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2.1 Introduction 2.1.1 Diversity in the field The contemporary species, morphological or genetic make-up of in-situ populations of native potato cultivars in centers of diversity has only been systematically documented in few cases. Research on the structure and levels of variability in a potato’s center of origin and diversity is important as it provides a base line for future comparison and has the potential to provide a better understanding of the units (alleles, cultivars, species) and scales (farmer family, geographically distanced, overall regional, and ex-situ versus in-situ populations) of conservation. Farmers in the central and southern Peruvian Andes maintain considerable levels of infraspecific diversity within their potato crop because of the intrinsic and multiple functions this diversity provides for their livelihoods (Brush, 2004). The department of Huancavelica is a center of genetic diversity of potato (CIP, 2006; Huamán, 2002; Torres, 2001), yet no systematic inventories of potato diversity have been made as a consequence of the regions’ relative isolation and past political instability. Huancavelica is located within the geographical distribution area of all cultivated potato species, with the exception of Solanum ajanhuiri (Ochoa 1999, 2003; Hawkes, 1988, 1990, 1992; Ugent, 1970). 2.1.2 Cultivated potato species Diversity of the cultivated potato in the Andes is characterized by high levels of polymorphism, polyploidy and disputed taxonomic treatments (Hawkes, 1979; Huamán and Spooner, 2002; Spooner et al., 2007). In this article, for practical reasons, we use the classification of Ochoa (1990, 1999) for the cultivated potato as commonly applied in CIP’s genebank (CIP, 2006; table 2.1). Yet, it is recognized that this classification of species needs re-evaluation (Spooner et al., 2007). Table 2.1: Cultivated potato species and taxonomical equivalents Ploidy Ochoa Hawkes Huamán and Spooner Spooner et al. (1990, 1999) (1990) (2002) (2007) 2n=2x=24 S. goniocalyx S. stenotomum S. tuberosum Stenotomum S. tuberosum diploid Group Andigenum Group S. stenotomum S. stenotomum S. tuberosum Stenotomum S. tuberosum diploid Group Andigenum Group S. phureja S. phureja S. tuberosum Phureja S. tuberosum diploid Group Andigenum Group S. ajanhuiri S. ajanhuiri S. tuberosum Ajanhuiri S. ajanhuiri Group 2n=3x=36 S. chaucha S. chaucha S. tuberosum Chaucha S. tuberosum triploid Group Andigenum Group S. juzepczukii S. juzepczukii S. tuberosum Juzepczukii S. juzepczukii Group 2n=4x=48 S. tuberosum S. tuberosum S. tuberosum Andigenum S. tuberosum tetraploid subsp. subsp. Group Andigenum Group andigena andigenum S. tuberosum S. tuberosum S. tuberosum Chilotanum S. tuberosum tetraploid subsp. subsp. Group Chilotanum Group tuberosum tuberosum 2n=5x=60 S. curtilobum S. curtilobum Curtilobum Group S. curtilobum 36 Potato diversity at height: Multiple dimensions of farmer-driven in-situ conservation in the Andes
Since Bukasov (1939) first counted chromosomes of cultivated potatoes, ploidy levels became an important criterion for potato taxonomists to differentiate and identify cultivated species. Ploidy in combination with taxonomical keys can be used to identify cultivated potato species (Huamán, 1983). Andean farmers commonly install four kinds of field plantings: a. single stands of improved cultivars, b. single stands of commercial native-floury cultivars, c. single or mixed stands of native-bitter cultivars for freeze-drying, d. completely mixed stands of native-floury cultivars commonly referred to as “chaqru 1 ” in the Quechua language (Brush et al., 1995). The latter two, c and d, often contain various species with different ploidy levels (Brush, 2004; Jackson et al., 1980). 2.1.3 Characterization of infraspecific diversity Descriptors lists of the cultivated potato have continuously been improved and are designed for the comparison of morphological variability within and among potato cultivar populations (Gomez, 2000; Huamán et al., 1977; Huamán and Gomez, 1994; Soukup, 1939). While morphological descriptors are still commonly used as an inexpensive and accessible tool for germplasm characterization, they have been shown to overlap extensively across cultivated species and are nowadays increasingly complemented with molecular markers (Huamán and Spooner, 2002; Celebi-Toprak et al., 2005). A major advantage of molecular markers is that they are environmentally neutral and independent, and therefore more robust and unbiased compared to morphological descriptors. Simple Sequence Repeats (SSR; microsatellites) have been identified and applied at CIP because of their high genetic information content, high reproducibility, and simplicity of use (Ghislain et al., 2004). A comparison between morphological descriptors and molecular markers, when applied to large native cultivar collections, has the potential to reveal possible complementarities or contrasts between both systems of characterization. 2.1.4 In-situ and ex-situ populations In-situ conservation of crop genetic resources is recognized as an important complementary strategy to ex-situ conservation efforts (Bellon, 2004; Brush, 2000; Maxted et al., 1997, 2002), partially because of the ongoing evolution of genetic diversity under farmer selection. Dynamic temporal changes in the species, morphological, and molecular diversity of geographically defined (sub)populations of potato cultivars can come about through mutations, gene flow, varietal turnover, genetic erosion or cultivar loss, and extra-regional seed exchange (Auroi, 1985; Celis et al., 2004; Zimmerer, 2003). Core ex-situ collections ideally represent most of the diversity in the reserve collection and thus allow one to extrapolate conclusions to the entire ex-situ collection or defined in-situ populations (Huamán et al., 2000; Tohme et al., 1996). Yet, ex- and insitu populations of potato cultivars from the same geographical origin and collected at different moments have never before been compared. Little direct evidence is available on how genebank germplasm differs from that under contemporary farmer conservation (Bamberg and Del Rio, 2005). 2.1.5 Objectives The objectives of this article are: a. to quantify and describe the levels of species, morphological, and molecular diversity of in-situ populations of native potato cultivars as maintained in the department of Huancavelica (Peru) at multiple scales: farmer family, community, geographically distanced, and/or overall regional populations, b. to compare systems of classification based on the use of CIP’s morphological descriptor list and the use of 18 polymorphic Single Sequence Repeat (SSR) markers for a large population of native potato cultivars from Huancavelica, c. to 1 The term “chaqru” (complete cultivar mixtures) is used throughout this thesis and refers to mixtures of native cultivars which are generally randomly planted within farmers fields. So-called “chaqru” fields may contain 2 up to over 50 native cultivars. Farmers also use the term to refer to complete cultivar mixtures for consumption or in storage. Potato diversity at height: Multiple dimensions of farmer-driven in-situ conservation in the Andes 37
Page 1 and 2: Potato Diversity at Height: multipl
Page 3 and 4: Potato diversity at height: Multipl
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Page 7 and 8: to Andean farmers and their legacy
Page 9 and 10: Table of Contents List of Tables 15
Page 11 and 12: 4 Annual spatial management of pota
Page 13 and 14: 8.2.2 Folk descriptors and nomencla
Page 15 and 16: List of Tables Table 1.1: Basic cha
Page 17 and 18: Table 4.16: Means of the cumulative
Page 19 and 20: List of Figures Figure 1.1: Locatio
Page 21 and 22: List of Boxes Box 5.1: The case of
Page 23 and 24: 1. Stef de Haan¹ Introduction ¹ I
Page 25 and 26: agrobiodiversity classification can
Page 27 and 28: 6. What is the role of potato and i
Page 29 and 30: 1.4.8 Ethnobotanical inquiry Folk t
Page 31 and 32: the department of Huancavelica and
Page 33 and 34: infraspecific diversity exist. Betw
Page 35: 2. Species, morphological and molec
Page 39 and 40: Table 2.2: Potato cultivar collecti
Page 41 and 42: (DIST), Sequential Agglomerative Hi
Page 43 and 44: 2.3 Results 2.3.1 Species diversity
Page 45 and 46: Figure 2.1: Fully determined ploidy
Page 47 and 48: Figure 2.2: Fully determined specie
Page 49 and 50: Relatively high numbers of morphoty
Page 51 and 52: Figure 2.3: Unweighted Neighbor Joi
Page 53 and 54: Table 2.11: Number and percentage o
Page 55 and 56: Table 2.15: A comparisons of morpho
Page 57 and 58: S. goniocalyx and S. stenotomum rep
Page 59 and 60: 3. Indigenous biosystematics of And
Page 61 and 62: Table 3.1 compares and contrasts fo
Page 63 and 64: categories of Quechua cultivators a
Page 65 and 66: seems to be extremely rare 9 . Othe
Page 67 and 68: description was done with the Inter
Page 69 and 70: were shown a regional fixed sample
Page 71: more widely distributed wild specie
Page 74 and 75: Figure 3.5: UPGMA dendrogram (DIST
Page 76 and 77: elonging to each of the folk specif
Page 78 and 79: 3.3.2 Folk descriptors Informants u
Page 80 and 81: Farmers used a total average repert
Page 82 and 83: 3.3.3 Nomenclature Consistency of c
Page 84 and 85: Figure 3.16: The relative regional
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(supplement for chewing coca leafs)
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categories) or environmental fit (c
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and indirect primary cultivar names
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4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Agroecosyste
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Table 4.1: The general geographic d
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Table 4.3: Cultivars included in th
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Table 4.4: Potato labor calendar fo
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manage a yearly average of 4.9 (±
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Table 4.9: Number of potato cultiva
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Figure 4.3: Average number of culti
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cultivars except Puqya, Manwa and S
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Table 4.12: Basic soil characterist
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Table 4.14: Additive main effect an
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Table 4.16: Means of the cumulative
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4.4 Discussion and conclusions Annu
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116 Potato diversity at height: Mul
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to maintain viable populations. Via
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Table 5.1: Sample sizes obtained wi
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When mapping the yearly cropping ar
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predominantly dedicate fields exclu
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Table 5.7: Characteristics of the 1
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Box 5.2: The case of the survival o
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A second innovation allows family-a
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6.1 Introduction 6.1.1 Farmer seed
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Regular daily and weekly rural mark
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Figure 6.1: Map of the localities w
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Table 6.1: Number of seed lots kept
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Potato Virus Y (PVY) is also transm
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Family members and farmers, as well
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from Junín was appreciable with an
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Table 6.11: Details of individual s
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An average of 21.1% of participants
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High levels of yield reduction toge
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Table 6.15: Relative importance (*)
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Table 6.17: Number and type of cult
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native-floury potato cultivars rath
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Results suggest that in-situ conser
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2001, 74.4% of the total population
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Additionally, the composition of 9
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7.2.3 Cultural connotations Researc
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Table 7.6: Dry matter, gross energy
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these cultivars can not be consider
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7.3.2 Dietary intake The surveyed m
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Table 7.10: Average daily energy, p
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Table 7.12: Coverage of the total f
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soup were commonly associated with
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Food system interventions aimed to
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communities. The bitter cultivated
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8.3 Annual spatial patterns of cons
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more efficient through inclusion of
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8.6.2 Dietary intake and nutrition
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References Alcorn, J.B. 1995. Ethno
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Bourliaud, J., Herve, D., Morlon, P
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D’Altroy, T.N. 2000. Andean land
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Gauch, H.G. 1990. Full and reduced
Page 200 and 201:
Huang, X.Q., Wolf, M., Ganal, M.V.,
Page 202 and 203:
McGuire, S. 2005. Getting Genes: re
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Rojas, I. 1998. Origen y Expansión
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Vargas, C. 1936. El Solanum tuberos
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Abbreviations Adg = Solanum tuberos
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TEK = Traditional Environmental Kno
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Camote sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas
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Palta cultivar group (potato), flat
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Tumbay cultivar group (potato) Tupa
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Appendices Appendix I. Formal morph
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Distribution 0) absent, 1) eyes, 2)
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Appendix III. Vernacular names of w
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Appendix IV. Vernacular names in Qu
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Appendix VI. Basic information of s
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Appendix VIII. Fields affected, dam
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Summary In-situ conservation Two ty
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30-year time-span (1975-2005) of tr
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Resumen Conservación in-situ Se pu
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una consecuencia directa de la adap
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Samenvatting In-situ conservering T
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gesuggereerd dat boeren jaarlijks d
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Acknowledgements Interdisciplinary
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De Haan, S., Bonierbale, M., Ghisla
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