2007 - Centre for Ecological Sciences - Indian Institute of Science

Shinduvadi Village EcosystemShivamogga District, KarnatakaState of Environment andNa tural Resources 2007Arun KS, Ashwini Das ON, Brijesh SB, Chaitra M, Gurumurthy BH,Krishnakumar K, Poornima V, Ramesh Babu N, Ravikumar AR, Rekha R,Saritha GR, Shilpa YM, Sneha S, Sowjanya TV, Sujatha NCentre for Sustainable TechnologiesIndian Institute of Science, Bengaluru 560012

State of Environment and Natural Resources 2007Shinduvadi Village EcosystemShivamogga District, KarnatakaVillage Natural Resource Monitoring CellCentre for Sustainable TechnologiesIndian Institute of Science

Shinduvadi Village Ecosystem: State of Environment and NaturalResources 2007Published byCentre for Sustainable TechnologiesIndian Institute of Science, Bengaluru 560012Year of publication2008Conceived and Coordinated byRakesh TiwariCentre for Sustainable Technologies, Indian Institute of ScienceGuidance and supportProf. NH Ravindranath, Indu K Murthy, Sandhya RaoTechnical SupportMythri DJ, Ajay GA, Rashmi Tiwari, Swarnima SinghField teamArun KS, Ashwini Das ON, Brijesh SB, Chaitra M, Gurumurthy BH,Krishnakumar K, Poornima V, Ramesh Babu N, Ravikumar AR, Rekha R,Saritha GR, Shilpa YM, Sneha S, Sowjanya TV, Sujatha NTeam supported byPathways unitSahyadri Science CollegeShivamoggaSupported byIndia Canada Environment FacilityNew Delhi 110066ContactVNRM CellCentre for Sustainable TechnologiesIndian Institute of science, Bengaluru 560012Karnataka, Indiavnrmcell@astra.iisc.ernet.inPhotographyShimogarakeshReport available online:http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/ravi/vnrm/Home.html

ForewordIt is the youth, the students who will redefine the development of the country. Thisunique piece of work is an output of dedicated work carried out by theundergraduate students of Pathways Unit, Sahyadri Science College, Shivamogga.Students from varied streams put together their efforts and valuable time tounderstand the problems and issues related to natural resources and communitiesdepending on them by interacting with the people of Shinduvadi. The students gotan opportunity to learn basic research methodologies at a budding stage. Theactivity also sensitized the students to issues and problems of the farmingcommunity and the underlying causes. This coordinated work is a cleardemonstration of research reaching the lowest of the economic strata. Thisendeavour by students is probably a first of its kind in the country wherecollaboration between a research institute and a college has produced an outputwhich could be used for policy-making at the grassroots' level. This also sets anexample for other colleges for taking up pro-society research initiatives.VNRM cellCentre for Sustainable TechnologiesIndian Institute of Science

AcknowledgementWe would like to thank the people of Shinduvadi for extending support, withoutwhich this exercise would not have been possible. Thanks are also due to thefollowing:Mr. Rudresh, Tahashildar and staff members, Thirthahalli talukMr. Siddappa, Deputy Tahashildar, Thirthahalli talukMr. Mahesh Gowdru, President of Mandagadde panchayatMr. K.V. Subbanna, Village Accountant, Mandagadde panchayatMr. Rajanna, Revenue Officer, MandagaddeMr. Eshwar, Member of Gram panchayat, ShinduvadiMr. Bhaskar, Mr. Hiriyanna, Mr. Preetham, Mr. Prem Kumar, Mr. Satish andMr. Vasappa, ShinduvadiDr. G.J. Satish, Lecturer, Department of Biochemistry, Sahyadri ScienceCollege, Shivamogga.We would like to thank Prof. Martin Mortimer, School of Biological Sciences,University of Liverpool, PR Bhat, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Uttara Kannada,Suresh HS, Centre for Ecological Sciences, KR Thiruppathi, B Radha Tiwari, andSomashekhara Achar KG for taking time to read this report and for providingvaluable inputs.

ContentsIntroduction 1The village 3Demography and rainfall 6Land 8Cropping pattern 9Agro-forestry 12Forest and wildlife 13Livestock 16Soil and water 18Energy infrastructure and sanitation 20Shinduvadi ecosystem—an overview 21

Soil: types, distribution and soil organic carbon (SOC) statusWater: irrigation water (availability, seasonality and groundwaterstatus), drinking water (availability or accessibility, seasonality, qualityand effort involved)Livestock: population, composition, grazing pattern, fodder availabilityand dung productionWild fauna: composition of major birds and vertebrate pestsApart from these resources, information was also gathered on parameterssuch as demography, land-holding and occupation pattern, rainfall pattern,sanitation, electrification status, use of energy devices, human effortinvolved in collection of drinking water and fuelwood and institutionalstatus.NWESShivamogga districtShinduvadiAgro-ecological zones35.26.16.26.36.47.17.27.38.18.28.310.110.210.310.41112.112.212.315.118.118.218.318.418.519.119.219.3Figure 1: AEZ map of South India showing Shivamogga district and ShinduvadiMethodsThe following methods, which are based on the guidelines and protocolsdeveloped by the Centre for Sustainable Technologies, Indian Institute ofScience, were adopted.Secondary records were consulted to obtain general information aboutthe village, including demography, rainfall, past land-use, croppingpattern, irrigation and livestock. The information was gathered from4

different departments such as the Thirthahalli taluk office andMandagadde panchayat. A cadastral map of the village, dated 1910,was used as the base map.Field studies, which are given below, were conducted to gatherinformation on different resource indicators of the village ecosystem.Land survey The land was surveyed to demarcate and map currentland-use systems, cropping pattern and irrigation sources. A mapprepared in 1910 was digitized and used as the base map todemarcate current land-use. Latitudes and longitudes of strategiclocations were ascertained and recorded. Land history was recordedwherever available.Vegetation survey To understand the extent of different foresttypes, species composition, regeneration status and biomasscomposition, four sample plots measuring 50 × 20 m were laid out.Each plot was evaluated for trees with height above 130 cm and girthgreater than 10 cm at breast height. In each tree plot, two shrubplots (5 × 5 m each) and four herb plots (1 × 1m each) were laid.Agro-forestry survey The survey was in fact a census and wasextended to trees above 10 cm in girth at breast height and 130 cm inheight to study the non-forest tree cover of the village, especiallycropland bunds and block plantations. Parameters consideredinclude species composition and density.Soil and water Soil samples were collected representing major landuse and cropping systems and samples of drinking water werecollected from major drinking water sources.Bird survey An all-out search for terrestrial birds in differentland-use systems (cropland and forest) was carried out during earlymonsoon (June) to understand the avifaunal composition of thevillage.Household survey was undertaken to obtain additional information oncropping methods, fertilizer and manure application, water and fuelsources, consumption pattern, etc.Participatory rural appraisal was carried out to understand communityperception of the status and trends in various resources, the usagepatterns and the factors for changes, if any.Laboratorymeasurements were made to determine the status of soilsfrom different land-use systems and the quality of drinking water fromdifferent sources.The inventory was carried out from October 2007 to February 2008, whichis referred as the current period in this report. The land-use and croppingparticulars are of kharif, the main cropping season (conducted during theharvesting period). The bird survey was carried out in June 2008.5

Demography and rainfallPhoto: Dr. BC PatilThe current population of the village is 246, comprising 95 men, 98 womenand 53 children in 42 households. There has been a decreasing trend (43%)in the population of the village over the past three decades. The number ofhouseholds has also decreased by 44% over the past 25 years. Thisreduction is mainly driven by reduced returns from agriculture,abandonment of agriculture in a few cases and migration in search oflivelihood opportunities (Figures 2 and 3).Number4503753002251507501971 1981 1991 2001 2007Figure 2: Trends in populationNumber8060402001981 1991 2001 2007Figure 3: Trends in number of householdsSmall14%Large17%Medium49%Landless20%Current land holding status(percent households)Land Holding and OccupationAgriculture is the primary occupation of about 45% of the households inShinduvadi and 49% are involved in agriculture-related businesses. About50% of the farmers are categorized as medium farmers (holding 3–10acres); 17% are large farmers (holding more than 10 acres) and 14% aresmall farmers (less than 3 acres). About 20% of the households are oflandless labourers. All men in the village are engaged in agriculturalactivities; about a third are labourers. Approximately 18% of the men areinvolved in secondary occupations such as fishing and other agro-basedindustries. About 75% of the women work: agriculture (31%), labour (39%)and others (5%).Trends and ImplicationsThe number of land-owning farmers has increased by 77% whereas that oflandless labourers has decreased by about 25% over the past 15 years. Theincrease in the number of medium farmers can be attributed tofragmentation of land holdings. Migration for employment and betterincome has led to the decline in the number of agricultural labourersleading to labour scarcity (Figures 4 and 5).6

Percent100%80%60%40%20%Number180120601991 20070%Men WomenAgriculture Labour Others NoneFigure 4: Current occupation status(percent households)0CultivatorsLabourersFigure 5: Trends in population involved inagriculture and labourRainfall TrendsMost of the rainfall is received during the monsoon, July and August beingthe peak months. The rainfall is quite high since the village is located in theWestern Ghats high-rainfall zone. The mean annual rainfall of Thirthahallitaluk is about 3000 mm and that of Mandagadde is 2000 mm. Annual peakover the years is showing shift towards September which is significant inyear 2002 and 2004 (Figures 6 and 7).Rainfall in mm10009008007006005004003002001000Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006Figure 6: Trends in monthly rainfallThe region experienced drought from 2001 to 2004, which affectedagricultural activities in the region. However, above-average rainfall in thepast couple of years has led to revival of agricultural activities.The average minimum and maximum temperatures of the region are 13 °Cand 38.1 °C.2500Taluk mean2000Rainfall in mm1500100050001993 1994 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006Figure 7: Trends in rainfall7

LandMajor land-use systems in the village include cropland, forest land, waterbodies, wasteland and grazing land. Cropland (230 ha) accounts for 46% ofthe total area of the village. Forests and plantations (104 ha) account for21%. Four ponds (71 ha) account for 14% and other land categoriesincluding wasteland (21 ha) and grazing land (15 ha) account for theremaining 20% of the total area (Figure 8).Trends in Land-usePast land-use data were obtained from secondary records collected fromthe revenue department. The data were available for 1987 and 1995.Figures related to cropping pattern and irrigation sources were also derivedfrom past records.Area under cultivation decreased by 50% between 1987 and 1995 to147 ha;however, it increased later and measures 230 ha at present. Area undercrops has decreased and in few cases, agricultural lands have beenabandoned. Dedicated grazing lands are totally lost: in the past threedecades, they have been either converted to tree plantations orabandoned.NWES200 mArecaAreca mixedBananaCoffeePaddyKhushki*Grazing landAbandoned coffeePondSettlementSoppinabettaOthersFigure 8: Current land use* non-arable drylands8

Cropping patternCropping CalendarThe cropping pattern of the village consists of both perennial and annualcrops. Perennials or plantations mainly include areca. Paddy is the majorannual crop. Currently paddy is cultivated as a kharif crop, dependentmainly on rains. Due to non-availability of irrigation during summer, paddyis not cultivated in the second season i.e., rabi.Paddy55%Areca29%Areca mixed12%Current StatusPaddy is the major crop of Shinduvadi, currently grown on 128 ha (55% ofthe total). The crop is primarily rainfed and cultivated during kharif withponds as an additional source of irrigation. Areca is the second major crop,currently cultivated on 94 ha (41% of the total); 27 ha of these support suchintercrops and mixed crops as paddy, banana, vanilla, turmeric and coffee(Figure 9).Tree plantation4%Current crop compositionNWESArecaAreca mixedPaddyFigure 9: Current cropping patternTrendsAgricultural activities in Shinduvadi have been fluctuating over the past twodecades. In a few cases, agricultural lands have been abandoned andplantations established (about 132 ha of coffee plantation has beenabandoned). Such changes may be due to factors such as shortage oflabour, increased cost of cultivation and price fluctuations.9

Area in ha2502001501005001987 1995 2007Trends in cultivated areaArea under areca has increased threefold over the past three decades.Areca is fast replacing paddy, area under which has been fluctuating owingto non-availability of irrigation. About 20 years ago, paddy was cultivatedtwice a year, as a rainfed crop in kharif and irrigated with pond water in rabi.Currently the ponds are silted and farmers are forced to depend on rainsand harvest only one crop a year. Coffee, which was introduced during earlyyears of the 20th century, was the major crop during the 1980s. Cultivationof coffee was completely abandoned in the past decade mainly because oflack of a good market, fluctuating prices and labour scarcity, although suchfactors as inadequate rainfall and lack of transport also played a role.Farmers are currently introducing rubber in an effort to stabilize returnsfrom agriculture (Figure 10).1401987 1995 2007105Area in ha70350Areca Coffee Banana PaddyFigure 10: Trends in major cropsCrop VarietiesPaddy varieties currently cultivated include Jaya, Jyothi, BGM Sona, IT andBhagyajyothi. Areca variety cultivated is local. There has been a gradualchange in the varieties of paddy being cultivated. Varieties cultivated 10–15years ago included Jyothi, 1001, 1010 and Intan; farmers now preferimproved varieties for higher yields and returns.Pests and Pest ControlBlast of paddy, a fungal disease, is the major disease; it was reported by 52%of the cultivating households. Aphid infestation was reported by 9% of theresponding households whereas 22% of the responding householdsreported no pests. The major disease of areca is koleroga, a fungal disease,which was reported by 87% of the cultivating households; 9% reportedother diseases as well.Control measures adopted for blast of paddy include application ofpesticides such as enosan and democran. Bordeaux mixture (1:1:1 ratio byweight of copper sulphate, lime and adjuvant) is applied to control kolerogaof areca at the rate of 25–40 barrels (3100–4600 litres) per ha annually.Usually a precautionary spray is given before the rains and once infection isobserved, three to four rounds of bordeaux application are undertaken.Organic pesticides such as neem cake and neem oil are also used forkoleroga in a few cases.10

Fertilizer and Manure ApplicationFertilizers are applied in larger doses for areca (0.6 t/ha) than for paddy (0.4t/ha). On the other hand, paddy gets greater quantities of organic manure(4.8 t/ha) than areca (2.9 t/ha).There has been a drastic reduction (about 90%) in the application of organicmanure to the croplands. Although there is land legally earmarked assoppinabetta for supplying green manure for areca, neither green leavesnor dry leaves from forest are used as manure, and gliricidia, which exists inabundance on bunds and is a good source of leafy manure, is hardly used.Trends in Crop YieldsHalf of the areca-cultivating households reported reduction in yield overthe past 5–10 years, 38% reported an increase and the rest reported nochange. The reduction in yield can be attributed to koleroga infection,which can reduce yields by up to 21%. In the case of paddy, 36% householdsreported increased yields, an equal proportion reported no change and therest 28% reported reduction. Increase in yield can be attributed to suchhigh-yielding varieties as Jaya and Bhagyajyothi.Wild boars are a major vertebrate pest, which can cause losses of paddyyields from 50% to 100%. Monkeys are a menace to areca, and can causelosses up to 50%.% change100806040200ArecaPaddyIncrease Decrease No changeTrends in crop yields11

Forest and wildlifeNatural ForestsThere are 19 tree species represented by 245 individuals/ha in the naturalforests of Shinduvadi. Syzygium cuminii, an evergreen tropical tree, is thedominant species, accounting for almost a quarter of the total number ofindividual trees. The other dominant species include Erythrina suberosa(20%), Ficus glomerata (8%), Vitex altissima (8%) and Ficus infectoria (6%).Almost one-third of the total number of individuals are in the largest girthclass of >40 cm, followed by 21% in the 30–40 cm girth class. This indicatesthat regeneration in natural forests is affected, given that larger treesoutnumber smaller trees. The diversity index of the forest is 2.46, indicatinga larger diversity.PlantationsTree density in the plantations is 645 trees/ha belonging to 12 species. Theplantations are, however, predominantly a monoculture of Acaciaauriculiformis with about 550 individual trees/ha. Naturally regeneratedspecies in the plantation include Diospyros montana, Terminalia bellerica,Elangium lamarkii, Ervatamia heyneana and seven other species (Table 1).The number of trees in the 10–20 cm girth class is maximum, followed bythat in the 20–30 cm girth class. Girth class of >40 cm accounts for the leastnumber, indicating recent efforts to raise plantations. The diversity index ofthe plantations is low at 0.75, indicating dominance of a single species, inthis case Acacia auriculformis (Figure 12).350300PlantationNatural forestNUmber of individuals2502001501005000-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 >40Girth classFigure 12: Composition of trees—girth wise13

Biomass StockBasal area is an indicator of the growing stock and biomass production of aforest. The basal area recorded in natural forests and plantations are2comparable at about 26 m /ha. Acacia auriculiformis, the dominant speciesin the plantations, contributes 67% of the total basal area in plantations.However, in the natural forests Vitex altissima (25.3%) and Syzygiumcuminii (23.6%) together contribute about 50% of the total basal area innatural forests. The total biomass is higher in the plantations (162 t/ha)than in natural forests (107 t/ha).Table 1: Species richness, biomass and basal area in forestsPlantation Natural forestNo. of species observed 2 + 10 naturally existing 19Stem density (number/ha) 645 245Diversity index 0.75 2.462Basal area (m /ha) 26.51 25.59Biomass (t/ha) 162.30 106.60DisturbanceCut stems in a forest or plantation are an indicator of the level ofdisturbance or extraction. Of the cut stems in the plantations of Shinduvadi,94% are of Acacia auriculiformis. Other species that have been cut includeTerminalia paniculata and Xylia xylocarpa.Wild Fauna and BirdsThe village is close to a bird sanctuary in the Shettihalli forest range. TheMandagadde area, which was declared a sanctuary in 1974, is part of theadjacent Lingapura village. The sanctuary is in fact a small island in RiverTunga. The peak season is monsoon (June–October), when migratory birdsarrive and breed in the wetlands spread over 1.5 acres. Three major speciescongregate in the sanctuary for breeding, namely median egret, darter andlittle cormorant. The sanctuary also harbours such predators as the civet,the mongoose and monkeys. Major bird species in the sanctuary includenon-migratory birds such as little egret, smaller egret, little cormorant,darter and pond heron. Among them, egret is the major breeding birdduring the monsoon. White ibis is the only local migratory bird. Otherresident land species include brahmini kite, rose-ringed parakeet, barredjungle owlet, small blue kingfisher, Indian pitta, black drongo, commonmyna, house crow, red-whiskered bulbul, large pied wagtail, housesparrow, crow pheasant, Tickell's flowerpecker, black-headed bunting andgolden oriole.Shinduvadi, which is only 4 km from the sanctuary, reveals a marked impactof the birds in the sanctuary. The major birds sighted in the sanctuary areusually observed in the village. Nearly 21 species of birds other than the14

irds of the sanctuary were observed in the croplands and forests ofShinduvadi. Common avifauna such as red-whiskered bulbul, red-ventedbulbul, myna and babblers are sighted very frequently. House sparrowpopulation has declined since two decades according to communityperception (Table 2).Other than birds, the ecosystem sustains diverse populations of insects(including moths and butterflies) and amphibians.Table 2: Birds sighted in ShinduvadiAshy priniaAsian koelBlack drongoBramhini kiteCrow pheasantCommon ioraCommon mynaGold-fronted chloropsisGrey titHouse crowHouse sparrowIndian peafowlIndian robinIndian treepieJungle babblerJungle mynaLesser golden-back woodpeckerLoten’s flowerpeckerPeafowlPied bushchatPurple-rumped sunbirdRed-vented bulbulRed-whiskered bulbulScarlet minivetSmall blue kingfisherSouthern hill mynaSpotted doveSpotted muniaWhite-breasted waterhen15

LivestockComposition and TrendsThe current livestock population of the village is 254, comprising cows(72%), bullocks (9%) and buffaloes (19%). There are no cross-bred cattle orsheep or goats in the village. The population of livestock has decreaseddrastically, by over 40%, during the past two decades, driven mainly byreduced agricultural activity, decreased population and conversion ofdedicated grazing lands to plantations leading to reduced availability offodder (Figure 13).400300Numbers200100BuffaloesBullockCow01987 1997 2002 2007Figure 13: Livestock population trendsGrazing Pattern and Dung ProductionGrazing is practised mainly in the forest (54%) and soppinabetta (20%). Thekey grazing location for livestock during the cropping season is the acaciaplantation. After the crop is harvested, livestock depends on the harvestedcroplands or on stall feeding. Paddy straw is the major source of fodder inthe village after the harvest. Annually about 3.5 tonnes of dry fodder isrequired per head of cattle. Although no fixed hours are allotted for grazing,cattle usually graze for about 8 hours a day.Each cow and buffalo produces on an average 23 and 20 kg of dung a dayrespectively whereas each bullock produces about 4 kg. There is very littlescope to establish a community-scale biogas plant in the village. However,where there are enough animals to meet the minimum dung requirementof a biogas plant, a few home-scale units can be established.16

Soppinabetta—A declining traditionBetta or soppinabetta (soppina means leaves and betta means an area or hillock with vegetation) isthe local name for a protected forest, and the term is used in the Indian Forest Act. The betta forestswere assigned to farmers for the purpose of supplying organic matter in the form of green and dryleaves to areca gardens. The British extended this special privilege to areca farmers during 1867 withsome regulations facilitating optimal and sustainable use of the forest resources. The farmers weregiven the privilege of collecting green leaves for the purpose of mulch, fuelwood, grass, NTFPs andsmall timber for their bonafide use. About 6–9 ha of betta lands were assigned to each hectare ofareca garden. Any type of commercial-level extraction is banned in these forests. Area under bettaforests has been declining over the decades and in Shinduvadi, these lands are being eitherprotected completely (no extraction allowed) or are being converted to plantations. Moreover,labour scarcity has led to a decline in the practice of using organic matter from soppinabetta. As aconsequence, green leaves are never used as manure in Shinduvadi.WNSEBanda kaanu*CroplandHeddari kaanu*Kaanu*Karada byana*Mekki kaanu*OthersSettlementSoppinabetta* Traditional forest categoriesExtent of different forest categories in 191017

Soil and waterPercent organic carbon1.81.51.20.90.60.30.0Areca Paddy CoffeeplantationForest0.75%, high.Soil organic carbon statusSoil QualitySoils of Shinduvadi are mainly a mix of black soils and red soils. In paddy andareca lands, organic carbon content was medium. Lower levels of organiccarbon in croplands can be attributed to intensive cultivation practices,whereas forests recorded higher levels (1.5%) due to undisturbed soils. Theabandoned coffee plantations also recorded high levels (1.4%).Soils under both areca and paddy recorded comparable bulk densities, pHvalues, and available potassium content. Bulk density ranged from 1.36 to1.37 g/cc. The soils are moderately acidic, with areca recording 5.9±0.4 andpaddy, 5.6±0.5. Soils are rich in available potassium: 271.81 and 276.31kg/ha in areca and paddy soils respectively (Table 3).Table 3: Cropland nutrient statusAreca PaddyPercent organic carbon 0.46 0.55Bulk density in g/cc 1.36 1.37pH 5.87 5.55Available potassium in kg/ha* 271.81 276.31Available sulphur in kg/ha 14.83 14.68* 120, high.Canal and streams41%Rains42%Groundwater8%Irrigation sourcesPond8%Irrigation SourcesAgriculture in Shinduvadi is mainly rainfed. Canals and streams form themajor irrigation sources. Groundwater sources such as open wells andbore-wells meet 8% of the irrigation requirements. Pond water irrigatesanother 8% of the croplands. The community is, therefore, dependent onrains and alternative sources such as canals and streams for irrigation,which makes agriculture vulnerable to water stress. Paddy is basicallyrainfed in kharif, and rabi paddy is dependent on pond irrigation. Borewellsand open wells meet the water requirements of areca in summer.Net irrigated area has been decreasing over the past three decades owingto decrease in agricultural activities and water scarcity. Ponds, which usedto be a major source of irrigation (102 ha) until 1995 have silted up andcurrently irrigate only about 18 ha of croplands (80% reduction). The extentof land dependent on rain has also decreased substantially (by 60%) overthe same period and is currently 98 ha. Ponds and rainwater are usedequally as sources of irrigation during kharif but ponds serves as the solesource in rabi and summer. Although groundwater is plentiful, its use for18

irrigation is very limited and is currently restricted to kharif as asupplementary source. It is most likely that in future, people will have toswitch over to groundwater sources or desilt the ponds to sustain thereturns from agriculture.Due to paucity of irrigation water, people raise a single crop such as paddy ina cropping year, which is badly dependent on rainfall and alternativesources. This has lowered the dependency on irrigated annual crops andencouraged the shift to perennial crops and, in a few cases, to agriculturebeing abandoned.Area in ha1987 1995 2007300250200150100500PondRainsTrends in irrigation sourcesDrinking WaterSources and Consumption PatternGroundwater is the major source of water for drinking and for otherdomestic needs. A third of the households depend on open wells. There are6 open wells and 4 hand pumps in the village, which serve as sources ofdrinking water. Mini water supply taps, fed by an overhead tank, are used by46% households. All the sources are easily accessible to the householdswithin a range of 0.5 km. Communities spend on an average about 1.5 hoursto a maximum of 2.5 hours daily for collecting water.Taps46%Borewells33%Wells13%Average daily per capita water consumption for drinking, bathing andcooking is 2, 30 and 4 litres respectively. Per capita consumption of waterfrom ponds is maximum (41 litres), followed by open wells (27 litres) andtaps (24 litres); water from hand pumps is used the least (15 litres).Others8%Drinking water sourcesWater QualityChemical quality of water from major sources of drinking water in thevillage was studied. All parameters except nitrate were within thepermissible limits laid down by the Bureau of Indian Standards. The nitratecontent can be attributed to contamination with bird droppings or leachingof water from manure pits (Table 4).Table 4: Drinking water quality status#Desirable limits#1Permissible limits Tap Over head tank Open wellTurbidity as NTU 5.00 10.00

Shinduvadi ecosystem - an overviewShinduvadi agricultural ecosystem has undergone significant changes owing to changes in availability ofwater for irrigation, labour scarcity and deficient rainfall over the past 5–10 years. Coffee, a commercial cropcultivated in the past, has been abandoned as a result of deficient rainfall and labour scarcity. Dependenceon agriculture as a primary occupation has declined over the years. Population of Shinduvadi has decreasedand people are looking for alternative sources of income. Parallely, due to decrease in the population, thereis labour scarcity within the village and people depend on labour from neighbouring villages paying themhigher wages. There have been significant changes in land-use over the past three decades with fluctuationsin net area cultivated, which is largely driven by deficit rainfall and loss of grazing lands. Monocultureplantations of acacia have been raised on lands that were set aside for grazing in the past. The traditionalpractice of using green and dry leaves from soppinabetta for improving soil quality has been discontinued asit requires dedicated labour, which is scarce currently. Gliricidia species, which dominates the non-foresttree cover, is not being used efficiently as green leafy manure. Livestock population has declinedsignificantly, again as a result of decreased availability of labour, smaller population and, of course, loss ofgrazing lands. Soils are acidic and generally low in organic carbon, indicating intensive cultivation anddisturbance.Paddy is mainly dependent on two factors, adequate rainfall and availability of labour for transplanting.Often the high cost of labour makes paddy cultivation a difficult proposition for small farmers. Areca, thesecond major crop, is largely affected by koleroga, which usually occurs in high-rainfall years and results insignificant losses. Farmers are resorting to intercrops and new crops such as rubber.Although groundwater is not used to a large extent forirrigation at present, scarcity due to deficit rains and siltationof ponds, which once used to be the major source for rabipaddy, are most likely to make farmers turn to groundwateras a source of irrigation. All the four ponds in the village needto be desilted to support any agricultural extension.Communities have adopted fuel-efficient stoves. However,there is increasing pressure on forests, given the reductionin availability of crop residues, which are popularly used asfuel, especially for processing of areca, which is fuelintensive.Environmental IssuesSiltation of pondsIncreased pressure on forestsPoor soil qualityEupatorium weed infestationwhich may affect grazing.Forests and plantations in Shinduvadi harbour significant biodiversity. Mandagadde bird sanctuary, close toShinduvadi, makes the village more attractive as the major birds in the sanctuary can be seen in the village aswell. There is no conflict between birds, or the fauna of the ecosystem in general.21