary Rosemarinus officianalis ‘Prostratus’
Meadow Sage Salivia nemorosa
Stonecrop, Sedum Sedum spp.
Japanese Spirea Spirea japonica
Foamflower Tiarella cordifolia
Verbena Verbena spp.
Periwinkle Vinca spp.
Ground covers for wet soils*
Wild Ginger Asarum europaeum
Sweet Flag Acorus gramineus
Japanese Painted Fern Athyrium nipponicum
Redoiser Dogwood Cornus sericea ‘Kelsey’
Deadnettle Lamium spp.
Creeping Jenny Lysimachia nummularia
* Grass is the only appropriate ground cover for septic fill lines.
91

HERB REFERENCE AND RESOURCE LISTS
Websites:
Mississippi State University – www.msucares.com/lawn/herbs
Johnny’s Selected Seeds - www.johnnyseeds.com
Richter’s Herb - www.richters.com
Herb Growing and Marketing Network - www.herbworld.com
International Herb Association – www.iherb.com
Books:
Southern Herb Growing – Author: Madelene Hill and Gwen Barclay
Taylor’s Guide to Herbs (Taylor’s Guide to Gardening) – Houghton
Mifflin Company; Editors: Rita Buchanan & Frances Tenenbaum
The Rodale Herb Book – Rodale Press Book Division, Editor:William H. Hylton
Herbal Wreaths – Author: Carol Taylor
Potpourri Crafts – Author: Dawn Cusick
The Complete Book of Everlastings – Author: Mark and Terry Silber
Herbs for Weddings and Other Celebrations – Author: Bertha Repppert
Flavored Oils-50 Recipes for Cooking with Infused Oils – Author: Michael Chiarello
Skinny Spices-50 Nifty Homemade Spice Blends and 100 Low-cal Recipes to Make Any
Meal Delicious – Author: Erica Levy Klein
The Crafter’s Garden- Author: Joni Prittie
Herbal Gifts – Author: Joanna Sheen
Gifts From the Herb Garden – Author: Emelie Tolley and Chris Mead
Making and Selling Herbal Crafts – Author: Alyce Nadeau
The Herbal Pantry – Author: Emelie Tolley and Chris Mead
92

Basil-An Herb Lover’s Guide – Author: Thomas Debaggio and Susan Belsinger
Today’s Herbal Kitchen-How to Cook and Design with Herbs Through The Seasons –
Authors: Memphis Herb Society, Published by Wimmer Companies
The Healing Herbs – Author: Michael Castleman
American Horticultural Society Herb Gardens – Published by DK Publishing
Better Homes and Gardens Herb Gardens – Published by Meredith Books
The Natural Remedy Bible – Authors: Michael Tierra and John Lust
The Herb Book – Author: John Lust
Rodale’s Illustrated Encyclopedia of Herbs – Published by Rodale Press, Editors: Claire
Kowalchik and William H. Hylton
Herbal Vinegar – Author: Maggie Oster
The Pleasure of Herbs – Author: Phyllis Shaudys
The Green Pharmacy – Author: James A. Duke
Storey’s Books for Country Living, Storey Communications Inc. School House Road,
Dept. 9600, Pownal, Vermont 05261, Tel. 800-441-5700 – Country Wisdom Bulletin
Library
A-130 Making Potpourri
A-112 Making and Using Flavored Vinegars
A-119 Growing and Using Basil
A-168 Natural and Herbal Family Remedies
A-166 Growing and Using Sage
A-145 Growing and Cooking with Mint
A-131 Growing and Using Scented Geraniums
A-174 Tea and Teatime Recipes
A-129 Making and Using Mustards
A-149 Make 22 Herbal Gifts for the Holidays
Herbal Cosmetics – Author: Jim Long
Dream Pillows and Love Potions – Author: Jim Long
How to Make Romantic Bentwood Garden Trellises – Author: Jim Long
93

Tea and Cakes Under the Trellis – Author: Jim Long
Compiled by: Lelia Scott Kelly, Ph.D.
Horticulture Specialist
Mississippi State University Extension Service
SOURCES OF HERB SEEDS AND PLANTS
• Thompson & Morgan, P.O. Box 1308, Jackson, NJ 08527-0308
Toll-free 1-800-274-7333 Fax toll-free 1-888-466-4769
On the Internet at www.thompson-morgan.com
• Shepherd’s Garden Seeds, 30 Irene St., Torrington, CT 06790
Ph: 1-860-482-3638 Fax: 1-860-482-0532
On the Internet at www.shepherdseeds.com
• Johnny’s Selected Seeds, RR 1, Box 2580, Albion, ME 04910-9731
Ph: 1-207-437-4395 Fax toll-free: 1-800-738-6314 (anytime)
On the Internet at www.johnnyseeds.com
• Richters Herb Catalogue, Goodwood, Ontario, Lociao, Canada
Ph: 1-905-640-6677 Fax #1-905-640-6641
On the Internet at www.richters.com
• Nichols Garden Nursery, 1190 Old Salem Rd. NE, Albany, Oregon 97321-4580
Ph: 1-541-928-9280 Fax toll-free: 1-800-231-5306
E-mail: Nichols@gardennursery.com
Other information sources:
Mississippi State University Web sites – www.msucares.com/lawn/herbs
Books: Southern Herb Growing – Author: Madelene Hill and Gwen Barclay
Taylor’s Guide to Herbs (Taylor’s Guide to Gardening) – Published by: Houghton
Mifflin Company; Editors: Rita Buchanan & Frances Tenenbaum
Compiled by: Lelia Scott Kelly, Ph.D.
Horticulture Specialist
Mississippi State University Extension Service
94

Herbs
Listed below are some of the more common herbs that you may want to grow, along with
minimum basic information. Average garden soil with excellent drainage is assumed. It may also
be assumed that every plant listed was used medicinally at one time by some society for
medicinal purposes. If the code "M" is given for it, this means that this was its only major use.
NAME TYPE USE CULTURE PART USED
Agrimony P M Dry Whole plant
Ajuga P M PSh Leaf
Alexanders B Rep,C PSh Whole plant
Anise A C Dry Ripe seed
Basil, holy A Rel. FS Whole plant
Basil, sweet A C FS,W,RS Leaf
Bay tree T Rel,C FS, W Leaf
Beebalm P C FS Leaf, blossom
Borage A C FS Leaf
Burnet, Salad P C PSh Leaf
Capers TP C FS Flower Bud
Caraway B C FS Root, Ripe seed
Cardoon B C FS Midrib of leaf
Catnip P M,Pet FS Leaf & flower
Chamomile,Ger. A M,Cos. FS Flower
Chamomile,Rom. P M,O FS Whole plant
Chervil HA C PSh Leaf
Chives P C RS,W,FS Leaf
Colchicum HC P FS Corm
Comfrey P M RS,PS Ripe seed
& Cilantro
Leaf
Costmary P Rel,H FS,LS Leaf & Flower
Cumin A C,M FS Ripe seed
Dill A C,M FS Seeds, weed
Dittany TP M,H PSh Leaf
Epazote A M,C RS,FS Whole plant
Equisetum P Abrasive RS,PS Stem
Fennel A,TP Rep,C,H FS Seeds, weed
Ferula TP R,H FS Stem
Feverfew P M FS Leaf
Flax A M FS Seed
Foxglove B M PS Leaf
Garlic H B Rep,M, C RS,W,FS Bulb
Garlic Chives P C RS,W,FS Leaf
Ginger TP C,M RS,W Rhizome
Good King Henry P C RS, FS Leaf
95

Hellebores P P,M Sh Root
Henbane A P,M PSh Whole Plant
Hops PV C,M Support Bracts
Horehound P C,M Dry,FS Leaf
Hyssop P C,M FS Leaf
Iris P F,Cos. FS Rhizome
Lamb's Ear P M LS,FS Leaf
Larkspur HA P,Rep. FS Seeds
Lavender P F FS Flower buds
Leek B M,C,H RS,W Stem
Lemon Balm P C Dry,FS Leaf
Lemon Verbena TP C,F FS Leaf
Linden HT C,F FS Bracts
Lovage P C,M PSh Leaf
Lungwort P M Sh,W Leaf
Madder P D FS Root
Marigold,Med. A Rel,C FS Flower
Marigold,Mex. A Rep. FS Whole plant
Marjoram TP C,Rel. FS,LS Leaf
Mignonette A F FS Flower
Milkweed P M FS Root
Mint P M,C PSh,W Leaf
Monkshood P P,M Sh Tubers
Mugwort P C,Rep. FS Leaf
Mullein B M LS,FS Leaf
Mustard A C FS Seed
Myrtle TT Rel. FS Leaf, flower
Old Roses HSh F,M,H FS Flower
Oregano P,TP C FS Leaf
Paprika A C FS,W Fruit
Papyrus TP Rep. FS,W Stem
Parsley B C PSh,W Leaf, Root
Pennyroyal P Rep. FS Leaf
Pelargoniums TP F,C FS Leaf
Pleurisy Root P M FS Whole plant
Pyrethrum P Rep. FS Flower
Rosemary TP C,M FS Leaf
Rue P Rep,M FS Leaf
Safflower A D,C FS Petals
Saffron HC D,C FS Stigmata
Sage P M,C FS Leaf
Santolina P F,Rep. FS Whole plant
Savory,Sum. A C FS Leaf
Savory,Win. P C FS Leaf
96

Sesame A C,Rel. FS Seeds
Shallots HB C FS,RS,W Bulb
Smallage B C FS Seed
Soapwort P Soap,Ful. FS Whole plant
Sorrel P C RS,W Leaf
Southernwood P F,Rep FS Whole plant
Starchwort P Starch FS Corm
Stevia TP C FS Leaf
St.Johns Wort P M,Rep. FS Flower
Sweet Flag P C,M,F FS,W Rhizome
Tansy P M,Rep. FS Whole plant
Tarragon P C PSh. Leaf
Teasel B Ful. RS,FS Seed Pods
Thistle,Milk A M FS Leaf, Seed
", On. acan. B H FS Whole plant
", Car. vul. A H FS Whole plant
", Cni.ben. A M FS Whole plant
Thyme P,TP M,C FS Leaf
Tumeric TP M,C FS Rhizome
Valerian P M,Rep. PSh Root
Vetiver TP M,F,Rep. FS Root
Weld B D FS Whole plant
Wintergreen P C,M Sh,Acid Whole plant
Witch Hazel PSh M PSh Bark
Woad B D RS,FS Leaf
Woodruff,Sw. P C,F Sh,Acid Leaf
Wormwood P M FS Leaf
Yarrow P M FS Leaf
KEY TO TYPE OF PLANT: KEY TO CULTURE: KEY TO USE OF PLANT:
A - Annual FS - Full sun C - Culinary
B - Biennial PSh - Part Shade Cos - Cosmetic
HA - Hardy Annual RS - Rich Soil D - Dye
HB - Hardy Bulb LS - Lean Soil F - Fragrance
HC - Hardy Corm Sh - Shade Ful - by Fullers
HSh- Hardy Shrub W - Water H - Historic
P – Perennial
M - Medicinal
PV - Perennial vine
O - Ornamental
TP - Tender Perennial
P - Poison
TSh.- Tender Shrub
Rel - Religious
TT - Tender Tree
Rep - Repellant
97

SOYBEAN AND
OILSEED CROPS
98

SOYBEANS
Land Selection .................................................................................................................100
Variety Selection, Maturity Groups and Disease Resistance ...........................................100
Maturity Date by Planting Date for Different Maturity Groups ......................................101
How the Soybean Plant Grows ........................................................................................102
Planting Dates .................................................................................................................103
Planting Rates ..................................................................................................................104
Row Widths .....................................................................................................................105
Fertilization and Liming ..................................................................................................105
Inoculation ......................................................................................................................105
Insect Control ..................................................................................................................105
Disease Control ...............................................................................................................105
Harvesting .......................................................................................................................106
Drying and Storing ..........................................................................................................106
Yield Estimates ...............................................................................................................106
Marketing ........................................................................................................................107
SUNFLOWERS .........................................................................................................................108
99

SOYBEANS
(Glycine max.)
The soybean belongs to the Leguminosae
family and, like other legumes, has the ability to
supply its own nitrogen needs utilizing
Rhizobium japonicum, a soil nitrogen-fixing
bacteria. Soybean seeds grown in Tennessee
average about 20 percent oil and 38 percent
protein and a bushel of seed at 13% moisture
weighs 60 pounds.
Land Selection
Productive soybean soils are deep or moderately
deep, well to moderately well-drained, mediumtextured
soils that occur on level or gentlysloping
fields with no danger of flooding and
where runoff and erosion are minimal. Reduced
yields can be expected on more droughty upland
soils. Maturity Group (MG) 3 varieties should
always be placed on productive soils. MG4 and
5 varieties are suited to both high yielding and
less productive soils.
(Figure 1. Maturity Group zones for soybeans)
Variety Selection
Soybean varieties are selected for their yield across different environments, maturity designation,
and disease resistance. A maturity group designation is based on the U.S. latitude in which that
variety was developed for use as a full season bean (Figure 1). Traditionally, the MG 5 bean has
the widest adaptation across Tennessee, but due to an interest in early planting and harvest, these
varieties are planted on only about one third of Tennessee’s soybean acreage. “Early maturity”
varieties in MG 3 and 4 have increased in use and currently Tennessee growers plant
approximately 20% Group 3 and 50% Group 4 varieties. Group 2s are planted on less than 1% of
acres. Approximately 98% of Tennessee soybeans are Roundup Ready ® . A new herbicide
tolerant soybean that is tolerant to glufosinate, Liberty Link ® , is expected to be released
commercially in 2009.
Yield - Producers should plant a combination of maturity groups to spread their risk for loss due
to dry weather during the season. For latest variety performance comparisons, see the most
recent version of Soybean Variety Tests in Tennessee.
Maturity Groups - When choosing a maturity group to plant, producers should consider how
early the soybeans can be planted and when harvest is desired (Figure 2, 3). MG 3 and 4
soybeans require less time to mature than MG 5 varieties when planted at the same time. Group 3
and 4 soybeans should be planted when soil temperatures are adequate in late April up to mid
100

May for best results. Early MG 5 soybeans (5.0-5.5) can be planted in May or as a double crop
bean. MG 4 or 5 varieties can be used as a salvage planting in July.
The harvest time for MG 3 and early planted MG 4 varieties is usually during corn harvest.
Producers should have the time and the equipment to harvest these varieties in a timely manner
to avoid harvest losses from pod shattering.
Disease and nematode resistance - selecting varieties with disease and nematode resistance is an
important way producers control or manage some soybean diseases like stem canker and Sudden
Death Syndrome (SDS) and the soybean cyst nematode. Refer to the most recent copy of
“Soybean Diseases and Nematode Ratings” for current varieties and their performance under
Tennessee conditions. Soybeans grown in a corn and soybean rotation should have good
tolerance to Sudden Death Syndrome. Soybean varieties resistant to Phytophthora root rot should
be utilized on low, poorly-drained heavy clay soils or on any other soil that is subject to flooding
and has poor internal as well as surface drainage. Stem canker resistance is highly desirable
where soybeans are grown several years in a row in the same field.
Figure 2. 2005 Planting and Harvest Dates for Nonirrigated Soybeans at Milan.
Walker, USDA/ARS.
Harvest Date by Maturity Group
2005 Planting MG 3 MG 4 MG 5
Date
May 4 Sept 20 Oct 16 Oct 31
May 18 Oct 7 Oct 21 Nov 7
June 7 Oct 15 Oct 23 Nov 5
June 23 Oct 15 Oct 21 Nov 8
July 20 Oct 27 Nov 7 Nov 8
August 10 Nov 23 Nov 23 Nov 23
101

Figure 3. 2002 Planting and Maturity Dates for Irrigated Soybeans at Jackson.
Buchanan et.al.
Planting
Date
MG Bu/Acre Inches of
Water
Applied
Days to
Maturity
Actual
Maturity*
*
Mid April 3.7 56.6 23 148 Sep 12
4.6 61.0 26 158 Sep 22
5.6* 26.2 31 210 Nov 13
Mid-May 3.7 60.1 20 128 Sep 20
4.6 55.1 23 132 Sep 24
5.6* 20.0 28 184 Nov 15
Mid-June 3.7 50.6 20 103 Sep 26
4.6 35.6 22 126 Oct 19
5.6* 7.3 25 153 Nov 16
* Note: The MG 5 variety had disease issues which affected yield. Data are
included to illustrate Days to Maturity for a typical MG 5 bean.
** At full maturity a delay of 5-10 days (depending on weather) are needed
to allow seed moisture to decrease to desired level prior to harvest.
How the Soybean Plant Grows
The rate of vegetative growth is determined by temperature, while the onset of reproduction is
triggered by day- length. Soybeans flower in response to a specific photo period. Shorter daylength
(longer dark or nighttime period) causes flowering and pod formation. Nearly all Group 1
through 4 varieties have an ‘indeterminate’ growth habit while Group 5 through 9 varieties are
primarily ‘determinate’ soybeans. Indeterminate soybeans flower when plants have at least three
trifoliate leaves and produce new leaves, nodes and flowers all at the same time. Vegetative
growth overlaps reproductive growth for 3 to 6 weeks. Determinate varieties nearly complete
vegetative growth before flowering begins, and the main stem ends in a large, terminal pod
cluster. Determinate soybeans flower from the upper canopy towards the base. Indeterminate
soybeans flower at the base (3 rd -5th node) first then proceeds towards the top as new nodes are
added.
102

Description of Vegetative Stages of Soybean Growth
Stage No. Description
VE Cotyledons above the soil surface
VC Unifoliate leaves unrolled so that leaf edges
are not touching
V1 One set of unfolded trifoliate leaves
V2 Two unfolded trifoliate leaves
V4 Four unfolded trifoliate leaves
Vn V stages continue with the unfolding of
trifoliate leaves. The final number of
trifoliates depends on the environment and
variety.
Description of Reproductive Stages of Soybean Growth
Stage No. Abbreviated Stage Description
Title
R1 Beginning bloom One open flower at any node on the main stem.
R2 Full bloom Open flower at one of the 2 upper nodes on the main
stem with a fully developed leaf.
R3 Beginning pod 3/16" (~1/4") pod on one of the 4 upper nodes on the
main stem with a fully developed leaf.
R4 Full pod 3/4" pods at one of the 4 upper nodes on the main
stem with a fully developed leaf.
R5 Beginning seed Seed 1/8" long at one of the 4 upper nodes on the
main stem with a fully developed leaf.
R6 Full seed Pod containing green seed that fills the pod cavity at
one of the 4 upper nodes on the main stem.
R7 Beginning
maturity
One pod on main stem has reached its mature pod
color.
R8 Full maturity 95% of pods have reached mature pod color; 5-10
days of drying weather are needed after R8 before
soybeans have

data sorted by planting date.
Planting Rates
Seeding rates depend on maturity group, planting date and the gemination percentage of seed.
There is much variation in the number of seed per pound depending on variety and the conditions
seed were produced under. Therefore, planting rate should always be based on a targeted
number of seed/ft of row rather than seeding at a specific pound rate per acre. MG3
varieties and double crop planted soybeans should be seeded at higher rates than MG4 or MG5
full season soybeans. By law, seed sold in Tennessee must have a germination rating of 75% or
better. Seed varieties with 75 to 79% germ at higher rates than seed with 80% or better
germination.
Figure 3. Soybean Seeding Rates (for other rates or row spacings: seeds per foot = planting
rate divided by (522,720 divided by row width in inches.)
Row Width
Inches
Broadcast
N/A
Desired Number of Seeds per acre (thousands)
100 125 150 175 200 225
Seeds per foot of row
38 7.3 9.1 10.9 12.7 14.5 16.4
30 5.7 7.2 8.6 10.0 11.5 12.9
20 3.8 4.8 5.7 6.7 7.6 8.6
15 2.9 3.6 4.3 5.0 5.7 6.5
10 1.9 2.4 2.9 3.3 3.8 4.3
7 1.3 1.7 2.0 2.3 2.7 3.0
40-60 pounds of seed / Acre
Per Acre Seeding
Rate
Final Stand
Assuming 80% Germ
Comments
130,000 104,000 A final uniform stand of 100,000 or
140,000 112,000
better plants per acre is considered
150,000 120,000 sufficient for full season MG4 and 5
soybeans. Seed at 150,000 seeds per acre
when more seed loss is expected.
160,000 128,000 MG3 or double crop soybeans should be
170,000 136,000
seeded at higher rates. Higher
180,000 144,000 populations can improve height on MG3
varieties and insure adequate stand when
crop stubble affects seed placement.
104

Per Acre Seeding
Rate
Final Stand
Assuming 80% Germ
Comments
190,000 152,000
200,000 160,000
Row Width
Soybeans planted during April or May have not consistently responded to narrow rows, however,
beans planted in June or July generally benefit from narrow rows because of quicker canopy
closure and reduced surface moisture loss. For soybeans grown in 36-inch or wider rows, select a
shorter-statured variety or one that is not prone to lodging.
Fertilization and Liming
For fertilization and liming recommendations, see chapter on "Soil Fertility and Soil Testing."
Molybdenum is necessary to the soil bacteria that ‘fix’ nitrogen for the soybean plant and can be
less available in acid soils. Moly is recommended as a seed treatment at a rate of 0.2 ounce per
acre the first year that limestone is applied or on soils with a pH of 5.8 or below. When lime has
not been applied in several years apply 0.2 ounce of molybdenum per acre.
Inoculation
Inoculate seed that is to be planted on land where soybeans have not been grown in the last three
to five years with a bacteria inoculant Rhizobium japonicum. Inoculation may be discontinued
after two or three years of soybean production. Liquid inoculant material adheres to the seed and
the likelihood of uniform inoculant application is greater. Dry inoculant products can be mixed
directly on the seed in the hopper-box at planting. Liquid inoculants should be allowed to
thoroughly dry on the seed before placing them in the hopper box.
Insect Control
Insects which attack soybeans in Tennessee are placed into four groups: soil insects, aboveground
stem feeders, foliage feeders and pod feeders. The most serious damage occurs from pod
feeders, followed by the foliage feeders. The major pod feeders are stink bugs and corn earworm.
The primary foliage feeders are loopers, green cloverworm, Japanese beetle and bean leaf beetle.
For further information on soybean insects, see the most current version of PB 1768, Insect
Control Recommendations for Field Crops.
Disease Control
Seedling diseases can be reduced by a hopper-box treatment of Captan, Apron Maxx or Ridomil
Gold. There are a number of good broad spectrum fungicides such as Apron Maxx XL that
contain ingredients that are effective against Phytophtora and Rhizoctonia and against cool
weather diseases such as Pythium. Soybeans planted in April or into cool soils in early May often
benefit from a fungicide treatment because the stand is more protected although yield increases
may not be observed.
105

Foliar disease management for frogeye leaf spot, Septoria brown spot and anthracnose is
provided by a strobilurin fungicide applied at the R3 growth stage when beans have at least 12 to
15 nodes on the main stem. Some varieties respond more to an application of a foliar fungicide
than others based on disease resistance. For a current list of variety response to fungicides see the
latest version of “Soybean Disease Ratings and Yields”.
Harvesting
Maturity Group 3, 4 and 5 soybeans should be harvested when seed moisture is below 20
percent. A few leaves may still be attached to Group 3 and 4 varieties. Optimum moisture for
harvesting is between 13 and 14 percent. Soybean seed that are combined when the moisture is
less than 12 percent are subject to more mechanical damage to seed coats. Soybeans to be
utilized for seed purposes should not be harvested at less than 13 percent moisture because of
possible mechanical damage to seed coats resulting in poor gemination.
The major loss of soybeans during harvesting is from cutter bar shatter. Combines are doing a
good job if machine loss is less than 3 percent of yield. Generally for every four to six soybeans
per square foot left on the ground, there is a loss of approximately 1 bushel per acre.
Drying and Storing
Beans with a moisture content above 13.5 percent should be artificially dried for safe, temporary
storage. For safe, long-term storage, beans should be dried to 11 percent moisture.
Maximum Temperature of Drying Air
Oil Beans 120 F
Seed Beans 80 F
ESTIMATING SOYBEAN YIELDS BEFORE HARVEST
Soybean seed yield estimates should be made as close to harvest as possible to more accurately
reflect yield potential. Sometimes yield estimates have to be made early such as in a drought
stress/crop loss situation. Producers should contact their crop insurance representative to
determine options in case of a crop failure. It may be helpful to estimate seed yield of the
standing crop to determine yield potential before deciding whether to bale for hay or leave
standing in the field. It is best to estimate yield in at least 5 locations in the field that are
representative of the stand and field conditions.
Step 1. Estimate plants per acre. These lengths are equal to 1/1000 th of an acre. Count plants in
one row and multiply by 1000.
7 inch row= number plants in 74 feet 8 inches
7.5 inch row= number of plants in 69 feet 8 inches
15 inch row= number of plants in 34 feet 10 inches
30 inch row= number of plants in 17 feet 5 inches
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Step 2. Estimate pods per plant. Count pods with seed on each plant for 10 consecutive plants in
one row, regardless of plant size. Determine average number of pods per plant.
Step 3. Estimate seeds per pod. Healthy soybean plants will average about 2.5 seeds per pod. For
plants under stress, the seeds per pod could drop to 2, 1.5 or even less under high stress
situations. (You can make your estimate of seeds per pod from same plants counted in Step 2).
Step 4. Estimate seeds per pound (seed size). 2,500 seeds per pound is a good average value. If
seeds size is consistently very small, may want to use a value of 2,800 to 3,000 seeds per pound
instead.
Step 5. Calculate bushels/acre:
(Avg. # plants/acre) x (Avg. # pods per plant) x (Avg. # seeds per pod) divided by (seeds per
pound) divided by (60 pounds per bushel of soybeans) = bushels per acre
Example: 125,000 plant population x 32 pods per plant x 1.5 seed per pod/ 3000 seeds
per pound/ 60 lbs per bushel= 33.33 bushels per acre
Marketing
Grade
Grades and Grade Requirements for Soybeans
Minimum
Maximum limits of
test weight Damaged kernels Foreign Splits
per bushel Heat Total material
damage
(pounds)
(percent) (percent) (percent) (percent)
Soybeans
of other
colors
(percent)
U.S. No. 1 56.0 0.2 2.0 1.0 10.0 1.0
U.S. No. 2 54.0 0.5 3.0 2.0 20.0 2.0
U.S. No. 3 1 52.0 1.0 5.0 3.0 30.0 5.0
U.S. No. 4 2 49.0 3.0 8.0 5.0 40.0 10.0
U.S. Sample grade
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U.S. Sample grade is soybeans that:
(a) Do not meet the requirements for U.S. Nos., 1,2, 3, 4; or
(b) Contain 8 or more stones which have an aggregate weight in excess of 0.2
percent of the sample weight, 2 or more pieces of glass, 3 or more Crotalaria
seed (Crotalaria spp.), 2 or more castor beans (Ricinus communis L.), 4 or
more particles of an unknown foreign substance (s) or a commonly
recognized harmful or toxic substance (s), 10 or more rodent pellets, bird
droppings, or equivalent quantity of other animal filth per 1,000 grams of
soybeans; or
©) Have a musty, sour, commercially objectionable foreign odor (except garlic
odor); or
(d) Are heating or otherwise of distinctly low quality.
1 Soybeans that are purple mottled or stained are graded not higher than U.S. No. 3
2 Soybeans that are materially weathered are graded not higher than U.S. No. 4.
SUNFLOWERS
(Helianthus annus L.)
The sunflower is a native of the Americas and is adapted to nearly every part of the United
States. Sunflowers are currently grown in Tennessee for fresh cut flowers, oil, birdseed and
edible seed. The sunflower is a phototropic plant– its seed heads face towards the sun.
Land Selection
The sunflower plant is not highly drought tolerant; however, it has an extensive heavily branched
tap root system that allows it to extract more soil moisture than corn roots. Sunflowers grow well
in a wide range of soils. Where yield is critical, sunflowers should not be planted in fields that
yield poorly for corn or soybeans.
Varieties
The University of Tennessee conducts sunflower variety trials at the Research and Education
Center at Milan to identify varieties that are less prone to lodging and more productive under
Tennessee growing conditions. Several newer varieties are herbicide tolerant (Clearfield) and
are tolerant to Beyond herbicide. Data on lodging and production are available at
http://varietytrials.tennessee.edu.
Planting Dates
April 10 to June 1. Soil temperature should be at 50F or above when the seed is planted. Seed
should be planted 1 to 2 inches deep depending on moisture.
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Planting Rates
Seed sunflowers at about 6 pounds of seed per acre. Plant 10 to 12 inches apart in 30 to 40 inch
rows. Planters equipped with cotton plates or with soybean meter cups can work well to seed
sunflower seeds. Sunflower finger pickups are also available. When broadcast seeding for flower
displays or wildlife plots, increase the seeding rate to 8 pounds per acre and use a variety that is
not prone to lodging.
Fertilization and Liming
Soil fertility requirements of sunflowers are not well-known. However, good yields have been
obtained from 90 pounds nitrogen, 60 pounds P 2 0 5 and 60 pounds of K 2 0 per acre. Nitrogen can
be split applied (30 lbs/A at planting; 60 lbs/A side dressed). No P or K is needed on high testing
soils.
Desired pH is the same as for corn.
Harvesting
Sunflowers are mature when the backs of the heads are yellow and the outer bracts are beginning
to turn brown. The seeds are ready to thresh and store when they contain not more than 10 to 12
percent moisture.
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BURLEY TOBACCO
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University of Tennessee Recommended Burley Tobacco Varieties – 2008
Variety
Yield
1
Black
Shank 2
Race 0
Race 1
Disease Resistance Ratings
Black
Root
Rot
Moderately High Black Shank Resistance
Fusari
um
wilt 2
TM
V 3
TVM
V
TEV
Blue
Mold
Relative
Maturity
KT 206 LC 9 10 7 High 1 High High Med. 4 Med - Late
KT 204 LC 9 7 7 High 1 High High Med. 0 Med - Late
Moderate Black Shank Resistance
NC 7 9 10 4 High 5 High High Med. 0 Med.–Late
TN 90 LC 5 4 4 High 0 High High Med. 3 Med.- Late
R 610 LC 5 4 4 Med. 3 - None None 0 Med.
Hybrid 5 5 5 High 4 High None None 0 Med.- Early
501LC
Black Shank Susceptible (black shank free land only)
ms KY14 x 7 10 0 Med. 6 High None None 0 Early
L8
HB04P LC 8 0 0 High 0 High None None 0 Med.
NC 6 8 10 3 High 0 High High Med. 0 Med.–Late
N 126 LC 8 0 0 Med. 3 High None None 0 Med.
R 7-12 LC 8 0 0 High 4 High None None 0 Late
NC 2002* 3 0 0 Low 0 High None None 7 Late
1 Rating of 1 – 10, with 10 being highest.
2 Scale of 0 – 10, with 10 being greatest resistance
3 TMV = Tobacco Mosaic Virus; TVMV = Tobacco Vein Mottling Virus; TEV = Tobacco Etch Virus;
all varieties susceptible to PVY
* NC 2002 is blue mold resistant, but susceptible to black root rot and virus diseases. Recommended
only in situations of severe blue mold where adequate chemical control is not feasible, black shank is
not present and black root rot is not a problem..
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TURFGRASS
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COMMON TURF CARE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
Tom Samples and Jim Brosnan, Plant Sciences Department, University of Tennessee
GENERAL
Q. Why does managing turfs in TN seem so difficult
A. Tennessee is located within a transitional zone between temperate and subtropical climates.
Climatic conditions in this turfgrass “transition zone” may dramatically change from season to
season and year to year. Climatic conditions and topography also vary across the state. Soils may
contain large amounts of clay and compact very quickly.
Q. How come some areas of my turf are denser and greener than others
A. Most turfgrasses grow best in fertile, well-drained soils in open areas of a landscape receiving
full sunlight. Problems result when turfs are managed in compacted, heavy clay soils in
‘stagnant’ areas of the landscape receiving very little sunlight. As a result, warm-season
turfgrasses, including bermudagrass and Zoysia (Zoysia japonica) are generally better adapted in
West TN. Cool-season turfgrasses, such as tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) and Kentucky
bluegrass (Poa pratensis), are most commonly managed in lawns at higher elevations in East
TN.
SELECTING A TURFGRASS SPECIES AND VARIETY
Q. Can I plant bermudagrass or Zoysia, or should I plant tall fescue or Kentucky bluegrass
A. This answer depends on where the lawn is located. Tennessee measures 440 miles from east
to west and ranges in elevation from 178 feet above sea level along the Mississippi River to
6,643 feet above sea level at Clingman’s Dome in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park.
The state can be divided into six main land regions.
1. The Blue Ridge Region, on the eastern edge of TN adjacent to NC, is mountainous.
This region averages 5,000 feet above sea level. The Great Smoky Mountains, Chilhowee
Mountains and Snowbird Mountains are located in the Blue Ridge Region. Tall fescue and
Kentucky bluegrass are usually the species of choice. Kentucky bluegrass often suffers severe
drought stress during summer, and may require irrigation and more management (e.g., routine
mowing, fertilization, dethatching and pest control) to survive. Tall fescue is usually much more
drought tolerant than Kentucky bluegrass. Fine fescue seed blends are usually planted in areas of
the landscape in moderate (medium) shade. Although bermudagrass varieties with improved
low-temperature hardiness are managed as sports fields in this region, the species is not usually
recommended for home lawns. If a homeowner insists on planting a warm-season turfgrass,
Zoysia is the warm-season species of choice. The variety ‘Meyer’ has excellent low-temperature
tolerance.
2. The Appalachian Ridge and Valley Region extends west from the Blue Ridge Region
for more than 50 miles. This region features valleys surrounded by forested ridges. Valleys
become broader and ridges are lower in the western-most section of this region known as the
Great Valley. Tall fescue and Kentucky bluegrass are adapted in this region, although Kentucky
bluegrass usually requires irrigation in the summer and a higher level of management than tall
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fescue. Like the Blue Ridge Region, fine fescue seed blends are usually planted in medium-shade
areas of the landscape. Zoysia varieties with good low-temperature tolerance are adapted in the
Appalachian Ridge and Valley Region. Bermudagrasses may not survive low-temperature
extremes.
3. The Cumberland Plateau lies west of the Appalachian Ridge and Valley Region. The
flat-topped mountains in this region are usually 1,500 to 1,800 feet above sea level. Tall fescue is
usually well adapted on the Cumberland Plateau. Kentucky bluegrass usually requires a higher
level of management than tall fescue and performs best when irrigated during summer. Although
the period of active plant growth is limited by low temperatures in fall, winter and early spring,
Zoysia can also be maintained in this region. Bermudagrass on the mountains may suffer lowtemperature
injury during winter. However, bermudagrass is managed in some lawns in the sharp
valleys or basins within this region. Fine fescues are often planted in areas of the landscape in
medium shade.
4. Tall fescue is the major turf species in the Highland Rim Region, an elevated plain that
surrounds the Nashville Basin Region. Kentucky bluegrass deserves consideration if irrigation is
available and the homeowner is willing to provide a relatively high level of management (e.g.,
frequent mowing, routine fertilization, and timely irrigation, dethatching and pest control).
Zoysia is the preferred warm-season turfgrass species on the Highland Rim. Fine fescue seed
blends are often suggested for planting areas in light to medium shade in the Highland Rim
Region.
5. Zoysia and low-temperature-tolerant bermudagrass varieties are adapted in full sun and
usually grow well in rich, fertile soils of the Nashville Basin Region in central TN. Tall fescue is
the preferred cool-season turfgrass species and is usually adapted in full sun and lightly shaded
areas of the landscape. Kentucky bluegrass is seldom recommended unless the lawn will be
irrigated to supplement rainfall in summer and the homeowner is willing to provide a relatively
high level of management. 6. The Gulf Coastal Plain Region consists of three distinct sections.
The hilly, eastern-most section, which is adjacent to the western edge of the Tennessee River, is
about 10 miles wide. A second, larger section is referred to as the Tennessee Bottoms. The
Tennessee Bottoms consist of rolling hills and streams. This section extends to Memphis where
it ends as cliffs bordering the Mississippi River. The third section, or Delta Region, is an area of
lowlands. Although Zoysia is well adapted in the Gulf Coastal Plain Region, bermudagrass is the
major turfgrass species. Tall fescue is often planted in lightly shaded areas of a landscape in the
Gulf Coastal Plain Region.
Q. Where can I find information about the best turfgrass varieties to plant in TN
A. To find current information regarding the newest turfgrass varieties please visit the National
Turfgrass Evaluation Program (NTEP) website, http://www.ntep.org The performance of
individual named and experimental cultivars (varieties) is reported by turfgrass species. For
example, from 2001 to 2005, 160 varieties were evaluated in 26 states during the 2001 NTEP
Tall Fescue Test. The 42 varieties entered in the 2002 NTEP Bermudagrass Test are being
evaluated in 18 states. Twenty varieties entered in the 2002 NTEP Zoysia Test are being
evaluated in 16 states. Each test database can be partitioned to monitor the performance of an
individual variety by region. For example, Tennesseans are most often more interested in the
performance of a particular variety in transition zone locations rather than sites throughout the
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northwestern U. S. The 2005 NTEP Kentucky Bluegrass Test and 2006 NTEP Tall Fescue Test
are being conducted here at the University of Tennessee. Many garden center owners and
managers choose and sell seeds of varieties from several vendors based on NTEP test results.
Preparing to Plant
ESTABLISHING TURF
Q. Will stones cause problems if I don’t remove them from the soil surface before planting
A. Shallowly rooted turfgrasses growing above large stones and other obstacles that restrict
rooting often turn yellow or brown during hot, dry weather and may die due to a lack of water.
As a general rule, stones, construction debris and other obstacles 2 or more inches in diameter
located within 4 inches of the soil surface should be removed before planting.
Q. What is a starter fertilizer
A. A starter fertilizer most often contains less nitrogen and more phosphorus than a fertilizer
formulated for established turfs. For example, fertilizers with a 1:2:2, 1:2:1, 1:3:2 or 1:4:2
nitrogen (N): phosphate (P 2 O 5 ): potash (K 2 O) ratio are often referred to as starter fertilizers.
Q. If I apply a herbicide to control weeds before I till the soil and plant seeds, will the
herbicide injure turfgrass seedlings
A. Always refer to the product label to determine what turfgrass species the herbicide can be
applied to and the time interval from application to seeding necessary to prevent the herbicide
from injuring turfgrass seedlings.
Time Interval from Preemergence Herbicide Application to Seeding.
Delay After
Delay After
Herbicide Application Herbicide Application
Balan ® 6 to 16 weeks 2,4-D 4 weeks
Barricade ® 4 months Banvel ® 4 weeks
Betasan ® 4 months Drive ® none
Dimension ® 3 months MCPP 4 weeks
Pendulum ® 3 months Roundup ® 3 days
Surflan ®
90 to 120 days
Tupersan ® none
_____________________________________________________________________________
Seeds
Q. How many pounds of seed should I buy to plant my turf
A. The recommended planting rate for each turfgrass species depends on seed size. Smallseeded
species such as Kentucky bluegrass and bermudagrass require a lower planting rate than
turfgrasses, such as tall fescue and perennial ryegrass that produce relatively large seeds. The
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ecommended planting rates in pounds per 1,000 square feet for cool-season turfgrasses are:
Kentucky bluegrass, 1½ - 2; chewings, red and sheep fescues, 3 - 5; perennial ryegrass, 4 - 6; and
tall fescue, 5 - 8. Recommended seeding rates of warm-season turfgrasses in pounds per 1,000
square feet are: bermudagrass (hulled), ½ - 1; bermudagrass (unhulled/non-processed), 1 - 2; and
centipedegrass and Zoysia, ½ to 3.
Q. Should I mulch with straw after planting seeds
A. Mulching a newly seeded lawn with straw usually helps prevent soil erosion, conserves
moisture and protects emerging turfgrass seedlings from extreme high and low temperatures.
Purchase quality mulching straw that contains little, if any, weed seeds. One forty-pound bale of
mulching straw should cover about 800 square feet. At this mulching rate, about 50 percent of
the soil surface will be covered with straw, and 50 percent of the soil surface will be visible and
receive direct sunlight.
Q. Is there a way to plant turfgrass seeds on slopes too steep to use a conventional drill or
planter
A. Sites with limited access or unsuitable for planting by conventional means may be
hydroseeded. Hydraulic-mulch-seeding, or hydroseeding, is a process in which a slurry of
turfgrass seeds, mulch, and sometimes fertilizer, dye and a tackifying agent, is pumped from a
portable tank and sprayed over soil. The mulch, often referred to as hydromulch, helps conserve
moisture and reduce erosion.
Q. How can I make sure turfgrass seeds stay on a severely sloped bank after I plant
A. A short-term or biodegradable, erosion-control blanket may be very helpful. Depending on
moisture, light and weather, straw-fiber blankets secured with staples often stabilize soil on
slopes with a 3:1 h:v gradient for up to 12 months. Straw blankets may be sewn together with
plastic line (e.g., on 1½ -inch centers) and rolled in 8 ft. or 16 ft. by 100 ft. rolls before being
shrink-wrapped. When erosion control is required for an extended period of time (e.g. up to 24
months), or when slopes are more severe (e.g., up to 1.5:1 h:v), coconut fibers may be mixed
with straw fibers and the mat may be double-sewn. Aspen is often the tree species used to
produce the finely shaved, curly and interlocking fibers in excelsior blankets.
Sod
Q. How is sod sold in TN
A. Sod is harvested and transported as flat or rolled blocks (pads), or as large rolls. One pallet
usually holds about 50 square yards of sod pads and weighs 2,000 pounds or more. Individual
pads are often 16 inches wide by 24 or more inches long. Big-roll sod is most often harvested in
rolls 24, 30 or 48 inches wide and up to 100 feet long. Some equipment manufacturers sell sod
harvesters that simultaneously cut two large rolls, each 21 or 24 inches in width. Motorized, allterrain
installers with a load capacity of at least 2,500 pounds are often used to plant big-roll sod.
Q. How much soil comes with turfgrass sod
A. Less soil is shipped with turfgrasses having strong, above- (stolons) or below-ground
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(rhizomes) runners compared to those with a bunch-type growth habit. For example, tall fescue
or tall fescue + Kentucky bluegrass sod may contain more than 5/8 inch of soil, while the
average depth of soil shipped with centipedegrass, hybrid bermudagrass and Zoysia may be less
than ½ inch.
Q. When is the best time of year to install sod
A. In TN, sod may be installed throughout the year, as long as the soil is properly prepared and is
not frozen Although sod of warm-season turfgrasses such as bermudagrass and Zoysia is
installed in winter, when plants are dormant, a newly sodded lawn should not be heavily
trafficked until plants in sod pads are well rooted and the lawn has been mowed several times. In
summer, sod producers may not harvest or ship sod of cool-season turfgrasses (e.g., tall fescue
and Kentucky bluegrass) during extended periods of hot and dry weather.
Q. How soon after harvest must sod be planted
A. Generally, to reduce plant injury due to extreme high temperatures and dehydration, sod
should be installed within 24 to 48 hr. of harvest. When slabs of sod that have been on the pallet
too long are installed, plants receiving light during transport often grow well, while plants in
shaded slabs exposed to extremely high temperatures often die. Temperatures near the center of a
pallet of sod pads or a big roll can quickly rise to more than 120 o F.
Plugs
Q. What turfgrasses can be plugged
A. Any turfgrass species that produces above- (stolons) or below-ground (rhizomes) runners can
be plugged. Due, in part, to the expense of sod, Zoysia is probably the species most often
established by plugging in Tennessee. One square yard of sod yields more than three hundred 2-
inch by 2-inch plugs.
Sprigs
Q. What is a sprig
A. A sprig is a section of turfgrass stem that is cut from a rhizome or stolon. When properly
harvested, transplanted and maintained, nodes on a sprig are capable of producing leaves and
roots. Sprigs are most often sold by the bushel. Generally, one square yard of hybrid
bermudagrass sod usually produces one GA bushel of sprigs. A Texas (TX) bushel is based on
the U. S. customary measurement system where one bushel of harvested sprigs is 2,150 cubic
inches or 1.24 cubic feet in volume, about three times greater than a GA bushel.
Care after Planting
Q. What is the best way to water a newly seeded turf
A. Germination begins as turfgrass seeds absorb water from the soil. A key to successfully
establishing turf from seed is to maintain moist soil in close proximity to seeds as seedling roots,
or radicles, penetrate the seed coat and grow into soil, helping anchor the seedlings. To
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accomplish this, it may be necessary to irrigate lightly several times each day (e.g., one-sixteenth
inch three times daily) for three or more weeks after planting. As turfgrass plants mature, and
roots extend well below the soil surface, more water can be applied less often (e.g., one-half inch
of water every three days).
Q. How tall should I let the turfgrass plants get before I mow the first time
A. Generally, turfgrasses should be mowed when the average plant height reaches 1.5 times the
intended cutting height. For example, if you intend to mow tall fescue at a height of 2 inches,
mow when plants average a height of three inches. Similarly, if you plant bermudagrass and
intend to mow the turf at a height of one inch, mow when plants average a height of one-andone-half
inches.
Q. How soon after I plant seed, can I apply a herbicide to control weeds
A. Always read and follow directions on the product label. Mature turfgrass plants are often
more tolerant of herbicides than developing seedlings with limited root systems. For example,
the herbicide Cool Power ® (Riverdale ® , NuFarm Americas Inc.), containing MCPA, triclopyr
and dicamba, is labeled for use in bermudagrass, bluegrass, fescue, ryegrass and Zoysia turfs.
The Cool Power ® label states: “Do not apply to newly seeded turfgrasses until well established.”
Similarly, Gordon’s Trimec ® Classic Brand Herbicide, containing 2,4-D, MCPP and dicamba, is
labeled for use in bermudagrass, centipedegrass, fescue, Kentucky bluegrass, perennial ryegrass,
St. Augustinegrass, and Zoysia. This product should not be applied to newly seeded turf “until
after the second or third mowing.”
Mowing
TURF MAINTENANCE
Q. At what cutting height should I set my mower
A. Sod-forming turfgrasses such as bermudagrass, Kentucky bluegrass and Zoysia can be
maintained at a slightly lower height of cut than tall fescue, which has a bunch-type growth
habit. Suggested home lawn cutting heights of warm-season turfgrasses are: centipedegrass,
common bermudagrass and Zoysia, 1 - 2 inches; hybrid bermudagrass, 3/4-2 inches; and St.
Augustinegrass, 1½-3 inches. Suggested cutting heights of cool-season turfgrasses are: Kentucky
bluegrass and perennial ryegrass, 1-2 inches; and ‘improved, turf-type tall fescue, 2 to 3 inches.
Raising the cutting height of cool-season turfgrasses ½ inch or more before the high-temperature
and drought stresses of summer may help insulate the soil against extreme high temperatures and
increase the depth of turfgrass roots. Similarly, to improve the cold tolerance of warm-season
turfgrasses, raise the cutting height ½ inch or more before winter dormancy.
Q. Should I collect the grass clippings
A. Not necessarily. Research has demonstrated that returning small grass clippings to turfs can
be beneficial. In addition to water, clippings contain sixteen nutrients considered essential for
turfgrass survival and reproduction. If turf is mown often, and no more than one-third of the
aerial shoots are removed at one time, clippings do not usually contribute much to the thatch
layer.
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Q. Roots of turfgrasses in my turf are very shallow. What can I do to improve the rooting
depth
A. Mow often at a height of cut recommended for the turfgrass species being maintained. For
example, tall fescue lawns are usually mowed from 2 to 3 ½ inches; bermudagrass and Zoysia
lawns, from 1 to 2 inches. Many new self-propelled and walk-behind mowers can quickly be
converted from clipping mulching mode to clipping discharge mode. Today’s riding mowers are
engineered with precision cutting, ease of operation and operator safety in mind. Some offer
zero-turn technology. Do not remove more than one-third of the aerial shoots when mowing.
Q. What should I do to prepare my tall fescue turf for summer and winter
A. Prepare turfgrasses for high and low temperature extremes by increasing the cutting height at
least 1/4 inch in late spring and again in late fall. More foliage above the soil surface results in
greater insulation from high and low temperatures, and may promote deeper rooting. Some
manufacturers produce fertilizers containing a high level of potassium intended to ‘winterize’
turfgrass plants when applied in late summer or early fall..
Fertilizing and Liming
Q. When I fertilize, the grasses seem to grow too quickly. How can I have healthy turf without
having to mow so many times each week
A. Use controlled-release, nitrogen-containing fertilizers when trying to avoid fertilizer burn and
excessive turfgrass growth. Controlled- or extended-release fertilizers may contain urea
formaldehyde (UF), methylene ureas (MU’s), sulfur-coated urea (SCU), polymer-coated urea
(PCU) or polymer-coated-sulfur-coated urea (PCSCU). When using quick-release sources of
nitrogen such as ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulfate and urea, do not apply more than one
pound of nitrogen per 1,000 square feet.
Q. When is the best time of year to fertilize turf
A. In Tennessee, seasonal fertilization works best. Bermudagrass and Zoysia should be fertilized
from late spring through early fall, when plants are actively growing. However, fertilizing these
warm-season turfgrasses with too much nitrogen late in the growing season (e.g., October or
November) can result in greater sensitivity to, and injury from, low temperatures. The fescues
and Kentucky bluegrass are cool-season turfgrasses. These species respond best when fertilized
in late winter, early spring and fall. Cool-season turfgrasses receiving too much nitrogen in late
spring and summer are often disease prone and very sensitive to high temperature and drought
stresses during summer.
Q. Is moss an indication that I need to apply lime
A. Not necessarily. Apply lime according to soil test recommendations. The presence of moss
usually indicates that turfgrasses are not growing very well. Moss may be growing better than
turfgrasses due to compacted soil, shade, poor soil fertility or drainage, and restricted air
movement.
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Q. How long does it take for pelletized lime to dissolve
A. When using a rotary spreader, pelletized limestone is much easier to uniformly broadcast than
pulverized limestone. Although, at first glance, lime pellets may appear to be very hard, they
actually dissolve very quickly. Pellets, or granules, are manufactured from calcitic or dolomite
limestone that has been micro-ground to a flour-like powder. During the granulating process, this
lime powder is granulated into fertilizer-sized, moisture-dissolvable pellets. The micro-sized
particles that make up the pellets dissolve quickly once they contact water.
Irrigating
Q. How much water should be applied each time the turf is watered
A. In TN, it is often necessary to water turf from May through October, when rainfall amounts
do not meet the water use requirement (ET or evapotranspiration) of turfgrasses. Actively
growing turfgrass plants usually require from 0.1 to 0.3 inch of water daily. Hopefully, it will not
be necessary to water turf more than two or three times each week with 0.3 to 0.5 inch of water
each time..
Q. How many gallons of water should I apply to actively growing turf each week
A. Turfgrasses often use one inch of water or more per week during favorable weather. Sixhundred-twenty
gallons per 1,000 square feet equals about one inch of water. One acre-inch of
water equals about 27,150 gallons.
Q. What is the best time of day to irrigate
A. Several fungal pathogens move from infected turfgrass plants to healthy plants by way of
water. To limit the amount of water lost to evaporation and the amount of time leaves remain
moist, irrigate turf in the morning (e.g., from 5:00 am to 11:00 am).
Removing Thatch
Q. What is thatch
A. Thatch is a tightly intermingled layer of living and dead turfgrass leaves, stems and roots
located on the soil surface. As long as the layer is not too thick, thatch can increase the
resilience of a turf to heavy traffic. Thatch usually develops more quickly in turfs managed in
fertile soils at a relatively high intensity level than in turfs receiving less fertilizer and maintained
at a low level of intensity.
Q. When should turf be dethatched
A. Dethatch when the thatch layer measures ½ inch or more in thickness. Too much thatch
results in weak and weedy turf. Walk-behind power rakes and vertical mowers are designed to
lift thatch and deposit it on the turf surface. Warm-season turfgrasses are often dethatched in
June or July, when plants are actively growing. Cool-season turfgrasses are usually dethatched in
spring (before applying a preemergence herbicide for crabgrass control) or fall. Dethatching
before broadcasting seeds temporarily exposes soil and improves seed-to-soil contact.
120

Aerifying
Q. What is a core aerifier
A. Core aerifiers are machines designed to remove small plugs of plants and soil as they move
across the turf. Turfs are aerified to loosen hard soils and improve turfgrass rooting. The
channels that form as turf is cored improve the flow of oxygen into the soil and carbon dioxide
from the soil. Water generally moves more rapidly from the surface of a turf that has recently
been aerified compared to a turf in need of coring.
Q. How often should turf be aerified
A. Since core aerification ‘selectively’ cultivates soils, and less than 10 percent of the soil
surface is usually impacted when turf is cored, turfgrass plants growing in heavily compacted
soils may benefit from core aerification each year.
Q. When is the best time to aerate turf
A. Turf in need of core aerification should be aerified when weather favors the growth of
turfgrasses. For example, cool-season turfgrasses such as tall fescue and Kentucky bluegrass are
most often aerified in the spring, before applying a crabgrass preventer, or in the fall, well before
the first frost. Late spring and early summer is an excellent time to aerify warm-season
turfgrasses including bermudagrass and Zoysia.
Topdressing
Q. How can I level my turf
A. A thin (e.g., 1/8 to 1/4 inch) layer of mature compost or mixture of mature compost and soil
may be broadcast over turf (topdressed) after coring to level the soil surface and improve the
root-zone. The topdressing material can be worked into turf using a drag mat or brush.
Topdressing organic matter after coring can stimulate biological activity in the underlying soil,
improving the turfgrass rooting environment. Nutrients in the topdressing material often promote
plant growth and improve color. Four-tenths of a cubic yard of topdressing material is required to
create a topdressing layer 1/8 inch deep per 1,000 sq. ft. Deep or severe undulations may be
corrected by 1) lifting sod using a walk-behind sod cutter; 2) adding soil similar in texture to that
of the soil on site; and 3) re-installing the sod.
TURF RENOVATION
Q. What can be done when the weeds outnumber the desirable turfgrass plants
A. Rather than starting over from bare ground, a lawn can usually be successfully renovated if
turfgrasses make up 50 percent or more of the existing groundcover. A ten-step guide for
renovating fescue or Kentucky bluegrass lawns beginning in August follows.
August
1. Prepare and submit a soil sample for testing several weeks before the scheduled interseeding.
121

September
2. Mow, then aerify the lawn using a tractor-drawn or walk-behind core aerifier. Don’t be
afraid to make two or more passes in several directions.
3. After aeration cores have air-dried (e.g., a few days after core aerifying), drag the lawn
with a chain drag or drag mat to shatter the cores and mix soil with thatch.
4. Mow, then broadcast or plant seeds using a slit- or aero-seeder. Bluegrasses and
fescues seeded in September are usually well developed before they begin to experience high
temperature and drought stresses in summer. Kentucky bluegrass and tall fescue seedlings should
adapt in areas of the lawn receiving full sun or in light, open shade. A mixture of tall and fine
fescues (for example, 60 percent tall fescue + 40 percent creeping red fescue) is recommended in
areas receiving limited light (for example, 30 to 50 percent of full sunlight). Fine fescues
including creeping red and hard fescues are usually much more tolerant of shade than Kentucky
bluegrass and tall fescue. However, due to poor high temperature tolerance, they do not usually
perform very well in full sun. Three to four pounds of fescue seeds or 1 pound of Kentucky
bluegrass seeds per 1,000 square feet are often required to improve the stand density of a weak
lawn.
5. After inter-seeding, drag the lawn with a chain drag or drag mat to improve seed
contact with soil.
6. Apply a fertilizer and limestone according to soil test recommendations after interseeding
and dragging. A starter fertilizer may be recommended if the soil test reveals low levels
of phosphorus and potassium in the soil. A starter fertilizer (i.e. 12-24-24) contains more
phosphorus and potassium, and less nitrogen, than a fertilizer (i.e. 20-10-10) formulated to meet
the nutritional requirements of an existing lawn. Do not apply more than 1 pound of watersoluble,
quick-release nitrogen per 1,000 square feet. For example, 375 pounds of 12-24-24
fertilizer per acre or 8 pounds of 12-24-24 fertilizer per 1,000 square feet will supply about 1
pound of nitrogen per 1,000 square feet.
7. Uniformly and lightly broadcast straw mulch over areas of the lawn with less than 25
percent existing ground coverage. One fifty pound bale should cover 1,000 square feet.
8. Mow the lawn often using a mower with sharp blade(s).
October
9. Fertilize again, 5 to 6 weeks after seedlings emerge from the soil. For example, 2
pounds of urea per 1,000 square feet or 100 pounds of urea (46-0-0) per acre will supply about 1
pound of nitrogen per 1,000 square feet.
Late November or Early December
10. In late fall, a herbicide (e.g., 2,4-D, dicamba and/or MCPP) may be applied to
established Kentucky bluegrass, tall fescue and fine fescue lawns to control emerged broadleaf
weeds such as common chickweed, henbit and purple deadnettle.
WEED CONTROL
Q. My turf looks good until summer, when crabgrass seems to take over. What is the best way
to control crabgrass
A. In addition to water, crabgrass seeds require light to germinate. The best defense against
crabgrass is a dense, actively growing turf. An adjustment in the overall turf management
122

program may be in order. Several herbicides effectively control crabgrass when applied before
(preemergence) crabgrass seeds begin germinating and seedlings emerge from soil. Benefin
(Balan ® ), bensulide (Betasan ® ), dithiopyr (Dimension ® ), oryzalin (Surflan ® ), pendimethalin
(Pendulum ® ), prodiamine (Barricade ® ) and siduron (Tupersan ® ) are examples of preemergence
herbicides commonly applied to turfs in late winter or early spring, before seeds of summer
annual grassy weeds including crabgrass begin to germinate. Many of these herbicides are
marketed in combination with granular fertilizer. Tolerance to preemergence herbicides varies
among turfgrass species.
______________________________________________________________________________
Tolerance of Several Turfgrass Species to Preemergence Herbicides.
Turfgrass Species 1
Herbicide KBlue TFes FFes PRye Ber Cent Zoy
atrazine (Atrazine ® ) NR 2 NR NR NR TD T T
benefin (Balan ® ) T T T T T T T
bensulide (Bensumec ® ) T T T T T T T
dithiopyr (Dimension ® ) T T S* T T T T
isoxaben (Gallery ® ) T T T T T T T
metolachlor (Pennant ® ) NR NR NR NR T T T
napropamide (Devrinol ® ) NR T T NR T T NR
oryzalin (Surflan ® ) NR NR NR NR T T T
pendimenthalin (Pendulum ® ) T T T T T T T
prodiamine (Kerb ® ) T T T T T T T
siduron (Tupersan ® ) T T T T NR NR T
simazine (Princep ® ) NR NR NR NR T T T
______________________________________________________________________________
1 KBlue = Kentucky bluegrass; TFes = tall fescue; FFes = fine fescues; PRye = perennial
ryegrass; Ber = bermudagrass; Cent = centipedegrass and Zoy = Zoysia.
2
Key to Tolerance Codes; NR = Not Registered; T = tolerant; TD = Tolerant when dormant; S =
can be applied but with special use precautions; S* = dithiopyr cannot be applied to creeping red
fescue.
______________________________________________________________________________
123

______________________________________________________________________________
Susceptibility of Several Annual Grassy Weed Species to Preemergence Herbicides.
Weed Species
Herbicide
Atrazine Benefin Bensulide Dithiopyr Metolachlor Napropamide Oryzalin Pendimethalin
Bluegrass, annual E 1 G E E G G E E
Crabgrass F G E E G E E E
Goosegrass G P P E E G E E
______________________________________________________________________________
1 Weed Susceptibility Codes: E = Excellent (90 to 100%); G = Good (80 to 90%); F = Fair (70 to
80%); P = Poor (less than 70%). For a specific target weed, choose an appropriate herbicide that
provides excellent (E) to good (G) control. Fair (F) to poor (P) control of additional weeds
should be considered as added benefits in addition to control of specific target weeds. Ratings are
based on optimum application timing and most susceptible stage of weed growth.
Q. Why is my turf weedy even though I applied a granular, weed and feed product last year
that was supposed to control broadleaf weeds including dandelions and ground ivy
A. Postemergence herbicides do not usually provide complete (100 percent) control of all
broadleaf weeds when applied to turf. For example, 2, 4-D will control broadleaf weeds
including dandelion, lambsquarters, mustards, peppergrass, pigweeds, plantains and shepherd's
purse. Mecoprop will control many 2, 4-D-tolerant species such as chickweeds, clovers, ground
ivy and black medic. Dicamba will control broadleaf weed species including 2, 4-D-tolerant
weeds such as chickweeds, clover and young knotweed but will not adequately control plantain.
These herbicides are generally more effective when sprayed as a herbicide solution over
turf compared to a granular, weed and feed treatment. Mature, perennial broadleaf weeds such as
ground ivy are usually much more difficult to control than young, annual broadleaf weeds such
as common chickweed, henbit and purple deadnettle. For best results, always follow label
directions when applying herbicide-containing products. For example, the label on the bag of
Best ® Turf Supreme Weed and Feed instructs: “Mow lawn to normal height 1 to 2 days before
application;” “Water lawn thoroughly at least 1 day before application to sustain moisture until
next watering;” “Apply when weeds are young and actively growing, preferably in the morning
when dew is on the grass;” “If grass is not moist at the time of application, sprinkle lightly with
water to allow the granules to adhere and to remain on the leaf surface of the weeds;” “Do not
irrigate or sprinkle for 1 to 2 days after application;” and “Irrigate, sprinkle or water the lawn
thoroughly at 2 to 3 days after application.” Tolerance to postemergence herbicides varies among
turfgrass species.
Other possibilities regarding a lack of weed control following application include:
1. Spreader not properly calibrated;
2. Non-uniform or uneven broadcast application;
3. Lack of herbicide uptake due to climatic stress (weeds inactive); and
4. Target weed species mis-identified.
124

______________________________________________________________________________
Tolerance of Several Turfgrass Species to Postemergence Herbicides
Turfgrass Species 1
Herbicide KBlue TFes FFes PRye Ber Cent Zoy
atrazine (Atrazine ® ) NR 2 NR NR NR TD T T
bentazon + atrazine (Prompt ® ) NR NR NR NR T T T
bentazon (Basagran ® ) T T T T T T T
carfentrazone (Quicksilver ® ) T T T T T T T
chlorsulfuron (Corsair ® ) T NR T NR T T T
fluazifop (Fusilade ® II) NR S NR NR NR NR S
fluroxypyr (Spotlight ® ) T T T T S T T
fenoxaprop (Acclaim ® ) T T T T NR NR T
foramsulfuron (Revolver ® ) NR NR NR NR T NR T
glyphosate (Roundup ® Pro) NR NR NR NR TD NR NR
halosulfuron (Sedgehammer ® ) T T T T T T T
imazaquin (Image ® ) NR NR NR NR S S S
metribuzin (Sencor ® ) NR NR NR NR S NR NR
metsulfuron (Manor ® ) S NR S NR T T T
pronamide (Kerb ® ) NR NR NR NR T NT T
quinclorac (Drive ® ) T T S T T NR T
sethoxydim (Vantage ® ) NR NR S NR NR S R
simazine (Princep ® ) NR NR NR NR T T T
sulfosulfuron (Certainty ® ) NR NR NR NR T T T
trifloxysulfuron (Monument ® ) NR NR NR NR T NR T
2, 4-D (Several) T T T T T S T
MCPP (Mecoprop ® ) T T T T T T T
dicamba (Banvel ® ) T T T T T S T
2, 4-D + MCPP + dicamba (Several) T T T T S S S
MSMA/DSMA (Several) S S S T T NR S
MSMA + 2, 4-D +
MCPP + dicamba (Trimec ® Plus) S S NR NR S NR S
______________________________________________________________________________
1 KBlue = Kentucky bluegrass; TFes = tall fescue; FFes = fine fescues; PRye = perennial
ryegrass; Ber = bermudagrass; Cent = centipedegrass and Zoy = Zoysia.
2
Key to Tolerance Codes; NR = Not Registered; T = tolerant; TD = Tolerant when dormant; S =
can be applied but with special use precautions; S* = dithiopyr cannot be applied to creeping red
fescue.
125

Turfgrass Troubleshooting Guide
Client Name __________________________________ Date _________________________
Address _____________________________________________________________________
Problem Description ___________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
N
Slope _____ No _____ Yes Facing W E
S
Shade _____ No _____ Yes Shade Level: 0-9 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 >50 %
Moving Shade _____ No _____ Yes _____ AM _____ PM
Algae _____ No _____ Yes Moss _____ No _____ Yes
Air Movement 10----------------------------------------------------------------------------0
Open, No Restriction
Severely Restricted
Soil Texture 10--------------------------------------5-------------------------------------0
Sand Loam Clay
Surface Water Flow 10--------------------------------------5-------------------------------------0
Very Good Fair Very Poor
Internal Water Drainage 10--------------------------------------5-------------------------------------0
Very Good Fair Very Poor
Soil Surface 10--------------------------------------5-------------------------------------0
Soft Firm Compacted
Weather Conditions - Past Seven Days (Average)
Daytime Air Temperature 10--------------------------------------5-------------------------------------0
Hot Warm Cold
126

Nighttime Air Temperature 10--------------------------------------5-------------------------------------0
Hot Warm Cold
Cloud Cover 10--------------------------------------5-------------------------------------0
Sunny Partly Cloudy Overcast
Rainfall Amount _______ Inch(es)
Newly Seeded _____ No _____ Yes Newly Sodded _____ No _____ Yes
Overall Turfgrass Groundcover ______________ %
Turfgrass Species
_______ Bermudagrass _______ Centipedegrass _______ St. Augustinegrass
_______ Zoysia _______ Fineleaf Fescues _______ Kentucky Bluegrass
_______ Perennial Ryegrass _______ Tall Fescue
_______ Other
Mowing Height _______ Inch(es)
Cut Edge of Leaf 10-----------------------------------------------------------------------------0
Sharp
Jagged/Torn/Damaged
Annual Fertilizer Application 1X 2X 3X 4X >5X
Most Recent Fertilization Date __________________________________________________
Product ________________________________________________________________
Most Recent Lime Application
Date ________________
_____ Pelletized_____ Pulverized
Irrigation _______ No _______ Yes 1X 2X 3X >3X Weekly
Amount of Irrigation Water Applied Weekly _______ Inch(es)
Rooting Depth _______ Inch(es)
Root Color 10------------------------------------------------------------------------------------0
Bright White
Dull Brown
127

Root Mass 10-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------0
Dense
Sparse
Thatch Layer _______ Inch(es)
Insect Damage ______ No _____ Yes _______ Aboveground
_______ Belowground
_______ Armyworm _______ Chinch Bug _______ Fall Armyworm
_______ Sod Webworm _______ White Grubs _______ Other(s)
Insecticide Applied _____ No _____ Yes Application Date _________________
Product _____________________________________________________________________
Disease
_______ Disease Symptoms Scattered Throughout the Turf
_______ Patches of Diseased Turf
_______ Spots/Lesions on Leaves
_______ Large Circles Outlined by a Band of Dark Green or Dead Grass
Fungal Mycelium Visible _______ No
_______ Yes
Fungicide Applied _____ No _____ Yes Application Date __________________
Product _____________________________________________________________________
Weeds
Weed Grasses _______ Annual Bluegrass _______ Crabgrass
_______ Dallisgrass
_______ Goosegrass _______ Other(s)
Preemergence Herbicide Applied
_____ No
_____ Yes
Application Date _________________
Product _____________________________________________________________________
Broadleaf Weeds
_______ Broadleaf Plantain _______ Common Chickweed
128

_______ Ground Ivy
_______ Henbit
_______ Prostrate Knotweed _______ Prostrate Spurge
_______ Wild Violet
_______ Other(s)
Postemergence Herbicide Applied
_____ No
_____ Yes
Product(s):
Soil Fertility Testing and Plant Pest Diagnosis:
Application Date ___________________
UT Soil Testing Lab
Mailing Address: Shipping Address (UPS, FedEx): UT Plant Pest Diagnostic
Center
5201 Marchant Drive 5201 Marchant Drive Mailing Address:
Nashville, TN 37211-5112 Nashville, TN 37222 5201 Marchant Drive
Phone: (615) 832-5850 Nashville, TN 37211-5201
Fax: (615) 832-4936 Phone: 615-835-4572
Fax: 615-781-2568
Notes ______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
129

Time Required To Put Down 1 Inch Of Water On 1,500 Sq. Ft. Lawn
For various hose diameters at 50 psi water pressure
Hose ID Gals. per min. Time
7/16" 7.3 2 hrs.
8 min.
1/2" 10.9 1 hr.
26 min.
5/8" 15.1 1 hr.
2 min.
3/4" 26.8 35 min.
130

VEGETABLES
131

Guide to Spring-Planted Cool-Season Vegetables
131
Vegetable Variety Planting
Time
Beets Detroit Dark
Red, Cylindra
Mar 1 – Mar
10
Broccoli Emperor, Mar 1 –
Green Comet, Apr. 1
Premium
Crop,
Packman
Cabbage Round green Feb 20 –
type, Red Apr 1
Rookie,
Stonehead,
Savoy King
Cauliflower Snow Crown Mar 1 – Apr
1
Carrots Danvers, Mar 1 – Apr
Nantes, Little 1
Finger
Seeds or
plants per
100’ row
Space
Between
Rows
Space
Between
Plants
Days to
Maturity
Length of
Harvest
Season
Yield per
100’ Row
½ oz seed 14-36 2-3 55 to 60 4 weeks 75 to 150
lbs
66 plants 24-36 18 60 to 70 4 weeks 50 to 100
lbs
66 plants 24-36 18 60-75 3 weeks 125 to 200
lbs
66 plants 24-36 18 55 to 65 2 weeks 50 to 100
lbs
¼ oz seed 14-36 2-3 75 to 85 4-6 weeks 50 to 100
lbs
Collards Georgia, Vates March ¼ oz seed 18-36 18 65 to 75 4-30 weeks 100 to 150
lbs
Kale Vates, Dwarf
Blue Curled
Vates
February ¼ oz seed 18-36 12-15 55 to 65 4-20 weeks 100 to 150
lbs
Kohlrabi Grand Duke February or
March
¼ oz seed 14-36 3-6 40 to 50 4 weeks 50 to 75 lbs

132
Lettuce,
Head
Buttercrunch,
Iceberg
February or
March
¼ oz seed 14-36 12-15 65 to 80 2-3 weeks 5o to 100
lbs
Lettuce, Salad Bowl, February to ½ oz seed 14-36 6 40 to 50 4-6 weeks 50 to 75 lbs
Leaf Black Seeded
Simpson, Red
Sails
April
Mustard Savannah, February ¼ oz seed 14-36 5-10 35 to 45 3-6 weeks 75 lbs
Tender green,
Southern
Giant Curled
Onions, Evergreen February or 400 to 600 14-36 2-3 30 to 60 3 weeks 30-50 lbs
Bunch bunching March sets
Onions, Sweet February or 200 to 400 14-36 3-6 100 to 120 2 weeks 75 lbs
Storage Sandwich,
Sweet
Spanish,
Granex types
March sets
Peas, Wanda, Little Feb 1 – Mar ½ - 1 lb 12-36 2-4 65 to 70 2-3 weeks 20-30 lbs
English Marvel, Green
Arrow
20
seed
Peas, Snap Sugar Snap, Feb 1 – Mar ½ - 1 lb 12-36 2-4 65 to 70 2-3 weeks 30-50 lbs
Sugar Daddy,
Sugar Mel
20
seed
Potatoes, Cobbler, March 14 lbs seed 30-36 12 90 to 110 4 mos 100-120 lbs
Irish Kennebec,
Red Pontiac
stored
Radish White Icicle, Feb 15 – ½ oz seed 14-36 1-2 25-30 3 weeks 50 bunches
Cherry Bell,
Champion
Apr 15
Spinach Longstanding February 1 oz seed 14-36 3-4 40 to 50 3 weeks 25 lbs
Bloomsdale,
Tyee, Melody
Swiss Chard Fordhook March ½ oz seed 18-36 6-8 50 to 60 4-30 weeks 75 lbs

Turnip,
Greens
Turnip,
Roots
Giant,
Lucullus,
Rhubarb
Seven Top,
All Top
Purple Top
White Globe,
Tokyo Hybrid,
Just Right,
White Lady
March ½ oz seed 18-36 2-4 30 to 40 Several 75 lbs
weeks
March ¼ oz seed 18-36 3 40 to 65 6 months 150 lbs.
133

134
Guide to Fall Cool-Season Vegetables
Vegetable Variety Planting
Time
Beans, Bush
Snap
Broccoli
Brussel’s
Sprouts
Cabbage
Cabbage,
Chinese
Contender,
Blue Lake,
Top Crop,
Derby, Roma
II, Half
runners
Emperor,
Green
Commet,
Premium
Crop,
Packman
Round green
type, Red
Rookie,
Stonehead,
Savoy King
Dynasty,
Michihli, Two
seasons
July 15-
Aug. 15
July 15-
Aug. 15
July 5 –
Aug 15
July 1 – July
30
Cauliflower Snow Crown July 15 –
Aug. 15
Collards Georgia, Vates July 1 –
Aug. 1
Seeds or
plants per
100’ row
Space
Between
Rows
Space
Between
Plants
Days to
Maturity
Length of
Harvest
Season
¼ lb seed 24-36 3-4 52-60 2 weeks or
more
Yield per
100’ Row
80-120 lbs
66 plants 24-36 18 60 to 70 4 weeks 50-100 lbs.
66 plants 24-36 18 60 to 75 3 weeks 125-200 lbs
100 plants 24-36 12 40 to 50 4 weeks 200-300 lbs
66 plants 24-36 18 55 to 65 2 weeks 50 to 100
lbs
¼ oz. seed 18-36 18 65 to 75 4-30 weeks 100 to 150
lbs

135
Cucumber,
Pickling
Cucumber,
Slicing
Garlic
Kale
Country Fair,
Pickalot,
Saladin,
Carolina
Sweet Slice,
Burpless,
Sweet
Success,
Marketmore
Vates, Dwarf
Blue Curled
Vates
July 1 –
Aug. 1
July 1 –
Aug. 1
July 1 –
Sept 1
Kohlrabi Grand Duke July 15 –
Sept 1
Lettuce,
July 1 –
Leaf
Sept 15
Mustard
Potatoes,
Irish
Radish
Spinach
Salad Bowl,
Black Seeded
Simpson, Red
Sails
Savannah,
Tender green,
Southern
Giant Curled
Cobbler,
Kennebec,
Red Pontiac
White Icicle,
Cherry Bell,
Champion
Longstanding
Bloomsdale,
Tyee, Melody
July 1 –
Sept 1
July 1 – July
31
Aug 1 –
Sept 15
Sept 10-
Sept 20
¼ oz. seed 72 12 50 to 55 3-6 weeks 115 to 250
lbs.
¼ oz. seed 72 12 50 to 65 3-6 weeks 115 to 250
lbs.
¼ oz. seed 18-36 12-15 55 to 65 4-20 weeks 100 to 150
lbs.
¼ oz. seed 14-36 3-6 40 to 50 4 weeks 50 to 75 lbs.
½ oz. seed 14-36 6 40 to 50 4-6 weeks 50-75 lbs.
¼ oz. seed 14-36 5-10 35-45 3-6 weeks 75-100 lbs.
14 lbs seed 30-36 12 90-110 4 mos
stored
100-120 lbs
½ oz. seed 14-36 1-2 25 to 30 3 weeks 50 bunches
1 oz seed 14-36 3-4 40 to 50 3 weeks 10-30 lbs.
Squash, Dixie, Butter July 15 – 1 oz seed 48-60 12-24 40 to 50 6 weeks 100-150 lbs.
136

Summer
Tomatoes
Turnip
Greens
Turnip
Roots
Bar, Early
Summer
Crookneck,
Zucchini types
Big Boy,
Betterboy,
Celebrity,
Long Keeper,
Sweet Million,
(cherry)
Lemon Boy
Seven Top,
All Top
Purple Top
White Globe,
Tokyo Hybrid,
Just Right,
White Lady
Aug 15
July 1 –
Aug 1
Aug 1 –
Sept 30
Aug 1 –
Sept 15
50 plants 48 24 70 to 80 8 weeks or
more
200-300 lbs
½ oz seed 18-36 2-4 30 to 40 Several
weeks
50 to 100
lbs
¼ oz seed 18-36 3 40 to 65 6 months 100 to 150
lbs.
136
137

Guide to Spring Warm-Season Vegetables
137
Vegetable Variety Planting
Time
Beans, Bush
Snap
Beans, Pole
Snap
Beans, Bush
Lima
Beans, Pole
Lima
Cantaloupe
Corn, Sweet
Contender,
Blue Lake, Top
Crop, Derby,
Roma II, Half
runners
Kentucky
Wonder, Blue
Lake, Kentucky
Blue, McCaslan
Fordhook 242,
Jackson
Wonder,
Henderson
Bush, Dixie
Butterpea
King of the
Garden, Sieva
Burpee Hybrid,
Gold Star,
Classic, Harper
Hybrid, Sweet
Dream Hybrid
Silver Queen,
(white), Golden
Queen, Merit,
Bi-Queen
Apr 10 –
June 20
Apr 10 –
June 20
May or
June
Seeds or
plants per
100’ row
Space
Between
Rows
Space
Between
Plants
Days to
Maturity
Length of
Harvest
Season
¼ lb seed 24-36 3-4 52 to 60 2 week or
more
¼ lb seed 36-48 3-4 60 to 65 5 to 6
weeks
Yield per
100’ Row
80 to 120
lbs
100-150 lbs
½ lb seed 24-36 3-4 65 to 75 3 weeks 20 to 30 lbs
shelled
May or
June
½ lb seed 36-48 3-4 80 to 90 4 weeks 25-50 lbs
May ¼ oz seed 72 24 80 to 90 3 weeks 100+
melons
Apr 1 –
June 1
¼ lb seed 36 8-12 80 to 95 7-10 days 90 to 120
ears
138

138
Corn, Super
Sweet
Cucumber,
Pickling
Cucumber,
Slicing
Eggplant
Okra
Peas, Field
Pepper,
Sweet
Pepper, Hot
How Sweet It
Is, Silverado,
Honey’n’Pearl,
Incredible
Country Fair,
Pickalot,
Saladin,
Carolina
Sweet slice,
Burpless, Sweet
success,
Marketmore
Black Beauty,
Ichiban
Clemson
Spineless, Lee,
Blondy
Mississippi
Silver, Pink
Eye Purple
Hull, Texas
Crème 40,
Whipoorwill
California
Wonder,
Gypsy, Bell
Boy, Golden
Summer
Jalapeno,
Cayenne,
Hungarian Wax
Apr 15 –
June 1
¼ lb seed 36 8-12 80 to 95 10-15 days 90 to 120
ears
May ¼ oz seed 72 12 50 to 55 3-6 weeks 115 to 250
lbs
May or
June
¼ oz seed 72 12 50 to 65 3-6 weeks 115 to 250
lbs
May 50 plants 36 24 65 to 80 2 mos or
more
75 to 150
lbs
May 5 to 1 oz seed 36 12 50 to 60 7-9 weeks 50 to 100
amay 20
lbs
May or
June
May or
June
May or
June
¼ lb seed 36 4 65 to 80 3-5 weeks 30 to 40 lbs
60 plants 36 18-24 55 to 80 2-3 mos 50 to 75 lbs
60 plants 36 18-24 60 to 70 2-3 mos 10 to 25 lbs
139

139
Potato,
Sweet
Pumpkin
Squash,
Summer
Squash,
Winter
Tomatoes
Watermelon
Centennial,
Jewel, Porto
Rico
Autumn Gold,
Kentuck Field,
Sugar or Pie,
Howden’s
Field, Jack ‘O’
Lantern,
Wizard
Dixie, Butter
Bar, Early
Summer
Crookneck,
Zucchini types
Waltham, Table
Queen,
Butternut types
Big Boy,
Betterboy,
Celebrity, Early
Girl, Sweet
Million,
(cherry) Lemon
Boy
Dixie Queen,
Jubilee,
Crimson Sweet,
Charleston
Gray
May 100 slips 36 12 110 to 120 5 mos
stored
May 1 oz seed 120 to 144 48 100 to 120 4 mos
stored
May or
June
May or
June
Apr 10 –
June 10
75 to 125
lbs
40 to 50
pumpkins
1 oz seed 48 -60 12-24 40-50 6 weeks 100 to 150
lbs
1 oz seed 72-96 24-36 90-110 4 mos
stored
50 plants 48 24 70-80 8 weeks or
more
50 to 200
lbs
200-300 lbs
May ¼ oz seed 120-144 48 80-90 3 weeks 20-25
melons
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When to Harvest Vegetables
Vegetable
Asparagus
Beans, lima
Beans, snap
Beets
Broccoli
Cabbage
Cantaloupe
Carrot
Cauliflower
Collard
Corn
Cucumber
Eggplant
Kale
Kohlrabi
Lettuce
Mustard
Okra
Onion
Parsnip
Peas, English
Peas, snap
Peas, southern
Pepper, hot
Pepper, sweet
Potato, Irish
Potato, sweet
Pumpkin
Radish
Rutabaga
Spinach
Squash, summer
Squash, winter
Swiss chard
Tomato
Turnip, greens
Turnip, roots
Watermelon
Vegetable Appearance
When spears are 6 to 9 inches tall.
When pods are full but seeds are green.
While pods snap easily and are still smooth.
1½ to 2½ inch beets have highest quality.
Before flowers show yellow color.
Wheat heads become firm and heavy.
When melons can be lifted and the vine slips without pressure.
Anytime roots are firm and brittle.
Before curd loosens and discolors.
When leaves are large but still green and firm.
When kernel juice is milky, silk begins to dry and ears are full to
end.
When seeds are small, flesh is firm and color is green.
Before color begins to dull.
When leaves are large but before they yellow.
When 2 inches or more in diameter but still tender.
When tender and mild flavored. Before bolting.
When leaves are crisp and tender.
When pods are 1 ½ to 3 ½ inches long.
For green onions: when bulb is 3/8 to 1 inch in diameter.
For storing: after the tops have died down.
After cool weather has improved quality
After pods have filled but before they turn yellow.
After pods form but before yellowing.
For fresh use or freezing: When pods shell easily.
After pods reach full size.
When pods are full size and still firm.
For immediate use; after tubers are 1 inch in diameter.
For storage: after vines have died and skin has set.
After reaching desired size but before cool fall rains.
After they are full grown and mature colored. Before frost.
When firm and brilliantly colored.
Before becoming tough.
When leaves are crisp and dark green.
When large end is 1 to 2 ½ inches in diameter and skin is still
tender.
When rind is not easily scratched by fingernail.
When leaves are crisp, tender and still green.
When fully colored but still firm.
While leaves are green and crisp.
After 2 inches in diameter but while still tender.
When tendrils die, rind on ground becomes yellow.
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Length of Time Vegetable Seed Can Be Expected to Retain Their Viability
Years
Asparagus 3
Broccoli 5
Bean 3
Beet 4
Brussels’ Sprouts 4
Collards 4
Cabbage 4
Carrots 3
Cauliflower 4
Celery 5
Cucumber 5
Eggplant 5
Endive 5
Kale 4
Lettuce 5
Muskmelon 5
Mustard 4
Okra 2
Onion 1
Parsley 2
Parsnips 1
Pea 3
Pepper 3
Pumpkin 4
Radish 4
Rutabaga 4
Spinach 4
Squash 4
Sweet Corn 1
Tomato 3
Turnip 4
Watermelon 5
The above information assumes seed is stored under cool temperatures and low humidity. Open
seed packets should be immediately resealed with tape. Seed may be stored in the refrigerator in
Tupperware or other containers with tight-fitting lids.
Vegetable seed may also be stored in the freezer if the initial moisture content is below 14
percent.
Vegetable seed will deteriorate rapidly if exposed to high temperatures and humidity. Test old
seed by placing a few in a moist paper towel and putting the paper towel in a closed container in
a warm place for one week. The towel must remain moist at all times.
141

WHEAT
142

INTRODUCTION
Tennessee's climate is well-suited for the production of high-quality, low-protein, soft red winter
wheat. This wheat is in demand by the flour milling industry and well-established local markets
are adequate. Tennessee-produced soft wheat is used primarily for milling general-purpose or
family flours, pastry flours and cake flours. Very little of Tennessee's wheat is used for livestock
feed, except as by-products of the milling industry.
Winter wheat is a cool-season crop and can be grown successfully in all counties of the state.
Soft red winter wheat varieties commonly grown in Tennessee have adequate winter-hardiness to
survive the lowest winter temperatures that normally occur.
When winter temperatures are extremely low, well-rooted wheat plants may die back to the
ground, but then resume growth in the spring. Wheat sown in the late fall has a shallow root
system and is more susceptible to frost heaving and winter killing than wheat sown earlier.
Freeze damage to winter wheat is more serious from late freezes in the spring when the head has
just emerged from the boot. All varieties are susceptible to freeze injury in the milk and soft
dough stages in the spring.
The optimum moisture requirement for favorable wheat production is somewhat less than the
normal rainfall in Tennessee. Wheat is tolerant of high moisture under the cool fall and spring
growing seasons of Tennessee. High moisture, in combination with high temperatures, may
cause the spread of diseases and reduce yield.
Wheat is best adapted to well-drained, medium-to-heavy-textured soils of high natural fertility.
The highest yields are generally produced on silt and clay loams, but wheat is also grown
successfully on clay soils and fine sandy loams. University of Tennessee research shows that
wheat grown on soils with poor internal drainage can be productive, providing they have
adequate surface drainage to prevent ponding of water.
VARIETY SELECTION
It is wise to select a variety that has been tested and evaluated under Tennessee conditions.
Consider the characteristics of each variety, then select the variety or varieties that best suit the
conditions on your farm. Varieties tested in Tennessee and the varietal characteristics at all
research locations can be found in the University of Tennessee Agricultural Experiment Station
Research Report, "Performance of Wheat, and Barley Varieties," by Allen, et al. at
http://varietytrials.tennessee.edu and utcrops.com.
VARIETAL CHARACTERISTICS
Maturity: Maturity can be defined in different ways. Depending on the growing season, a
medium-maturity variety might be ready to harvest within two to three days of an early-maturity
variety planted on the same date. An important consideration is that early varieties will joint and
head earlier. Therefore, they are more susceptible to stem and head freeze in March and head
freeze in April if planted too early in the fall.
Seeding: Unless only a small acreage is involved, it is always a good idea to plant more than one
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variety to spread risk. Plant two to three of the top varieties for your area, depending on your
acreage. Variations in pest severity and weather conditions will favor one variety over another in
any given year. When trying a new variety for the first time, you should usually plant the
majority of your acreage in a proven performer.
Certified Seed: Use of certified seed provides a level of insurance against poor germination and
introduction of weed seeds.
Seedbed Preparation: Wheat requires a firm seedbed with enough loose soil to cover the seed
to a depth of 1 to 1.5 inches. Disking to a depth of 2 to 4 inches is usually all that is necessary in
preparing a seedbed for wheat where it follows corn, soybeans, grain sorghum or other row
crops. When it is necessary to plow, the land should be plowed far enough in advance of seeding
to allow for development of a firm seedbed with conventional practices. Where erosion is a
problem with conventional seedbed preparation, wheat can be planted no-till with excellent
results. A preplant burndown herbicide should always be applied prior to planting when weeds
are present.
SEEDING DATES AND RATES
Dates: For best winter survival and top grain yield, plant wheat from October 15 to November
10. Do not plant wheat until after the fly-free date of October 15. Wheat should be planted
early enough for young plants to become well-rooted and develop 3 to 4 inches of top growth
before going into the winter (December 21 st ). Research indicates that planting during the latter
half of the recommended planting period or planting treated seed (systemic insecticide) reduces
the incidence of barley yellow dwarf by avoiding or controlling aphids that transmit the virus to
wheat. In most Tennessee fields, an insecticide seed treatment will at least pay for itself by
controlling early-season aphid populations.
Rates: Wheat seeding rates vary from 1.5 to 2.0 bushels per acre depending upon the condition
of the seedbed, time of seeding, quality of seed and method of seeding. A seeding rate of 2
bushels per acre should generally be used. Increase the rate to 2.0 to 3.0 bushels per acre (1) if
seed are broadcast, or (2) when seeding is delayed until November 1 st . Ideally, you want to end
up with 1.3 to 1.5 million plants per acre. This seeding rate can be calculated by dividing the
desired population by the percent germination printed on the bag to obtain how many seed need
to be sown. Then divide by the number of seeds per pound to get the number of pounds of seed
needed per acre; then divide the number of pounds per acre by 60 pounds (number of pounds of
wheat seed per bushel) to get the number of bushels per acre needed.
Example:
Desired population 1,300,000 (1.3 million) plants per acre.
Seed germination percentage = 85 percent
Number of seed per pound = 12,000
Number of pounds per bushel = 60
1,300,000 ÷ 0.85 ÷ 12,000 = 127 lbs seed per acre
127 lbs seed per acre ÷ 60 lbs per bushel = 2.12 bushel per acre
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Table 1. Wheat Seeding Dates and Rates (also for barley or rye).
Use* Seeding Rate Seeding Date/Method
For grain or spring
grazing
1.5 – 2.5 bu.
1.5 – 2.5 bu.
2-3 bu.
October 15-November 10
no-till drilled
October 15-November 10
conventional
October 15-November 10
Over-seeded, no-tillage
For winter cover
1-1.5 bu.
1-1.5 bu.
1-1.5 bu.
September 15-November 10
no-till drilled
September 15-November 10
Over-seeded, no-tillage
September 15-October 20
Conventional
For cover, wildlife
enhancement or fall grazing
2-3 bu. August 15-October 1
Over-seeded
*Use higher seeding rate if seeding under adverse conditions. Increase seeding rate by 50 percent if
using bin-run seed.
Method and Depth: Sowing wheat with a drill instead of broadcasting insures a more uniform
depth of covering, higher germination, less winter injury and generally higher yields. Drill or
cover wheat to a depth of 1 to 1.5 inches when adequate moisture is available. When soil is dry, a
slightly greater depth is advisable, but should not exceed 2 inches.
Broadcast Seeding: The two most important aspects to consider when broadcast-seeding wheat
are to insure that adequate seeding rates are used and that good seed-to-soil contact is
established. To accomplish these goals, 2 to 3 bushel of seed should be broadcast uniformly and
incorporated by a shallow pass with a “do-all” or similar equipment. Seed that are broadcast and
left lying on the soil surface are subject to animal predation, poor germination and frost heaving.
All will lead to a loss of stand.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Successful wheat management requires understanding of how the wheat plant grows and
develops. You should make management decisions and apply inputs, such as nitrogen,
fungicides, herbicides and insecticides, at the proper stages of growth, not according to calendar
dates. Wheat (like any other crop) responds best to inputs at certain stages of development. You
can maximize potential effectiveness of an input and optimize production and profit by knowing
wheat growth stages and observing plant development. The most popular system of identifying
wheat growth stages is the Feekes scale (Table 2). The Feekes scale goes from 1.0 (just after
emergence) to 11.4 (ripe for harvest).
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Table 2. Description of Feeke’s Scale of Wheat Development.
Feeke’s
Stage Scale
Description
Tillering 1 One shoot (number of leaves can be added), first leaf through coleoptile.
2 Beginning of tillering; main shoot and one tiller.
3 Tillers formed; leaves often twisted spirally. Main shoot and six tillers. In
some varieties of winter wheat, plant may be “creeping,” or prostrate.
4 Beginning of the erection of the pseudo-stem; leaf sheaths beginning to
lengthen.
5 Pseudo-stem (formed by sheaths of leaves) strongly erected.
Stem 6 First node of stem visible at base of shoot.
Extension 7 Second node of stem formed; next-to-last leaf just visible.
8 Flag leaf (last leaf) visible gut still rolled up; ear beginning to swell.
9 Ligule of flag leaf just visible.
10 Sheath of flag leaf completely grown out; ear swollen but not yet visible.
Heading 10.1 First spikelet of head just visible.
10.2 One-quarter of heading process completed.
10.3 Half of heading process completed.
10.4 Three-quarters of heading process completed.
10.5 All heads out of sheath.
Flowering 10.51 Beginning of flowering.
10.52 Flowering complete to top of head.
10.53 Flowering completed a base of head.
10.54 Flowering completed; kernel watery ripe.
Ripening 11.1 Milky ripe.
11.2 Mealy ripe; contents of kernel soft but dry. Soft dough.
11.3 Kernel hard (difficult to divide with thumbnail).
11.4 Ripe for cutting. Straw dead.
FERTILIZATION
Apply lime and fertilizer based on soil test recommendations. If lime is needed, it should be
applied before seeding. All the phosphate and potash can be applied immediately before or at
planting (Table 3). When double-cropping wheat with grain sorghum or soybeans, the
fertilizer should be applied to the soil with the total amount of phosphate and potash
needed for both crops prior to planting wheat. Apply 15 to 30 pounds of nitrogen at seeding
time to stimulate vigorous plant growth. Apply 30 to 60 pounds of nitrogen as a top-dressing
February 15-March 30. Use the earlier date if the wheat stand is thin to encourage more tillering.
All the nitrogen should be applied before wheat begins to joint. Research has shown no
difference in source of nitrogen (ammonium nitrate, urea or liquid nitrogen) when applied
according to recommendations. Total economical nitrogen needs for a wheat crop grown in
Tennessee should be between 45 to 90 lbs. per acre.
Consider split-applying the top-dress nitrogen application when wheat is planted after November
15 or when there is an average of less than four tillers per plant in early January.
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Table 3. Wheat Fertility Recommendations.
Soil test level Wheat alone Wheat with double-crop beans
P(P 2 O 5 ) K(K 2 O) P(P 2 O 5 ) K(K 2 O)
Low 80 40 90 120
Medium 40 20 60 60
High 0 0 0 0
Very High 0 0 0 0
*Nitrogen should be applied from 45 to 90 lbs per acre.
HIGH-INPUT PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Some wheat production systems look to maximize yield potential by utilizing crop protection
chemical and fertilizer inputs at increased rates when compared to UT Extension
recommendations. UT Extension recommendations attempt to maximize economic returns for
wheat producers by only applying inputs that have been proven to provide economic returns over
multiple years of research. UT Extension recommendations are based on using sustainable
practices including proper scouting with Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programs, soil
testing and reasonable yield goals. UT Extension discourages the use of any management system
that requires inputs based on calendar dates without appropriate scouting or testing procedures.
While high-input systems are attractive when high yields are realized, producers need to evaluate
how much monetary risk they are willing to take in their management budget. The most
important decision you make with either a high-input or traditional production system is to stick
to your original plan. Using a traditional system and attempting to increase nitrogen fertility will
usually result in lodging. Likewise, starting with a high-input system and deciding late in the
season to abandon your plan will result in losing the previously applied inputs. Choose a system
that fits your production needs and manage the crop accordingly.
WEED CONTROL
Weed control in wheat should be successfully accomplished before the onset of winter
(December 21 st ) to maximize yield potential and prevent less than acceptable control when
temperatures are cold, or when weeds become too large.
Wild garlic (commonly called wild onion), annual ryegrass, cheat and henbit are major weed
problems in Tennessee wheat fields. Wild garlic infestations may cause considerable dockage at
harvest. Annual ryegrass and cheat compete with wheat for light, nutrients and water and will
reduce wheat yield. Weeds that infest wheat may delay harvest in the spring. Thus, an effective
weed management program should be used for producing optimum wheat yields.
Good production practices aid in the control of weeds. Using weed-free seed, proper seeding
rate, proper seedbed preparation and controlling weeds in the previous rotational crop will assist
in effective weed control. Where herbicides are used, timeliness of application is critical to
success. Always read and follow label directions. Adhere to wheat growth-stage
recommendations when applying herbicides.
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Cheat: can become a serious weed problem in many wheat fields. In fields with heavy cheat
pressure, Sencor 75DF can be used. Use of Sencor may result in injury to some wheat varieties.
The degree of injury is related to variety, growth stage at application and health of the wheat
plants. UT research has found that most popular wheat varieties are tolerant to Sencor. A
management program for cheat should include the following:
1. Start with a weed-free seedbed either by using a burndown herbicide or tillage
2. Crop tolerance is dependent upon a good root system and a healthy wheat plant
prior to and at time of application.
3. Apply 0.33 lb. to 0.67 lb. of Sencor 75DF per acre, depending on soil type, after
wheat plants have developed 3 to 4 tillers and at least 4 secondary roots, 2 inches
long.
4. Do not apply Sencor to wheat that has begun to joint.
Ryegrass is a problem for many wheat producers. Ryegrass will reduce yields and cause delays
at harvest. Hoelon 3EC (u)* was the standard for preemergence or postemergence control of
annual ryegrass in fall-planted wheat. Most populations of ryegrass in Tennessee are not resistant
to Hoelon. However, broader-spectrum grass weed control can be expected by using Axial or
Osprey herbicides for control of annual ryegrass. Only one application of Hoelon should be
made per season. Apply in at least 10 gallons of water per acre by ground or 5 gallons of water
per acre by air. Postemergence application should be made prior to wheat jointing.
Wild Garlic (commonly called wild onion) is a major weed problem in Tennessee wheat fields.
To obtain the best control of wild garlic and the least amount of injury to the wheat crop, the
following procedure should be followed:
1. Apply 0.45 to 0.90 ounces Harmony Extra Total Sol per acre.
2. Apply at least 15 gallons spray volume per acre to ensure coverage. Note: thorough
coverage is essential for control.
3. Add nonionic surfactant (80 percent active or greater) at a rate of 1 quart per 100
gallons of water. Liquid nitrogen fertilizer may be used as a spray carrier for
Harmony Extra Total Sol. Surfactant must be included (1 to 2 pints per 100 gallons of
spray solution). Wheat plants may exhibit temporary yellowing or stunting when
sprayed with the liquid nitrogen.
4. Apply when wild garlic plants are less than 12 inches tall, with 2 to 4 inches of new
growth. New growth is essential for control. The new growth on garlic can be
observed at the base of the garlic plant.
5. Apply when daytime temperatures of at least 60 F are expected for three or more
days. Adequate soil moisture before, during and immediately after application will
improve control.
Harvest wheat early, prior to excessive lodging, to remove as few aerial bulblets with
the combine as possible.
Vetch problems in Tennessee wheat fields continue to increase each year. Harmony Extra Total
Sol will give fair to good control of vetch. However, vetch is usually too big for good control
with Harmony Extra Total Sol if treatment is delayed until most growers are treating for wild
garlic. For improved vetch control, 2,4-D (0.5 pint per acre of a 4 lb. per gallon formulation) may
be tank mixed with Harmony Extra Total Sol. Remember that 2,4-D has a more restrictive wheat
growth stage limitation. Apply 2,4-D or Harmony Extra Total Sol plus 2,4-D on well-tillered
148

wheat, prior to jointing.
Wild Mustard, Turnips, Mayweed and Cornflower: Harmony Extra Total Sol or 2,4-D will
give good to excellent control of wild mustard and turnips. Mayweed must be controlled with
Harmony Extra Total Sol. Harmony Extra Total Sol is weak on cornflower (also called
bachelor's button). To get good control of this weed, apply 2,4-D or Clarity with Harmony Extra
Total Sol.
INSECT CONTROL
Many farmers in Tennessee use wheat as a double-crop with soybeans. As with any crop, wheat
has several insect pests that may reduce yields if not effectively controlled in the field. Yields
can be improved if more producers take time to inspect their fields during the growing season for
insect pests. This publication is designed to acquaint the producer with the major insect pests of
wheat, the damage they cause and measures used to control the pests.
Aphids: Several aphids feed on the leaves and grain heads of wheat. These pests are significant
in that they are capable of transmitting diseases to the plant such as barley yellow dwarf virus in
addition to the damage inflicted by their feeding habits.
Oat-Bird Cherry Aphid is dark green and is responsible for transmission of the barley
yellow dwarf virus. This is usually the most common aphid observed in wheat.
Corn Leaf Aphid is bluish-green and all of the legs, cornicles and antennae are black. The
cornicles differ from the English grain aphid by being short and broad.
Greenbug is a pale green, sometimes having a dark green stripe down the back of the
wingless forms. The tips of the legs and cornicles are black, and the antennae are mostly
black.
Rice Root Aphid occurs on the roots of wheat and has been known to transmit barley yellow
dwarf virus.
Armyworms: Armyworms can be serious pests of wheat when populations reach large numbers.
Armyworms get their name from their migrating habit, as they sometimes start at one portion of
the field and devour everything in their path.
True Armyworm: Damaging infestations of true armyworm normally occur in the spring.
Mature larvae are smooth, almost without any hairs, greenish-brown to reddish-brown, with
a dark stripe along each side. A broad dorsal stripe runs down the length of the back. This
species differs from the fall armyworm by having a dark lateral band on the outer portion of
each proleg. Besides feeding on foliage, larvae will sometimes cut the heads of maturing
wheat plants.
Fall Armyworm: As the name implies, the fall armyworm is normally a pest of early
planting, seedling wheat in the fall. These insects can completely defoliate a wheat field
when populations are very large. This insect differs from the true armyworm by having a
prominent inverted Y on the front of the head and no dark bands on the outer portion of the
prolegs.
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Hessian Fly: These small insects have been responsible for tremendous wheat losses in the past.
Hessian fly larvae feed on stems at the base of plants, hidden behind the leaf sheaths. Larvae are
reddish at first emergence and turn white or greenish white; they are shiny and without legs.
Larvae are legless, resembling small grains of rice, and are approximately ¼ inch long when full
grown. The pupae, or flax seed stage, are brown but otherwise similar to the larvae. Tennessee
typically does not have significant problems with this pest. However, early-planted wheat is
susceptible to infestation. Planting after October 15 (i.e., the “fly-free date”) will greatly reduce
the likelihood of serious Hessian fly infestations. Also, avoid planting wheat as a cover crop
prior to the fly-free date. Volunteer wheat is a good fall host for this pest, and any volunteer
wheat should be destroyed before September. Plowing under wheat stubble after harvest may
help reduce subsequent infestations in the fall. Although some varieties are available with
resistance to Hessian flies, there are no varieties with adequate resistance to the fly biotype most
common in Tennessee (Biotype L).
Cereal Leaf Beetle: The cereal leaf beetle is a pest of wheat, oats, barley and other cereal crops.
It has been found in most all counties in Tennessee. The larvae are pale yellow and soft-bodied.
The larvae glue pieces of fecal material to their backs as camouflage. Adults are shiny, black
beetles with red legs and thorax and are approximately 3/16 inch long. Feeding by adults and
larvae skeletonizes the leaf tissue between the veins. Check 10 plants per sample site for larvae
and adults, which are present from April through June.
SUGGESTED ECONOMIC THRESHOLDS
Corn Leaf, Oat-Bird Cherry and Rice Root Aphid: No thresholds have been established in
Tennessee. Treatment should be considered when heavy populations are causing leaves to dry up
and die in several portions of the field. An insecticidal seed treatment such as Gaucho or Cruiser
can be used to reduce transmission of barley yellow dwarf virus. Data suggest that early-planted
wheat is most likely to benefit from use of a seed treatment. Foliar insecticide applications in the
fall can also reduce transmission of barley yellow dwarf virus, but they must be applied before
aphid populations are already established in the field.
Greenbug: This aphid injects a toxin while feeding. Treatment should be made when aphids are
killing three or more leaves per plant. For wheat less than 6 inches tall, treatment should also be
considered if greenbugs number 50 or more per linear foot. Treatment should also be made if
greenbugs number 200 or more per foot in wheat 6-10 inches tall.
Armyworms: Treatment for fall armyworm should be considered when four or more larvae are
present per square foot (16 per 4 square feet). For true armyworm, use a threshold of 6-8 larvae
per square foot if wheat is still in the milk stage. Once past the milk stage, wheat can tolerate
higher populations, and treatment is not usually recommended unless larvae are cutting wheat
heads.
Hessian Fly: Foliar applied insecticides are difficult to time and only marginally effective. Plant
after the fly-free date and use resistant varieties if they are available. Resistant varieties may help
suppress Hessian fly populations, although no varieties provide adequate resistance to Biotype L.
Cereal Leaf Beetle – Treatment is necessary if one larva and/or adult is present per stem.
150

Table 4. Recommended Chemical Controls for Wheat Insects.
Insect Insecticide (Trade Names) Rate/Acre
Aphids
Seed Treatments
imidacloprid (Gaucho 600)
0.8 - 2.4 oz per 100 lb seed
thiamethoxam (Cruiser 5)
0.75 - 1.33 oz per 100 lb seed
Foliar Treatments
dimethoate 4*
8 - 12 oz
methomyl (Lannate LV 2.4)*
¾ - 1½ pt
methyl parathion 4*
½ - 1½ pt
β-cyfluthrin (Baythroid XL 1)
1.8 - 2.4 oz
γ-cyhalothrin (Prolex 1.25)
1.54 oz
λ-cyhalothrin (Karate 2.08)
1.28 - 1.92 oz
Z-cypermethrin (Mustang Max 0.8) 3.2 - 4.0 oz
Armyworms (True & Fall) carbaryl (Sevin XLR Plus 4) 1 - 1½ qt
methyl parathion 4*
1½ pt
methomyl (Lannate LV 2.4)*
¾ - 1½ pt
spinosad (Tracer 4)
1.5 - 3 oz
β-cyfluthrin (Baythroid XL 1)
1.8 - 2.4 oz
γ-cyhalothrin (Prolex 1.25)
1.02 - 1.54 oz
λ-cyhalothrin (Karate 2.08)
1.28 - 1.92 oz
Z-cypermethrin (Mustang Max 0.8) 3.2 - 4.0 oz
Cereal Leaf Beetle carbaryl (Sevin XLR Plus 4) 1 qt
methomyl (Lannate LV, 2.4)*
¾ - 1½ pt
spinosad (Tracer 4)
1 - 3 oz
β-cyfluthrin (Baythroid XL 1)
1.0 - 1.8 oz
γ-cyhalothrin (Prolex 1.25)
1.02 - 1.54 oz
λ-cyhalothrin (Karate 2.08)
1.28 - 1.92 oz
Z-cypermethrin (Mustang Max 0.8) 1.76 - 4.0 oz
* Use extra caution when handling these insecticides.
WHEAT DISEASES
Disease pressure can develop any time environmental conditions are favorable for disease
development. Diseases that occur frequently in Tennessee are barley yellow dwarf, leaf rust,
powdery mildew, Septoria glume and leaf blotch.
Glume blotch is most consistent in its ability to reduce yields year after year. Leaf rust and
powdery mildew only cause damage in certain years when environmental conditions are
favorable for these diseases.
Barley Yellow Dwarf: In the past, this virus disease has received little attention in wheat, but it
is becoming a limiting factor to production in some areas. The light green to yellowish and
sometimes reddish foliage and stunting induced by the virus are similar to the symptoms
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attributed to non-parasitic factors such as nutrient deficiencies and poorly-drained soil. The virus
is transmitted from plant to plant by several species of aphids which feed on wheat. Some degree
of control of barley yellow dwarf can be obtained by planting late in the fall, but early enough to
provide an adequate root system that will withstand low winter temperatures. Aphid vector
control with seed-applied insecticides has been found to be effective in controlling this virus
disease.
Leaf Rust: Puccinia recondita f. sp. tritici − Rust appears as small, round or oblong raised
orange-red pustules, mainly on the upper surface of the leaves. Leaf rust, when severe, reduces
both grain yield and test weight. It is transmitted by wind-borne fungus spores. Foliar fungicides
are effective in controlling leaf rust.
Powdery Mildew: Erysiphe graminis f. sp. tritici
Diseased plants are usually found in the spring in moist areas of fields where the growth is rank.
Powdery mildew is very noticeable on the leaves as a white-powdery mass that often covers the
entire blade. Later, the affected leaves turn yellow and die prematurely. Heavy attacks of
powdery mildew cause plants to lodge and kernels to shrivel. Foliar fungicides are effective in
controlling powdery mildew.
Glume Blotch: Stagonospora (Septoria) nodorum − Glume blotch may first be noticeable on
the lower leaves as small oblong lesions that are light brown with dark borders. After heading,
the fungus moves to the head. First indication of infestation is the brown discoloration of the
glume (chaff). As the grain matures, the glume takes on a black peppery appearance which is due
to spores (pycnidia) of the fungus.
Infection of the leaves can be serious and severe attacks on the head can significantly reduce
yield and grain quality. Glume blotch is primarily a warm-weather disease. Both glume and leaf
blotch fungus spores live through the summer in crop residue. General control measures include
plowing under crop residue immediately after harvest (unless using no-till practices), allowing at
least one year between wheat crop and use of foliar fungicides.
Leaf Blotch: Septoria tritici − Leaf blotch is more noticeable early in the spring, when it appears
as irregular reddish-brown spots scattered over the leaf blade. The spots, often with ashen white
centers, contain many black specks. Lesions tend to be restricted laterally and assume parallel
sides. The damage caused to portions of the leaf can reduce yields. Leaf blotch also damages the
seedling and tillers.
Tan Spot: Pyrenophora tritici-repentis – Tan spots develop on both upper and lower leaf
surfaces. The spots start out as brown or tan (delete colored) flecks, expanding into lens-shaped
blotches from 1/8-3/4 inch long, often with yellow borders. Later these lesions may coalesce and
become dark brown at their center containing conidia (spores) of the fungus. Dark pseudothecia
of the fungus appear as dark, raised specks on mature wheat straw. Foliar fungicides are effective
in controlling tan spot.
Loose Smut: Ustilago tritici − Loose smut is easily recognized as soon as the affected heads
emerge from the boot. Smut-infected heads appear earlier than normal ones and a loose, darkcolored
spore mass replaces the seed in the head. Spores are washed and blown away by rain and
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wind, and by harvest, nothing remains of the head except a bare spike. Loose smut may reduce
the yield but does not affect grain quality.
The disease is seed-borne within the wheat kernel and may be controlled by treating the seed
before planting with various fungicides.
Head Blight or Scab: Fusarium spp. − Head blight, also called pink mold, white heads or
tombstone scab, is manifested by the premature death or blighting of spikelets of the head. The
disease appears on all small grain crops and is especially important in humid regions. Prolonged
rainy spells during the blooming stage of the wheat will enhance conditions for infection.
Significant yield losses result from floret sterility and poor seed filling.
Grain from head-blighted fields is less palatable to livestock and sometimes contains sufficient
mycotoxins to induce muscle spasms and vomiting in humans and certain non-ruminant animals.
The toxins apparently remain stable for years in stored grain. Bread made from scabby wheat has
been described as intoxicating. Control with crop rotation and fungicides are only slightly
effective.
Take-All: Gaeumannomyces graminis var tritici. − The term "Take-All" originated in Australia
more than 100 years ago and referred to a severe seedling blight disease. Today, Take-All is best
recognized as a root and shoot disease of winter wheat that interrupts plant development and
seriously suppresses yield.
Take-All is most obvious near heading on plants grown in moist soil. Diseased crops appear
uneven in height and irregular in maturity. Severely diseased plants easily break free at the
crown when pulled from the soil.
Infested plants are stunted, mildly chlorotic, have few tillers and ripen prematurely. The heads
are bleached (white heads) and sterile. Roots are blackened and brittle from fungal invasion. A
black-brown dry rot extends to the crown and basal stem. Control by crop rotation and other
cultural practices is not very effective. Foliar fungicides are not effective in controlling this
disease.
*A complete description of all wheat disease can be found in “Compendium of Wheat Diseases
(2 nd edition), sold by The American Phytopathological Society.
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WHEAT FOLIAR FUNGICIDE POINT SYSTEM
This point system should be used only as a guide to determine the need for application of foliar
fungicides. It does not guarantee an economical return. If a "zero" is indicated in category # 1 or
3, then the field should not be sprayed.
I. Yield Potential (5-7 days before first spray) Points
1. 40 b./A or above = 150
2. 30-39 b/A. = 50
3. Below 30 b/A. = 0 I.
II. Cropping History
1. Wheat in field last year = 100
2. Wheat in field two years ago = 50
3. First time in wheat three years or longer = 25 II.
III. Fertility (total Nitrogen)
1. Applied 90-120 lbs. of Nitrogen/A. = 100
2. Applied only 60-90 lbs. of Nitrogen/A. = 50
3. Applied no nitrogen = 0 III.
IV. Seeding rate (assuming 80% plus germination)
1. Planted 2 or more b./A. = 75
2. Planted 1.5-2.0 b./A. = 50
3. Planted less than 1.5 b./A. = 25 IV.
V. Disease at application time (stage F10.3).
1. Severe (disease starting on flag leaf) = 100
2. Moderate (bottom & middle leaves diseased) = 75
3. Light (disease found on lower leaves) = 50
4. No foliar disease present = 25 V.
VI. Seasonal rainfall prior to first application
1. Above normal = 100
2. Normal = 75
3. Below normal = 25 VI.
VII. Traditional Disease Pressure
1. Heavy = 125
2. Moderate = 75
3. Light = 25 VII.
Total Points _________
After inspection of each field (boot stage), producers should total the number of points to
determine the probability of a yield increase
Total Field Points Chances of Yield Increase
750-1000 Excellent
500-749 Fair
Below 500
Poor
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Stage of Growth to Apply Foliar Fungicides: Close attention must be paid to the stage of
growth to obtain maximum benefit from foliar fungicides. If the application is made too late,
then infection could have already occurred. If application is made too early, the flag leaf and
head will not be protected. Unless powdery mildew or a rust disease is threatening the flag leaf,
the best time to apply a foliar fungicide is a Feeke’s scale 10.3 (when one-half of the head has
emerged).
Each application must be made in at least 5 gallons of water per acre by airplane or at least 20
gallons of water per acre with ground rigs. Always use a spreader-binder that is labeled for
fungicides with either application method.
Table 5. Foliar Fungicides for Use in Wheat.
Chemical
Name
Trade Name Formulation Rate/A per
Application
Diseases Best
Controlled
Pyraclostrobin
Headline
(BASF)
23.6 % EC 6 to 9 fl oz Glume blotch and
Septoria leaf spot,
rust diseases, Tan
spot (change , to .)
Propiconazole
Azoxystrobin
Propiconazole
Azoxystrobin +
Propiconazole
Propiconazole +
Trifloxystrobin
PropiMax
(Dow)
Quadris
(Syngenta)
Tilt 3.6
(Syngenta)
Quilt
(Syngenta)
Stratego
(Bayer)
41.8 % EC 4 fl oz Rust diseases,
powdery mildew, leaf
blight and glume
blotch and tan spot
(add .)
22.9 % F
4- 12 fl oz
(general use:
6-9 fl oz)
Glume blotch and
leaf blight, rust
diseases, tan spot
(add .)
41.8% EC 4 ozs. Rust, Glume Blotch,
rust diseases,
powdery mildew,
glume blotch and leaf
blight.
7 % +
11.7 % F
11.4 % +
11.4 %
10.5 to 14 fl
oz
10.0 fl oz
Rust diseases,
powdery mildew,
glume blotch and leaf
blight, tan spot.
Glume blotch and
leaf blight, powdery
mildew, rust diseases,
tan spot.
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HARVESTING AND STORING
Wheat is ripe and dry enough for satisfactory combine harvest when the moisture content of the
grain reaches 14 percent or less. Wheat must be 13.5 percent moisture or less to be marketed
without a price discount. The discount on wheat at 14 percent is approximately 1 percent of the
market value. The moisture discount is progressively greater for each .5 percent increase above
13.5 percent.
For safe storage, the moisture content of wheat for grain should not be more than 13 percent. The
wheat should also be free of green foreign material. The moisture content of seed wheat in
storage should be 12 percent or less to maintain high viability and vigor. Ripe grain should be
combined as soon as possible, because alternate wetting and drying of the grain results in
reduced test weight.
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