Final Draft Thesis Paper.pdf - Brandeis University

TheNewGlobalTerroristThreat:ACaseofPakistaniIdentityandGlobalJihadA Master’s ThesisPresented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Arts andSciencesBrandeis UniversityDepartment of Global StudiesChandler Rosenberger PhD, AdvisorIn Partial Fulfillment for the DegreeMaster in Arts in Global StudiesBy:Rebecca Nadine GilAugust 2010

newhome.Thefinancialwoesofhisfamilymayhavecontributedtohisterroristactions.Shahzadwasunabletoobtainthe“AmericanDream”offinancialstabilityandprosperity.WereShahzad’sactionsaresultofhislackofsuccesslivingintheUnitedStates?TheanswerisprobablynotduetothefactthathewasabletoaffordseverallongtripstoPakistan.AnotherlikelycontributormayhavebeenonlineradicalMuslimlecturersthatShahzadhadtakenaninterestin.KnownforhisextremeviewsandcriticismoftheUnitedStatesandthewest,Anwaral‐Awlaki,aYemeni‐Americancleric,mayhavehadalotofinfluenceonShahzad’sbeliefs.DidShahzad’sdissatisfactionwithhisfinancialpositionultimatelypushShahzadintoapathofMuslimextremism?HisinabilitytosuccessfullyassimilateintheUnitedStatesandradicalMuslimteachingsprobablydidfuelShahzad’sdissatisfactionwithhisownlivingsituation.HoweverthefactorthatseemedtohavepushedShahzadovertheedge,werehisvisitstohisnativehomelandofPakistan.Infact,withinaseven‐yearperiod,Shahzadhadvisitedthecountryontendifferentoccasions.Evidenceshowsthat“ShahzadwasoutragedbythecampaignwhichthePakistaniarmy‐‐underintenseAmericanpressure‐‐hasbeenwagingagainstmilitantgroupsinthetribalareasofnorthwestPakistan,flankingAfghanistan…America'sdroneattacksagainstTalibantargetsinthetribalareashavearousedparticularfury,aswellasfierceanti‐Americanfeeling,becauseoftheciviliancasualtiestheyhavecausedandbecausetheyareseenasintolerableinfringementsofPakistan'ssovereignty”(Seale,1).ShahzadwasrecruitedintoTehrik‐i‐Taliban,oneofthemanygroupsoperating5

undertheTaliban.Inhistimeintraininghelearnedhowtobuildabomb,whichhethentriedtorecreateinTimesSquare(Wesier,1).ShahzadtriedtoseekrevengeagainsttheUnitedStates,byhisplannedactofterror(Seale,1).SincetheinitialarrestofFaisalShahzad,afewothershavebeenarrestedinrelationtothefailedterroristplot.ShahzadisbelievedtohavetieswiththePakistaniTaliban.Thoughitisstillunclearwhoisresponsibleforthisfailedattack,onethingissure:Terrorism,andspecificallyterrorismwithPakistaniorigins,isstillaveryrealthreattotheUnitedStatesandisunlikelytogoawayanytimesoon.AsintheUnitedStates,IslamicmotivatedterrorismwithlinkstojihadistgroupsinPakistanhashitIndiaandothercountriesacrosstheglobeoverthepastseveralyears.InNovember2008,aseriesofterroristattackswerecarriedoutinMumbai.“Jihadigroups,believedtohavebeentrainedandarmedbyshadowyelementsinPakistan,havemountednumerousattacksagainstIndiainthelastdecade,ofwhichthemostspectacularwastheNovember2008terroristattackonMumbaithatkilledmorethan160people.Arrivingbyboat,thecommandogroupattackedatrainstation,twohotels,aJewishcenterandabar(Seale,1)”.Inresponse,theUnitedStateshasbeenpressuringPakistantocontroltheirhomegrownterroristcellswithintheircountry.ShahzadmayhavebeenfightingagainsttheUnitedStatesdemand.Pakistaniterroristshavegrownquicklyfromthelocaltotheglobalscale.Therearethreecategoriesofsubnationalandtransnationalnon‐stateentities,whichcanbebrokendownintothecategoriesof:ethnic,religiousandideological.6

Thesenon‐stateentities“[pursue]interestsdetrimentaltothenationalinterestsofthestates”theyarefightingagainst(Dekmejan,1).Inthebook:Spectrum of Terror,theauthor,R.HrairDekmejiandividespoliticalviolenceintoseparatecategories.Movingfrommicrotomacropoliticalviolencethereis:Individual terrorismsuchasassassinsandbombers.Next,thereisSubnational terrorism, whichisclassifiedbyethnicnationalists,religiousmilitants,ideologicalradicalsandhybridorganizations.Movingon,transnational terrorism isdefinedbyterroristgroupsthatcrossboundariesofsovereignstates.Pakistaniterroristsarequicklymovingacrossthespectrumfromtheindividualtotransnational.AngryandfrustratedpeoplehavefoundrefugeinthejihadtrainingcampsinPakistan.AccordingtoDekmejan,Subnationalistgroup’ssuccessesareoftendependenton:“(1)thepopularityoftheircause,(2)theeffectivenessofleadershipandorganization,(3)changesintheirobjectives,(4)thestrategicrationaleforviolentactions,(5)thenatureofstateresponsesrangingfromnegotiatedsettlementtorepression,masskillingandgenocide,and(6)theroleofexternalpowersandworldconclusions”(Dekmrejan,12).PakistanisarestilloutragedbydisputedlandsapartofIndia,andnow,bytheUnitedState’slatestcampaigns.Thereareoftenseveralcontributingfactorsthatmotivateindividualsororganizationstocommitactsofterrorism.Anindividualororganization’smotivationsforterrorismareofteninfluencedbytheorganizationorperson’shistory.Furthermore,“thetimeandplaceinwhichterrorismoccursarerelevanttothemotivationsbehindterrorismformanyreasons.Thesocializationofmembersof7

asocietyorsubgroupwithregardtoviolenceanditsjustificationmustbeconsidered”(Mahan&Griset,10).Oftenthereisa“cycleofrevenge”whereonegroupretaliatesfromviolencecommittedagainstthem(Mahan&Griset,10).Severalotherscholarsofferotherexplanationsforthemotivationsbehindactsofterrorism.Forexample,LaurenceMiller’sdescriptionincludes:“athree‐stageprocess.Stageonebeginswithunacceptableconditions:“It’snotright.”Stagetwofollowswithresentmentandasenseofinjustice:“It’snotfair.”Instagethreethecauseoftheinjusticeispersonified:“It’syourfault.””(Mahan&Griset,10).Thoughthisexplanationdoesnotalwaysreigntrueforthemotivationsbehindsterrorism,itdoesofferamodelthatworkswellforothers.OtherscholarssuchasMarthaCrenshawandJeroldM.Postapproachtheissueofmotivationsfromapsychologicalperspective.Crenshawfocusesonthepsychologicalforces,whichcreatethemotivationforterrorism,whilePostfocuseson“psycho‐logic”,which“isconstructedtorationalizeactstheyarepsychologicallycompelledtocommit.Individualsaredrawntothepathsofterrorismtocommitviolence”(Post,25;Mahan&Griset,10).Otherpsychologicalexplanationsfocusonfamilybackground,upbringing,andsocialstructure(Mahan&Griset,10).InTerrorism in the Twenty­First Century,CindyC.Combsidentifiesgroupdynamics,religion,age,sex,education,economicstatusandlocationtobekeycontributorstothemotivationbehindactsofterrorism.Groupdynamics“helps toshape terrorist thought and action”(Combs,61).Usuallythesegroupsarefanatical,believingthattheyknowtherealtruthandonlytheycanchangewhattheyperceive8

tobenottruebyviolentaction.Usuallyterroristsaremotivatedmorebyunfairnessthanaparticularpoliticalevent(Combs,61).Groupdynamicsalsocontributestothegroup’sextremity:“Ifitistruethattheaterrorist’ssenseofrealityisdistorted…thenthegreatertheassociationtheterroristenjoyswithhisorhergroupoffellowterrorists,thegreaterthedistortionwillbe” (Combs,61). Inotherwords,anindividual’sthoughtsandideasaregreatlyinfluencedbythatofagroup,evenmoresointhecaseofaterrorist.Whenreligionisanaddedcomponenttothegroupdynamic,ideascanbecomeevenmoreextreme.WhenusingGodasjustification,therealityofasituationisslanted.Insteadoftrulydealingwiththepresent,religionusesthefuturetodealwiththepresent:“Religiouszealotscommittingactsofterrorismareassuredbytheirreligionsanditsleadersthattheiractsareacceptabletoahighermoralitythanmaycurrentlyexist”(Combs,62).Whenreligionisinvolvedasasourceofjustificationforterrorism,itismoredifficulttomoderateactionwithreason,whichgreatlycontributestoaterrorist’smotivation(Combs,62).ThereisreasontobelievethatterrorisminspiredbyextremistMuslimrhetoricandstemmingfromPakistanisnowthegreatestthreatstoIndiaandtheUnitedStates.However,inordertounderstandthethreatthatnowfacesthesecountries,onemustlookintothedeepercontextofwhatterrorismis,whoisaterroristandwhyterrorismoccurs.ThispaperseekstoexplainwhythenumberofPakistaniterroristsandactsofterrorismareontherisebyexaminingtheglobaljihadismmovementinPakistanasanunintendedconsequenceoftheIndian9

Partition.Pakistanisainventedconstructwithfewroots,andwithit,soistheidentityofthePakistani.Pakistanisarelookingforwhateveryhumanbeingcraves:asenseofbelongingandidentity.Globaljihadismisareligiousexpressionofthisfrustration.WithabuildingpressureonPakistanfromtheWest,moreandmorePakistanisareexpressingtheirfeelingsofisolationthroughactsofterrorism.10

II. PakistaniTerrorism:ItisanIssueofIdentityTerrorismhasgreatlyinfluencedthedevelopmentandpoliticsofstates.Yet,thereisaclearlackofconsensusforbothalocallyandinternationallyrecognizeddefinitionofterrorism.Terrorismisapolitical,legalandmilitaryissueandbecauseofitsmanyaspects,“itsdefinitioninmoderntermshasbeenslowtoevolve.Notthattherearenotnumerousdefinitionsavailable‐therearehundreds.Butfewofthemareofsufficientlegalscholarshiptobeusefulininternationallaw,andmostofthosearelegallyusefullackthenecessaryambiguityforpoliticalacceptance”(Combs,8).WithintheUnitedStatesalone,thedefinitionvariesfromorganizationtoorganization.2.1DefiningTerrorism: TheUnitedStatesCode,publishedbytheOfficeoftheLawRevisionCounseloftheU.S.HouseofRepresentatives,definitionofterrorismstates:“aspremeditated,politicallymotivatedviolenceperpetuatedagainstnoncombatanttargetsbysubnationalgroupsor“clandestineagents” (Title22,Chapter38,§2656f;Mahan&Griset,3). TheCodeofFederalRegulations,publishedbytheexecutivebranchagenciesoftheUnitedStatesdefinesterrorismas“theunlawfuluseofforceandviolenceagainstpersonsorpropertytointimidateorcoerceagovernment,thecivilianpopulation,oranysegmentthereof,infurtheranceofpoliticalorsocialobjectives”(28,C.F.R.Section0.85;Mahan&Griset,4).AnotherdefinitionusedbytheFederalBureauofInvestigation(FBI))describesterrorismasaggressiveactions“thatappeartobeintendedtointimidateorcoerceacivilianpopulation;influence11

thepolicyofagovernmentbyintimidationorcoercion;oraffecttheconductofthegovernmentbymassdestruction,assassinationorkidnappingandoccurprimarilyoutsidetheterritorialjurisdictionoftheUnitedStatesortranscendnationalboundariesintermsofthemeansbywhichtheyareaccomplished,thepersonstheyappearintendedtointimidateorcoerce,orthelocaleinwhichtheirperpetratorsoperateorseekasylum”(FBI,2006;Mahan&Griset,4).Furthermore,aseparatedefinitionexistswithintheFBIfordomesticterrorism(Mahan&Griset,4).Theclearlackofaconciseandnationaldefinitionofterrorism,withintheUntiedStates,isworrisome.LivingintheUnitedStates,terrorismisaveryrealpartofourlives.Howcanweknowthethreatifwedonothaveonecleardefinitionofit?Scholarshavealsocontributedtothediscussionofdefiningterrorism.BruceHoffmandefinesterrorismas“deliberatecreationandexploitationoffearthroughviolenceorthethreatofviolenceorthethreatofviolenceinpoliticalchange”(Hoffman,2006,41;Howard&Sawyer,2004,23;Mahan&Griset,4).JessicaSternarguesthatterrorismis“anactorthreatofviolenceagainstnoncombatantswiththeobjectiveofexactingrevenge,intimidating,orotherwiseinfluencinganaudience”(2003,p.xx,Mahan&Griset,4).Anotherwell‐knownscholar,WalterLaqueurdefinesterrorismsimplyas“theuseofcovertviolencebyagrouptoachievepoliticalends”(2001,p.79;Mahan&Griset,4).Laquerechoestheopinionofmanyofhispeers.R.HrairDekmejian’sdefinitionofterrorismisused,whichstates:“Thestrategicuseofforceorthethreatofforce,beyondtheboundsofinternationallaw,12

againsthumanandmaterialtargetscarriedoutbyanyindividual,subnationalgroup,transnationalorganization,orstatetoachieveapoliticalobjectiveinpursuitofitsperceivedself‐interests”(Dekmejian,20).Politicalmotives,violenceorthethreatofviolence,theignitionoffearininnocentbystandersandactsbeingdirectedataparticularaudienceareallcrucialcomponentsofTerrorism (Combs,10).SeveralIndianscholarshavealsoaddedtothedefinitionofterrorism.InthebookTerrorism in India, theeditorS.C.Tiwaridescribesterrorismas“generallyrecognizedasaspecialmethodofstruggletoobtainspecificpoliticalresultsandthatthereareatleastfivemajorparticipantsintheprocessofterror:‐(a)theperpetratorsofviolence;(b)theimmediatevictims;(c)thewidertargetgrouporsocietywhichtheterroristsseektointimidate;(d)‘theneutral’bystanderswithinthesocietyexperiencingterrorism;and(e)theinternationalpublicopinion,insofarasitisawareoftheseevents”(Tiwari,xi).Hespecificallygoesontomentionthatforanacttobelabeledterroristthereneedstobeaspecificthreatofviolenceandthreattoothers.Therulesofwardonotapplytotheact,andtheactmustbedonepublicallyinordertogainpublicity.Inotherwordsitmustbeapartofspecificstrategyinordertogainattentionfromagreateraudience(Tiwari,xi).AnothercontributerinTiwari’sbookisP.D.Sharmawhowritesthatallterrorists“Allterroristsprimarilyaimtoarousethemassofthepeopletoarealizationthatconstitutedauthorityisnolongersafelyentrenchedorunchallenged.Theactsmaybeconceivedasanadvancenoticeofwhatmaybeexpectedfrommassaction.Deathanddestructiontothemarenot‘merethreats’,butapartofprogrammeofaction(Sharma,50).Theybelievethateventuallyotherswilljointhemintheirobjectives.13

OnelastacademicscholarworthyofnoteisEqbalAhmed,whoisawellknownandhighlyacclaimedanti‐colonialismscholar,notedthatthe“terroristofyesterdayistheherooftoday,andtheheroofyesterdaybecomestheterroristoftoday.Thisisaseriousmatteroftheconstantlychangingworldofimagesinwhichwehavetokeepourheadsstraighttoknowwhatterrorismisandisnot”(Ahmend,1889,p.20;Mahan&Griset,4).Ahmedclassifiesterrorismintofivedistinctgroups:stateterrorism,religiousterrorism,criminalterrorismpoliticalterrorism,andoppositionalterrorism,whichalluseterrorismmethodstoresistthegovernment(Mahan&Griset,4).Thescholarlydefinitionof“terrorism”continuestovarydependingonthebackgroundanddisciplineoftheacademic. Terrorismisacrimeunderinternationallaw.Furthermore,beinglabeledaterroristhasrealworldconsequencesforallpartiesinvolved.Ifanorganizationorindividualislabeledaterrorist,thelabelplacesnegativeattributesontotheirpoliticalambitions:“Quitesimply,freedomfighterscouldbeseenasrebels,extremistsorseparationists,andanationalliberationmovementscouldbedescribedasinsurrectionsdependingonperceptionsandwhetherthequestionisaddressedbythosewhoquestiontheregimeinpoweroraresympatheticotheregimeinpower.Moreover,rebels,extremistsorseperationistshavebeenconvertedtopatriotsandfreedomfightersontheachievementofindependenceofacountry;hencethedefinitionalproblemhasbecomemoreacuteinthepost‐colonialeraandinthedecadesfollowingtheSecondWorldWar”(Chari,34).Manytimesthelabelof“freedomfighter”and“terrorist”areusedonthesameindividualororganization,bringingevenmoreconfusiontothedebate(Mahan&Griset,3).14

andtheagenciesoftheState,withtheaudiencecomprisingthetargetgroups,thegeneralpopulationandtheinternationalcommunity.Theaudienceisequally,ifnotmoreimportantthantheactualvictimsofterrorism”(Chari,34‐35).Theeverincreasingamountsofcommunicationtechnologieswidenthestageforterroristorganizations.Television,radio,printmediaandtheInternetbringlivecoverageofeventstoviewersacrosstheglobe.Fortheterrorist,thereisusuallyanongoingpersonalstruggle.Thismayincludeeventsofembarrassment,repression,orharassment.Secondly,theterroristisexpectedtohaveextremeviewsandbeliefs.Hisorherbeliefsaremoreextremethanothersinhisorhersituation.Thirdly,fortheterroristthereisverylittleroomforflexibility.Eventsanddecisionsareseenintermsofblackandwhite.Thereisaneedforresponsibility,blameandretaliation.Lastly,aterroristusuallyholds“acapacitytosuppressallmoralconstraintsagainstharminginnocentswhetherduetoinstinctoracquiredfactors,individuals,orgroupforces”(Maham&Griset,11).Beliefsofmoralityarediscardedinordertoachievetheactofviolence. Manyterroristsexperienceviolencegrowingup.Theyoftencomefrommarginalizedcommunities,wheretheyfeelneglected.Oftentheseareasexperienceviolence,deathanddestructionasapartofeverydaylife.Theyknowfromfirsthandexperiencethatviolencehurtsthoseinvolved.Terroristsbelievethatiftheyuseviolenceagainsttheirmightyenemy,itwillhurtthemaswell(Ardila,12).Actsofterrorallowindividualswhofeelwrongedtofeelpowerfulthroughtheuseoffear(Ardila,10).16

Aterrorist’scommitmenttohisideologyisunbending.Thereisnoroomfornegotiationorcompromise:“Inmanywaysterroristsdonotgrow,theyarestuckintherutoftheirunbendingideology.Amalignancyofthemindwhichistheprincipalcomorbidofpsychopathologyofterror”(Navarro,25).Aterroristholdsontoanunbreakableideaorpassion.Thisindestructiblepassioniswhatdrivestheindividualintoviolence:“Toterrorize,aterroristmusthaveanidea,athought,apassion,ahatred,anideologysofixedandrigid,thathecancarryoutaviolentactwithoutreflection,remorse,orhesitation”(Navarro,26).Theideaissetinstoneandtheterrorist’smindinunchanging:evenhardevidencewillfailtoimpacthiscorebeliefs(Navarro,26). Manyterroristsalsosufferfrom“MagicalThinking”.Theyareconvincedthat“somehowthedestructionofthatwhich[they]despiseorhatewillsomehowcuretheillsoftheworld”(Navarro,34).Theirbeliefsaresetonachievingunrealisticgoalsand“theyseethemselvesassacrificesfortheirdeities,andtheycountontheapprovalandthebackingoftheirculture.Thesebeliefsgivesensetotheirlives,symbolicformstoachieveimmortalitythroughtheirowndeaths”(Ardila,12).Hijackingsofplaneshavenotstoppedpeoplefromflying.Terroristattacksonbuses,havenotstoppedpeoplefromtakingpublictransportation.PeoplecontinuetogotoworkinlowerManhattandespitethedestructionoftheWorldTradeTowers.AmericanscontinuetohavepresenceintheMiddleEastdespitetheattemptstogetridofthemandIndiacontinuestothrivedespiteterroristactivitiesinandarounditsborders.17

idealizationof“us”andprojectiononthem”,ofallthatisbad”(Kiknadze,55).Deeperangerwithsocietystartsfromwithin(Kiknadze,55).Anothercharactertraitfoundinterroristsandespeciallytheleadersofterroristorganizationsisnarcissism.Narcissisticindividualsseethemselvesasspecialandunique.Theyseethemselvesastheonlyoneswiththecapabilityofbeingright.Theyaretheonlyonescapableoffullyunderstandinganissueandtheonlyoneswiththerightsolutionstotheirproblems.Takeforexample,OsamabinLaden,whoisatextbookexampleofanarcissist.BinLadenseeshimselfasaselfrighteousstrugglerfortheholyland,SaudiArabia,andtheonlywaytofightfortheholylandisthroughjihad.Narcissistsareuncompromisingandmostoftenlackcompassionorempathyforothers.Duetothelackoffeelings,“narcissistshaveprimitiveobjectiverelationships,whicharefunctionalratherthanmeaningful.Theyseethemselvesasimportantevenwithoutachievementandmayfeelentitledtounlimitedsuccess,fame,fortune,orsex,usuallybytakingshortcuts.”(Navarro;39).Narcissisticindividualsarestronglygroundedintheirbeliefsandholdlittlepatienceforthosewhoareopposedtotheirviews(Hare,75‐89).Narcissisticcharacteristicscombinedwithfeelingsofneglectandinferiorityleadmanyterroriststosufferfromfeelingsofbeingincomplete.Manyatime,theseindividualsfeelforgottenordisregardedbysociety.“Consequentlytheyattempttoamelioratewhatismissingfromtheirlivesbysubscribingtopowerfulideologieswhichgivethempurpose,comfort,andmeaning(Hoffer,147;Navarro,41).Theseindividualsfeelpowerlessandasaresultturntogroupswhoofferthemmight.This21

longingforpowerandfeelingofhavingbeenforgottenexplainsthecontinuedsuccessofal‐QaedainAfghanistan.Terroristgroups,suchasal‐Qaeda,promiseabetterlifeandaricherfuture.Moreover,religioncontributesanevendeepercontext.Jihadinthecontextofreligionpromisesaholyandmeaningfulexperience,inthepursuitforpower(Navarro,41)Anotherpersonalitytraitfoundinterrorists,howeveroftenforgotten,isfear.Itisfearthatdriveshatredandideology.“Irreconcilablefearisdeepwithinitssubconscious,itgivesformtotheirunbendingideology,itliesnestledwithinthepathologicalpsycheoftheterrorist”(Navarro,43).Thesefearscanrangefrompeopletochangethatsparkthehatredandmotivatetheterrorist’scorebeliefs.Furthermore,therearecorefearsthatcomewiththeunbendingideologiesofterrorists.Therearefearsofbeingcaught,whiletryingtopursueanactofterrorism.Therearefearsoffailure,theinabilitytofollowthrough.Thesepersonalfearsareprincipal,butmostimportantlythereisthefearofloosingone’sleaders:“Somuchisusuallyatstake;somuchhasbeenentrustedtothesemalevolentcharismaticleadersthatoftenthemissionbecomesoneofprotectingtheleaderattheexpenseofcommittingfurtherterroristacts”(Navarro,46).Theleaderoftheterroristorganizationprovidesguidanceandpowerfortheindividual.Withouttheleaders,thefollowerswouldgobacktothefeelingsofbeingincompleteandforgotten.Narcissism,incompletenessandfeararesignificantpersonalitytraitsofterrorists.Thesecharacteristicsleadtostrongandinflexibleideologies.Fearpushestheterroristsintopassionatehatredandcoursesofviolence.BothIndiaandthe22

theMiddleEasttocometoAfghanistantohelpfightofftheSovietarmy.Afterall,anon‐MuslimentityoutragedMuslimsfromallovertheworld:“ThiswarledtotherevivalofthenotionofJihadasacollectiveduty;formanyofthevolunteerswhocametocentralAsiatowageorsupportthemilitaryeffort,itinstalledthebeliefthatjihadwasthesolutiontotheummah’sweaknessesandthekeytoreturningittoitsearlydays”(Mendelsohn,38).Notlongafter,jihadismgrewoutofcontrolandwassoonexportedtoothercountries.ThecalltojihadinAfghanistanunifiedindividualsfromallovertheworld,particularlytheMiddleEast,intheirstrongbeliefsandgavethempracticalbattlegroundexperience.ThewithdrawalofSoviettroopsgavetheMuslimmilitantsafeelingofvictory,andthatjihadwasasuccessfulmethodoffightingforonesgoals(Mendelsohn,38).Duringthe1990s,“OsamabinLadenandhisalQaedanetworkprovidedanorganizationalandideologicalbaseforajihadimovementcomprisingmembersfromdifferentnations,aglobalreach,andideologywithglobalscope”(Mendelsohn,38).TheeventsofSeptember11 th madeJihadinthelocalapartofagreatermovementagainsttheinfidel(Menelsohn,38).WithintheJihadmovement,thePakistanibecameapartofthismuchlargermovementandgavemanyPakistanistheirfirstrealfeelingsofbelonging. 24

III. Partition:TheRootsofPakistaniIdentityProblemsIn1757,theBritishEastIndiaCompanyconqueredthelandthatisnowknownasIndiaandPakistanfromtheMughalDynasty.TheBritishoccupiedthelanduntil1947.Basedonthetwo‐nationtheory,“HindusandMuslimswholivedinIndiaweretwodistinct,different,andattimesantagonisticculturalentities….ThesetwoculturalentitiesinIndiahadahistoricalandcivilizationalbackdrop,anidentity,andaself‐imageoftheirown,havingdifferentsetsofcharacteristics,yet,inthecontextofIndianpolitics,eachone’sidentityandunitywasparasiticontheother”(Ahmed,56).Ignoringthedifferentculturesandethnicitiesthatfellunderneath“Hindu”and“Muslim”,theBritishpartitionedthelargelandmassintoIndia,astateforHindus,andPakistan,astateforMuslims.TheregionknownasKashmirremainedadisputedterritory.In1965,thetensionsoverKashmirleadtofull‐scalewar.ThedisputeoverKashmirstillremainsineffecttoday,andoftenleadstocyclesofreoccurringviolence(Ahmed,58).TheBritishfirstbegantheirruleoverIndiain1857.ThediversityofIndia’spopulationhascreatedtensionsandpoliticalproblemsforIndiabeforeitsindependencefromtheBritishontheAugust15,1947.TerrorismcommittedbyradicalHindufactionswasprominentinIndiapriorto1939.Theviolenceforthemostpart,targetedtheirBritishoccupiers.However,aftertheyears1939andparticularly1945,Muslims,SikhsandafewradicalHindugroupspredominantlybegantouseterrorismasameanstoreachtheirpoliticalobjectives(Laqueur,150).25

inabilitytoestablishastrongnationalidentityhasleadmanyindividualstoturntojihadandotherterroristmethodsintheirsearchforidentity(Jaffrelot,7).3.1ProblemsFromtheStartItisobviousthatthereareclearreasonsforwhyPakistanishavechosenterrorism,opposedtootherwaysinwhichtoaddressissuesofPakistaniidentitywithinthecontextofPakistaniandIndianconfrontation.Firstly,manyPakistanisstillblameIndiaforinternalproblemsandlackofbelongingbasedonthelinesofIslamandHinduism.Thereisarealsenseoflongingforpower.PakistanisfeelspowerlessagainsttheIndianstate,whichisbigandstrongandnoteasilymoved.W.HowardWriggensdescribedtherelationshipbetweenIndiaandPakistanas:“thesimplefactofsizeandstrategicandeconomicasymmetry…HoweverunjustifiedIndianleadersmayhavethought,Pakistan’sover‐ridingconcernvis‐à‐visIndiawasfear,fearofIndia’ssize,thesizeofitsarmy…andfearcompoundedoutofinfrequentpublicstatementsbyprominentIndiansregrettingthetragedyofpartitionandreiteratingtheinherentunityofthesubcontinent”(Hussain,267).InmanywaysthetensionbetweenthetwocountriesisnecessaryinorderforPakistantofunctionasacountry.Bycreatingaformofcoldwar,PakistanishavefoundacommonthreatinIndia.PartoftheproblemhastodowithPakistan’sconfusionoverthenationandnationalism.“Nationalismisanideology,beitbasedonterritorialorethnicnotions”(Jaffrelot,7).TheFrenchSociologistMarcelMauss,describedthenationas:“asocietymateriallyandmortallyintegrated,withstableandpermanentcentralized27

power,wellestablishedborders,arelativemoral,mentalandculturalunityofitsinhabitantswhoconsciouslyadheretothestateanditslaws”.Underthenation,subnationalidentitiesaredismissed.Pakistanontheotherhand,hasreliedheavilyonethnicityasasourceofderivedidentity.Therefore,“Pakistanappearstobeanunachievednationpreciselybecauseofthepersistenceofethnicidentities,whichmayevenbedescribedas‘nationalities’.The‘two‐nationtheory’gavethecountryanationalist ideology‐ithasevenbeendescribedasan‘ideologicalstate‐whichhasbeenformulatedagainst India,the‘othernation’.ButitdidnotendowPakistanwiththesociologicalqualitiesofanation”(Jaffrelot,7‐8).Eventhecommonalityofreligion,hascreatedtensionanderuptionsoffightingbetweenSunniandShiasMuslims(Jaffrelot,8).Nationalismagainsttheothernation,India,seemstohavehobbledtheformulationofanationalidentityinsteadofcreatingthenation,whichtheyhaddreamedof.MuhammedAliJinnah,thecreatoroftheideaofPakistanontheIndianSubcontinentanditsfirstleader,“wantedtobuildastrongstaterelyingonthethreefoldprinciple‘onenation,oneculture,onelanguage’”(Jaffrelot,8).HebelievedthatPakistanwastheonlywaytokeepsafeMuslimwelfareandinterests.HebelievedthatMusliminterestscouldnotcompetewiththenewlyemergingIndianstate.Histhreefoldprinciplewashisideal,comingfromtheMuslimprovincesofRaj,wherehefacedsocialdeclineandwasaminoritywithintheregion.Infact,theUnitedProvinces’MuslimleadershadbeenpreparingforthePakistanistateaftertheBritishpoliciesimplementedfollowingthe1857‘Revolt’.PropertieswereconfiscatedandtheMuslimelitewerediscriminatedagainstbygovernmental28

proceedings,aswellastheintroductionofdemocracytotheregion.Asminoritiesintheseregions,theMuslimshadmoretoloseandthereforealotmoretogainfromtheirownstate(Jaffrelot,9).ItwasthisfearofdeclineandmarginalizationthatledtothefoundationofastateforMuslims.Infact,“thefirstMuslimseparatistmovementsresultedfromthereactionoftheMuslimelitefromNorthernIndia,whoseprivilegedpositioncametobechallengedbytheriseofHinduintelligentsia,agroupwhichbenefitedfromitsmorerapidassimilationintotheEnglish‐mediumeducationalsystemandtheanti‐MuslimbiasoftheBritishtillthelate19 th century”(Jaffrelot,10).AsadirectresultoftheseBritishpolicies,politicalpartiesandorganizationsliketheMuslimleaguewereformed,withthegoaloffosteringMuslimunityandpreservingthelanguageofUrdu,whichwaspromotedasthelanguageoftheMuslims.WhereMuslimsweretheminority,theideaofPakistanandpreservingMuslimrightsbegantospread.Onthecontrary,inplaceswheretheMuslimpopulationswerethemajority,suchasPunjaborBengal,Muslimsweremorecontentbecausetheyruledoverthemselves(Jaffrelot,11).FortheMuslimswhofeltmarginalizedbytheBritish,theyremainedhopefulthatIslamandUrducoulduniteandpromotemobilizationamongMuslimsacrossthesubcontinent. AftertheemergenceofthestateofPakistan,theriftsinPakistaniidentitybegantoemerge.OneoftheseriftswasbasedonthecompetingvisionsofthePakistanistate.TheMohajirssoughtastatebasedonthedoctrineofIslam.ThePunjabs,ontheotherhand,hadseenPakistanasthedirectresultofHindus29

threateningIslamandtheirsocialrights.TheMohajirsimmediatelygainedalotofinfluenceinthenewlyestablishedstate;boththepresidentandtheprimeministerwereMohajirs.Withintenyears,whiletheMohajir’sMuslimdoctrineremainedintact,theinfluencetransferredtothePunjabiswhohadalreadybeguntoidentifywiththesameideology.TheyhadalreadyadoptedUrduasanofficiallanguage(Jaffrelot,18).Whilethesetwogroupsremainedinfluential,theBengalis,ontheotherhand,wereignoredanddiscriminatedagainst,despitethefactthattheyformedamajorityofthepopulation.OneexampleofdiscriminationagainstBengalisoccurredinMarch1949,when“theConstituentAssemblyappointedaBasicPrinciplesCommitteewhichsubmitteditsreportinSeptember1950.Itrecommendedtheestablishmentofafederaldemocracy.ThePunjabirepresentativesimmediatelyobjectedthatEastPakistanshouldnotbeallowedtobeinapositiontodominateWestPakistansimplybecausetheBengaliswereinalargernumber”(Jaffrelot,18).Furthermore,bymakingUrduthenationallanguage,Bengaliswereleftangryandmobilizedtopreservetheirownlanguage,literatureandculture.ThefightbetweentheBengalisandthecentralgovernmentdidnotendwithoutviolenceandspurredaBengalisnationalistmovement.TheBengalisarejustonegroupwhoturnedtoseparatistmovementsinPakistanbecauseofunfairpoliciesofitsleaders.TheSindhis,theBaluchis,andothergroupshavehadorstilldohaveseparatistmovementsinPakistan.Thefailureof30

PakistanileaderstounifythedifferentpeopleswhomakeupPakistanhascontributedgreatlytoitsfailuretoestablishaPakistaniidentity(Jaffrelot,30‐34).Sectarianism,asasubstituteidentity,hasbecomeaserioussourceofconflictintermsofnationalidentity.Theauthor,MiriamAbuZahab,describesPakistanhavingbeenlostinitsnationalidentity:“Pakistanhasneverbeenanation‐state;highlyfragmented,ithasfailedinintegratingthepeopleintoanationbymakingtheirPakistaniidentitytheirmosttreasuredpossession”(Zahab,77).Insteadofthenation,individualswereforcedtoidentifywithotherfragmentedidentities.Thisincluded:caste,ethnicgroup,languageorsectofIslam.Forthosewhofoundasourceofethnicidentityinthe1970s,itwasalmostimmediatelyoutlawedandviewedasdisloyalty.Duringthe1980sandtheAfghanwar,identitywaslinkedtoreligiousIslam(Zahab,77).“ZiaulHaq’sIslamizationpolicy…meantstatemonopolyonreligionanddominanceofaparticularsect,andbrought…theologicaldifferencestothefore”(Zahab,79).GeneralZia’sIslamizationcampaignwaspredominantlySunniinscopeandinfuriatedShia.ThecampaignwasalsoadirectthreattoShiasocialstatusinPaksitan.AsaresultoftheAfghanistanandwarandtheIranianRevolution,Shiaswerefurthermobilizedandempowered(Nasr,87).OutsideShiainfluenceswereusingPakistantofurthertheirownpoliticalambitions.SunniandShiaviolencehaseruptedfrequentlyinPakistan’sshorthistory.Sincethe1980sbothSunniandShiapartieshaveemergedresponsibleforpromotingviolence.Thesepartiesinclude:“SunniSipah‐e‐SahabaPakistan31

(Pakistan’s‘ArmyoftheProphet’sCompanions’orSSP,establishedin1984)anditsallies,theSunniTahrik(‘Sunnimovement’,establishedin1993),TehrikNifazShariat‐IMuhammadi(‘MovementforProtectionofMuhammad’sReligiousLaw’,establishedin1994),Lashkar‐e‐Jhangvi(JhangviArmy’,establishedin1990),Lashkar‐e‐Taiba(‘TheArmyofthePure’,formedin1997‐8),andTehrik‐IJafariaPakistan(‘Pakistan’sShiaMovement‘orTJP,formedin1979)anditsmilitantoffshoot,Sipnah‐e‐Muhammad(‘ArmyofMuhammadorSM,formedin1991)”(Nasr,85).IthasnothelpedthesituationthatmanyofthesegroupsreceivefundsfromoutsideofPakistan.SaudiArabiahasbeenknowntosendfinancialsupporttoSunnigroupsinPakistan,whileIranhasalsohelpedsupportandmobilizeShiagroupsintheregion(Nasr,32).ThesegroupspromoteasenseofbelongingandplacesforindividualswhofeeldisconnectedtothegovernmentinPakistan.ClashesamongSunniandShiagroupshavefurthergivenrisetothePakistaniTaliban(Nasr,85).ThePakistaniidentityhasbecomefragmented:“Ithasmetamorphosedfromreligiousschismintopoliticalconflictaroundmobilizationofcommunalidentity”(Nasr,86).Nowsectofreligionhasgivenwayasaformofpoliticalidentityandviolencehaseruptedbecauseofit.OnecaseofsectarianismoccurredinCentralandSouthPunjab,wherepoliticalschismsduringthe1970s,ledtoalotofresentmentamongthelocalpopulations.Sincepartition,thePakistanigovernmenthadignoredSouthPunjab.InbothCentralandSouthPunjab,theareasarepovertystrickenwiththeexceptionofafewwealthylandownerswhohavemaintainedtheirwealthovertheyearsbyturningtheirlandintoorchidsandthenusingmachinesinsteadofsomeofthe32

experiencedlaborersinthearea.Withothermediumlandownersmovingin,muchoftheruralpopulationhasbeenturnedawayfromtheirtraditionaljobsandhavenolandtogoto.Fastmovingsocialandeconomicchanges,rapidpacedurbanization,theadditionofnewclasses,andapowerfulunchangingrulingeliteleadtoextremepovertyandsocialinequalitiesintheregion.“Sectarianmilitancyinthiscontextcanbedescribedasareactiontoagrowingsenseofinsecurityandhopelessnessresultingfromunevendistributionofresources,asarevoltofuprootedandmarginalizedperipherydeprivedofaccesstothepoliticalarena”(Zahab,79‐80).Withthelackofindustrializationandeducation,andthemalfunctionoftraditionalstructure,sectbecameasourceofidentity.Sectarianismservesasaplatformofsharedangerandfrustrationandachanceatpowerinaregionthathaspushedthemintopoverty(Zahab,80).InPunjab,educationwashardlyevermadeavailabletochildrenbecauseitwasbelievedthatwitheducation,thechildrenwouldleavefortheurbanareasandwouldthereforeneglecttheirsocialendeconomicroleaslaborers.SincetherewasareallackofpropereducationinPunjab,madrasas,begantoincreaseinnumberduringthesecondhalfofthe1990s.Themadrasas cameintobeingbecauseof“religiouspartiesradicalizedforeigninfluencesstartedreceivingforeignfundswhichtheythenusedtolaunchcampaignsinfavoroftheirprograms”(Zahab,115).Thesemadrasas,havebecomesuccessful:“Notallmadrasas aresectarianbutthesectarianhavemultiplied.Inafeudalenvironmentwhereviolenceispartofthesocio‐politicalcultureandisevenvalued,thesectarianmadrasasidentifywiththepartieswhichprotectthem,preachviolenceforenforcementoftheirkindofIslam33

andtheeliminationofothersects”(Zahab,83).Religiouspoliticalpartiesalignthemselvesandoperatemanyofthemadrasas. TheMadrasas areknownforteachingviolenceandhatredtowardsothersectsofIslam.JihadorHolyWarisnotonlyforthenon‐Muslims,forthemadrasas,theinfidelhasbecomemembersofothersectsofIslam.Povertyandnorealaccesstoeducationforcestheseyoungchildrenofruralpeasantstowardsextremismandviolence. Inmadrasas,studentsaregivenaneducation,food,lodging,andmostimportantlyaplacetobelong.ClassesaretaughtinArabic,whicheventheteachersdonotfullyunderstand.Studentsaretaughtgoodbehaviorandobediencethroughphysicalabuse.Thestudentsofthemadrasas arecutofffromtherestofthesocietyandfindapurposeinlifebyservingtheirreligion. Themadrasasgivetheirstudents’familiesarespectfulplaceinsociety:“Theparentsgainrespectofthelocalmullahforsendingtheirchildrentotheseschools,ahadithsaysthattheparentsofahafiz­eQuran willbeblessedwithaluminouscrownontheDayofJudgment”(Zahab,83).Themadrasas givestheirstudentsaplacetobelongandafuture.DuetofactthatthereisareallackofPakistaninationalidentity,individualswhohavebeenaffectednegativelybychangehaveturnedtoorinthecaseofmadrasas beentaughttoseekanidentitywithinreligionthatputsemphasisonhatetowardsthePakistaniotherwithavaryingbeliefsystem(Zahab,84).ManywhohavefailedordroppedoutoftheUrdusystemofeducationlackarealeducation,andthereforejobqualifications.Theirlackofeducationhasleftthemfeelingisolatedfromtherestofsociety.Theirfamiliesaretoopoortosupportthem,34

andtheycannotrelyonthegovernmenttohelpthem.Theyareleftstranded,searchingforasenseofbelongingandalongingforacharismaticleadertotakethemtoabetterlife.InSouthPunjab,whereShiastraditionallyheldalotoflandandpower,“religionhasbecomeatoolandasocialdemarcationratherthanafaith,themembersoftheothersectareviewedasrivalsandasathreattothematerialstatusofone’scommunity.Sectarianismhasbeenusedasanumbrellaforthestruggleoftheemergingclassesagainstmoreentrenchedinterests”(Zahab,86).ThenewchallengetotheShialandownersaretheSunnimiddleclass.ManyoftheSunniscomefromananti‐Shiaideologicalbackgroundandasaresulttensionandviolencethathasescalatedoverthepastdecade(Zahab,85).InsteadofunifyingtheMuslimpeopleinPakistan,religionhasbecomeasourceofconflictandasourcefornationalidentity.Extremistgroupsnowrivalthetraditionalreligiousparties,whohavefailedtoportraythetruevisionofIslam.SunniversusShiatensionshaveturnedintoendlessroundsofviolence:“Therivalryhasdegeneratedintoachainreactionofvengeanceandtit‐for‐tatkillinginasocietywhererevengeisviewedbymostasanaturalsentimentlinkedtoonesidentityandoneshonor”(Zahab,87).ThisreligiousfrustrationhastakenarealtollonthePakistaniidentity.Manypeoplefeellikethegovernmenthasfailedthem.Manycomefrompovertyandlittleeducation.WithnorealfeelingofbelonginginPakistan,itiseasytoseehowreligionwouldserveasafoundationforasourceofidentity.However,thedifferentsectsofIslam,havecreatedfurtherdividesamongthepeople:“ThereisnodearthofunemployedyoungpeoplewhoarelookingforasolutiontotheireconomicproblemsandwhothinkthatanIslamicrevolutionis35

longoverdueinPakistan”(Zahab,124),TheactofJihadisappliedtothegeneralPakistanisociety.Hatredtowardstheotherisareligiousmissionandcanbeeasilyspreadtoplacesacrosstheworld.Pakistanishavefallenvictimtohelplessnessanddespairandareturningtoothermeansofidentity.UnfairgovernmentalpoliciesandidentityconfrontationshaveleadtoachangingviewofJihadamongmanyofPakistan’scitizens.JihadbecameanacceptedtoolofcombatagainsttheSoviet’stakeoverofAfghanistan.WiththesuccessofJihadagainsttheSoviets,manyPakistanisandMuslimsacrosstheworldseeJihadasasuitablewayofachievingagoal.ThelackofaPakistaninationalidentityhaspushedPakistanisintofindingalternativeidentitiesandintothecomfortinghandsofJihadistmovements.Jihadimovementscanbeseenasearly1800sintheIndiansubcontinent.Butitwasnotuntil1927,whenAbulKalamAzadMuhammadIlyasKandhalawideclaredthatJihadshouldbeusedupontheHindus,whoarethetrueenemiesofIslam.JihadhasremainedanimportantpartofPakistaniidentity‐orlackthereof.Duringthe1990s,PakistanisbecameevenmorereliantuponJihadimovementstofosterasenseofnationalidentity:“Theendofeconomicprosperity,addedtoahugedemographicgrowth,drovemanylowandmiddleclasspeopleintounemployment.Thepoliticalinstabilityaswellascorruptionoftherulingclass,helpedtoreactivatetheundergroundmythofanidealIslamicparadigm.Last,butnotleast,theseizureofpowerbysomeveryprivilegedgroupsconvincedthedestituteclassesthattheydidnothaveafutureintheirowncountry”(Boivin,107).Additionally,withtheend36

oftheAfghanwar,Pakistani‐sponsoredTalibangainedafootholdinAfghanistan.InsteadoftheJihadimovementcomingtoaclose,theJihadimovementswereexportedtotheKashmirandgainedinpopularity(Boivin,107).Withnorealplacetocallhome,povertyandanunclearnationalidentitytorelatetoleadtoalotoffrustration,whichhasplayedalargerolewithinJihadinPakistanandacrosstheglobe.3.2IndiaAfterPartitionSinceIndia’sindependencefromtheBritishEmpire,ithashadanongoingstruggleagainstterrorism.Indiahasworkedhardatbuildingastrongstate:“TheproblemhastobeseeninthecontextofthefactthattheIndianstatealonehasthemonopolyoftheuseofforceandthestatederivesitslegitimacybystrivingtorealizethevalueswhichtheIndianpeoplehavereposedintheconstitution…IftheIndianpeoplelosefaithindemocratic, peaceful andlegal methodsofbringingaboutchangesinoursocietythenthecultofviolencewouldprogressivelybecomeagrowingandmenacingrealityinIndiawhichwillultimatelydestroythetenuouscivicorderthatexiststoday(Tiwari,viii).TheimportanceofdemocracyisapparentinIndianSociety.However,therehasbeena“widespreadfeeling[that]hasgrowninIndiathatourdemocraticprocessesoftenremainopaqueeventothedeeplyfeltandjustgrievancesofoneortheothersectionsofourpeople”(Tiwari,vii).This“deeplyfeltandjusticegrievances”havecreatedalotofproblemsinmodernIndiansociety(Tiwari,vii).37

India’sfightforindependencewasmetbytwodistinctcoursesofaction.OnepushedforterroristactstargetingtheBritish.BhagwatiCharan,anactivememberoftheHindustanSocialistRepublicanAssociation(HSRA),supportedterrorismasameanstoendBritishrule:“Deliberatemisrulehasreducedustopaupers,hasbleduswhite.Asaraceandasapeoplewestanddishonoredandoutraged…weshallhaveourrevenge,apeople’srighteousrevengeonthetyrant”(Charan,1930,excerptedinManan&Griset,42).CharanandtheHSRAcommitteddeliberateactsofterrorism.Forexample,theythroughbombsoffpublicgalleryintheLegislativeAssemblyandattemptedtoblowupatrainstation.Theyalsoshotapoliceofficer.Charandiedwhenabombblewupinhishands(Manan&Griset,42).TerrorismcreatedpowerfortheCharanandtheHSRA,afterfeelingoppressedbytheirmorepowerfulBritishoccupiers.Theothermovement,headedbyMohandasKaramchandGandhi,urgedforanon‐violentresistance:civildisobedienceandnonviolenttactics.Gandhiwashighlyeducatedanditwashismovementthatultimatelysucceeded.Therearehowever,manyscholarswhobelievethattheterroristactivitiescontributedgreatlyinliberatingIndiafromthehandsoftheBritish:Individualinnature,theterroristsheldthebeliefthatIndianindependencecanbeboughtaboutbyaseriesofrevolutionaryoutragescalculatedtoinstillfearintotheBritishofficialsanddrivethemoutofIndia”(Sharma,59).TheWahhabis,apuritanicalIslamistsect,createdalotofviolenceinIndia,workinghardagainsttheBritishcolonialists.TheseterroristmethodsoccurredthroughoutIndiabutespeciallyinBengelandtheupperpartof38

India.ThismethodofactionlaterspreadtothePunjabarea,UntiedProvinces,Delhi,Madras,BiharandOrissa(Sharma,59).TheRepublicofIndia,today,istheseventhlargestcountryintheworld,covering1,222,559squaremilesoflandandholdsthesecondlargestpopulationof1,198,003,000peopleasof2009.India’spopulationismadeupofavarietyofpeoples:Indigenous,invadersandotherswhohavemigratedtothelandovertime.Indiaisadiversecountry.ThoughtheofficiallanguagesofIndiaareHinduandEnglish,severalotherlanguagesarespokenacrossIndia’sgreatlandmass.MostoftheIndianpopulationpracticesHinduism,butthereareseveralotherswhopracticeIslam,Sikhism,Christianity,alongwithseveralotherreligions(India).MostimportantlyitissuccessfulandIndia’scitizenshaveanIndianIdentity.3.3PakistaniTerrorinIndiaWhencreatinganewstate,nation‐buildingexercisesrequiresomeindividualsinvolvedtogiveupsomeoftheirowninterestsfortheinterestofthestate.Thishowever,hasthepotentialtoupsetminoritypublics:“Theminoritypoliticswhenvulgarizedtomanipulatecruderpoweratthehustingsactivitizesthesesub‐groupsintofanaticismandfundamentalism.Theterroristtacticsrepresentanarticulateattempttocreatemissionaries,Messiahsandmartyrsforasocalledcausewhichcanelectrifytheinsecureandblindentheignoranttofightundertheleadershipofself‐appointedfascists”(Sharma,49‐50).ThereareseveraltypesofterroristmovementsoperatinginandaroundIndia.Thesegroupsholdavarietyofviewsand39

goalsspecifictowhereitislocatedandreligiousandethnicbackgroundofthoseinvolved(Tiwari,x). TerrorisminIndiahaspredominantlybeenconcentratedinKashmirandPunjab.Theseconflictsstemfromboth,ethnicandreligiousclashesthathavebeenongoingsinceevenbeforethetimeofIndia’sindependencefromBritain(Laquer,151).TheIndiangovernmentchosetoignorethesensitivesituationsinKashmirandPunjab:“Inregardtoreconcilingthesefactions,theHinduIndiangovernmenthasshownlittlepoliticalacumen.ItmighthavebeenimpossibletopacifytheextremistsamongtheMuslimsinKashmirandtheSikhinPunjab,butthiswasastrategytheIndiansdidnotevenreallytry”(Laquer,151).ThispromotedfurtheroutragewithinPakistanandhascausedtheangerandfrustration,sooftenfoundwithinaterrorist’smotives.ForPakistanis,terrorismhascreatedasensationofpowerandmuscleagainstthestatethatignoredthemandhasnotallowedKashmirtobecomeapartofPakistanSince1990,overtwentythousandpeoplehavebeenkilledfromterroristattacksinKashmir.However,theterrorisminKashmirandthroughoutIndiadidnotmakeittotheworldstageuntil1998,whenbothIndiaandPakistandetonatednucleardevices(Laquer,150).Kashmir’spopulationislargelymadeupofindividualswhoconvertedtoIslamatsomepointearlyoninhistory.Kashmirwastraditionallyreligiouslysecular,Gandhigoingasfartocallit:“anislandofsecularismontheIndiansubcontinent”(Laquer,151).KashmirispartofthedefactoborderbetweenIndiaandPakistan,createdattheendoftheIndia‐Pakistan40

Warin1949.Kashmir,alongwithanotherstate,Jammu,becameaconstitutestate,astateapartofIndia,withitsowngovernmentandguidinglegaldocuments.ThisdecisionwasheadedbythethenHinduruleofKashmir.Thelegalityofthisissuehasbeenfoughtovereversince:“Inthenexthalf‐centurytheKashmirissuewouldbeaprimarytriggerofIndian‐PakistaniwarsandarmedconfrontationsaswellasinteractiveterrorismbetweenIndiaandKashmiriseparatistsandIslamistgroups”(Dekmejian,111).ThetensionsthathaveseemedtoalwaysexistbetweenKashmirandtheIndiangovernmentcontinuestobeasourceofconflict.AfterIndia’sindependence,hisgovernmenttooktheactionofarrestingoneofKashmirshighlyacclaimedleaders,SheikhAbdullah.Thisact,increasedpoliticaltensionsandalsogavePakistanaroleintheconflict.Furthermore,Kashmir’spopulationissplitwithtwodifferentpoliticalgoals:Thefirstwantsitsownindependentstate.TheotherwantstobecomeapartofPakistan.PakistanhasbeengivingimportantpoliticalandmonetarysupporttotheMuslimextremistswhowantthisdreamtobecomeareality.ByPakistansupportingtheKashmiriseparatistmovement,PakistanhashelpedtransformthisconflictintoaJihad,orholywar,andintheprocesshasshapedtheactsofviolenceintoterroristacts:“ThegeneralstrategyoftheIslamicradicalshasbeentoattackandmurderthelocalHindus(calledKashmiriPandits)andSikhsandsoforcethemtoleavetheregion”(Laquer,151).Asaresult,houseshavebeendestroyedandpeoplehavebeenmurdered.SeveralIndianaccountsstatethattheviolencetargetingthelocalHindupopulationsare“tryingtoexterminatetheHindupopulationofKashmiroratleastdrivethemtofallsothattheregionwillbecomeapartofPakistan”(Laquer,151).Oneofthe41

KashmiriMuslimgroupsHarakat Al AnsarcontinuedtodetonateterroristattacksinIndia’smajorcities,includingNewDelhi(Laquer,151).ProblemsinKashmirbegantogrowduringthe1980s,duetoconflictwiththecentralgovernmentinNewDelhiandlocalpoliticswithinKashmir.In1987,theUnitedMuslimFront,apoliticalpart,losttheelectionanditswakesparkeddebateonwhethertheelectionhadbeentamperedwith.Asaresultviolenceeruptedthefollowingyear:“InJuly1988,theJammuandKashmirLiberationFront(JKLF)bombedtwositesinSrinagar,followedbykidnappingsinexchangeformilitantsheldinIndianJails”(Dekmejian,114).ThisterrorismwassponsoredbyPakistan.Inthe1980s,KashmirwasjustaseparatistgroupwithinIndia.Inthe1990s,theseparatistgrouptookonaradicalIslamistface(Dekmejian,108).Pakistan,aweakerandsmallercountrythanIndia,cameupwithseveralstrategiesinordertoconfrontitsenemyinordertoannexIndian‐controlledKashmir.ItfirstlycreatedseveralimportantmilitaryallianceswiththeUnitedStatesandChina.ThisallowedPakistanprotectionfromtheUnitedStatesandaid.FromChinaitwasabletogainnuclearcapabilities.Next,PakistanadoptedaradicalIslamistideologyandidentity.Infact,“Pakistanidecision‐makers,sensinganIndianwindowofvulnerabilityinKashmir,havesoughttoexploitanotionofMuslimconfraternitytosupporttheinsurgents.Ontheotherhand,IslamhasalsobeenusedasavehicletomobilizeadisaffectedpopulationandchallengethewritoftheIndianStateinKashmir”(Ganguly,179).ThisenabledPakistantomobilizeitscitizensalongwiththeMuslimsinKashmirtocarryoutholywarinIndia,creatingseveral42

terroristorganizationsdedicatedtokillingtheHinduinfidelthroughJihad.Terroristattackscarriedoutbytheseorganizationsinclude:Hindumassacres,carbombs,suicidebombings,landminesandotherexplosivedevices(Dekmejian,114).ActionstakenbyPakistanwereseenas“rationalresponsesofaweakerpowerseekingtoequalizeastrongerneighbor”(Dekmejian,113).TheactionstakenbyPakistanwereinordertocreatepoweragainstIndia(Dekmejian,113).PakistanisaweakerandmorevulnerablecountrythanIndiaandchosetofightagainstIndiathroughactsofterrorism,whereitenjoyedalimitedamountofsuccess.TheyfeltstrongerhelpingthesmallerextremistgroupsinIndiaandtheseactsallowPakistani’sthefeelingofpoweragainsttheirmassiveenemyofIndia.Thoughtherehavebeenseveralattemptstofigureoutalastingpeace,IndiaandPakistanhavereachedanequilibriumbasedonnuclearpower(Dekmejian,118).Terrorismisoften“expressionsof[aterrorist’s]individualpathologiessuchasparanoia,identitycrisis,cognitivedisorders,andafeelingofinferiority,helplessness,rejectionormarginality”(Dekmejian,25).Anactofterrorismcanbecommittedbecauseofpersonalvengeancetoarangeofpsychologicalpathologies(Dekmejian,25).Onescholar,EricEriksonbelievesthatterrorists“areinastateof“patienthood”thatmustberemediedthroughsome“mediumofsalvation””(Dekmejian,25).Theseindividualsareunabletohandletheirownpersonalproblems,andtherefore,“projecttheirindividualpatienthoodsuponsocietyand,intheirattempttouniversalizetheirpersonalpain,couldfocusonthedestructionofaleadingfigureormonument”(Dekmejian,26).Thoughtheactsof43

violenceareusuallypoliticalinnature,thereasonsbehindsareusuallyduetoconditionsofdeprivationandawantoffameandglory(Dekmejian,26).ThisisclearlywhatisoccurringinIndia.TerrorismcreatesafeelingofpowerforthePakistaniswhocommittheact,fillingthevoidofdeprivationbymakingothersfeeltheirpain.TerrorismandtheactofJihadgiveafalsesenseofbelongingandpurposeinworldwheretheyfeeldiscriminated.ActsofterrorismagainstIndiabyPakistaniscreateafeelingofinfluenceandpowerforthepowerless.TheindividualsandgroupsresponsibleforterrorisminIndia,feelinferiortothemassiveandstrongstate.Theseterroristsfeelthattheyhavebeenservedaninjusticebythestate.Terrorismallowsthemtofeelpowerful,bytakingouttheirpainandfrustrationsoninnocentpeople.Theactofterrorismisoftenmoreimportantthantheoverallgoal.Inasense,theinjusticedonetotheterroristispassedontoothers,andtheterroristfeelsalimitedsenseofpowerabovethestateandabovetheindividualstheyseetohavedonethemwrong.3.4JihadandthePakistaniIdentityTheattacksofSeptember11thhavehadalastingimpactonJihadisminPakistanandthePakistaniidentity.Jihadwasputintothespotlightandtheattackswereglorifiedacrosstheregion.AsaresultoftheattacksofSeptember11th,TheUnitedStatesbeganalongprocessofappliedpressureontothePakistanigovernment.TheUnitedStateshasdemandedthatPakistangaincontrolofitstribalareasandJihadistmovements.ThepressurefromtheUnitedStates,sincethe1990s,anditsactionsinIraqandAfghanistanhaveinfuriatedmanyPakistanis.Throughthe44

courseofterrorism,PakistanishavereclaimedJihadasameansofpersonalretribution.Pakistanishavenowimmigratedtocountriescoveringtheglobe.TheWestofferedmanyadreamofstabilityandidentity,butevenintheseWesterncountries,Pakistaniscannothidefromtheirlackofaconcisenationalidentity.ThisexplainswhyJihadagainstWesternstateshasbecometheultimatefrustrationofthePakistaniidentity.Thetwostatesolution,didnotbringanendtoMuslimandHinduclashesonthesubcontinent.TherewerethreemorewarsbetweenIndiaandPakistanthatoccurredin1948,1965and1971(Hussain,266).In1971,anewcountry,Bangladesh,wasformed,whichresultedfromfightingwithPakistan.Sincethelate1990s,IndiaandPakistanhavethreatenedeachotherwithnuclearovertones:“TheIndiannucleartestexplosionsof11and13May1998,andPakistan‘srivalnuclearteststwoweekslaterhaveunleashedanewstrategicdynamicwhichhasgaveimplicationsforthecauseofpeaceandstabilityinSouthAsia”(Hussain,266).ThePakistaniandIndianconflictseemstobeimportanttotheveryfunctionofPakistanandthepeoplelivinginPakistan.ThereasoningbehindthisfactisthatPakistaniandIndianrivalryhasbecomeasourceofidentityforthePakistanicharacter.3.5What’sNext?ThisaccountsfortherecentterroristattacksthatoccurredinMumbaiin2008.Lashkar‐e‐TaibaorLeTisawell‐knownterroristorganizationthroughoutIndiaandPakistanandisnowgainingafollowinginternationally.LeThascarriedoutseveralattacksinIndiaonthebehalfofthestruggleinKashmir.Theywerealso45

ehindthe2008attacksinMumbai,wherepopularhotelsforwesterners,alongwithaJewishcenterwereattacked.TheLeTledattacksonMumbairepresentedmorethanjustanattackonIndia.ItwasanattackontheWestandtheJews.TheonlysurvivingMumbaiterrorist,AjmalKasab,reportedtotheauthoritiesthattheterroristshavebeenorderedtotargetAmerican,BritishandIsraelicitizens“becausetheyhavedoneinjusticetotheMuslims”(Kahn,1).ItbroughttheglobalJihadistmovementintotheveryheartofIndia.ItiscertainnowthatPakistanisareoftenfindingthemselvesinJihadmovementsasactsagainstthosewhodonotbelong.Nowweseealargerphenomenon.Pakistanis,whohavemigratedtoothercountries,includingwesterncountries,arenowmakingtheirdebutasthenextPakistaniterrorists.ThelackofarealPakistaniidentityhasnowcrossedcontinentsandtheUnitedKingdomandtheUnitedStatesarethefirsttofeeltheglobalPakistanifrustration.46

IV. Conclusion:PakistaniIdentityandtheWestAfterthemassiveterroristattackofSeptember11,2001,theUnitedStatesdeclaredawaronterrorism.TheWaronTerrorcontinuestobefoughttoday,oftenconcentratedonAl‐QaedaanditsstrongholdsinAfghanistan.Yet,whatseemstobemissedbytheUnitedStatesanditswesternalliesisPakistan’scruciallinktothewaronterror.Pakistan’sinternalissuesremainunresolved.ThelackofaPakistaniidentityandPakistanisacceptanceintotheglobaljihadistmovement,asameansofidentity,shouldgreatlyconcernwesternstates.Moreover,thefactthatAmericancitizenswithPakistanirootsarenowjoiningthefightagainsttheUnitedStatesandthewestshouldbeattheforefrontofUnitedStatesforeignpolicyandtheWaronTerror.TherecentfoiledattackplannedbyFaisalShahzadexemplifiesPakistanisemergingpositionattheforefrontofterrorism.Today,themostnotableterroristthreatintheUnitedStatescomesfromradicalIslamicterrorism,specificallyPakistaniterror.TheseterroristsarenotonlyfromtheMiddleEast;severalofthemhaveUnitedStatescitizenshipandareangeredbytheUnitedState’scontinuedpressureonPakistantocontrolterroristcellswithinthecountry.PakistaniterrorismintheUnitedStatesisnotanewphenomenonandneedstobelookedatmoreclosely.OneofthefirstincidentsofPakistaniterrorismtranspiredin1993.ThreesignificanteventsoccurredthatwerefueledbyMuslimfanaticism.Firstly,onJanuary23,1993ashootingoccurredattheCentralIntelligenceAgency(CIA)headquartersinLangleyVirginia:“nearlyadecadeagoontraffic‐chokedChain47

BridgeRoadinLangley.Justbefore8a.m.,KasisteppedoutofhisIzusupickuptruck,shoulderedanAK‐47andbeganfiringmethodicallyatmotoristswaitingtoturnintoCIAheadquarters”(Davis&Glod,1).MirAimalKasi,aPakistani,wasthefirstofmanywillingtodieforhiscause.ItwasreportedthathewasunhappywiththeUnitedStates’foreignpolicy,whichhefelthurtMuslimsacrosstheglobe.KasifledtoPakistanandin2002wascaughtandextraditedtotheUnitedStates.Helaterreceivedthedeathsentenceforhiscrimes,whichinjuredthreepeopleandkilledone(Davis&Glod,1).ThebombingoftheWorldTradeCenter’snortherntoweronFebruary26,1993,wasasignoffarworsethingstocome.RamziYousef,who’srealnamewasAbdulBasitMahmoundAbdulKarim,wasthesonofaPalestinianmotherandaPakistanifather.HehadgrownupinKuwaitcityandhadhadafamilyinPakistan.HisactionswerereportedlymotivatedbyhisdevotiontothePalestiniancauseandhishatredfortheJewishpeople(Wright,202):“OnFebruary26,1993,arentedFordEconolinevanenteredtheWorldTradeCenter’smassivebasementparkinggarage.InsidethetruckwasRamziYousef.ItwasunclearifbinLadensenthim,buthewastheproductofanal‐QaedacampinAfghanistan,wherehehadlearnedhisbomb‐craft.HehadcometoAmericatooverseetheconstructionofwhattheFBIlaterdeterminedwasthelargestimprovisedexplosivedevicethebureauhadeverencountered.Youseflitfourtwenty‐foot‐longfusesandfledtoavantagepointjustnorthofCanalStreet,fromwhichheexpectedtoseethebuildingfall”(Wright,201‐202).Theattackwasmeanttoknockoutbothtowers,byhavingtheNortherntowerfallintotheSoutherntower.Thoughtheirterroristattackdidnotgoas48

planned,theystillmanagedtokillsixpeopleandinjuredoverathousandothers(Wright,203).Yousef,withhisPakistaniroots,wasthefirstofhiskindtosuccessfullylaunchafull‐scaleterroristattackonAmericansoil.He,alongwiththeotherterrorists,feltliketheirwantsandneeds,alongwithcountlessothers,werebeingignored.Bytakingonotherindividual’sburdens,theyvalidatedtheircauseandactions.ForYousef,therewasnoalternativeaction,andtheiractionsofterrorwerecompletelyjustified.Laterthatyear,anotherterroristattackplotmeanttotargetotherpopularAmericanlandmarkswasfoiled.OmarAbdel‐Rahman,aradicalNewYorksheikhandrecognizedleaderofthegroup,Al‐Gama'aal‐Islamiyya,knownforitsconnectionswithal‐Qaeda,mastermindedtheplannedattack.“SheikhOmarAbdal‐Rahman,aradicalreligiousscholar…[had]courtedbinLaden,hopingtosecurehisfinancialsupportfortheirpetprojects,includingtheassassinationofPresidentMuhammadZiaul‐HaqofPakistanandPresidentHosniMubarakofEgyptwho,intheiropinion,hadbecomeapostates”(Williams,77).Targetsincluded:theGeorgeWashingtonBridge,theLincolnandHollandTunnels,theFBINewYorkCityheadquarters,andtheUnitedNationsbuilding.OtherplansconsistedofkidnappingPresidentNixon,assassinatingtheformerEgyptianpresident,GamalAbdelNassar,andpotentiallyhittingJewishtargets.ThereasonsbehindtheattackweremadeclearbyRahman,athisconvictiontrial:“TheUnitedStates,hesaid,wasIslam'sgreatestenemy,acountryintentonwipingIslamfromthefaceoftheEarth.Thecaseagainsthim,hesaid,wassimplyapartofthiscampaign,anattempttosilencehimbecauseofhisreligion”(Gladwell,1).ToRahman,theUnitedStateswasthe49

ultimateenemy,athreattohisreligion,andhiscorebeliefs.HefeltthatthePakistanileaderatthetime,alongwiththeEgyptianPresident,wasnotdoingthejobssuccessfullyandinthetruepathofIslam.Thenetworksthattheseindividualswereanactivepartofprovidedthestructureandconfirmationoftheirbeliefsandactions(Chaliand&Blin,322).ThefoiledplannedattackinTimesSquarehighlightsthenewambitionsofPakistaniterroristorganizations.Lashkar‐e‐Taibaisincreasinglyworkingoninternationalterrorplots:“Lashkar'sfingerprintshavebeenfoundonanti‐WesternattacksandplotsfromAfghanistantoIraq,DhakatoCopenhagen…Shortlyafter[the]Mumbai[terroristattacks],PakistaniauthoritiesarrestedallegedLeTcommunicationsspecialistZararShahandreportedlydiscoveredonhislaptopalistof320potentialtargets,mostofthemoutsideIndia‐‐includingsitesinEurope”(Kahn,1).Furthermore,notlongaftertheMumbaiattacks,DavidColemanHeadley,anAmerican‐PakistaniwasaccusedofgatheringsurveillanceforLeTduringtheMumbaiattacks.AftergatheringinformationfromHeadley,U.S.authoritiesfoundfurtherevidenceofaplannedLeTterroristattacks,targetingtheDanishNewspaperofficethatpublishedthe2005cartoonofMuhammad.Notlongafterthearrest,otherLeTmemberswerechargedwithplanningattacksontheUnitedStatesandUnitedKingdomEmbassiesinDhaka(Kahn,1).Gatheringfromtherecentarrests,theexecutedterroristattackinMumbaiandtheplannedterroristattacksagainstWesterntargets,LeTandotherPakistanimilitantgroupsaregoingtoincreasinglyposeaterroristriskathome,intheUnitedStates,andabroad.50

LeTrunsitstrainingprogramsopenlyandisestimatedtohavetrainedover200,000peoplefromIndiatoNorthAmerica.IncreasingpressuresbytheUntiedStateshaveleftmanyPakistanisangry,becauseofthesensitivesituation.LeTiswellknownforitscharityworkinKashmirandPunjab.Ithelpstoprovidethemostbasicofservicesincluding:bloodbanks,schools,clinicsandanambulanceservice.Furthermore,“Pakistan'smilitarymayhesitatetogoafterAlQaedainthetribalareas,butit'sevenlesseagertoconfrontLashkaratitsbaseinthecountry'sheartland...LeTandthePakistaniArmydrawmanyoftheirrecruitsfromthesamepoorPunjabiareas,oftenfromthesamefamilies,andLeT'shumanitarianwingworkedalongsidethePakistanimilitarytohelpciviliansdisplacedduringtheArmy'scampaigntoretaketheSwatValleyfromtheTaliban”(Kahn,2).Pakistannowfindsitselfinahardplace.LeThasprovidednotonlystructurebutalsoasenseofidentityformanywhofeelasiftheydonotbelong.TheUnitedStatespressuringPakistantomonitorandgetridofthesegroupsmakesthesituationevenmoredelicate,whichiswhyPakistaniterrorismtowardsthewestshowsonlysignsofincreasing.ThegreatestthreattoIndiaandtheUnitedStatesisPakistaniterrorismfueledbythelackofaPakistaniidentityandextremistMuslimrhetoric.Afterdiscussingthedeepercontextofwhatisterrorism,whoisaterroristandwhyterrorismoccurs,itisclearwhyPakistaniterrorismispredictableandwhyPaksitanisponsoredterrorismagainstIndiaandtheWestwillmostlikelybeontheriseinthefuture.PakistaniterroristsandactsofterrorismareontheclimbingbecauseoftheveryproblemofPakistaniidentity,orthelackofone.Sincethe51

partitionbetweenIndiaandPakistan,PakistanhasstruggledincreatingaunifiedPakistaniidentity.PakistantriedturningtowardshatredtowardsIndiaandseparatismonlytostillisdealingwiththesameissuesaftersixty‐threeyearsofindependence.TheglobaljihadismmovementinPakistanhasbecomeasanunintendedconsequenceoftheIndianPartition.Pakistanisarelookingforwhateveryhumanbeingcraves:asenseofbelongingandidentity.Whilemanyofthemadrasas’formerstudentsbecomemartyrsonthelocallevel,inareassuchasKashmirandPunjab,wenowseeeducatedindividualswithPakistanibackgroundsattheforefrontofterrorismintheWest.ManyPakistanishavefoundasourceofidentityintheglobaljihadistmovements.Thesegroupshavebecomeaplaceofbelonging,alongwithawaytoventfrustration.WithabuildingpressureonPakistanfromtheWest,moreandmorePakistanisarecommunicatingtheirfeelingsofisolationthroughactsofterrorism.52

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