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200 NOTES TO CHAPTER 1The Education of a Twentieth-Century Notable (Princeton: Princeton UniversityPress, 1985); Zeghal, Gardiens de l’Islam; FrankE. Vogel, Islamic Law and LegalSystem: Studies of Saudi Arabia (Leiden: Brill, 2000); Zamakhsyari Dhofier, ThePesantren Tradition: The Role of the Kyai in the Maintenance of Traditional Islamin Java, Program for Southeast Asian Studies Monograph Series (Tempe: ArizonaState University, 1999). On the Pakistani ‘ulama, Leonard Binder’s Religion andPolitics in Pakistan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961) examines theirparticipation in constitutional debates during the first decade of the country’shistory; and Jamal Malik’s Colonialization of Islam: Dissolution of TraditionalInstitutions in Pakistan (Delhi: Manohar, 1996) looks at the ‘ulama in the contextof the Islamization policies of General Zia al-Haqq (1977–88). Neither workdealsexclusively with the ‘ulama.CHAPTER 1. ISLAMIC LAW AND THE ‘ULAMAIN COLONIAL INDIA1. The most influential formulations of this position are Joseph Schacht, Introductionto Islamic Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964); N. J. Coulson, A Historyof Islamic Law (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1964). For a briefreview of the history of Islamic legal studies in the West, on which I draw here,see Judith Tucker, In the House of the Law: Gender and Islamic Law in OttomanSyria and Palestine (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 11ff.; for amore detailed account, see Baber Johnson, Contingency in a Sacred Law: Legaland Ethical Norms in the Muslim Fiqh (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 42ff.2. See, for instance, Johansen, Contingency; Wael B. Hallaq, Law and LegalTheory in Classical and Medieval Islam (London: Variorum, 1995); idem, Historyof Islamic Legal Theories; idem, Authority, Continuity, and Change in IslamicLaw (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Messick, The CalligraphicState.3. See, for instance, R. C. Jennings, “Kadi, Court, and Legal Procedure in Seventeenth-CenturyOttoman Kayseri,” Studia Islamica 48 (1978): 136–62; idem,“Limitations on the Judicial Powers of the Kadi in Seventeenth-Century OttomanKayseri,” Studia Islamica 50 (1979): 151–84; Galal El-Nahal, The Judicial Administrationof Egypt in the Seventeenth Century (Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica,1979); Wael B. Hallaq, “From Fatwas to Furu‘: Growth and Change in IslamicSubstantive Law,” Islamic Law and Society 1 (1994): 17–56; Johansen, Contingency,61 and passim.4. Wael B. Hallaq, “Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?” International Journal ofMiddle East Studies 16 (1984): 3–41.5. Sherman A. Jackson, Islamic Law and the State: The Constitutional Jurisprudenceof Shihab al-Din al-Qarafi (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1996).6. Recent revisionist workon the rhetoric, complexities, and functions of taqlidincludes: Jackson, Islamic Law and the State; Hallaq, Authority, Continuity,and Change, 86–120, 236–41, and passim. Also see Vogel, Islamic Law, passim;and chapter 4 of the present work.7. Tucker, In the House of the Law.