full text - Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego w Krakowie

UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 

CRACOW, POLAND 

UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 

IN WROCLAW, POLAND 

CRACOW – WROCLAW 2010 

ISSN 1731-0652 

COMMITTEE FOR REHABILITATION, PHYSICAL EDUCATION 

AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION OF POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIEN CES 

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SPORT KINETICS – IASK 

AN TRO PO MO TO RY KA 

Vol. 20, nr 49 

INDEX COPERNICUS

KOMITET REHABILITACJI, KULTURY FIZYCZNEJ 

I INTEGRACJI SPOŁECZNEJ PAN 

AKADEMIA WYCHOWANIA FI ZYCZ NE GO 

IM. BRO NI SŁA WA CZECHA W KRA KO WIE 

AKADEMIA WYCHOWANIA FI ZYCZ NE GO 

WE WROCŁAWIU 

KRAKÓW – WROCŁAW 2010 

ISSN 1731-0652 

MIĘDZYNARODOWE STOWARZYSZENIE MOTORYKI SPOR TO WEJ – IASK 

AN TRO PO MO TO RY KA 

Vol. 20, nr 49 

INDEX COPERNICUS

ANTROPOMOTORYKA 

COMMITTEE FOR REHABILITATION, PHYSICAL EDUCATION 

AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION OF POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SPORT KINETICS – IASK 

UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, CRACOW, POLAND 

UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN WROCLAW, POLAND 

VOL. 20, NR 49 CRACOW – WROCLAW 2010 

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE 

CHAIRMAN 

Edward Mleczko 

V-CHAIRMAN 

Zofia Ignasiak 

MEMBERS 

Jan Chmura, Jerzy Januszewski, Andrzej Klimek, Tadeusz Koszczyc, Lesław Kulmatycki, 

Wiesław Osiński, Joachim Raczek, Teresa Sławińska-Ochla, Włodzimierz Starosta 

EDITORIAL BOARD 

Michal Belej (Slovakia), Peter Blaser (Germany), Tadeusz Bober, Janusz Czerwiński, Sławomir Drozdowski, 

Józef Drabik, Joanna Gradek, Peter Hirtz (Germany), Josif Moisiejewicz Fejgenberg (Israel), Adam Haleczko, 

Andrzej Jopkiewicz, Han C.G. Kemper (Holland), Krzysztof Klukowski, Vladimir Lyakh (Russia), 

Robert M. Malina (USA), Wacław Petryński, Ryszard Przewęda, 

Igor Ryguła, Stanisław Sterkowicz, Stanisław Żak 

EDITOR’S OFFICE 

al. Jana Pawła II 78 

31-571 Kraków 

Poland 

Indexed in INDEX COPERNICUS 

Linguistic proofreading: Wacław Petryński 

Copy-editing and proofreading: Barbara Przybyło 

© Copyright by University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland 

Design and DTP: University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland 

Print: Drukarnia Cyfrowa KSERKOP, 30-019 Kraków, ul. Mazowiecka 60 

ISSN 1731-0652

ANTROPOMOTORYKA 

ISSN 1731-0652 

KOMITET REHABILITACJI, KULTURY FI ZYCZ NEJ I INTEGRACJI SPOŁECZNEJ PAN 

MIĘ DZY NA RO DO WE STO WA RZY SZE NIE MOTORYKI SPORTOWEJ – IASK 

AKADEMIA WY CHO WA NIA FI ZYCZ NE GO IM. BRONISŁAWA CZE CHA W KRA KO WIE 

AKADEMIA WYCHOWANIA FIZYCZNEGO WE WROCŁAWIU 

VOL. 20, NR 49 KRAKÓW – WROCŁAW 2010 

REDAKCJA 

Redaktor Naczelny 


Z-ca Redaktora Na czel ne go 

Zofia Ignasiak 

Komitet Redakcyjny 

Jan Chmura, Jerzy Januszewski, Andrzej Klimek, Tadeusz Koszczyc, Lesław Kulmatycki, 

Wiesław Osiński, Joachim Raczek, Teresa Sławińska-Ochla, Włodzimierz Starosta 

RADA REDAKCYJNA 

Michal Belej (Słowacja), Peter Blaser (Niemcy), Tadeusz Bober, Janusz Czerwiński, Sławomir Drozdowski, 

Józef Drabik, Joanna Gradek, Peter Hirtz (Niemcy), Josif Moisiejewicz Fejgenberg (Izrael), Adam Haleczko, 

Andrzej Jopkiewicz, Han C.G. Kemper (Holandia), Krzysztof Klukowski, Vladimir Lyakh (Rosja), 

Robert M. Malina (USA), Wacław Petryński, Ryszard Przewęda, 

Igor Ryguła, Stanisław Sterkowicz, Stanisław Żak 

ADRES REDAKCJI 

al. Jana Pawła II 78 

31-571 Kraków 

Poland 

Czasopismo ANTROPOMOTORYKA jest umieszczone na liście rankingowej INDEX COPERNICUS 

Korekta językowa: Wacław Petryński 

Korekta wydawnicza: Barbara Przybyło 

© Copyright by University School of Physical Education in Cracow 

Opracowanie gra ficz ne i łamanie: Sekcja Koordynacji Projektów Wydawniczych AWF Kraków 

Druk: Drukarnia Cyfrowa KSERKOP, 30-019 Kraków, ul. Mazowiecka 60

NR 49 AN TRO PO MO TO RY KA 

2010 

CONTENTS 

From Editors: In the year 2010 subsequent issue of “Antropomotoryka – Kinesiology” in English 7 

Information for the Authors 9 

DISSERTATIONS AND ARTICLES 

Mohsen Ghanbarzadeh, Abdul Hamid Habibi, Mohammad Reza Zadkarami, Mehdi Bustani, Maryam Mohammadi 

The effect of an anaerobic test on lung indices in some elite basketball players 

Bojan Jošt, Janez Pustovrh, Janez Vodičar 

15 

Philosophy of expert modeling of sport performance of high level athletes 

Ryszard Litkowycz, Kajetan Słomka, Monika Grygorowicz, Henryk Król 

23 

The influence of plyometrics training on the maximal power of the lower limbs in basketball players aged 16–18 

Ireneusz Cichy, Andrzej Rokita, Marek Popowczak, Karolina Naglak 

Psychomotor development of grade I primary school children who are educated by means of traditional 

33 

and non-traditional program 

Łukasz Jadczak, Andrzej Kosmol, Andrzej Wieczorek, Robert Śliwowski 

45 

Motor fitness and coordination abilities vs. effectiveness of play in sitting volleyball 

Bożena Królikowska, Michał Rozpara, Władysław Mynarski, Bogusława Graczykowska, Daniel Puciato 

57 

The calorific cost of young women’s leisure activity 

Bartłomiej Sokołowski, Maria Chrzanowska 

69 

Changes in somatic and motor development in children and adolescents in the years 1980–1988 and in 2000 

Wanda Pilch, Łukasz Tota, Szczepan Wiecha, Dorota Ambroży 

81 

A simple method of assessment of energy expenditure of low-impact aerobic exercises 89 

REVIEW PAPERS 

Włodzimierz Starosta 

The muscle relaxation ability and results in sport of world elite competitors 99 

DISCUSSIONS 

Wacław Petryński, Mirosław Szyndera 

Time perception and motor behaviour of living beings 119 

ANNOUNCEMENTS 

The International Forum “Health and Longevity” in Kielce, Poland 131 

Competition of research papers on physical education teaching for Prof. Czabański’s Award 132 

– 5 –


2010 

SPIS TREŚCI 

Od Redakcji: W roku 2010 kolejny numer czasopisma „Antropomotoryka – Kinesiology” po angielsku 7 

Informacje dla Autorów 11 

ROZPRAWY I ARTYKUŁY 

Mohsen Ghanbarzadeh, Abdul Hamid Habibi, Mohammad Reza Zadkarami, Mehdi Bustani, Maryam Mohammadi 

Wpływ testu wydolności beztlenowej RAST na wskaźniki czynności płuc u koszykarzy wysokiego wyczynu 


15 

Filozofia eksperckiego modelowania występu sportowego wysokiego wyczynu 


Wpływ treningu plajometrycznego na poprawę poziomu siły eksplozywnej kończyn dolnych u koszykarzy 

23 

w wieku 16–18 lat 


Rozwój psychomotoryczny uczniów pierwszej klasy szkoły podstawowej edukowanych programem tradycyjnym 

33 

i nietradycyjnym 


45 

Sprawność motoryczna i zdolności koordynacyjne a skuteczność gry w siatkówce na siedząco 


57 

Koszt kaloryczny aktywności wolnoczasowej młodych kobiet 


69 

Zmiany w rozwoju somatycznym i motorycznym u dzieci i młodzieży w latach 1980–1988 i w roku 2000 


81 

Prosta ocena wydatku energetycznego aerobiku typu low-impact 89 

PRACE PRZEGLĄDOWE 


Zdolność rozluźniania mięśni a wyniki sportowe zawodników światowej elity 99 

POLEMIKI I DYSKUSJE 


Postrzeganie czasu a zachowanie ruchowe istot żywych 119 

INFORMACJE 

Międzynarodowe Forum „Zdrowie i długowieczność”, Kielce, 20–22 maja 2010 

Konkurs publikacji naukowych z zakresu dydaktyki wychowania fizycznego o Nagrodę Profesora Bogdana 

131 

Czabańskiego 132 

– 6 –


2010 

FROM EDITORS � OD REDAKCJI 

IN THE YEAR 2010 SUBSEQUENT ISSUE 

OF ANTROPOMOTORYKA – KINESIOLOGY IN ENGLISH 

W ROKU 2010 KOLEJNY NUMER CZASOPISMA 

ANTROPOMOTORYKA – KINESIOLOGY PO ANGIELSKU 

In your hands, you have the forty-ninth issue of our 

journal, the second one made up of English-written texts. 

That is due to the terms of editorial contract, under which 

English and Polish issues of the quarterly should appear 

alternately. The fi ftieth, jubilee, issue of Antropomotoryka 

– Kinesiology is going to appear in Polish. 

The problem that should be rethought currently by 

the Editorial Committee is the way of delivery our journal 

to the readership. Until now, subsequent issues of 

Antropomotoryka – Kinesiology have been published 

in the traditional way as printed brochures. Nowadays, 

when academic audience raises more and more boldly 

the need for e-periodicals, electronic version of our 

Cracow-Wroclaw quarterly is taken into consideration. 

We believe that the readers’ need will be met soon. 

With the opening of the editorial year 2010, we 

would like to encourage the readers to study every 

section of Antropomotoryka – Kinesiology paragraph 

after paragraph, page after page. Among the authors 

you can fi nd the representatives of academic institutions 

from home and abroad (e.g. from Slovenia and 

Iran). Current issue of our journal is devoted mainly 

to biological and environmental determinants of sport 

motoricity. 

First of all we would like to focus the readers’ attention 

on three papers: 

• The effect of an anaerobic test on lung indices in 

some elite basketball players, a study written by 

a team of Iranian authors; 

• The infl uence of plyometrics training on the maximal 

power of the lower limbs in basketball players aged 

– 7 – 

16–18 (by Ryszard Litkowycz, Kajetan Słomka, 

Monika Grygorowicz and Henryk Król); 

• Motor fi tness and coordination abilities vs. effectiveness 

of play in sitting volleyball (by Łukasz 

Jadczak, Andrzej Kosmol, Andrzej Wieczorek, 

Robert Śliwowski). 

Then we suggest concentrating on the fi ndings of 

Philosophy of expert modelling of sport performance 

of high level athletes. The authors, Slovenian reaserchers: 

Bojan Jošt, Janez Pustovrh and Janez Vodičar opt 

for putting into sport practice their own method for improving 

organizational culture and training procedures. 

Similar method, AHP, is still in its early stages of implementation 

to the realities of Polish research work and 

sporting activities. 

After that, the accent should be put on papers familiarizing 

the audience with the results of pedagogical 

experiments. Ireneusz Cichy, Andrzej Rokita, Marek 

Popowczak and Karolina Naglak in the text Psychomotor 

development of grade in primary school children who 

are educated by means of traditional and non-traditional 

program present the results of researches confi rming the 

impact of innovative techniques of working on the psychomotor 

development of children at early school age. 

Also in this issue, two teams of scientists from different 

university centers focus the reader’s attention on similar 

aspects of recreational training for young women… in 

both cases, the training proved to be ineffective. 

In turn, we have the paper by Maria Chrzanowska 

and Bartłomiej Sokołowski, a team of Cracovian re-

searchers, who have centered their interest upon the 

fi eld of intergenerational changes in motor and somatic 

development of Cracow children and adolescents. 

In the study entitled Changes in somatic and motor 

development in children and adolescents in the years 

1980–1988 and in 2000 the authors hold the readers’ 

interest in a tendency to achieve higher indexes of morphological 

development accompanied by lower motor 

abilities. 

This issue of Antropomotoryka – Kinesiology brings 

also a review paper by Włodzimierz Starosta: The muscle 

relaxation ability and results in sport of world elite 

competitors, outlining the problem on the background 

of literature survey. Wacław Petryński and Mirosław 

From Editors 

– 8 – 

Szyndera close the issue with the study Time perception 

and motor behaviour of living beings in which they 

discuss infl uence of time perception development on 

behaviour control in living beings, including humans. 

What else can I add as an editor-in-chief to this introductory 

note? Let me wish you satisfaction with reading 

current issue of Antropomotoryka – Kinesiology and 

express my gratitude to all those who contributed to 

publish it. All is well that begins well in the year 2010. 


Editor-in-Chief 

of Antropomotoryka – Kinesiology


2010 

INFORMATION FOR THE AUTHORS 

1. “Kinesiology” (“Antropomotoryka”) is an offi cial scientifi c 

quarterly of the International Association of Sport Kinetics 

– IASK, pub lished at the University School of Physical Education, 

Cracow, Poland under the auspices of the Committee 

Rehabilitation, Physical Education and Social Integration the 

Polish Acad emy of Sciences. 

The magazine presents the results of original re search work 

and experiments in the fi eld of human mo to r icity and re lated 

sciences. It also publishes review ar ticles, opinion ar ticles and 

discussion of scientists evalu ating the current situation and 

perspectives of sci en tifi c de vel opment of human motoricity. 

2. Materials for publication (two copies of computer print outs) 

should be sent together with the fl oppy disk at the following 

address: Redakcja “Antro po mo to ryki”, Aka demia Wychowania 

Fizycznego, al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31-571 Kraków, tel. 

012 683 12 78, tel/fax 012 683 10 76, e-mail: antropomotoryka@awf.krakow.pl. 

3. General conditions: 

• Upon submitting a paper to be published the Author 

(Authors) trans fers copyright to the Publishing House of 

the “Antro po mo to ryka”. The works qualifi ed for pub li cation 

become therefore the prop erty of the Publishing House 

of the “Antro po mo to ryka” and cannot be published in 

extenso or in fragments in other pe ri odi cals or other media 

without the written per mission of the Publisher. The work 

submitted for publication in the “Antro po mo to ryka” cannot 

be submitted for pub li cation ear lier on or simultaneously 

in any other pe ri odical. The Author is required to make 

a written statement to this effect. If the work in cludes any 

fi gures, tables, etc. which have al ready been published 

elsewhere, the Author is obliged to obtain a written permission 

for re printing. 

• “Antropomotoryka” accepts demonstrative, origi nal, 

experimental, and historical papers, in for mation about 

conferences, reports from con gresses and con ferences 

on human motoricity, short summa ries of works published 

in foreign pe ri odi cals and book re views on human 

motoricity. Origi nal works are accepted in En glish. 

• The works of particular sci en tifi c value sub mitted and 

accepted for pub li cation earlier on in a for eign sci en- 

– 9 – 

tifi c periodical can also be submitted for publication in 

the “Antro po mo to ryka”, however, on condition that the 

Author ob tains a permission from the publisher of the 

pe ri odical. 

• All papers should be no longer than 22 pages with 1800 

letters per page (i.e. 30 lines 60 points each). They should 

be in double-spaced or 1,5 spaced typewriting on one 

side of the paper only. 

4. Rules of constructing the work: 

• The accompanying letter should contain both home and 

offi ce addresses and the information at which address to 

send the correspondence. 

• Empirical works should contain the following in for mation: 

title, name(s) of the author(s), key words in Polish and in 

English, brief summary in Polish, summary in English 

(as mentioned above), in tro duction, ma terial, methods, 

results and dis cussion, con clusions and bib li og ra phy. 

• The number of key words should be from 3 to 15. 

• The summary has to contain: the purpose of the work, 

material, methods, results and con clusions. 

• The fi rst page should contain the information in the 

following order: title, name(s) of the author(s), scientifi c 

degree(s) of the author(s) and the pro fessional affi liation, 

including the address, key words, brief summary in Polish 

and in English. The summary should not contain less than 

200 and to more than 250 words. 

• The reference materials should be listed on a sepa rate 

sheet of paper. Only the aterials the Author refers to in 

the text may be included. They should be num bered 

using Arabic numerals and placed in the order they 

are quoted in the work (not in the alphabetic order). Each 

item of the reference materials should be written in a new 

verse. The surname(s) of the author(s) of the quoted work 

should be followed by the initials of their fi rst name(s), 

then the original title of the maga zine where the work 

was published should be given. The abbre viation of 

the title of a magazine should be taken from the Index 

Medicus (or In ter na tional Committee of Medical Journal 

Editors: Uni form Re quirements for manu scripts submitted 

in bio medical jour nals. N Engl J Med 1997; 336, 

309–315).

Examples: 

a) works printed in magazines: 

• Casella R, Bubendorf L, Sauter G, Moch H, 

Michatsch MJ, Gasser TC: Focal neu roen do crine 

differentiation lacks prognostics sig nifi cance in 

prostate core needle biopsies. J Urol, 1998; 160: 

406–410. 

b) monographs: 

• Matthews DE, Farewell VT: Using and Un derstanding 

Medical Statistics, ed 3, re vised. Basel, 

Karger, 1966. 

c) chapters in textbooks: 

• Parren PWHI, Burton DR: Antibodies against 

HIV-1 from phage display libraries; Mapping of an 

immune response and progress towards antiviral 

immu no therapy; in Capra JD (ed): An ti body Engineering, 

Chem. Immunol. Basel, Karger, 1997, 

65: 18–56. 

• Kokot F: Fizjologia nerek; (w:) Zieliński J, Leń ko 

J (eds): Urologia, War sza wa, PZWL, 1992, 1: 

9–20. 

All the illustrations have to be of high quality. Graphic 

material should be submitted on white sheets of pa per. 

Copies of photographs and pho to graphs should be submitted 

on glossy paper. The con secutive num ber of the 

photograph should be written with a soft pencil on the back 

side of each photograph as well as an arrow marking its 

top edge. Only black and white pictures are printed. Scales 

and pictures should be placed on separate pages and 

numbered with Arabic numerals. The headings, descriptions 

and suscriptions under the pictures and above the 

scales should be written in Polish and English. 

Example in Polish: Tabela 1., Ryc. 1., Objaśnienia, 

Chłopcy 

Example in English: Table 1., Fig. 1., Commentary, Boys 

Please, use round pa ren the ses. Physical or chemical 

for mu lae should be written clearly. This re fers par ticu larly 

to in di ces and ex po nents. 

The article can be written using the editor of MS Word 6.0 

to XP or Star Offi ce 5 PL, preferably DOC or RTF for mat. 

Illustrations and tables should be packed in sepa rate 

fi les and, on the printouts, the place where they are to be 

included should be marked in pencil. The graphs made in 

black. It is permissible to use gray tints with various shades 

of intensity and texture. While typing the descriptions uniform 

char ac ter we kindly ask used due to esthetic reasons, 

e.g., arial. Bold print, italics, etc., should be limited to the 

nec essary mini mum. While scanning the illus trations, the 

dis tri bution should be at least 300 dpi. Black and white 

illustrations (line art) should be sent in TIFF for mat and 

pictures (gray) – in TIFF or JPEG format (at the low degree 

of com pression, up to 10%). All the fi les should be packed 

Information for the Authors 

– 10 – 

using RAR or ZIP. After copying them on a fl oppy disk it is 

necessary to check if all the fi les are copied. It is best to 

copy the fi les on a freshly for matted disk. 

The reference materials should be given in the order of 

quotation. 

[1] Żekoński Z, Wolański N: Warunki społeczno-by to we 

jako czynniki rozwoju człowieka w Wo lań ski N (red.): 

Czynniki rozwoju człowieka. War sza wa, PWN, 1987, 

68–88. 

[2] Malarecki I: Zarys fi zjologii wysiłku i treningu spor to wego. 

Warszawa, Sport i Turystyka, 1975. 

[3] Bouchard C, Malina RM: Genetics of phy sio lo gi cal 

fi t ness and motor performance. Exerc. Sport. Sc. Rev. 

1983; 11: 112–115. 

[4] Szopa J: W poszukiwaniu struktury mo to rycz no ści: 

ana li za czynnikowa cech somatycznych, funk cjo nalnych 

i prób spraw no ści fi zycznej u dziewcząt i chłopców 

w wie ku 8–19 lat. Wyd. Monografi czne, Kraków, 

AWF, 1983; 35. 

While quoting the reference materials in the text, only squ are 

parentheses with the number of the quoted item in Arabic 

numerals should be given. When qu oting two or more works 

the square parentheses sho uld con ta in the chronological 

or der of their pu bli ca tion. 

5. Editors’ remarks 

• All the materials are evaluated and anonymously reviewed. 

• The reviewers’ opinion is passed on to the Author by the 

editor. 

• The proof copy of the article will be sent to the Au thor. 

When the necessary corrections are made and the article 

is approved of by the author, it should be sent back, within 

10 days, to the edi torial board of the Antropomotoryka. 

A delay in sending back the article may postpone its printing 

till the next issue of the maga zine. 

• The Publisher of “Antropomotoryka – Kinesiology” reserves 

the right to do stylistic revisions as well as the possible right 

to correct nomenclature and to shorten texts. 

• The articles should be sent with a cover letter signed by 

a senior researcher, who is responsible for the content of 

the article. 

• The Author gets a free copy of the “Antro po mo to ryka – Kinesiology” 

in PDF format. The magazine in book from can 

be ordered on condition of payment when the corrected 

proof copy is returned. 

• Current copies of Antropomotoryka and those from the fi les 

can be ordered on condition of payment from Kra kowska 

Księgarnia Kultury Fizycznej, al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31-571 

Kraków, tel/fax (012) 681 36 22. 

• Summaries in Polish and in English can be found at 

the following internet address: www.awf.krakow.pl; link: 

wydawnictwa, czasopisma, antropomotoryka.


2010 

1. „Antropomotoryka” („Kinesiology”) jest ofi cjal nym, recenzowanym 

kwartalnikiem na uko wym Mię d z y n a r o d o w e g o 

S t o w a r z y s z e n i a M o t o r y k i S p o r t o w e j – I A S K , w y d a w a n y m 

w Akademii Wy cho wa nia Fi zycz ne go w Kra ko wie pod pa trona 

tem Ko mi te tu Rehabilitacji, Kultury Fizycznej i Integracji 

Społecznej PAN. W cza so piśmie przed sta wia ne są wyniki 

ory gi nal nych ba dań i do świad czeń w dzie dzi nie mo to rycz ności 

czło wie ka oraz dziedzin po krew nych. Za miesz cza ne są 

również pra ce prze glądo we, poglądy oraz dys ku sje oceniające 

obec ny stan i per spek ty wy rozwoju do rob ku ba daw cze go 

sze ro ko po ję t e j a n t r o p o m o t o r y k i . 

2. Materiały przeznaczone do druku (dwa eg zem pla r ze w y dr u ków 

komputerowych) należy przesyłać łącz nie z dys kiet ką pod adresem: 

Redakc ja „ A n tro po mo to r y ki ”, A ka de mia Wyc howania Fiz yc znego, 

al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31-571 Kra ków, tel. 012 683 12 78, tel./ 

fax 012 683 10 76, 12 78 lub na adres poczty elektronicznej e-mail: 

antropomotoryka@awf.krakow.pl. 

3. Warunki ogólne 

• Zgłoszenie pracy do druku jest jed no znacz ne z przekazaniem 

przez au to ra (au to rów) prawa do własności 

R e d a k c j i „ A n t r o p o m o t o r y k i ”. P r a c e z a k w a l fi i k o w a n e d o 

w y d r u k o w a n i a s t a ją się zatem wy łącz ną własnością Redak 

cji i nie można ich pu bli ko wać w całości lub w części 

w in nych cza so pi smach lub mediach cyfrowych bez 

pi sem nej zgo dy Wydawcy. Praca złożona do druku 

w „Antropomotoryce” nie może być także wcześniej 

ani równocześnie złożona w in nym cza so pi śmie, co 

stwierdza autor w pi sem nym oświad cze niu. W razie 

umieszczenia w pracy rycin lub ta bel itp., pochodzących 

z opra co wań o p u b l i k o w a n y c h w i n n y c h c z a s o p i s m a c h 

autor ma obo wią zek uzy ska nia zgody na przedruk. 

• Redakcja „Antropomotoryki” przyjmuje do dru ku pra ce 

poglądowe, oryginalne, doświ a d c z a l n e , o p r a c o w a n i a 

h i s t o r y c z n e , k o m u n i k a t y k o n f e r e n c y j n e , s p r a w o z d a n i a 

ze zjaz dów i konferencji o tema ty ce an tro po mo to rycz nej 

oraz krót kie stresz cze nia prac wy dru ko wa nych w czasopi 

smach za gra nicz nych i recenzje książek z za kre su 

t e o r i i m o t o r y c z n ości czło wie ka. Pra ce przeglądowe 

i ory gi nal ne będą z r e d a g o w a n e w ję z y k u p o l s k i m . A r t y - 

kuły mogą być pu bli ko wa ne w ję zy ku angielskim. 

INFORMACJE DLA AUTORÓW 

– 11 – 

• Prace przed sta wia ją ce dużą war tość na ukową, za kwali 

fi k o w a n e w c z e śniej do wy dru ko wa nia w cza so pi śmie 

za gra nicz nym, mogą być rów nież zgło szo ne do druku 

w „An tro po mo to ry ce”, jed nak pod wa run kiem uzyskania 

przez autora pi sem nej zgo dy Wy daw cy cza so pi sma, 

w któ rym teksty zostały lub zo staną opu bli ko wa ne. 

• Objętość artykułu nie powinna przekraczać 22 stron wydruku 

komputerowego, na których zamieszczono po 1800 

znaków (np.: 30 wierszy po 60 znaków). Praca musi być 

napisana jednostronnie z podwójną lub 1,5 interlinią. 

4. Zasady konstrukcji pracy 

• W liście towarzyszącym prosimy podać do kład ne ad re sy 

(zarówno prywatny, jak i miejsca pra cy) z zaznaczeniem, 

gdzie należy przesyłać k o r e s p o n d e n c ję. 

• Prace empiryczne powinny mieć następujący układ: ty tuł, 

imię (imiona) i nazwisko autora (ów), słowa klu czo we w języku 

polskim i angielskim, zwięzłe stresz cze nie w języku 

polskim i an giel skim, wstęp, materiał i metody, wyniki 

ba dań, dys ku sja, wnioski oraz wy kaz piśmiennictwa. 

• Słowa kluczowe powinny liczyć od 3 do 15 wy ra zów. 

• Streszczenie musi zawierać: cel pracy, materiał, me to dy 

lub materiał i metody, wyniki, wnioski. 

• Na pierwszej stronie opracowania należy za mie ścić 

w ko lej ności: tytuł pracy w języku polskim i an giel skim, 

imię i na zwi sko autora(ów), stopień n a u k o w y a u t o r a (ó w ) , 

miejsce za kła du pra cy, sło wa kluczowe oraz zwięzłe 

stresz cze nie po pol sku i an giel sku. Jego objętość nie 

może być mniejsza niż 200 i nie większa niż 250 słów. 

• Spis piśmiennictwa należy wydrukować na osob nej 

stro nie. Prosimy wymienić w nim jedynie po zy cje, na 

które autor powołuje się w tekście. Po win ny być one 

n u m e r o w a n e c y f r a m i a r a b s k i m i i u s z e r e g o w a n e w k o - 

lejności cytowania ich w pra cy (a nie w kolejności al fa betycz 

nej). Każdą po zy cję piśmiennictwa należy zapisywać 

od no we go wiersza. Po nazwisku autora (lub wszyst kich 

au to rów) cytowanej pracy należy po dać pierw sze li te ry 

imion, a następnie tytuł pracy w brzmie niu ory gi nal nym 

oraz nazwę czasopisma, z któ re go praca pochodzi. Skrót 

tytułu cza so pi sma na leży podać zgodnie z jego brzmie niem 

w Index Medicus (patrz rów nież: International Com mit tee of 

Medical Jo ur nal Editors: Uniform re qu ire ments for ma nu-

scripts sub mit ted to bio me di cal jo ur nals. N Engl J Med 

1997; 336; 309–315). 

Przykłady: 

a) prace wydrukowane w cza so pi smach: 

• Casella R, Bubendorf L, Sauter G, Moch H, 

Michatsch MJ, Gasser TC: Focal neu ro en do crine 

dif fe ren tia tion lacks pro gno stic si gni fi cian ce 

in pro sta te core needle biopsies. J Urol, 1998; 

160: 406–410. 

b) monografi e: 

• Matthews DE, Farewell VT: Using and Un derstan 

ding Me di cal Statistics, ed 3, re vi sed. Ba sel, 

Karger, 1996. 

c) rozdziały w książkach: 

• Parren PWHI, Burton DR: Antibodies aga inst 

HIV-1 from phage display libraries; Map ping of an 

im mu ne response and progress towards antiviral 

im mu no the ra py; in Ca pra JD (ed): An ti bo dy Engi 

ne ering. Chem Immunol. Ba sel, Kar ger, 1997, 

65: 18–56. 

• Kokot F: Fizjologia nerek; w Zieliński J, Leń ko 

J (red): Uro lo gia, Warszawa, PZWL, 1992, 1: 

9–20. 

Materiał ilustracyjny musi mieć bardzo dobrą ja kość. Powi 

nien być wykonany na białych kart kach. Re pro duk cje 

zdjęć oraz fotografi e należy przy go to wać na błysz czą cym 

papierze fo to gra fi cz nym. Na od wro cie fo to gra fi i trzeba 

napisać mięk kim ołów kiem jej kolejny numer oraz zaznaczyć 

strzałką, gdzie znaj du je się jej górny brzeg. Redakcja 

dru ku je je dy nie zdję cia czarno-białe. Tabele i ryciny należy 

zamieszczać na oddzielnych stronach i nu me ro wać 

cyframi arabskimi. Ich nagłówki, ob ja śnie nia oraz podpisy 

pod rycinami i nad tabelami powinny być w języku polskim 

i angielskim. Przy kład: 

Tabela 1., Ryc. 1., Objaśnienia, Chłopcy 

Table 1., Fig. 1., Commentary, Boys 

Prosimy używać nawiasów okrą głych. Wzory mu szą być 

napisane czytelnie, szcze gól nie wskaźni ki i wykładniki 

potęg. 

Artykuł może być napisany na edytorze od Word 6.0 do XP 

lub Star Offi ce 5, Open Offi ce, w for ma cie DOC lub RTF. 

Ilu stra cje, ta be le i wy kre sy powinny być za miesz czo ne 

w osobnych plikach, a na wydrukach oraz na mar gi ne sie 

za zna czo ne ołów kiem ich miej sce w tekście. Wykresy 

na le ży wy ko nać w kolorze czar nym. Moż na stosować 

tin ty szare o różnym na tęże niu lub tek stu ry. W opisach, 

ze względów es te tycz nych, prosimy stosować czcionkę 

jed no ele men to wą (np. arial). Nie należy nad uży wać 

wyróżnień (bold, ita lic). Przy ska no wa nych ilustracjach 

rozdzielczość musi wy no sić co najmniej 300 dpi. Ilustracje 

czar no-białe (line art.) po win ny być w formacie TIFF, 

a zdjęcia (grey) w for ma cie TIFF lub JPEG (w ni skim stop- 

Informacje dla Autorów 

– 12 – 

niu kompresji, do 10%). Wszystkie pli ki mogą być spa kowa 

ne RAR-em lub ZIP-em. Po sko pio wa niu na dys kiet kę 

należy spraw dzić, czy wszyst kie pliki się kopiują. Najlepiej 

sko pio wać pliki na świeżo sformatowaną dyskietkę. 

Spis piśmiennictwa powinien być sporządzony we dług 

ko lej no ści cytowania: 

[1] Żekoński Z, Wolański N: Warunki społeczno-by to we 

jako czynniki rozwoju człowieka; w Wo lań ski N (red.): 

Czyn ni ki rozwoju człowieka. Warszawa, PWN, 1987; 

68–88. 

[2] Malarecki I: Zarys fi zjologii wysiłku i treningu spor to wego. 

Warszawa, Sport i Turystyka, 1975. 

[3] Bouchard C, Malina RM: Genetics of phy sio lo gi cal 

fi t ness and motor performance. Exerc Sport Sc Rev, 

1983; 11: 112–115. 

[4] Szopa J: W poszukiwaniu struktury mo to rycz no ści: 

ana li za czynnikowa cech somatycznych, funk cjo nalnych 

i prób spraw no ści fi zycznej u dziewcząt i chłopców 

w wie ku 8–19 lat. Wyd. Monografi czne, Kra ków, 

AWF, 1988; 35. 

Powołując się w tekście na daną pozycję pi śmien nictwa 

na le ży podać w nawiasie kwadratowym tylko cy frę 

arab ską. Przy ta cza jąc dwie lub większą ich licz bę należy 

podawać w na wia sie kwa dra to wym ko lej ność chro no logicz 

ną ich wy da nia. 

5. Uwagi redakcji 

• Wszystkie prace podlegają ocenie i są ano ni mo wo re cenzo 

wa ne. 

• Redakcja zapoznaje autora z uwagami re cen zen tów. 

• Odbitka szczotkowa pracy jest wysyłana do Au to ra. Po 

nie zbęd nej korekcie i akceptacji pracy do druku na leży ją 

ode słać w terminie do 10 dni na adres Re dak cji „An tropo 

mo to ry ki”. Prze trzy my wa nie ko rek ty może spowodować 

przesunięcie artykułu do na stęp ne go nu me ru. 

• Redakcja „Antropomotoryki” zastrzega sobie prawo adiustacji, 

dokonywania poprawek w zakresie ujednolicania 

nazewnictwa i ewentualnego skracania tekstów. 

• Przysyłane artykuły do druku powinny być kierowane 

do Redakcji pismem przewodnim, podpisanym przez 

samodzielnego pracownika nauki, równocześnie odpowiadającego 

za merytoryczną stronę opracowania. 

• Autor otrzymuje bezpłatnie plik PDF z zawartością numeru 

„An tro po mo to ry ki”, w którym zamieszczono jego 

pracę. Cza so pi smo w formie książkowej moż na zamówić 

odpłatnie przy zwro cie ko rek ty autorskiej. 

• Pełne numery bieżące i archiwalne „An tro po mo to ry ki” 

moż na zamówić odpłatnie w Krakowskiej Księ gar ni Kultury 

Fizycznej, al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31-571 Kra ków, tel/fax 

(012) 681 36 22. 

• Streszczenia w języku polskim i angielskim są za mieszczo 

ne na stronie internetowej: www.awf.kra kow.pl; link: 

wydawnictwa, czasopisma, antropomotoryka.

DISSERTATIONS AND ARTICLES 

ROZPRAWY I ARTYKUŁY


2010 

THE EFFECT OF AN ANAEROBIC TEST ON LUNG 

INDICES IN SOME ELITE BASKETBALL PLAYERS 

WPŁYW TESTU WYDOLNOŚCI BEZTLENOWEJ RAST 

NA WSKAŹNIKI CZYNNOŚCI PŁUC U KOSZYKARZY 

WYSOKIEGO WYCZYNU 

Mohsen Ghanbarzadeh*, Abdul Hamid Habibi*, 

Mohammad Reza Zadkarami**, Mehdi Bustani***, Maryam Mohammadi**** 

*****PhD, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Science, Shahid Chamran University, Ahwaz, Iran 

*****PhD, Faculty of Mathematical Sciences and Computer, Shahid Chamran University, Ahwaz, Iran 

*****MA, Student of PE and Sport Science, Shahid Chamran University, Ahwaz, Iran 

*****MA, Islamic Azad University at Sousangerd Branch, Sousangerd, Iran 

Key words: Pulmonary Function Test, Running-Based Anaerobic Sprint Test (RAST 

test) 

Słowa kluczowe: próby czynnościowe płuc, test biegowy wydolności beztlenowej 

RAST 

SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE 

Aim of the work. The main goal of this research was comparing the lung indices of 20 outstanding basketball 

players in Khouzestan province in Iran before and after the RAST test. Actually, the study examined the possible 

presence or absence of bronchial spasms among the athletes who had had several years of background 

in intense athletic activities. The subjects consisted of 20 elite basketball players from the eight teams which 

were present in Khouzestan basketball league.Their average age, weight, and height ranges were 26.55, 82.34 

kg, and 186.35 cm; respectively. The average BMI was 23.69 kg/m². The research made a cross comparison 

among the pulmonary function indices MVV, FEF25-75, PEF, FEV1/FVC, FVC, FEV1 which were measured both 

before and after the RAST test. 

Material and methods. Before and after the RAST test, the pulmonary function indices were measured. 

The sample population was given light basketball exercises for 10 minutes prior to the RAST test. 

Results. In order to compare the obtained results, they were subjected to a t-test. The final results revealed 

no significant difference between the values related to MVV FEV1/FVC (p > 0.05); however, a significant decrease 

was observed in the values FEF25-75, PEF, FVC and FEV1 being respectively 12.60%, 10.28%, 7.82% 

and 5.41% (p < 0.05). 

Conclusions. Based on the definition of bronchial spasms arising from athletic exercise, the existence of 

such bronchial spasms in the sample population could be defined only based on a single value, that is a 19% 

decrease in FEV1 in over 60% of the sample population. 

Cel pracy. Pomiar i porównanie wskaźników czynności płuc przed i po wykonaniu testu biegowego wydolności 

beztlenowej RAST (Running-Based Anaerobic Sprint Test) u 20 czołowych koszykarzy z irańskiej prowincji 

Chuzestan. Ustalenie, na podstawie zmiany których wskaźników czynności płuc można ustalić wystąpienie 

skurczu oskrzeli u badanych. W trakcie analizy danych przeprowadzono badanie krzyżowe parametrów pracy 

płuc, które zmierzono przed i po fazie beztlenowej wysiłku. Analizą objęto dane liczbowe dotyczące maksymal- 

– 15 –

M. Ghanbarzadeh, A.H. Habibi, M.R. Zadkarami, M. Bustani, M. Mohammadi 

nej wentylacji dowolnej (MVV), przepływu w środku natężonego wydechu (FEF25-75), szczytowego przepływu 

oddechowego (PEF), a także ilorazu jednosekundowej objętości natężonego wydechu i natężonej pojemności 

życiowej (FEV1/FVC). 

Materiał i metody. Z ośmiu drużyn ligi koszykarskiej Chuzestanu wybrano 20 zawodników legitymujących 

się co najmniej pięcioletnim stażem w sporcie zawodowym. Średni wiek badanych, mierzony w latach, wynosił 

26,55; podczas gdy średnia masa ciała i wysokość – odpowiednio 82,34 kg i 186,35 cm, a wskaźnik BMI – to 23,69 

kg/m 2 . Przed i po przeprowadzeniu testu wydolności beztlenowej RAST zmierzono wskaźniki pracy płuc badanych, 

a 10 minut przed testem przeprowadzono rozgrzewkę. 

Wyniki. Analiza danych z obu pomiarów, do której przeprowadzenia posłużono się testem t-Studenta, nie 

ujawniła istotnych statystycznie różnic między wartościami MVV i FEV1/FVC (p>0,05). Odnotowano natomiast 

istotny statystycznie spadek wartości FEF25-75, PEF, FVC i FEV1 – odpowiednio o 12,60%, 10,28%, 7,82% 

i 5,41% (p < 0,05). 

Wnioski. Na podstawie przyjętej definicji skurczu oskrzeli wskutek wykonywania forsownych ćwiczeń fizycznych 

(testu RAST) stwierdzono, że na jego wystąpienie w objętej badaniami grupie wskazuje zmiana jednego 

parametru: obniżenie o 19% wysokości wskaźnika FEV1 u ponad 60% osób. 

Introduction 

The pulmonary system is composed of the lungs, 

the central nervous system, the chest cage, the diaphragm 

and the muscles between the chest bones, 

and the blood circulation system within the lungs 1 . The 

central nervous system is responsible for controlling 

the muscles of the chest cage which act as a pump for 

the pulmonary system [1]. The act of breathing, which 

refers to the act of inhaling the air into the lungs and 

exhaling it from them, is reliant upon the pulmonary 

system function [2]. Any defi ciency in the operation 

of the trachea and the air passages will result in an 

insuffi ciency in the inhalation and exhalation of the 

air and this, in turn, may affect the amount of oxygen 

consumed during both the resting phase and the 

warm up calisthenics. Consequently, the person’s 

health will be in danger. Resistance to the inhalation 

of the air is the most common cause of breath 

insuffi ciency. Based on the fact that bronchial 

spasms occur as a result of long time excercises, subjects 

of the present study were selected from athletes 

with at least 5 years of background in the professionl 

level. 

The obstruction of the air passages leads to fatal 

harms and this obstruction may happen in any part of 

these passages such as the smallest air channels, the 

trachea bronchial system, the larynx, and the esophagus 

[3]. During heavy athletic exercises, the amount of 

the inhaled air may increase ten to twenty times, how- 

1 Abbreviations: MVV – maximal voluntary ventilation; FVC – forced 

vital capacity; FEV1– forced expiratory volume in 1 sec; FEV1/FVC – forced 

expiratory volume in 1 sec / force vital capacity; FEF25-75% – forced expiratory 

fl ow; MEFR – maximum expiratory fl ow rate; PEF – peak expiratory fl ow; 

RAST – Running-Based Anaerobic Sprint Test. 

– 16 – 

ever, the pulmonary system is made in a way that is capable 

of conforming itself with severe and intense oxygen 

demands during both short- and long-term athletic 

activities. Anyway, those individuals who abnormally 

consume large amount of oxygen during exhaustive 

athletic exercises may experience inhalation problems 

[4]. There is some evidence proving that performing 

exhaustively, athletes will face a severe slow-down in 

arterial oxygen. This slow-down happens as a result of 

the distributing limitations which themselves arise from 

a decrease in the time that red blood corpuscles remain 

in lung capillaries [5]. 

According to Pelkonen and co-workers [6], continuous 

athletic exercise can optimize the function of the 

pulmonary system. On the contrary, some researches 

[7] have revealed that continuous athletic exercise can 

be one of the causes of bronchial spasms. Evidently, 

a large percentage of athletes with no prior history of 

asthma or bronchial spasms will develop such symptoms 

during or after athletic exercise. These symptoms 

will appear from the very beginning of the athletic exercise 

up to 30 minutes after the ending of the exercise; 

however, its peak is approximately between fi ve to ten 

minutes from the outset of the athletic exercise and will 

continue until about 30 minutes after it [8]. Bronchial 

spasms are also common in elite athletes [6]. To cite 

an example, in the American National Team (67 out 

of the total 597 athletes), 11% of the athletes who participated 

in the 1984 Olympic Games [9], and 23% of 

those who took part in the Winter Olympics in 1998, 

were diagnosed as having asthma or athletic asthma 

characteristics [10]. Ziaee and co-workers [11] performed 

pulmonary function tests on professional and 

semi-professional basketball players prior to and after 

a basketball match. Prior to the outset of the activity,


a test was taken in order to establish the base case 

values. In the second phase, 10 minutes after the outset 

of the activity the same test was administered and 

then the results from the two phases were compared. 

The fi nal results revealed that the amount of FVC and 

FEV1 in both groups had decreased after beginning the 

activity; however, this decrease was signifi cant only in 

the case of the professional group and not in the case 

of the other group. In neither of the groups a signifi cant 

change was observed in the other pulmonary indices. 

Some researchers [12] carried out a study on the 

occurrence of bronchial spasms arising from athletic 

exercise in over 107 university athletes in 22 different 

sport fi elds in the United States. The fi nal results 

showed an index of 84% for the occurrence of bronchial 

spasms in those sport fi elds which required extensive 

aerobic activity and an index of 20% for the occurrence 

of the same factor in the case of those sports which 

involved minimum aerobic activity. 

Varma and co-workers [13] compared the indices 

related to the pulmonary function among the athletes 

from four different sport fi elds in India. In this study, 18 

soccer, 19 hockey, and 18 basketball players, and 20 

swimmers were chosen as the subjects. The control 

group consisted of 20 medical students. The results indicated 

that, in comparison to the control group, all four 

experimental groups had higher rates in the indices of 

FVC/FEV1 and PEF. Among these groups, the swimmers 

had the highest rate of increase in the pulmonary 

function indices (FVC, PEF and FEV1). 

Abdul and co-workers [14] carried out a study on 

the bronchial spasms in men among some athletes in 

Karachi, Pakistan. 179 athletes who had daily regular 

athletic exercise were selected as the sample population. 

Using a Spirometer, the peak expiratory fl ow rate 

(PEFR) was measured at the outset of the exercise 

(running with an increase of 70% in heart beat rate) and 

subsequently at intervals of 5, 15 and 30 minutes. 13 

athletes had a decrease of +15% in the PEFR index in 

all three intervals. The extent of bronchial spasms was 

determined to be 7.26% among these athletes [14]. 

Ozturan and co-workres [15] applied pulmonary 

function tests for elite basketball players prior to and 

after a speed exercise session. Prior to the experiment, 

The amounts of VC, FVC, FEV1, MVV and PEF were 

higher than the amounts recorded to be normal for the 

age, height and weight of the sample population; however, 

after the speed exercise, the same amounts were 

less than the norms recorded for their age, height and 

weight. The difference between some of the indices 

– 17 – 

such as FEV 1 and PEF was signifi cantly meaningful 

before and after the experiment. 

Mc Kenzie and co-workers [16] evaluated the bronchial 

contraction arising from exercise among 12 athletes 

who had already showed signs of athletic asthma. 

Two methods were applied for measuring the variations 

in the pulmonary function, namely; continuous warm 

up drills (i.e. 15 minutes of running on a treadmill with 

60% increase in oxygen intake) and alternate warm up 

drills (eight 30 second sprints with rest periods of approximately 

1.5 seconds). In addition to the aforementioned 

group, a control group was also selected. For 

every 2 minutes in a twenty-fi ve-minute recovery period 

interval, the three indices FVC/ FEV1 and MEFR were 

measured. The results indicated that a fi fteen-minute 

continuous warm up prior to the exercise would have 

a signifi cant effect on decreasing the bronchial contraction. 

Mehmet Unal and co-workers [17] also investigated 

the existence and the commonality of bronchial spasms 

in athletes. For this purpose, 126 athletes which consisted 

of 85 soccer players, 25 martial art athletes, 11 

swimmers, and 5 wrestlers were chosen as the subjects. 

In these groups, before and after a ten-minute 

period of exercise on the treadmill, the Spirometer values 

were evaluated using the Bruce Protocol. 11% of 

the population (that is 14 athletes) had more than 10% 

decrease in their PEF. 14% of them (that is 18 athletes) 

showed a decrease rate of more than 15% in FEF25-75, 

and fi nally, a decrease rate of over 15% was reported 

for 11% of these athletes (that is 14 athletes). Bronchial 

spasms were observed in 11% to 14% of the athletes 

which paralleled those of the other researches. 

Parkkari and co-workers [18] carried out a study on 

20 Finnish elite skiers in order to determine the existence 

of bronchial spasms among them. After measuring 

the Spirometer values it was observed that 35% 

of the skiers suffered from some degree of bronchial 

spasms arising from the athletic exercise. Among the 

pulmonary indices, the largest decrease was in the rate 

of PEF. 

Methodology 

The effect of anaerobic athletic activities on the pulmonary 

function indices has been investigated in 

a number of studies. The present research which was 

a semi-empirical one focused on investigating the extent 

of the bronchial spasms resulting from athletic exercise. 

In order to select the sample population it was


necessary to collect some information, fi rst. As a matter 

of fact, any background of professional activity in 

a sport fi eld, having respiration diseases like asthma 

or allergy, background of smoking, and any skeletal 

disorders such as kyphosis can affect the lung indices. 

Therefore, it was necessary to ask the subjects 

about these facts. For this purpose, before the commencement 

of the treatment, some questionnaires 

were distributed among some athletes and at least 20 

basketball players were selected from the eight professional 

basketball teams in Khouzestan province in 

Iran. Actually, their average age range was between 

21 and 29 and most of them had played basketball intensely 

for more than 10 years, but since the criterion 

for defi ning the professional experience was the presence 

in the province super leagues, a fi ve-year period 

of professional experience was considered for the 

subjects. That is, they had participated in many other 

leagues, as well. Neither of the players had a history 

of asthma, allergy or any other pulmonary diseases. 

Additionally, none of them had skeletal deformities especially 

in the chest cage region. 

Using the Spirometer, the pulmonary function indices 

FVC, FVC/FEV1, FEV1, MVV, FEF25-75 and PEF 

were measured in the pre-test phase. In the next phase, 

for every ten minutes of basketball activity, a runningbased 

anaerobic sprint test (RAST) was taken and in 

the post-test phase, the same pulmonary function indices 

were measured, repeatedly. A Japanese digital 

Spirometer set, the HI-601 model, was used to measure 

the pulmonary function indices. In order to compare 

the obtained results, the pulmonary function indices 

of the pre- and post test stages were compared and 

a t-test was applied in order to determine the correlation 

coeffi cient between the obtained values. The indices 

weight, height, age, and BMI were also measured 

and recorded. In order to analyze the data, the SPSS 

software, the 11.5 version, was utilized and the level of 

signifi cance was 0.05. 

Spirometer test measurement 

The variables gender, age, height, weight and environmental 

temperature were carefully recorded and 

entered into the Spirometer. Since the variables 

height and weight are among the important variables 

for analyzing the pulmonary function test results, and 

the Spirometer estimates each of the Spirometric variables 

according to the weight and height of the subjects, 

there was an attempt to measure these values 

– 18 – 

with great degree of accuracy. Each candidate had 

to perform the test at least three times and the best 

record was registered. 

RAST Test 

The RAST test was performed as six 35-meter sprints, 

both alternately and with an active rest period of 10 seconds. 

The RAST test was in the form of an anaerobic 

speed running test (6 two-way paths). This test was developed 

by Volor Hampton University for implementing 

anaerobic excercises. Moreover, this test is applicable 

for those athletes that their sport skills are based on 

periodic and anaerobic running. The fatigue index percent 

in this test is almost high and that is why this test 

was selected. The nature of this test is consistent with 

basketball and anaerobic activities. 

Results 

In this research, considering the pre- and post-test stages, 

a signifi cant decrease was observed in the indices 

FEV1, FVC, PEFR and FEF25-75. As it can be understood 

from the Table 1, these decreases were respectively 

12.60%, 10.28%, 7.82% and 5.41% (p < 0.05). 

However, no signifi cant changes were identifi ed between 

the indices FVC, FEV1, and MVV (p > 0.05). 

Based on the defi nition of Bronchial spasms which is 

explained as any decrease more than 10% in the FEV1 

and more than 15% in PEFR or a decrease more than 

25% in FEF25-75 [19, 20]; it can be claimed that in the 

present study, only one of the bronchial spasm indices 

arising from athletic exercise, that is the FEV1 index 

was present (with a mean value of 19% decrease in 

60% of the subjects). The existence of such bronchial 

spasms in the sample population could be defi ned only 

based on a single value, that is, a 19% decrease in 

FEV1 in over 60% of the sample population. 

The following fi gure represents the average amounts 

of the pulmonary indices FVC and FEV1 in the pre- and 

post-test stages. 

The second fi gure represents the average amounts 

of the pulmonary indices FVC/FEV1 and PEFR in the 

pre- and post-test stages. 

The third fi gure represents the average values for 

the pulmonary indices FEF25-75 and MVV in the pre- 

and post-test stages. 

Figure 1 demonstrates the changes related to the 

lung indices FVC and FEV1, in the pre- and post-test 

stages. With regard to p-value = 0/001 for FEV1 and


Table 1. The average values for the pulmonary indices FEV1, FVC, FEV1/FVC, PEF, FEF25-75, and MVV in the pre- and post-test 

Statistical 

index 

FEV1 

FVC 

FEV1/FVC 

PEF 

FEF25-75 

100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

stage average 

Fig. 1. The average values for the pulmonary indices FEV1 and 

FVC in the pre- and post-tests stages 

130 

120 

110 

100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

MVV 

p-value = 0/005 for FVC that are less than 0/05, indicating 

it as a meaningful level, meaningful changes 

(meaningful decrease) was observed in these two indices. 

Standard 

deviation 

Pre-test 82.93 7.47 

Post test 72.48 10.89 

Pre-test 81.47 5.16 

Post test 73.07 5.64 

Pre-test 117.71 5.83 

Post test 115.36 14.21 

Pre-test 81.86 5.92 

Post test 75.48 6.76 

Pre-test 78.85 4.75 

Post test 74.59 5.25 

Pre-test 117.29 15.81 

Post test 112.22 19.79 

pre-test post-test 

FEV1/FVC PEFR 

FVC 

FEV1 

pre-test 

post-test 

Fig. 2. The average values for the pulmonary indices FVC/FEV1 

and PEFR in the pre- and post-test stages 

– 19 – 

130 

120 

110 

100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

Amount of 

t 

Samples P 

5.17 19 0.001 

9.34 19 0.005 

0.717 

In Figure 2 changes in the lungs indices FEV1/ 

FVC and PEFR is observable in the pre- and post-test 

stages. Considering p-value = 0/651 for FEV1/FVC and 

p-value = 0/001 for PEFR, meaningful changes (meaningful 

decrease) in the index PEFR were observed in 

the pre- and post-test stages. But in the case of the 

lung index FEV1/FVC no meaningful changes were reported. 

Figure 3 represents the changes related to the 

lung indices FEF25-75 and MVV in the pre- and 

post-test stages. With regard to p-value = 0/005 for 

FEF25-75 and p-value = 0/109 for MVV, meaningful 

changes (meaningful decrease) can be claimed for the 

index FEF25-75 in the pre- and post-test stages. But 

no signifi cant change was observed in the case of the 

lung index MVV. 

19 

0.651 

7.37 19 0.001 

7.49 19 0.001 

1.67 19 0.109 

FEF25-75 MVV 

pre-test 

post-test 

Fig. 3. The average values for the pulmonary indices FEF25-75 

and MVV in the pre- and post-test stages

Discussion and conclusion 


In this part, with the aim of mentioning some of the researches 

with similar achievements, the fi ndings of the 

present study are compared with those of some others. 

Any way, there are some contradictions between this 

research and some others which are reported, as well. 

By measuring the indices related to pulmonary function 

it is possible to determine the rate of muscle development, 

the existence of any obstruction or limitation in 

the air passages, and the existence or non-existence of 

swelling and bronchial spasms arising from exercise in 

a sample population. The most important index which 

can measure the strength of pulmonary muscles, especially 

the muscles associated with inhaling, is the maximal 

voluntary ventilation index (MVV). The existence of 

values higher than the predicted ones, probably, indicates 

the strength of these muscles [4]. 

Another means of evaluating the exhale resistance 

of air passages is investigating the results of a rapid 

exhalation into a Spirometer. The Spirometer is used 

for measuring vital signs known as FVC [4]. An index 

like the amount of exhaled air in the fi rst second (FEV1) 

is a good index for determining the exhale resistance in 

the air passages. 

The FVC index is one of the suitable indices applied 

for determining the exhale resistance of the air 

passages, the lungs’ capacity, and the amount of the 

air which can be inhaled. This index depends on the 

elasticity of the lungs and the resistance of the air passages. 

Studies have shown that the elasticity of the 

lungs, the resistance of the air passages in the alveolus 

regions, and the narrowing and compliance of the air 

passages are among the physiological mechanisms 

which can determine the amount of air passing through 

the lungs. The physiological conditions which decrease 

the elastic tension of the lungs and increase the resistance 

of the air passages, reduces the speed of the air 

fl ow, signifi cantly. 

In addition, the indices FEV1, PEFR and FEF25-75 

are also important for studying the extent of bronchial 

spasms arising from exercise among athletes [19]. If after 

any activity the rate of FEV1 reaches a level of +10%, 

the rate of PEFR will reach a level of +15% and the rate 

of FEF 25-75 will increase by +25%. The resulting phenomenon 

is defi ned as bronchial spasms [19–21]. Some 

researches consider a decrease of approximately 6.5% 

as slight bronchial spasms, too [18, 21, 22]. 

In the present research, no signifi cant difference 

was seen in the indices MV, and FEV1/FVC in both the 

– 20 – 

pre- and post-test stages. In addition, among all the indices 

measured, the amounts of these two indices were 

higher than those values that had been predicted by 

the Spirometer on the basis of the age, gender, weight 

and height of the sample population. As these two indices 

are directly related to the pulmonary muscles, 

especially the rib cage muscles; it seems that in the 

sample population who had over fi ve years of professional 

basketball training, the rib cage muscles had 

been fortifi ed and strengthened. Any decrease in the 

amount of the indices MVV and FEV1/FVC implies that 

these muscles have been enfeebled. Noticeably, in this 

study there was no signifi cant decrease in the amount 

of the mentioned indices. 

It is believed that exercising in the cold weather is 

one of the most important causes of bronchial spasms 

among athletes. Contrary to this belief, in the present 

study which was carried out in a warm climate and the 

sample population had had an extensive exposure to 

training in such climate, again one of the bronchial 

spasm indices was observed among the sample population 

(a 19% decrease in the FEV1 index among 12 

members of the sample group). It can be implied that 

the type of exercise rather than the environmental 

temperature can be considered as a reason for such 

spasms. 

The research also indicated a signifi cant decrease 

in the values of FEV1 PEFR, FVC and FEF25-75, but 

no meaningful difference was identifi ed in MVV and 

FEV1/FVC indices. These fi ndings are in accordance 

with those obtained by numerous researchers [12, 14– 

18]. Anyway, these results contradicted the fi ndings of 

Varma and co-workers [13], since the latter research 

compared four different sport fi elds and made use of 

a different methodology. 

The obtained results paralleled the fi ndings of 

Mehmet Unal and co-workers [17] in a study carried 

out in the case of the athletes from four different sport 

fi elds, but the methodologies and the protocols applied 

in Mehmet Unal’s study and the present study varied 

greatly. If, in the present research, instead of the RAST 

protocol, a simple exercise protocol (such as the treadmill 

exercise utilized in Mehmet Unal’s research) had 

been applied, the results of the study would have been 

rather different from what was reported. In the research 

performed by Ozturan and co-workers [15] on a group 

of basketball players, a signifi cant difference was observed 

in the pulmonary function indices measured 

after the pre- and post RAST tests; however, the difference 

was attributed to the exhaustion, especially in the


pulmonary muscles; rather than the swelling or obstruction 

of the air passages. 

Overall, based on all these fi ndings it can be claimed 

that since the sample population participated in an extensive 

anaerobic exercise, and consequently required 

continuous severe breathing, they encountered a type 

of swelling and spasm known as a bronchial spasm (albeit 

with the existence of only one index). As a matter 

[1] Sanadgol H: Human physiology [in farsi], vol. I. Yazd, Yazd 

Publishers, 1992. 

[2] Gayton A: Medical physiology [in farsi; transl. by Shadan 

F], vol. I. Tehran, Chehr Publications, 2000. 

[3] West JB: Applied pulmonary physiology [in farsi; transl. by 

Amiri M, Shamszadeh H], Vol. I, Tehran, Diba Publications, 

1993. 

[4] Wilmore J: Sports physiology and body activity [in farsi; 

transl. by Moeini Z], vol. I. Tehran, Mobtakeran Publications, 

1999. 

[5] Powers SK, Howley ET: Exercise physiology, vol. I. New 

York, McGraw Hill, 2001. 

[6] Pelkonen M, Notkola IL, Lakka T, Tukiainen HO, Kivinen P, 

Nissinen A: Delaying decline in pulmonary function with physical 

activity: A 25-Year Follow-up. American Journal of Respiratory 

and Critical Care Medicine, 2003; 168: 494–499. 

[7] Levine JA, Eberhardt NL, Jensen MD: Role of non-exercise 

activity thermo genesis. American Journal of Respiratory 

and Critical Care Medicine, 2004;168: 494–499. 

[8] Farhoudi F, Hossaynee M, Fatehi G: What is sports’ 

asthma? How to deal with it? Medical Journal of Iran, 

2004; 1(22), 42–54. 

[9] Voy RO: The Olympic committee experience with 

exercise-induced bronchiospasm. Medical Science and 

Sports Exercise Journal, 1984; 18: 328–330. 

[10] Wilber RL, Rundell KW, Szmedra L, Jenkison DM, Im J, 

Drake SD: Incidence of exercise-induced bronchospasm 

in olympic winter sport athletes. Medical Science and 

Sports Exercise, 2000; 32,732–737. 

[11] Ziaee V, Ahmadinejad Z, Farahi A, Movahedi M, Mansoornia 

MA: Comparison of pulmonary function parameters 

changes among professional and semi-professional basketball 

players. Medical Journal of Iran, 2006; 9: 18–27. 

[12] Parsons JP, Kaeding C, Phillips G, Jarjoura D, Wadley 

G, Mastronarde JG: Prevalence of exercise-induced 

bronchospasm in a cohort of Varsity College Athletes. 

Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 2007; 39(9): 

1487–1492. 

LITERATURE • PIŚMIENNICTWO 

– 21 – 

of fact, the basketball is an anaerobic sport which requires 

high rate of inhalation and exhalation, this matter 

together with the speed of the air in the windpipe led 

to the development of symptoms of bronchial spasms 

in these athletes [22]. Also, this may be partly due to 

performing an anaerobic exercise over a long period 

of time which would ultimately decrease the pulmonary 

function indices in the athletes. 

[13] Varma N, Mehrotra PK, Tiwari S, Kumar P: Pulmonary 

function in Indian sportsmen playing different sports. 

Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 1998; 

42(3): 412–416. 

[14] Abdul-Ahad J, Perwaiz M, Sandila N, Ahmed S, Tousi S: 

Exercise-induced bronchial spasm in male athlete sat 

Karachi. Department of Physiology, Ziauddin Medical 

University, 2002; 22(4): 94–99. 

[15] Ozturan D, Beydagi H, Ergenoglu T, Ekinci E, Kilicoglu MA, 

Bozkurt AI: Effect of acute on respiratory function tests of 

basketball players. Sports Medicine Journal, 1999; 21(1): 

10–14. 

[16] Mckenzie DC, Mcluckie SL, Stirling D: The protective effects 

of continuous and interval exercise in athletes with 

exercise-induced asthma. Medicine and Science in Sports 

and Exercise, 1994; 26(8): 951–956. 

[17] Mehmet U, Turker S, Deniz N, Vakur A, Abidin K: The 

prevalence exercise-induced bronchoconstriction in elite 

athletes. Journal of Sports Sciences and Medicine, 2004; 

3(11), 57–59. 

[18] Parkkari J, Laitinen J, Pohjantahti H: Exercise-induced 

bronchospasm among healthy elite cross country skiers 

and non-athletic students. Sports Medicine Journal, 2002; 

13: 98–102. 

[19] Helenius IJ, Haahtela T: Allergy and asthma in elite summer 

sport athletes. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical 

Immunology, 2000; 106(26): 444–452. 

[20] Rundell KW, Jenkison DM: Exercise-induced bronchospasm 

in elite athletes. Sports Medicine Journal, 2002; 32: 

583–600. 

[21] Mannix ET, Manfredi F, Farber MO: A comparison of two 

challenge tests for identifying exercise-induced bronchospasm 

in fi gure skaters. American College of Chest 

Physicians, 1999; 115, 649–653. 

[22] Hoffman JR: Physiology of basketball; in McKeag G 

(ed.): Basketball. Malden, Blackwell Science, 2003; 18: 

12–24.


2010 

PHILOSOPHY OF EXPERT MODELING OF SPORT 

PERFORMANCE OF HIGH LEVEL ATHLETES 

FILOZOFIA EKSPERCKIEGO MODELOWANIA 

WYSTĘPU SPORTOWEGO WYSOKIEGO WYCZYNU 

Bojan Jošt*, Janez Pustovrh*, Janez Vodičar** 

** Prof., Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia 

** Asist., Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia 

Key words: sport philosophy, sport performance, expert modeling 

Słowa kluczowe: filozofia sportu, występ sportowy, modelowanie eksperckie 


Aim of the work. Successful performance in sport is presently much more than a result achieved by the 

athlete; it is an element in organizational culture of sports with its values and achievements. Since the basic 

goal of organization of sports lies in this culture, the process of managing must consider various invisible and 

visible constituents important for the development of organizational culture of sports. The invisible constituents 

are those that attract people to sport, while among the visible ones are such as competition rules, execution 

of competitions, response to sports competitions, staff engaged in sport, technology of sports, transformation 

processes, sports events, etc. 

Material and methods. Theory of performance in sport studies will enable the attainment of the set target 

criteria on individual performance standards. It can be studied only by means of analysis of a set of a variety of 

variables that, in the relationship of cause and effect, influence the criterion states on individual performance 

standards. At the Faculty of Sports of the University of Ljubljana, we have started with the formulation of an 

expert system called SPORT EXPERT, application of which will enable reaching more efficient decisions in the 

management of the various sources involved in performance in sports. 

Results and conclusions. The results of expert systems are only an aid that can enable better management 

of people in terms of elevation of performance on the selected standards and criteria. In this way, 

the expert decisions will be based on more scientific grounds; the value of information will be higher, and 

the system itself will be permanently oriented towards the growth of the quality of the organizational culture 

of sports. 

Cel pracy. Zakończony sukcesem występ na zawodach to znacznie więcej niż sam wynik – to element kultury 

organizacyjnej sportu z wszystkimi jej wartościami i osiągnięciami. Podstawowym celem organizacji sportu 

jest promocja tej kultury, a zatem w procesie zarządzania sportem należy brać pod uwagę jej uchwytne 

i nieuchwytne składniki. Podczas gdy do składników nieuchwytnych zaliczymy te czynniki, które przyciągają 

do sportu, w grupie czynników uchwytnych umieścimy same zasady rywalizacji, występ i postawę sportowca 

na zawodach, wkład personelu pomocniczego, zdobycze technologii, procesy transformacji, imprezy 

sportowe itp. 

Materiał i metody. Za pomocą teorii występu sportowego możliwe będzie ujednolicenie standardów dla 

poszczególnych wykonań zawodniczych, na co pozwoli analiza szeregu zmiennych poprzez badanie związków 

przyczynowo-skutkowych, ustalenie wpływu tworzonych standardów na poszczególne wykonania zawodnicze. 

Pracownicy Wydziału Sportu Uniwersytetu w Lublanie rozpoczęli pracę nad systemem eksperckim o nazwie 

SPORT EXPERT, którego zastosowanie usprawni proces podejmowania decyzji w zarządzaniu różnymi elementami 

występu sportowego. 

– 23 –


Wyniki i wnioski. System ekspercki jest użytecznym narzędziem pomocniczym umożliwiającym polepszenie 

jakości wykonania za pomocą wybranych norm i kryteriów. Dzięki niemu decyzje rzeczoznawców w większym 

stopniu będą opierać się na naukowych podstawach, wzrośnie także wartość przekazywanych informacji, a system 

zostanie ukierunkowany na doskonalenie kultury organizacyjnej sportu. 

Introduction 

Successful performance in sport is presently much 

more than just a result achieved by the athlete; it is culture 

in the sociological and anthropological sense as 

it refl ects its basic values and achievements. At every 

moment in history, the culture of success, as a constituent 

of development of a given society and its members, 

depends on a system of symbols [1] that are expressed 

in myths, ideologies, rules, values, paragons 

and other various cultural artefacts (rituals, customs, 

special vocabulary, metaphors, acronyms, stories, legends, 

tradition, architecture, etc.). Organizational and 

management aspects of sport culture deal with the 

organization of sports and the characteristics of management 

of sports organizations and their members. 

The basic goal of organization of sports lies in the 

elevation of the organizational culture of sports. This 

culture is revealed in the various visible and invisible 

constituents. The invisible constituents are those that 

attract people to sport. The visible ones are a system 

of values and the level of development of the elementary 

factors involved in the organizational culture of 

sport (competition rules, execution of competitions, response 

to sports competitions, staff engaged in sport, 

technology of sports, transformation processes, sports 

events, etc.) 

Managing sports organizations must be directed 

towards the development of the constituents of the 

organizational culture of sport. Management is a mental, 

intuitive, sensatory activity of people in an organizational 

system [2]. This is a key subsystem in sports 

organizations as it connects and directs all other subsystems 

towards the achievement of the desired quality 

or performance level. Management as a science is 

based, from the aspect of its contents, on the theory of 

sports and – above all – on the theory of performance, 

while from the methodological aspect, it is based on 

modeling and cybernetics as a science dealing with the 

management of complex dynamic systems. 

In sports management, we have to deal with – 

knowingly or unknowingly – expert modeling within the 

space of the theory of performance in sports whenever 

we think, make a decision, describe phenomena, people 

around us; whenever we are involved in concrete 

– 24 – 

practice, in the formation of a certain notion (i.e. model 

of thought) about objects; whenever we carry out simple 

thought simulations of the behavior of models, think 

about proper management decisions etc. 

The most important realization for management is 

that, in its management practice, there exists the external 

world which is independent of us and which is 

outside our observation. In order to represent it, we 

set up simplifi ed verbal, descriptive, physical, pictorial, 

mathematical models. In modeling knowledge, we encounter 

smaller and larger problems. The larger problems 

occur in the study of complex fi elds, phenomena, 

objects, processes, events, whose interior nature and 

functioning is more or less inaccessible to us. Since 

we only have access to external behavior, we can draw 

conclusions about internal mechanisms, properties, 

characteristics only by means of external indicators. In 

most cases, however, we are not able – due to a large 

number of variables and their mutual interactions – to 

describe all of them and to place them into a coherent 

functional cause-and-effect whole. 

Theory of performance in sport studies, especially 

the content-related standards and criteria of performance 

and the manner of management, will enable 

the attainment of the set target criteria on individual 

performance standards. Theory of performance can be 

studied only by means of analysis of a set of a variety of 

variables which, in the relationship of cause and effect, 

infl uence the criterion states on individual performance 

standards. From the systems cybernetic aspect of the 

theory of performance in sport, it is thus fi rst necessary 

to formulate the standards and criteria of performance 

and to determine on the basis of them the target criterion 

states and functions. In the theory of performance, 

standards of performance represent basic axioms by 

means of which we assess the achievements in the 

fi eld of sport. In sport, the axioms according to which 

sports competitions take place are well known; they are 

laid down in advance in the form of competition rules 

and are also strictly supervised during competition. 

Violation of the rules of competition unavoidably results 

in disqualifi cation and reduction of the performance 

rate of the athlete. However, for high achievements in 

sport it is necessary to fi rst defi ne the relations between 

the fi nal achievements and the sub-criterion standards


which are in a functional logical connection with these 

achievements [3]. 

From formal logical or strictly functional point, penetration 

into the depth of these sub-criterion variables 

of performance soon comes to an end due to the fact 

that we reach the limit where we can no longer draw 

any conclusions about the sub-criterion functions of 

performance in a direct manner, i.e. such conclusions 

can be drawn only indirectly by means of stochastic and 

probability relations. To set up an appropriate system of 

the factors involved in performance in sports is not an 

easy task, especially if we also want to penetrate the 

depths of this system [4]. 

The construction and supplementing of the system 

of performance factors is especially productive if it carried 

out by modeling. However, here we can very quickly 

be confronted with the dangers and traps of modeling; 

models are and will also always refl ect the views of their 

authors. Yet, without suitable model support, based on 

the knowledge of sports science, we also cannot expect 

progress in sport. Thus, modeling within the space 

of theory and its application to practice is necessary. 

Our efforts have resulted in the construction of 

one possible model of performance in sports, which is 

based on the philosophical empirical hypothetical systems 

approach. As the performance model is future-oriented, 

we have called it a potential performance model. 

Performance models can be observed and studied on 

three basic levels (=macro, mezzo, and micro). The 

micro level represents the smallest complete system 

which is based on a single person as an individual. The 

mezzo level represents a symbiosis of the systems defi 

ned on the micro level. The macro level represents 

a symbiosis of the systems on the middle level. The 

mezzo and macro levels represent systems of higher 

order. Performance in sports depends on a balanced 

development of all three levels of the performance systems. 

As on all levels there are concerned systems that 

are based on real life, the factors of environment are 

permanently affecting the behavior and functioning of 

these systems. These factors can have an extremely 

important and sometimes even a decisive role in the 

functioning of the systems. 

The expert modeling of the knowledge base from 

the aspect of the athlete’s performance takes place by 

means of the model facts (=constituents of the knowledge 

base) and rules with which we defi ne the relations 

between the criterion of performance and individual 

constituents of the knowledge base relative to their importance. 

– 25 – 

The knowledge base in the expert system thus contains 

two types of knowledge [5]: 

1) Model facts: for their defi nition it is necessary to 

determine the contents, method of acquisition of 

knowledge, reference relationship to other model 

facts and basic characteristics which justify their 

scientifi c source. 

2) Heuristic, i.e. the expert rules of conclusion-drawing 

and decision-making. 

The construction of the knowledge base takes place 

by means of a formalism, which – taking into account 

the target criterion functions of the knowledge base – 

formulates this knowledge base in such a way that it 

can be used on a computer. The domain dealing with 

the drawing of knowledge and its conversion into the 

selected formalism is called “the technology of knowledge”. 

The formalism of the selected knowledge base must, 

in general, enable the recording of the knowledge concerning 

the domain of application, i.e. the statements 

about the properties of objects, systems, models, about 

the relations between them, about general principles of 

the domain, but also about the methods for the resolution 

of the problems associated with the domain. 

The formulation of the formalism of the knowledge 

base must be such that it enables the best possible answers 

to the following questions: 

1) On what factors does successful performance depend 

(i.e. cause-and-effect relationship)? The content 

by which individual factors can be described is 

important. 

2) By means of what measuring instruments and in 

what way can performance factors are measured 

and what is their value from the aspect of scientifi c 

realization? (i.e. recognizability of the contents of 

the measuring procedure, the type and objectivity of 

the method used to measure the respective factor – 

i.e. intuition, logic deduction, mechanical measurement, 

estimate on the basis of tradition, estimate 

on the basis of experiences, experiment, inquiry, 

examination of fi led documents, interview, study of 

the individual, etc.); coding system in terms of the 

coding of the structure of knowledge, capacity for 

numerical or attributive manipulation, determination 

relative to rank, association with normal distribution, 

objectivity, reliability, validity (qualitative, functional 

logical, real-correlational), sensitivity, homogeneity, 

invariance (i.e. invariability in time), capacity for 

transformation and development.

3) What are the interrelations between the factors of 

the performance model? This concerns the defi nition 

of the reference relationship between the factors 

of the performance model both on the level of 

elementary and on the level of derived model constituents 

and viewed according to the principle of 

inter- and intra-reference. 

4) What is the nature of association between the 

performance factors and the fi nal performance 

criterion? It is necessary to establish the form of 

association that can manifest itself in linear or in 

non-linear functions. Since the fi nal achievements 

in sports are always linear, it is necessary to linearize 

all non-linear relations between the factors of 

the performance model and the fi nal criterion. The 

procedures for linearization can be mathematical 

analytical or heuristic. 

5) What is the importance of the factors of the model 

from the aspect of target criterion functions (what is 

their functional and real stochastic validity)? In this 

part, we want to model the so-called dimension confi 

guration of the factors of the performance model. 

First, we do this on the level of elementary factors, 

and then also on the level of derived model constituents. 

In carrying it out, we draw conclusions about 

the relations between the individual factors and the 

fi nal performance criterion, or the relations between 

performance factors and all those performance subcriteria, 

which are in a formal logical, mathematical 

functional or a very high stochastic (i.e. correlation 

association) connection with the fi nal criterion. 

6) What is the state or position of an individual on the 

selected performance factor? Here we determine 

the so-called positional confi guration of the factors 

of the performance model, which is shown in the 

current state of individuals on model variables. The 

assessment of an individual on a defi ned model 

variable takes place by means of the so-called normalizers, 

which represent the defi ned quality categories 

on the basis of which we assess the values 

of the variables as excellent, very good, good, satisfactory 

or unsatisfactory. From the statistical point 

of view, we can also determine the relationship according 

to the type of the observed values’ variability 

into inter-individual and intra-individual positional 

confi guration. 

7) What are the optimal means, methods and loads 

by means of which we can elevate the positional 

confi guration of the performance factors separately 

for each individual? 


– 26 – 

Tackling of the problems of this kind in the theory 

of performance requires top-level contents-related and 

methodological support. The contents-related support 

is based on the theory of sports, while the methodological 

one is increasingly based on expert systems 

as a method of artifi cial intelligence. An expert system 

is a model representing general ideas and possible solutions 

analogous to the topic that is solved, until it is 

fi lled by relevant knowledge [6]. 

In the fi eld of management of athletes, the doctrine 

of management is included in the functional structure of 

the expert system Sport Expert. The results obtained 

thus far are, regretfully, still limited to only some fi elds 

of the athletic performance model. However, despite 

the narrowness of its contents, they can be useful in 

many ways to the manager in making management decisions. 

From this point of view, the use of a computerized 

consulting-expert system is of the greatest importance 

in places where information is transmitted to the 

decision subsystem. It can be used especially at those 

points in which information is processed by means of 

statistical methods in order to serve for appropriate decision 

process in control or management systems. The 

quality of the expert system is, above all, the function of 

the scope and quality of its knowledge base [7], which 

in turn is based on the knowledge acquired within the 

framework of sports science or theory of performance 

in sport. 

Material and methods 

At the Faculty of Sports in Ljubljana, we started in the 

1991 with the formulation of an expert system called 

Sport Expert (SPEX) whose application will enable 

reaching more effi cient decisions in the management of 

the various sources involved in performance in sports. 

The expert system has been developed for more sport 

disciplines [8, 9, 10]; one of them is ski jumping. In that 

sport discipline, Slovenian athletes have been very successful 

over the last 20 years. 

In the fi rst phase, the expert system was developed 

in the space of chosen morphological and basic motoric 

variables (see variable list in Table 1). In addition 

to the content-related knowledge, the knowledge base 

contains also decision rules and normalizers, by means 

of which new knowledge can be synthesized. The decision 

rules are proportions of individual potential performance 

model dimensions (weights), expressed in percentages, 

by which potential prognostic performance 

is defi ned at each node of the performance decision


Table 1. Structure of the knowledge base of the SPEX expert system, structure of the elementary and derived morphological and 

motoric variables, ski jumping 

Decision tree Name of the variables Unit Weights 

Normalisers unsatisfactory – 1, satisfactory 

– 2, good – 5, very good – 8, excellent 

– 9 

PUSPEH Expected success 100.0 

+-BASMORMOTST Basic Morph.-Motoric status 70.0 

¦ +-MOTORIKA Motoric status 47.0 

¦ ¦ +-ENKOGI Energetic component 23.5 

¦ ¦ ¦ +-TRAEKS Duration of excitation 3.5 

¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MMRNPK3 Jumping over bench rep. 2.5 0:0, 91,1:2, 99,8:5, 104,7:8, 110,8:9 

¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MRTDT45 Abdominal crunches rep. 1.0 0:0, 14:2, 16:5, 18:8, 20:9 

¦ ¦ ¦ +-INTEKS Intensity of excitation 19.0 

¦ ¦ ¦ +-HIT_MOC Speed strenght 9.0 

¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MMENSDM Long jump from a standstill cm 2.5 0:0, 274,4:2, 286,8:5, 293,7:8, 302,4:9 

¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-SMABAV0 High of the vertical jump cm 6.5 0:0, 47,4:2, 53,2:5, 56,5:8, 60,5:9 

¦ ¦ ¦ +-EKS_MOC Explosive strenght 6.0 

¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-EKSPL0 Explosiveness of the jump - 2.0 0:0, 75,8:2, 85,2:5, 90,4:8, 96,9:9 

¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-EKSPLO1 Start explosiveness m/s2 4.0 0:0, 7:2, 8:5, 8,5:8, 9:9 

¦ ¦ ¦ +-ELAST_MOC Elastic strenght 4.0 

¦ ¦ ¦ +-MMEN3SM Triple jump m 4.0 0:0, 8,779:2, 9,271:5, 9,544:8, 9,886:9 

¦ ¦ +-INKOGI Information component 23.5 

¦ ¦ +-REGSIN Regulation of muscles 8.5 

¦ ¦ ¦ +-RAVNOTEZ Balance 2.5 

¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MRSAGIT Sagittal balance sec. 1.5 0:0, 18,91:2, 21,35:5, 24,93:8, 29,4:9 

¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MRFRONT Frontal balance sec. 1.0 0:0, 4:2, 7:5, 9:8, 12:9 

¦ ¦ ¦ +-HITROST Motoric speed 2.0 

¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MHFNTD Tapping - right food rep. 1.0 0:0, 28,4:2, 33,1:5, 35,7:8, 38,9:9 

¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MHFNTL Tapping - left food rep. 1.0 0:0, 28,4:2, 33,1:5, 35,7:8, 38,9:9 

¦ ¦ ¦ +GIBLJIVOST Flexibility 4.0 

¦ ¦ ¦ +-MGGTPK Forward bend cm 0 0:0, 58,9:2, 63,6:5, 66,2:8, 69,4:9 

¦ ¦ ¦ +-MGGTPKR Forward bend-relative / 2.0 0:0, 220:2, 250:5, 270:8, 300:9 

¦ ¦ ¦ +-MGGOLS Angle of the ankle deg. 2.0 33:9, 37:8, 40,3:5, 46,1:2, 90:0 

¦ ¦ +-KOORDIN Coordination 15.0 

¦ ¦ +-MFE10P Hurdle jumping sec. 7.5 5,1:9, 5,4:8, 5,6:5, 6:2, 15:0 

¦ ¦ +-MKKROSP Figure-of-eight sec. 2.5 14,8:9, 15,17:8, 15,46:5, 15,99:2, 25:0 

¦ ¦ +-MKPOLN Polygon backwards sec. 5.0 6,06:9, 6,38:8, 6,64:5, 7,11:2, 20:0 

¦ +-MORFO Morphological status 23.0 

¦ +-BAZDIM Basic dimensions 12.0 

¦ ¦ +-AT 

Body weight kg 8.0 0:0, 45:2, 50,1:5, 54,9:8, 55:9, 62:10, 69:9, 

¦ ¦ ¦ 

70,1:8, 71,1:5, 80,1:2, 100:0 

¦ ¦ +-AV 

Body height cm 4.0 100:0, 161,6:2, 165,1:5, 166,8:8, 168,7:9, 

¦ ¦ 

175,2:10, 181,7:9, 183,5:8, 190,1:5, 198,5:2, 

¦ ¦ 

210:0 

¦ +-MORF_IND Morphological indexes 11.0 

¦ +-INDPLOV Aerodynamic index - 7.0 0:0, 880:2, 930:5, 980:8, 1030:9 

¦ +-INDODSK Special take-off index - 4.0 0:0, 185:2, 190:5, 195:8, 200:9 

+-SPMORMOTST Special Morphological-motor 

status 

30.0 

+-MMISSK Basic index - 12.0 0:0, 1200:2, 1270:5, 1350:8, 1450:9 

+-SMISSKA Special ski jumping index - 18.0 0:0, 232,5:2, 253,6:5, 265,3:8, 280:9 

– 27 –

potential model [11]. In formulating the decision rules, 

the experts have pursued a vision of an ideal top-level 

ski jumper profi le in the absolute competition category. 

Normalizers or qualitative marks of the potential success 

represent the limits within which value judgments 

are being defi ned. They are numerically expressed 

limits of the results in individual dimensions and assign 

concrete performance marks separately to every 

individually subject (unsatisfactory – 1, satisfactory – 2, 

good – 5, very good – 8, excellent – 9). 

The general mechanism of decision making is 

based on the logic of the hierarchical linear regression 

equation in which the fi nal result equals the sum of the 

weighted summands of the dimensions of lower order 

in the potential performance model. All calculation operations 

have been made by computer according to the 

following formula: 

Svr = (Snr 1 × P 1 ) + (Snr 2 × P 2 ) + ….. + (Snr n × P n ) 

Svr – normalized value of the variable of higher order 

Snr – normalized value of the variables of lower order 

P – weight of the variable of lower order (decision 

rule). 

By means of the above method, we have fi rst calculated 

(for each subject) the potential prognostic value 

of the performance scores on the lowest level (i.e. 

elementary tests) of the decision tree in the reduced 

performance model. Then we performed a successive 

calculation of the values of variables at higher nodes of 

the decision tree up to the fi nal highest node, i.e. the 

general prognostic mark or score of the potential competition 

performance of the respective subject. 

Results and discussion 

The fi nal structure of the SPEX expert system is shown 

in Table 1. 

The two basic predictors in the regression equation, 

by means of which the fi nal predicted potential 

performance of ski jumpers was assessed, were aggregated 

(linearly calculated) variables of the basic 

morphological-motor status (BASMORMOTST) and 

special morphological-motor status (SPMORMOTST). 

The fi rst variable contributed to the formation of the linear 

expert regression function a relevant share (70.0%). 

The second variable contributed 30% to the formation 

of the regression equation. In the space of the variables 

by means of which the aggregated mark of the sub- 


– 28 – 

criterion (BASMORMOTST) was calculated, the mark 

of the basic motor status (MOTORICS) dominated with 

the value of the coeffi cient of 47.0 %. The total mark of 

performance of ski jumpers in the space of motor variables 

(MOTORICS) was calculated as a linear combination 

of two hypothetical motor components based on 

the specifi c latent motor mechanisms. The fi rst energy 

component of movement (ENCOMPMOV) represents 

the total component of mechanisms which within man’s 

motorics take care of the control and regulation of energy 

processes. In addition to this component, there also 

is presumed (from the aspect of motor behavior) the 

existence of the information component of movement 

(INFCOMPMOV), which covers the co-ordinated action 

of those latent motor mechanisms that take care of the 

control and regulation of information processes. In ski 

jumping, it is hypothesized that the both components 

have an equally important weight in the formation of the 

total motor regression function. This fact was also confi 

rmed in this research as the both motor components 

have approximately the same coeffi cients of multiple 

correlations, as well as the elementary coeffi cients of 

correlation [12]. The manifestation of the energy component 

of movement is (within the RPPM of ski jumpers) 

subject to the linear summary of the mechanism for the 

regulation of excitation duration of the neuromuscular 

system (EXCDUR) and the mechanism of intensity of 

excitation of the neuromuscular system (INTEXC). For 

ski jumps, the mechanism that (within the motorics of 

a ski jumper) takes care of the intensity of energy processes 

and their external physical explication in terms 

of the development of the largest possible force in the 

shortest possible or in optimal time is highly important 

[13]. Within the mechanism for the intensity of excitation 

of the neuromuscular system (INTEXC), all the three 

phenomenologically defi ned abilities showed balanced 

and statistically signifi cant correlations with the criterion 

of performance of ski jumpers. We could say that within 

the fi eld of strength, the speed strength is the most important 

for ski jumping; of course, this is also true at 

a satisfactory degree of the development level of explosive 

strength and elastic strength. The mechanisms 

that, within human motorics, take care of the regulation 

of synergists and antagonists (REGSYN) and the 

structuring of movement in the prescribed parameters 

of contents, space and time (COORDINATION) were, 

from the aspect of explained variance of the criterion of 

performance in ski jumping, approximately the same. 

Of course, the manifestation of the co-ordination abilities 

depends on the plasticity of the mechanism for the


Table 2. Results of the SPEX expert system of the eight-year monitoring of reduced potential performance model (RPPM) of the 

best Slovenian Ski-jumper winner in the World Cup in season 1996/97 and 1997/98 (Qualitative marks of RPPM: unsatisfactory – 1, 

satisfactory – 2, good – 5, very good – 8, excellent – 9) 

Age of jumper 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 

Date of testing 

10.11. 

1993 

25.10. 

1993 

28.10. 

1994 

– 29 – 

21.10. 

1995 

21.10. 

1996 

27.10. 

1997 

19.10. 

1998 

25.10. 

1999 

Competition success 6.0 6.5 6.8 7.0 8.0 9.0 9.0 7.8 7.4 

PUSPEH 3.1 5.0 5.0 5.6 6.3 7.7 8.3 8.9 7.4 

+-OSMORMOTST 2.2 6.8 5.0 5.6 5.9 7.2 8.0 8.8 7.1 

¦ +-MOTORIKA 2.5 2.9 3.5 4.2 4.6 6.7 7.7 8.7 6.3 

¦ ¦ +-ENKOGI 2.3 3.2 3.5 3.6 4.6 6.8 7.6 8.3 6.0 

¦ ¦ ¦ +-TRAEKS 6.3 8.4 9.1 7.4 8.2 9.9 9.8 10.0 10.0 

¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MMRNPK3 6.3 8.5 9.5 9.9 10.3 10.3 10,0 10.0 10.0 

¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MMRTDT45 8.0 8.0 1.7 3.5 9.0 6.5 9.0 9.0 

¦ ¦ ¦ +-INTEKS 1.2 1.8 2.0 2.6 3.6 6.0 7.0 7.8 4.8 

¦ ¦ ¦ +-HIT_MOC 1.6 1.8 1.8 2.6 4.2 8.2 8.7 9.1 6.3 

¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MMENSDM 1.6 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.6 7.3 8.4 8.5 3.4 

¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-SMABAV0 1.6 1.9 1.9 2.8 4.9 8.6 8.9 9.4 7.5 

¦ ¦ ¦ +-EKS_MOC 0.3 2.4 3.1 3.2 3.1 5.3 5.4 2.5 

¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-EKSPL0 4.0 4.3 4.9 8.2 8.2 8.2 4.6 

¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-EKSPLO1 0.3 1.9 2.8 2.8 1.8 4.5 4.7 1.9 

¦ ¦ ¦ +-ELAST_MOC 1.5 1.8 1.9 2.4 4.0 4.6 7.5 3.8 

¦ ¦ ¦ +-MMEN3SM 1.5 1.8 1.9 2.4 4.0 4.6 7.5 3.8 

¦ ¦ +-INKOGI 2.6 3.5 3.5 4.8 4.7 6.6 7.9 9.0 6.7 

¦ ¦ +-REGSIN 3.7 5.5 5.7 4.7 4.5 5.9 7.5 7.7 7.1 

¦ ¦ ¦ +-RAVNOTEZ 0.9 1.2 4.2 2.1 1.9 5.5 7.7 8.2 7.5 

¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MRSAGIT 0.4 1.2 0.6 1.4 1.5 7.0 9.1 9.1 9.1 

¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MRFRONT 2.0 12.5 3.6 2.7 2.1 4.5 6.2 3.7 

¦ ¦ ¦ +-HITROST 2.1 2.7 3.3 4.8 3.3 8.6 8.7 8.9 

¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MHFNTD 2.4 3.0 3.7 6.0 3.7 8.4 8.4 8.7 

¦ ¦ ¦ ¦ +-MHFNTL 1.9 2.4 3.0 3.7 3.0 8.7 9.0 9.0 

¦ ¦ ¦ +-GIBLJIVOST 7.1 9.8 8.0 7.8 6.9 7.2 7.0 6.8 6.1 

¦ ¦ ¦ +-MGGTPK 2.7 2.0 4.0 8.2 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.2 

¦ ¦ ¦ +-MGGTPKR 8.2 8.2 8.5 8.3 8.1 7.3 

¦ ¦ ¦ +-MGGOLS 7.1 9.8 8.0 6.2 1.9 2.1 1.9 1.9 1.9 

¦ ¦ +-KOORDIN 1.9 1.8 2.2 4.9 4.9 7.1 8.1 9.9 6.4 

¦ ¦ +-MFE10P 1.9 1.7 1.9 1.9 3.5 5.0 8.0 8.7 4.2 

¦ ¦ +-MKKROSP 1.5 2.0 3.6 8.2 1.9 8.2 3.1 8.7 2.0 

¦ ¦ +-MKPOLN 2.1 1.9 1.9 7.8 9.2 9.8 10,0 10,0 10,0 

¦ +-MORFO 1.7 2.1 8.3 8.5 8.6 8.0 8.7 9.0 8.9 

¦ +-BAZDIM 1.7 2.1 7.7 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.5 9.4 

¦ ¦ +-AT 1.7 2.3 6.3 9.4 9.8 9.9 10.0 9.8 9.7 

¦ ¦ +-AV 1.7 1.9 9.1 9.9 9.4 9.3 9.1 9.1 9.1 

¦ +-MORF_IND 8.9 7.5 7.5 6.5 7.9 8.6 8.5 

¦ +-INDPLOV 9.1 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.8 8.7 8.3 

¦ +-INDODSK 8.6 5.6 5.6 2.6 6.2 8.4 8.8 

+-SPMORMOTST 5.0 0.9 4.8 5.7 7.3 8.8 9.0 9.1 7.9 

+-MMISSK 9.6 0.1 8.3 8.2 8.2 8.6 8.8 8.6 7.5 

+-SMISSKA 1.9 1.4 2.5 4.1 6.6 8.9 9.1 9.5 8.1 

20.10. 

2000

egulation of the synergistic and antagonistic muscle 

groups. Within the mechanism for the regulation of synergists 

and antagonists there occurred, at the phenomenological 

level, a domination of the ability of balance 

in comparison with the ability of speed of alternative 

movements of the lower extremities and the ability of 

fl exibility. This is also so with the ability of co-ordination 

of movement, which was (for the requirements of this 

research) expressed by three variables indicating three 

typical forms of co-ordination. For all the three forms, 

the requirement for the fastest possible execution of 

motor tasks that are complex in some way (as to contents 

or spatially) it is characteristic. 

The highest degree of correlation with the criterion 

of performance of ski jumpers was seen in the variable 

MFE10P. This is a variable where the subject must jump 

over 10 obstacles at a prescribed height in the shortest 

possible time. The task requires that the subject has 

highly developed abilities for rhythmic mastering of 

movement; such movement is made diffi cult by certain 

hindrances or obstacles. 

Among the morphological variables under which we 

understand the transformed values of the predicted potential 

performance of ski jumpers, the highest weights 

was found in body weight; this completely confi rms with 

the fi ndings of some studies [14]. The contribution of 

body weight to the formation of the higher weight at 

the node (BASICDIMENSIONS) was signifi cant and, in 

comparison to the body height, dominant. In the analysis 

of performance of ski jumpers, we should not neglect 

the importance of special morphological indexes, 

calculated on the basis of the anticipated functional relations 

to the physical environment in which ski jumps 

are realized. The morphological index of the take off of 

ski jumpers points to a relative relationship between the 

body weight and leg length. It is assumed that the ski 

jumpers with a higher relative leg length in comparison 

with body height have poorer predispositions for successful 

take off and transition into fl ight [15]. 

As an example of longitudinal monitoring of the development 

of potential performance from the aspect of 

morphological and motor variables, we have selected 

the results of the winner in the World Cup in ski jumping 

for the 1996/97 and 1997/98 seasons (Table 2). 

From the aspect of reduced potential performance 

model (RPPM), the best mark (8.9) was achieved by the 


– 30 – 

winner of World Cup in ski jumping in 1999 when he 

was 20 years old. In that season, the best Slovenian 

ski jumper won second place at the World Cup. After 

this season, his average competition performance 

declined. For his high results in the World Cup, the 

jumper needed about 10 years of preparation. His potential 

performance at age 13 in 1992 was not so high. 

Then his marks of potential performance were rising 

rapidly. In the 1995/96 season, he won fi rst place in 

World Cup competition, when the mark of his potential 

performance was only 6.3. In that season, the 

mark of RPPM attained by the young Slovenian ski 

jumper was good, which means that he had already 

surpassed those minimal limits of satisfactory potential 

capacity, which allowed him to achieve his fi rst 

two wins in the World Cup [16]. His morphological 

profi le in the best two competition seasons (1996/97 

and 1997/98) was excellent, especially the aerodynamic 

index of fl ight. In the basic motor space, this 

high level jumper has a slightly more developed information 

component of movement; however, both the 

information component and the energy component of 

movement have been scored as good. In these two 

seasons, the competitor further improved his potential 

performance, which enabled him, at full utilization 

of his competitive talent, to achieve two overall wins 

in the World Cup. 

Conclusion 

The results thus confi rm the importance of monitoring 

the potential competitive performance of athletes 

with the help of the expert system. The results of expert 

systems are only an aid that can enable better 

management of people in terms of elevation of performance 

on the selected standards and criteria. In 

this way, the decisions will be based on more scientifi c 

grounds; the value of information will be higher, and 

the system itself will be permanently oriented towards 

the growth of the quality of the potential competition 

performance of athletes. Expert system should have 

the possibility of adding and including a new piece of 

knowledge into the existing system, i.e. the ability to 

improve the system permanently. The system should 

be able to explain the causes from which certain decisions 

followed.


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– 31 – 

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2010 

THE INFLUENCE OF PLYOMETRICS TRAINING 

ON THE MAXIMAL POWER OF THE LOWER LIMBS 

IN BASKETBALL PLAYERS AGED 16–18 

WPŁYW TRENINGU PLAJOMETRYCZNEGO NA POPRAWĘ 

PO ZIOMU SIŁY EKSPLOZYWNEJ KOŃCZYN DOLNYCH 

U KOSZYKARZY W WIEKU 16–18 LAT 

Ryszard Litkowycz *, Kajetan Słomka **, 

Monika Grygorowicz ***, Henryk Król**** 

*****Dr, Chair of Team Sports, the Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education in Katowice 

*****Dr, Department of Human Motor Behavior, the Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education in Katowice 

*****Dr, Department of Physiotherapy, the Stanisław Staszic State School of Higher Vocational Education in Piła 

*****Dr, habil., Department of Human Motor Behavior, the Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education in Katowice 

Key words: basketball, training, playometrics 

Słowa kluczowe: koszykówka, trening, plajometryka 


Aim of the work. The study was aimed at assessing the influence of plyometric training on explosive strength 

development dynamics in running and jumping among basketball players, since basketball is a sport discipline 

dominated by strength and speed abilities. The combination of these two constitutes explosive strength enables 

the athletes of various sport disciplines to perform at the highest level of their technical and tactical skills. 

Material and methods. Thirty-six basketball players aged 16–18 participated in the study. They were divided 

into experimental (E) and control (K) group. Running speed (5 m, 15m, 20m and 30m distance), speed endurance 

(10 × 30 m run), explosive strength of trunk and legs (recorded on a dynamometric platform) as well as 

strength endurance of leg flexors and extensors in isokinetic conditions were measured at the beginning and 

at the end of the experiment. 

Results. The training regimen did not result in any significant changes in the examined motor abilities of 

basketball players in the control group. The introduction of plyometric training in the experimental group resulted 

in a statistically significant strength torque increase in knee flexors and extensors of both joints (measured 

at 60º/s, 120º/s, and 240º/s angular velocity). Moreover, changes were observed in the conventional ratio of 

hamstrings and quadriceps muscles of the right extremity. Specific training activities positively influenced the 

speed endurance assessed with the use of a shuffle run (10 × 30 m). There were no significant differences in 

the level of running speed and explosive strength of legs. 

Cel pracy. Celem pracy było określenie dynamiki zmian siły eksplozywnej przejawiającej się w biegach i skokach 

u koszykarzy w wieku 16–18 lat pod wpływem treningu plajometrycznego. Koszykówka należy bowiem do 

tych dyscyplin sportowych, w których dominującą rolę odgrywa zdolność motoryczna o charakterze siłowo-szybkościowym, 

a w konsekwencji – siła eksplozywna. Dzięki niej nie tylko koszykarze, ale także przedstawiciele innych 

dyscyplin sportowych mogą pokazać pełnię swoich umiejętności techniczno-taktycznych. 

Materiał i metody. Badaniom poddano 36 koszykarzy w wieku 16–18 lat, podzielonych na grupę eksperymentalną 

i kontrolną. Przed eksperymentem oraz po jego zakończeniu dokonano pomiarów szybkości biegowej 

(na dystansach 5, 15, 20 i 30 m), wytrzymałości szybkościowej (bieg 10 × 30 m), siły dynamicznej kończyn dolnych 

– 33 –


i tułowia (platforma dynamometryczna), siły dynamicznej oraz wytrzymałości siłowej prostowników i zginaczy stawu 

kolanowego w warunkach izokinetycznych. 

Wyniki i wnioski. Trening sportowy nie wywołał istotnych zmian u koszykarzy z grupy kontrolnej w zakresie 

badanych zdolności motorycznych. Wprowadzenie ćwiczeń plajometrycznych do treningu koszykarzy z grupy 

eksperymentalnej w większości przypadków doprowadziło do istotnego statystycznie wzrostu wartości momentu 

siły zginaczy i prostowników stawu kolanowego kończyny dolnej prawej i lewej (60º/s, 120º/s, 240º/s). Ponadto 

stwierdzono zmiany w proporcjach wartości momentów sił zginaczy i prostowników stawu kolanowego kończyny 

dolnej prawej. Specyficzne zajęcia treningowe wpłynęły na istotną poprawę wytrzymałości szybkościowej ocenianej 

biegiem wahadłowym 10 × 30 m. Nie stwierdzono różnic, bądź też występowały sporadycznie w poziomie szybkości 

biegowej (5, 15, 20 i 30 m) oraz mocy kończyn dolnych (platforma dynamometryczna). 

Introduction 

Practical experience and various test results prove that 

speed-strength abilities are one of important motor 

abilities for an athlete, particularly for a basketball player 

[1–8]. Modern sport training practice attributes particular 

importance to strength developing exercises (dynamic, 

explosive). Apart from the classic methods of shaping 

muscle dynamics, plyometrics is an important form of 

sport performance. The term “plyometrics” comes from 

the Greek words “plio” and “metric”, meaning “more” and 

“measure”, respectively. The fi rst reports about the methods 

and concept of plyometric exercises were provided 

by the coaches from the former USSR, as described by 

Donald and Chu [4] and Mikołajec and Rzepka [8]. 

Explosive force is based on a phenomenon known in 

the literature as the “stretch refl ex”, “muscle spindle refl 

ex” or “myotatic refl ex”. Rapid muscle elongation due 

to a load (eccentric or landing phase) infl uences the 

stretching of fi bers responsible for generating energy 

necessary for a contraction, which causes the activation 

of muscle spindles. Muscle spindle stimulation 

leads to the stimulation of the spinal cord, and next, 

Time�[s] 

1,45 

1,43 

1,41 

1,39 

1,37 

1,35 

1,33 

1,31 

1,29 

1,27 

1,25 

– 34 – 

to a very intensive muscle contraction – the concentric 

(overcoming) phase [4, 8–11]. The most important 

discovery of the plyometric training was that it not only 

develops the muscle tissue but above all, it improves 

the coordination of the whole neuromuscular system. 

Previous research results [6, 5, 10, 12–22] on plyometric 

training and relation between strength and speed 

abilities inspire to further studies. The aim of our experiment 

was to assess the infl uence of plyometric training 

on the explosive strength change dynamics, evident 

in running, jumping and in muscle torque values measured 

in isokinetic conditions. 


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 

Run�number 

Basketball players from the team AZS Katowice who 

participated in youth basketball league in two age 

groups: older juniors (19–20 years old) and juniors 

(17–18 years old) took part in the study. The players 

were divided into two groups (experimental and control 

one) according to their training skills and age; more experienced 

players, able to handle larger training loads, 

were assigned to the experimental group (Fig. 1). The 

Fig. 1. Comparison of mean time in 5m run for the experimental (E) and control (K) group before (I) and after the experiment (II) 

E�I 

E�II 

K�I 

K�II


Table 1. Material 

Group Category 

experiment lasted from January 30 2006 to June 2 

2006, and it was divided into preparation – introduction 

phase (8 weeks) and experiment proper phase 

(I and II, 8 weeks). The aim of the preparation phase, 

during which the subjects trained twice a week (using 

their own bodyweight, mats, and exercises with 

a partner) was to develop athletic prowess and practice 

the correct take-off technique in jump exercises. 

The experiment proper I (4 weeks) aimed at building 

explosive leg strength through the application of selected 

plyometric exercises. In the experiment proper II 

(4 weeks) training loads were increased on the basis of 

individual abilities of the players. To achieve that, basketballs 

as well as 1 kg and 4 kg medicine balls were 

used in plyometric training. The number of jumps was 

also increased, but the structure of particular training 

units did not change. The microcycle structure details 

in the experiment proper phase I and II are presented 

in Table 2. 

Motor ability level was assessed prior to (on 25 

March 2006) and after the experiment completion (on 

24 June 2006), with the following research tools: 

1. Laser diode system LDM 300C-Sport, used to assess: 

– running speed at 5m, 15m, 20m and 30m 

– speed endurance in 10 × 30m run. 

2. KISTLER dynamometer platform with MVJ [23] 

software, used to assess: 

– explosive leg and trunk strength measured by 

vertical jump with no arm swing. 

3. EN-Knee isokinetic dynamometer (Enraf Nonius, 

Holland) used to estimate the values of: 

– dynamic strength of knee fl exors and extensors 

at 60º/s angular velocity (5 repetitions) and 

120º/s angular velocity (10 repetitions) as well 

as the conventional muscle torque ratio of knee 

fl exors and extensors, 

– strength endurance of knee fl exors and extensors 

at 240º/s angular velocity (15 repetitions) 

as well as the conventional muscle torque ratio 

of knee fl exors and extensors. 

Number 

of players 

– 35 – 

Age [years] Training 

advancement 

x ± S min – max [years] 

Experimental (E) Juniors 18 16,8 ± 1,2 15,3 – 18,3 6,2 

Control (K) Juniors 18 15,8 ± 0,8 14,5 – 16,4 4,7 

The dynamometer had been used in previous research 

[24], and the evaluation of the muscle dynamic 

potential in isokinetic conditions (including warm-up, 

stabilization, rest period) was performed according to 

methodology described by Grygorowicz [25]. 

Descriptive statistics was used in data analysis. It 

was found out that the empirical data distribution was 

close to normal, which allowed for the analysis of variance 

(ANOVA) with repeated measures. Since the 

condition of data globosity was not fulfi lled, the multifactor 

analysis was used. To assess the signifi cance 

between respective test differences post hoc Tukeys’ 

test was done. To compare related pairs from test I and 

II, the Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Ranks test was used. 

Statistical signifi cance was set at p < 0.05. Statistica 5.0 

software was used for statistical analysis. 

Results and discussion 

The study confi rmed the effectiveness of the specifi c 

plyometric training. Subjects from the experimental 

group obtained signifi cant improvement in the majority 

of analyzed variables. In the control group, comparing 

the results before and after the experiment, differences 

appeared in motor abilities levels; however, they were 

not statistically signifi cant (p > 0.05) (Table 3–12, Fig. 

1, 2). 

Elevating the center of body mass during a vertical 

jump on spot with no arm swing may be the basis 

for an estimate of leg and trunk strength-speed ability 

level in basketball players [26]. The obtained data did 

not show any signifi cant difference in explosive leg and 

trunk strength measured on a dynamometer platform 

(Table 3). 

The analysis of strength abilities test results performed 

before and after the experiment in isokinetic 

conditions showed an improvement of strength level 

in the experiment group, and in the majority of players 

the difference was statistically signifi cant (Table 4–8). 

The most noticeable is the signifi cant difference in the 

level of knee fl exor strength at all tested angular veloci-

Table 2. Microcycle structure 


Load 

Rest period 

(number of jumps) Load total 

(no of jumps) 

Phase I Phase II Phase I Phase II 

Training methods Warm up 

Day of the 

week 

120 220 1075 

5 times longer than 

exercise 


exercise 

Constant run 

10-15min 

– “core stability” 

on unstable ground (mats), 

– “bounding” 

1 

353 

2 min after each 3 jumps 60 60 

1 min after each 3 

jumps 

Strength exercises with medicine 

balls (1kg) 15min 

– “depth jumps” (with the use of 3 vaulting 

boxes and hurdles) 

2 

3 Day off Day off Day off Day off 0 0 0 

– 36 – 

140 200 1182 


exercise 


exercise 

Technical exercises with balls 15min 

– “multiple jumps” 

– “standing jumps” 

– “jumps on spot” 

(benches, lines, “hexagon”) 

4 

2 min after each 3 jumps 60 60 658 

1 min after each 3 

jumps 

Strength exercises with medicine 

balls (1kg) 15 min 

– “depth jumps” (with the use of 3 vaulting 

boxes and hurdles) 

5 



All jumps total (8 weeks of experiment) 3266


Time�[s] 

5,2 

5,1 

5 

4,9 

4,8 

4,7 

4,6 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 

Run�number 

Fig. 2. Comparison of mean time in 30m run for the experimental (E) and control (K) group before (I) and after the experiment (II) 

ties, both in left and right extremity (Table 4, 5). Identical 

number of jumps performed by both lower extremities in 

the proper phase of the experiment resulted in a greater 

strength increase in the right knee fl exor. The strength 

level of knee extensor increased as well, however not at 

all tested velocities; no signifi cant difference was recorded 

in the dynamic strength of the lower right extremity 

(tested at 60º/s and 120º/s angular velocity) or left extremity 

(tested at 60º/s angular velocity) (Table 6, 7). 

Before the experiment, at 60º/s and 120º/s angular 

velocity, the strength level of right knee extensor in basketball 

players was on a similar level to the strength level 

of left knee extensor; only the level of strength endurance 

of left knee extensor was slightly higher than that of the 

right knee extensor. It seems that the right lower extrem- 

Table 3. Descriptive statistics and significance level of the differences in vertical jump [cm] 

– 37 – 

ity is more often used to perform the long step in layup 

(opposing and take-off phase) while the left lower extremity 

makes a short dynamic step (take-off phase). As 

a result of the plyometric training there was a change in 

strength endurance (tested at 240º/s angular velocity) of 

knee extensors in both lower extremities. Changes in 

dynamic strength levels were observed only in left lower 

extremity at 120º/s angular velocity. 

One may ask why before and after the experiment 

there were no signifi cant differences in the level of dynamic 

strength of right and left lower extremity extensors 

(at 60º/s and 120º/s, and 60º/s angular velocity, respectively). 

Perhaps motor activities in the regular basketball 

training resulted in the development of high strength 

level of knee extensors, and the experiment was not 

Test N x ± S min – max S k K u T p 

I 18 40,2 ± 4,86 30,9 – 52,1 0,494 1,050 

II 18 40,0 ± 4,30 32,3 – 47,7 –0,350 –0,525 

I 18 40,2 ± 4,86 30,9 – 52,1 0,494 1,050 

III* 18 39,7 ± 4,44 32,4 – 47,4 –0,152 –1,122 

II 18 40,0 ± 4,30 32,3 – 47,7 –0,350 –0,525 

III* 18 39,7 ± 4,44 32,4 – 47,4 –0,152 –1,122 

E �I 

E �II 

K�I 

K�II 

0,235 0,817 

0,992 0,335 

1,022 0,321 

* Having observed no statistically significant changes in the level of explosive leg and trunk strength, the researchers decided to carry out test III believing 

that a longer rest period will allow the subjects to show the real level of the tested ability.


Table 4. Descriptive statistics and significance level of the differences for the right lower extremity flexor muscles [Nm] 

Test 

Angular 

velocity 

a suffi cient stimulus to bring about the intended effects. 

Statistically signifi cant differences between the values of 

muscle torque of fl exors (6 cases) and extensors (3 cases) 

may suggest that in basketball training insuffi cient attention 

was devoted to the muscles responsible for knee 

fl exion, which confi rms their susceptibility to the stimulus 

of the plyometric training (Table 4–7). 

According to Wilkerson et al. [11] the value of conventional 

knee fl exors/extensors ratio should be equal 

to 2:3. However, varied values of this ratio (Hamstring/ 

Quadriceps) have been reported in scientifi c research, 

depending on the tested velocity, the subject’s position, 

the test muscle group [27, 28]. Nevertheless, many 

authors accept 0.6 as the normative value of the knee 

conventional ratio at 60°/s angular velocity; it increases 

to 0.8 at higher velocities of the isokinetic assessment 

[29–31]. 

It should be noted that before the experiment most 

of the subjects had a correct conventional ratio of knee 

N x ± S min – max S k K u T p 

I 60 deg/s 

171,8 ± 49,53 93,8 – 303,0 1,304 2,631 

18 

II 60 deg/s 197,3 ± 55,06 125,0 – 322,0 1,298 1,059 

I 120 deg/s 

158,8 ± 36,82 79,4 – 243,0 0,533 2,205 

18 

II 120 deg/s 177,6 ± 44,03 120,0 – 279,0 1,304 1,270 

I 240 deg/s 

127,1 ± 23,97 90,7 – 175,0 0,841 0,045 

18 

II 240 deg/s 145,2 ± 28,79 99,6 – 204,0 0,631 –0,009 

– 38 – 

–4,610 0,000 

–3,984 0,001 

–5,698 0,000 

extensor and fl exor muscles (Hcon/Qcon) (Table 8), 

and the statistically signifi cant changes caused by 

the plyometric training occurred only in the lower right 

extremity. It might be said that the plyometric training 

to a greater extent affected the weaker muscle group, 

that is hamstrings (semimembranosus muscle, semitendinosus 

muscle, biceps femoris muscle), causing 

compensation changes. Changes leading towards 

the proper muscle ratio were particularly visible in the 

lower extremity, which – as it was already mentioned 

above – performs particular work during training and 

game. After the experiment the results of the described 

ratio of right lower extremity exceeded the normative 

values at 240º/s angular velocity, mostly due to the 

large increase of the fl exors’ strength endurance level. 

It should be remembered that before the experiment 

the right lower extremity demonstrated correct values 

of conventional knee fl exors/extensors ratio (60°/s – 0. 

63, 120°/s – 0.76, 240°/s – 0.86). After the experiment 

Table 5. Descriptive statistics and significance level of the differences for the left lower extremity flexor muscles [Nm] 

Angular velocity N x ± S min – max S k K u T p 

60 deg/s 

172,57 ± 43,39 129,0 – 272,0 1,516 1,700 

18 

60 deg/s 187,50 ± 43,52 139,0 – 290,0 1,288 1,039 

120 deg/s 

157,25 ± 30,21 114,0 – 218,0 0,855 0,366 

18 

120 deg/s 169,00 ± 32,93 136,0 – 234,0 1,133 0,084 

240 deg/s 

123,09 ± 20,13 93,5 – 157,0 0,108 –0,983 

18 

240 deg/s 134,00 ± 16,12 107,0 – 161,0 0,168 –0,945 

–4,151 0,000 

–2,964 0,009 

–2,971 0,009


Table 6. Descriptive statistics and significance level of the differences for the left lower extremity extensor muscles [Nm] 

Test 

Angular 

velocity 

N x ± S min – max Sk Ku T p 

I 

II 

60 deg/s 

60 deg/s 

18 

259,56 ± 62,41 

267,06 ± 60,41 

162,0 – 416,0 

178,0 – 411,0 

1,001 

0,948 

1,650 

1,034 

–1,205 0,246 

I 

II 

120 deg/s 

120 deg/s 

18 

211,25 ± 39,50 

223,44 ± 43,87 

160,0 – 317,0 

172,0 – 319,0 

1,499 

0,937 

2,526 

0,341 

–2,674 0,017 

I 

II 

240 deg/s 

240 deg/s 

18 

150,56 ± 26,45 

164,94 ± 23,54 

105,0 – 187,0 

126,0 – 218,0 

–0,080 

0,518 

–1,140 

0,495 

–3,560 0,002 

this ratio was incorrect and at 240º/s angular velocity it 

exceeded normative data (0.98) (Table 8). 

Out of 40 parameters describing speed and speed 

endurance, its derivative, statistically signifi cant changes 

were observed in the values before and after the experiment 

in 19 cases in the experiment group; no such changes 

were recorded in the control group (Table 9–12, Figure 

1 and 2). It should also be noted that what improved was 

endurance abilities, not speed abilities, as could be suggested 

by the type of the training experiment. All signifi - 

cant differences in the running test were only noticed in 

the 6th or 7th repetition (when the subjects had already 

run 5 × 30m). The differences were not recorded in any 

of the fi rst runs at 5 m, 10 m, 20 m or 30 m distance, 

which confi rms the above mentioned observation on the 

endurance type of changes in motor abilities of basketball 

players. According to Wachowski et al. [13] there was 

no correlation between the running speed and the power 

and strength tests. The obtained results show that there is 

a small relation (too many components) between running 

speed and strength and power. Therefore, it should not 

be assumed that a plyometric training focused on power 

development will result in better results in running tests. 

– 39 – 

Moreover, the authors claim that in optimal conditions for 

strength and power development, running speed level depends 

on the running technique (the length and frequency 

of step). 

Changes in motor abilities in the experiment group 

resulted from the plyometric training structure, as well 

as from the subjects susceptibility to training impulses 

(sensitive periods). Thus the research question should be 

considered from two perspectives; that is, from the educational 

and ontogenetic perspective. 

Literature analysis [5, 13, 14, 17, 32–36] allows for 

a conclusion that the slowest is the annual speed increase 

(5%) which grows best up to age 16. Faster development 

can be observed in the case of jumping abilities 

(7%) and power (6%), and the sensitive period for these 

abilities occurs at age 13–15. 

The development of jumping abilities is mainly related 

to the training of the capability of fast and economic 

use of muscle strength (neuromuscular coordination) 

of lower extremities. It depends, among others, on the 

elastic elements acting within the ankle joint. It can thus 

be said that the experiment was too short to cause any 

signifi cant changes in the level of relative strength, 

Table 7. Descriptive statistics and significance level of the differences for the right lower extremity extensor muscles [Nm] 

Test 

Angular 

velocity 

N x ± S min – max S k K u T p 

I 60 deg/s 

261,56 ± 54,69 187,0 – 400,0 1,105 1,483 

18 

II 60 deg/s 268,81 ± 64,72 181,0 – 412,0 0,948 0,224 

I 120 deg/s 

209,81 ± 49,46 145,0 – 333,0 1,324 1,312 

18 

II 120 deg/s 218,37 ± 47,48 154,0 – 327,0 0,971 0,589 

I 240 deg/s 

141,81 ± 26,28 101,0 – 202,0 0,705 0,363 

18 

II 240 deg/s 152,69 ± 23,64 116,0 – 194,0 0,434 –0,700 

–0,978 0,343 

–1,593 0,131 

–2,193 0,044


Table 8. Descriptive statistics and significance level of the differences for conventional knee flexors/extensors ratio 

Angular 

velocity 

Conventional index x ± S min – max S k K u T p 

responsible for the elevation of the body mass center 

during a vertical jump on a platform. It also seems that 

boys aged 11–14 are more capable of perfecting their 

strength-speed abilities [17]. 

As a result of the exercises the greatest annual 

changes can be observed in endurance and absolute 

power training (more than 20%) [33, 17]. It can be expected 

that the time of the experiment and training load 

allowed only for the development of endurance changes 

in running tests (Table 9–12, Figure 1 and 2). Such 

interpretation of the results is confi rmed by the high 

level of running endurance and strength endurance of 

knee fl exors and extensors. Signifi cant changes in the 

muscle torque values in tests performed on the isokinetic 

dynamometer at 240º/s angular velocity characterize 

changes in strength endurance, while the value 

of muscle torque at 60º/s angular velocity suggests 

changes of dynamic strength. 

Basketball players from the experiment group performed 

more than 3000 jumps during the proper phase 

of the experiment (I and II). That is a lot, taking into consideration 

the time span of the experiment: eight weeks 

(Table 2). One may ask whether three days of rest were 

enough for four days of plyometric training. To com- 

Left lower extremity 

60 I 0,68 0,68 ± 0,10 0,50 – 0,91 0,495 0,507 

60 II 0,70 0,70 ± 0,07 0,60 – 0,84 0,355 –0,532 

120 I 0,76 0,76 ± 0,08 0,59 – 0,9 –0,161 –0,345 

120 II 0,76 0,76 ± 0,08 0,62 – 0,92 0,195 –0,670 

240 I 0,86 0,86 ± 0,16 0,61 – 1,25 0,791 0,994 

240 II 0,87 0,87 ± 0,13 0,64 – 1,14 0,254 0,040 

Right lower extremity 

60 I 0,63 0,63 ± 0,07 0,48 – 0,74 –0,772 0,131 

60 II 0,70 0,70 ± 0,10 0,51 – 0,94 0,262 0,755 

120 I 0,76 0,76 ± 0,09 0,55 – 0,89 –0,699 0,650 

120 II 0,81 0,81 ± 0,11 0,66 – 1,05 0,696 –0,142 

240 I 0,86 0,86 ± 0,21 0,21 – 1,21 –1,867 6,068 

240 II 0,98 0,98 ± 0,17 0,61 – 1,19 –0,733 –0,004 

– 40 – 

47,5 0,289 

67,5 0,979 

62,0 0,756 

9,0 0,006 

25,0 0,084 

27,5 0,036 

pare with other research, in a study by Kubaszczyk and 

Litkowycz [10] basketball players were subject to a plyometric 

training twice a week for fi ve months, performing 

approximately 2500 jumps. As a result, there were signifi 

cant changes in the dynamic strength level measured 

by a vertical jump, long jump from a spot and triple jump. 

It should be noted that in spite of the fact that the training 

load was divided into fi ve months, during the second 

measurement (out of three), in the middle of the experiment, 

the authors recorded a regress of results. What 

occurred was a common phenomenon observed in all 

tests: a decrease in the level of strength-speed abilities 

value, after which a signifi cant improvement occurred, 

with values higher than those before the experiment. 

After the fatigue accumulation effect, supercompensation 

occurred. It can thus be said that prolonging the 

experiment at the expense of one training unit would 

allow for achieving satisfactory results not only in the 

level of endurance abilities but, above all, of speed abilities. 

Another reason for signifi cant differences in the 

level of dynamic strength of lower extremities in basketball 

players tested by Kubaszczyk and Litkowycz [10] 

is the age of subjects (16 years) and thus their greater 

susceptibility to strength-speed training impulse.


Table 9. Descriptive statistics and significance level of the differences for 5m run [s] 

Test Run N x ± S min – max S k K u T p 

I 1 188 1,34 ± 0,07 1,18 – 1,48 –0,404 0,572 

II 1 18 1,27 ± 0,04 1,20 – 1,35 0,112 0,014 

I 2 18 1,35 ± 0,10 1,17 – 1,55 –0,029 –0,411 

II 2 18 1,30 ± 0,05 1,21 – 1,38 –0,295 –0,296 

I 3 18 1,35 ± 0,09 1,16 – 1,51 –0,282 –0,523 

II 3 18 1,30 ± 0,05 1,24 – 1,40 1,142 0,331 

I 4 18 1,37 ± 0,08 1,24 – 1,49 0,113 –1,456 

II 4 18 1,30 ± 0,05 1,22 – 1,40 –0,019 –0,482 

I 5 18 1,38 ± 0,10 1,19 – 1,58 –0,245 –0,371 

II 5 18 1,33 ± 0,04 1,23 – 1,39 –0,927 0,835 

I 6 18 1,39 ± 0,07 1,29 – 1,58 1,091 1,507 

II 6 18 1,31 ± 0,07 1,15 – 1,38 –1,389 2,091 

I 7 18 1,39 ± 0,07 1,25 – 1,57 0,428 0,988 

II 7 18 1,31 ± 0,04 1,27 – 1,39 1,318 0,924 

I 8 18 1,41 ± 0,08 1,28 – 1,63 0,732 1,628 

II 8 18 1,32 ± 0,02 1,30 – 1,36 0,360 –1,474 

I 9 18 1,42 ± 0,08 1,23 – 1,55 –0,698 1,047 

II 9 18 1,32 ± 0,05 1,26 – 1,41 0,421 –0,507 

I 10 18 1,42 ± 0,08 1,32 – 1,60 0,772 –0,081 

II 10 18 1,31 ± 0,06 1,25 – 1,42 1,066 0,014 

Cossor et al. [22] described the effect of 20 weeks 

of plyometric training. During the study subjects (12–16 

year old swimmers) performed a total of 2700 jumps. 

After the experiment there were no signifi cant changes 

in the values of explosive leg strength in the young 

swimmers. The authors suggest two most probable reasons 

for such a situation: fi rst, physical load imposed by 

the plyometric training turned out to be too low, as the 

authors used load recommended for training children. 

Out of the two components of training load, the body 

of a young athlete better tolerates volume better than 

intensity. The second reason is the young swimmers’ 

growth process. 

Authors [12, 15, 18–21, 37] of some research papers 

have not observed any signifi cant increase of 

sport achievements after applying the plyometric train- 

– 41 – 

11,5 0,055 

31,5 0,893 

25,0 0,798 

11,5 0,055 

27,0 0,593 

11,5 0,055 

2,0 0,005 

12,5 0,068 

6,5 0,018 

5,0 0,021 

ing, which was most probably due to a too short plyometric 

program. Burr and Young [20] believe that the 

plyometric training should be carried out for at least 18 

weeks for the positive effects to appear. High intensity 

exercises which affect the nervous system should only 

be applied in individuals where the growth process is 

completed. Particular plyometric exercises should be 

performed with maximum strength (when the subject 

is not fatigued), and rest periods should take at least as 

much time as the exercises. 

The conclusions concerning the application of 

plyometric exercises in a training process can be now 

formed. Basketball training should be supported by plyometric 

training, and its intensity, one of the components 

of load, should exceed average values appropriate to 

the subject’s age. Increasing the training volume and



Test Run N x ± S min – max Sk Ku T p 

I 

II 

1 

1 

188 

18 

2,81 ± 0,11 

2,71 ± 0,08 

2,59 – 3,00 

2,61 – 2,89 

–0,208 

0,952 

–0,123 

1,103 

9,5 0,066 

I 

II 

2 

2 

18 

18 

2,84 ± 0,16 

2,76 ± 0,08 

2,56 – 3,14 

2,66 – 2,91 

0,097 

0,585 

–0,461 

–0,972 

30,5 0,824 

I 

II 

3 

3 

18 

18 

2,87 ± 0,15 

2,78 ± 0,10 

2,61 – 3,15 

2,64 – 2,99 

0,197 

0,877 

–0,717 

0,603 

21,0 0,858 

I 

II 

4 

4 

18 

18 

2,90 ± 0,14 

2,79 ± 0,09 

2,71 – 3,23 

2,64– 3,95 

0,801 

0,529 

–0,177 

–0,016 

9,5 0,066 

I 

II 

5 

5 

18 

18 

2,91 ± 0,16 

2,81 ± 0,09 

2,64 – 3,23 

2,65 – 2,95 

–0,021 

0,074 

–0,484 

0,360 

19,0 0,386 

I 

II 

6 

6 

18 

18 

2,93 ± 0,13 

2,79 ± 0,09 

2,77 – 3,22 

2,64 – 2,92 

0,908 

–0,302 

0,570 

–0,640 

5,0 0,012 

I 

II 

7 

7 

18 

18 

2,94 ± 0,13 

2,79 ± 0,10 

2,69 – 3,22 

2,70 – 3,03 

0,436 

1,745 

0,065 

2,267 

4,5 0,011 

I 

II 

8 

8 

18 

18 

2,97 ± 0,15 

2,81 ± 0,07 

2,76 – 3,34 

2,72 – 2,96 

0,844 

0,874 

0,993 

0,834 

2,0 0,009 

I 

II 

9 

9 

18 

18 

2,98 ± 0,12 

2,82 ± 0,09 

2,70 – 3,18 

2,72 – 3,04 

–0,511 

1,399 

0,502 

2,519 

5,0 0,012 

I 

II 

10 

10 

18 

18 

2,98 ± 0,15 

2,80 ± 0,12 

2,77 – 3,33 

2,69 – 3,06 

0,765 

1,322 

0,225 

1,056 

3,0 0,007 

Table 11. Descriptive statistics and significance level of the differences for 20m run m [s] 


I 1 188 3,47 ± 0,14 3,21 – 3,70 –0,260 –0,555 

II 1 18 3,36 ± 0,10 3,23– 3,58 0,929 1,046 

I 2 18 3,51 ± 0,19 3,19 – 3,86 0,171 –0,587 

II 2 18 3,42 ± 0,10 3,32 – 3,61 0,778 –0,819 

I 3 18 3,55 ± 0,18 3,26 – 3,91 0,355 –0,622 

II 3 18 3,45 ± 0,12 3,27 – 3,70 0,709 0,076 

I 4 18 3,59 ± 0,18 3,37 – 4,04 0,926 0,338 

II 4 18 3,46 ± 0,12 3,27 – 3,66 0,616 0,307 

I 5 18 3,60 ± 0,19 3,28 – 4,01 0,119 –0,534 

II 5 18 3,48 ± 0,11 3,27 – 3,67 0,295 0,836 

I 6 18 3,62 ± 0,17 3,42 – 4,03 0,874 0,424 

II 6 18 3,46 ± 0,10 3,31 – 3,62 0,215 –0,373 

I 7 18 3,63 ± 0,17 3,35 – 3,99 0,519 –0,195 

II 7 18 3,46 ± 0,13 3,36 – 3,79 1,867 2,948 

I 8 18 3,67 ± 0,18 3,43 – 4,07 0,801 0,518 

II 8 18 3,48 ± 0,10 3,35 – 3,71 1,147 1,724 

I 9 18 3,68 ± 0,14 3,36 – 3,93 –0,258 0,102 

II 9 18 3,49 ± 0,11 3,36 – 3,76 1,534 2,784 

I 10 18 3,69 ± 0,19 3,41 – 4,15 0,780 0,333 

II 10 18 3,48 ± 0,15 3,34 – 3,82 1,542 1,717 

– 42 – 

10,5 0,083 

30,5 0,824 

31,0 0,858 

10,0 0,040 

17,5 0,308 

6,0 0,016 

5,0 0,012 

6,0 0,016 

4,5 0,011 

3,0 0,007




I 1 18 4,79 ± 0,20 4,48 – 5,16 0,278 –0,947 

II 1 18 4,64 ± 0,15 4,45 – 4,98 1,086 1,530 

I 2 18 4,85 ± 0,25 4,43 – 5,36 0,285 –0,655 

II 2 18 4,71 ± 0,15 4,56 – 5,00 0,917 –0,362 

I 3 18 4,92 ± 0,26 4,56 – 5,47 0,539 –0,610 

II 3 18 4,77 ± 0,18 4,53 – 5,11 0,708 –0,366 

I 4 18 4,99 ± 0,29 4,67 – 5,73 1,089 0,909 

II 4 18 4,78 ± 0,17 4,55 – 5,10 0,927 0,457 

I 5 18 4,99 ± 0,28 4,57 – 5,51 0,185 –0,908 

II 5 18 4,80 ± 0,16 4,54 – 5,09 0,808 0,771 

I 6 18 5,02 ± 0,26 4,70 – 5,67 0,949 0,481 

II 6 18 4,79 ± 0,14 4,61 – 5,08 0,918 0,524 

I 7 18 5,03 ± 0,25 4,65 – 5,57 0,614 –0,424 

II 7 18 4,79 ± 0,20 4,62 – 5,28 1,945 3,402 

I 8 18 5,09 ± 0,24 4,74 – 5,67 0,823 0,583 

II 8 18 4,82 ± 0,15 4,65 – 5,17 1,434 1,867 

I 9 18 5,10 ± 0,22 4,65 – 5,48 0,011 –0,225 

II 9 18 4,82 ± 0,17 4,61 – 5,23 1,614 3,131 

I 10 18 5,13 ± 0,30 4,67 – 5,77 0,699 0,275 

II 10 18 4,80 ± 0,21 4,62 – 5,31 1,685 2,410 

reducing rest periods will adversely affect the release 

of elastic energy during exercises and decrease the explosive 

strength level. Prolonging the transition phase 

(stance phase) leads to the diffusion of elastic energy 

accumulated in tissues into chemical energy and heat 

[8]. Duda [38] claims that if we shorten ground contact 

time during take-off, jump height will increase; an identical 

mechanism is performed in specifi c plyometric exercises. 

Future research including the plyometric training 

should consider the intensifi cation of youth training 

by exercises that do not burden the motor system, that 

is the so-called ‘hexagon’: skipping rope, jumps over 

a line, depth jumps from low heights (e.g. from a bench, 

not higher) stressing the short stance phase with jump 

up and short acceleration phase. In mature athletes 

similar exercises should be used, increasing the height 

of accessories (vaulting boxes, hurdles), adding medicine 

balls – enforcing short ground contact time after 

landing. 

– 43 – 

15,0 0,109 

26,5 0,563 

29,5 0,755 

12,5 0,068 

17,0 0,154 

2,0 0,009 

5,0 0,012 

2,0 0,005 

3,0 0,007 

1,0 0,004 

The research results and the discussion presented 

above allow us to present the following conclusions: 

1. Plyometric training increases knee fl exor and extensor 

muscle strength, but its effects are greater in the case of 

weaker muscles – hamstrings (semimembranosus muscle, 

semitendinosus muscle, biceps femoris muscle). 

2. Weekly plyometric training load turned out to be too 

much (mainly due to the volume component), causes 

endurance changes in general physical ability of the 

subjects. 

3. Changes in knee fl exor and extensor muscles in 

basketball players ought to be considered in the aspect 

of lateralization. 

4. Signifi cant changes in the dynamic strength level can 

result from plyometric training applied twice a week for 

no less than 20 weeks. 

5. Plyometric training should include highly intensive exercises; 

however training methods should be different in 

athletes whose growth process is not yet completed.


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– 44 – 

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2010 

PSYCHOMOTOR DEVELOPMENT 

OF GRADE I PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN WHO ARE 

EDUCATED BY MEANS OF TRADITIONAL 

AND NON-TRADITIONAL PROGRAM 

ROZWÓJ PSYCHOMOTORYCZNY UCZNIÓW PIERWSZEJ 

KLASY SZKOŁY PODSTAWOWEJ EDUKOWANYCH 

PROGRAMEM TRADYCYJNYM I NIETRADYCYJNYM 

Ireneusz Cichy∗, Andrzej Rokita∗∗, Marek Popowczak∗∗∗, Karolina Naglak∗ 

∗∗∗ MSc, University School of Physical Education, Wroclaw, Poland 

∗∗∗ Dr habil., University School of Physical Education, Wroclaw, Poland 

∗∗∗ Dr, University School of Physical Education, Wroclaw, Poland 

Key words: physical activity, educational balls, general body coordination, integrated 

education 

Słowa kluczowe: aktywność ruchowa, piłki edukacyjne, ogólna koordynacja ciała, 

kształcenie zintegrowane 


Aim of the work. In our study, we attempted to define the level of the general body coordination and acquisition 

of chosen educational competences by children taking part in one-year-long pedagogical experiment 

with educational balls “edubal”. 

Material and methods. Our research comprised children from one of primary schools in Wroclaw. The 

experimental group I was represented by 8 girls and 8 boys. The experimental group II included 7 girls and 

7 boys. Subsequently, the control group was composed of 8 girls and 12 boys. The general body coordination 

was examined with General Body Coordination and Control Test by Kiphard and Schiling for children aged 

5–4, while for determination of acquisition level of chosen educational competences we used test elaborated 

in Competence Examination Institute in Wałbrzych. 

The obtained results underwent a statistical analysis with Statistica 8.0. 

Results and conclusions. Girls from experimental group I achieved better results than girls from two other 

groups EII and K in almost all trials in the range of general body coordination. The tests were conducted at the 

beginning and at the end of the experiment. The results of the second part of the research regarding general 

body coordination were much worse (both for girls and boys) than the results of the same groups in the first 

examination. Girls from the first experimental group obtained the best results among all groups in Competence 

Examination Institute Test. It was also the only group which improved their first results in the second part of 

our research. It is worth mentioning that the employment of games and exercises with the educational balls 

did not substantially influence the results in the test of the researched competence. 

Cel pracy. W naszej pracy podjęliśmy próbę określenia poziomu ogólnej koordynacji ciała oraz opanowania 

wybranych kompetencji edukacyjnych wśród dzieci uczestniczących w trwającym rok eksperymencie pedagogicznym 

z wykorzystaniem piłek edukacyjnych „edubal”. 

– 45 –


Materiał i metody badań. Badaniami objęci zostali uczniowie jednej z wrocławskich szkół podstawowych. 

Grupę eksperymentalną I reprezentowało 8 dziewcząt i 8 chłopców, eksperymentalną II – 7 dziewcząt i 7 chłopców, 

natomiast grupę kontrolną – 8 dziewcząt i 12 chłopców. Badanie ogólnej koordynacji ciała przeprowadzono 

w oparciu o Test Ogólnej Koordynacji Ciała i Opanowania Ciał u dzieci w wieku od 5–14 lat Kipharda i Schilinga, 

natomiast do zbadania kompetencji edukacyjnych wykorzystano Test Instytutu Badań Kompetencji w Wałbrzychu. 

Uzyskane wyniki badań poddano analizie statystycznej wykorzystując program Statistica 8.0. 

Wyniki i wnioski. Uczennice z grupy EI uzyskały lepsze rezultaty niż dziewczęta z grup EII i K w prawie 

wszystkich próbach z zakresu Ogólnej Koordynacji Ciała, badanych na początku i na końcu eksperymentu. Wyniki 

zarówno wszystkich dziewcząt, jak i chłopców w badaniu II dotyczącym Ogólnej Koordynacji Ciała okazały się 

zdecydowanie gorsze od wyników tych samych grup w badaniu I. Dziewczęta z grupy eksperymentalnej I uzyskały 

w obu badaniach najlepsze wyniki spośród wszystkich grup w Teście Kompetencji oraz jako jedyna grupa 

poprawiły swój wynik z badania I w badaniu II. Należy również zauważyć, że wykorzystanie zabaw i gier z piłkami 

edukacyjnymi nie wpłynęło istotnie na uzyskane wyniki w teście badanych kompetencji. 

Introduction 

At the end of the 1990s the European educational 

system underwent the process of signifi cant changes. 

The area where particular changes took place was 

the attitude towards the early school child education. 

The traditional model of education was modifi ed into 

a contemporary model of participation – a child was no 

longer treated as a passive person but as an active and 

creative partner of interaction [1]. 

In Poland, the model outlined above was addressed 

by a reform of the education system which started in 

1999. The reform was especially focused on changes 

with special regard to the educational process planning 

and school organizational structures. However, the 

most signifi cant changes were introduced in the phase 

of early school education, which altered its name from 

initial education to integrated education. 

According to the assumptions of the education 

system reform (1999), the integrated education ought 

to combine, in a particular way, various domains of 

science so that the child is enabled to perceive the 

image of the surrounding world as wholesome as possible 

[2]. 

The changes introduced by both the program basis 

of 1999 and the new program basis of 2009, which 

maintained most of the tasks of the integrated education, 

resulted in the situation in which teachers have 

more freedom and arbitrariness in choosing educational 

contents and the ways of their performance. 

Although all those quite radical changes were introduced 

ten years ago, we can see that teachers of 

the integrated education, who are engaged in the process 

of locomotive education, still make mistakes at 

this stage. Unfortunately, the introduced education programs, 

which are numerous because they are so freely 

created, do not show the signifi cance of harmonious 

– 46 – 

development of all spheres of human functioning for the 

future of a young human being. 

Therefore, during last several years, both in Poland 

and abroad, there have been carried out many researchers 

into pedagogical examinations aimed at proving the 

effi ciency of the infl uence of chosen methods, forms or 

didactic means upon the educational achievements of 

students. The existence of connections between motor 

development of a child and his/her educational achievements 

was also emphasized. 

As it turned out, a lower level of physical development 

is associated with worse results in reading and 

counting with fi rst grade boys. This phenomenon was 

also confi rmed in the research by Klausmeier and 

Lehman [3]. 

Mental maturation takes place parallel to the processes 

of physical development. That is why Hetzler 

suggested applying the physical development level as 

one of the criteria of school maturity [3]. Also, the development 

of visual perception is preceded by kinesthetic 

and locomotive development and both spheres – perceptional 

and locomotive one – are inextricably linked with 

each other, what has been confi rmed by Kephart [3]. 

Chissom proved the existence of a signifi cant interrelation 

between motor activity and school achievements, 

as well as school attitudes of grade I and III primary 

school pupils. Motor competence of children was 

assessed according to the criterion of coordination, 

locomotive balance and dynamic strength [3]. 

A very signifi cant conclusion, from the point of view 

of the early school education, has been formulated by 

A.B. Johnson, who sought connections between school 

maturity tests and motor tests. On the basis of examinations 

and results of factor analysis he concluded that 

motor competence level should be adopted as one of 

the criteria of school maturity of pupils who start their 

education in the primary school [3].

Psychomotor development of grade I primary school children who are educated by means of traditional... 

A.H. Ismail and J.J. Gruber went still further in their 

considerations concerning searching for connections 

between motor activity and educational achievements 

of children. They draw the conclusion that intellectual 

achievements of children can be predicted on the basis 

of motor factors. According to their opinion, the greatest 

prognostic power is associated with the following motor 

features: coordination and balance [3, 4]. 

Among the Polish authors, who wrote about the 

signifi cance of the proper development of physical 

ability in adaptation of a child to work and play in the 

school environment, were the following: S. Szuman, A. 

Dzierżanka, H. Gniewkowska, and B. Wilgocka-Okoń. 

These authors agreed that the development of motor 

activity is an important factor for making social contacts 

by a child, especially in the school environment 

[5]. They also proved that good agility and high abilities 

in games and plays (also with balls) facilitates the process 

of child adaptation to the surrounding reality. The 

children who are more agile in games and plays are 

also better accepted in a peer group [3]. 

The examination by Pawłucki also confi rmed the 

existence of connections between motor development 

and school readiness [6]. 

The examples from literature of the subject presented 

above clearly show that there exist direct connections 

between psychomotor development of a child and 

his/her school results, especially during the initial stage 

of school education. 

Consequently, we intended to check whether the 

introduction of physical classes with the use of educational 

balls “edubal” into the education program called 

“Happy School” for grade I of primary school can bring 

about any changes in the particular tests of general 

body coordination of the examined girls and boys and 

also in the educational competencies which are acquired 

by them during their course of learning. For the 

purposes of our examinations, this unique education 

program “Happy School”, including physical classes 

with the use of educational balls, has been termed 

“non-traditional program”, while the same program 

conducted in a traditional form was addressed as “traditional 

program” [4]. 

Research material 

Our research comprised three groups of students 

of Complex of Schools No 11 in Wrocław. 16 pupils 

made experimental EI group, 14 pupils – experimental 

EII group, and 20 pupils made the control K group. 

– 47 – 

Experimental group I consisted of eight girls and eight 

boys; experimental group II consisted of seven girls and 

seven boys and the control group consisted of eight girls 

and twelve boys. Only the results of children who took 

part in both examinations were used in the elaboration. 

Moreover, all groups carried out their motor activities in 

the same conditions having a big and small sports hall 

at their disposal. 

Research methods 

In the research, we employed a pedagogical experiment 

along with the use of a parallel group technique 

[7, 8]. The planned didactic process was carried out 

in three groups: two experimental ones (EI and EII) 

and one control group (K). The classes were realized 

according to the education program called “Happy 

School” accepted for use in all grades of the integrated 

education process in a given school. Children from the 

experimental groups took part in physical classes twice 

a week, which were conducted by an integrated education 

teacher – class tutor. During these classes, educational 

balls “edubal” were used for exercises, games 

and plays and they were carried out on the basis of 

the scenarios which were prepared by the author of 

the experiment together with the tutors. They referred 

to learning and improving the knowledge of various 

problematic areas in the range of mathematics and language 

learning which posed special diffi culties for the 

students. 

The scenarios emphasized an element of play 

which was directed towards the improvement of general 

locomotive skills. Plays with balls constituted circa 60% 

of the lesson time. The remaining time was devoted to 

other forms of physical activity. 

The control group worked under unchanged conditions 

carrying out the same education program in the 

whole experiment; physical activities, similarly to the experimental 

groups, were run by an integrated education 

teacher who was at the same time the class tutor [4]. 

During the experiment, which lasted one year, general 

body coordination and educational competencies 

were diagnosed twice, i.e. at the beginning and at the 

end of the school year. 

The examination of general body coordination was 

carried out by means of the General Body Coordination 

and Control Test with children aged 5–14 by Kiphard 

and Schiling [9], while for the purpose of examining 

key competencies we employed the test elaborated in 

Competence Examination Institute in Walbrzych.


The obtained results underwent a statistical analysis 

with the use of Statistica 8.0 program. 

Results 

The analyzed examination results were characterized 

by variability which is typical for the presented material. 

Therefore, for the purpose of our analysis we used 

positional measurements – median. When comparing 

more than two groups, we used the non-parametrical 

test ANOVA by Kruscala Wallis. All the employed statistical 

tests assumed the level of signifi cance = 0.05. 

With regard to the analysis of the obtained results 

in General Body Coordination of girls in EI, EII and K 

– 48 – 

groups in the fi rst test (Table 1), we noticed that each 

time the best results in walk on the beam, jumps on 

one leg, side jumps and carrying over the board were 

achieved by the girls from EI group. The worst results 

when compared to EI and K groups were achieved by 

the girls from EII group. This is further confi rmed by the 

sum of obtained results during the whole test which differentiates 

the examined groups (Figure 1). Comparing 

the girls from EI and EII groups, this difference is 43.5 

points in favor of the fi rst group, though we did not notice 

any statistically signifi cant differences between the 

examined groups (Table 1; Figure 1). 

As for the boys in the fi rst examination (Table 2) we 

can notice that in each of the examination tests the best 

Table 1. Medium results of the trials with reference to General Body Coordination of girls in groups xperimental I (EI), experimental II 

(EII) and control (K), (examination I) 

VARIABLE 

EI N = 8 EII N = 7 K N = 8 

x M V x M V x M V 

ROWN_1 51.63 56.50 32.49 31.29 29.00 59.42 47.38 51.50 29.91 

PNJN_1 40.25 42.00 21.53 30.71 30.00 35.35 37.13 35.50 28.41 

BPRZE_1 44.63 45.00 17.72 31.86 34.00 15.74 40.38 39.00 22.11 

PRDE_1 56.38 56.00 4.54 52.00 57.00 20.77 53.25 53.50 12.88 

SUMA_1 191.75 198.50 15.84 145.86 155.00 24.54 178.13 174.00 18.81 

ROWN_1 – walk on the beam 

PNJN_1 – jumps on one leg 

BPRZE_1 – side jumps 

PRDE_1 – carrying over the board 

SUMA_1 – the sum of results in General Body Coordination (examination I) 

BPRZE_1 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

Variable: BPRZE_1 

EI W EI M EII W EII M K W K M 

[Group + gender] 

Median 

25%-75% 

Min-Maks 

Fig. 1. Medium results achieved by girls (W) and boys (M) from the experimental group I (EI), experimental group II (EII) and control 

group (K), in side jumping (examination I)


results were achieved by the control group. In the case 

of walk on the beam and jumps on one leg these results 

were 10.5 to 18.5 points higher than in the remaining 

groups. 

Also a summary result for the whole test was the 

highest in the control group and the lowest in experimental 

group II; especially in girls the result seems 

to be simply alarming. Similarly to the comparable 

girls group, non-parametrical Kruscal Willis test 

did not show any statistically signifi cant differences 

(Table 2). 

Comparing the obtained results in the fi rst examination 

between all the groups (girls and boys) we noticed 

a statistically signifi cant difference between experimen- 

260 

240 

220 

200 

180 

160 

140 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

Variable: SUMA_1 



– 49 – 

tal group II and the control group in the case of side 

jumps test (Figure 2). 

While analyzing the obtained results for girls in 

examination II (Table 3) we noticed that experimental 

group I achieved, similarly to examination I, the best 

results in all the tests. 

There was a particularly big difference, although 

statistically insignifi cant, in the case of side jumps in 

which the girls from group EI obtained 57 points in 

relation to 46 points K and 38 in EII. Apart from this, 

experimental group I achieved the best general test result 

– 181 points. However, one fact is really intriguing: 

a general result in the General Body Coordination Test 

in examination II for each group is lower than in exami- 

Table 2. Medium results of the trials with reference to General Body Coordination of boys in groups experimental I (EI), experimental 

II (EII) and control (K), (examination I) 

VARIABLE 

SUMA_1 

EI N = 8 EII N = 7 K N = 12 


ROWN_1 32.38 33.00 56.74 26.00 25.00 42.02 42.08 43.50 34.26 

PNJN_1 39.88 37.50 28.73 33.00 33.00 40.13 41.17 41.00 32.06 

BPRZE_1 38.50 41.50 35.96 34.43 34.00 22.74 44.92 43.00 21.36 

PRDE_1 50.38 51.00 15.23 53.29 56.00 18.06 57.00 56.00 13.85 

SUMA_1 161.13 170.00 24.47 146.71 153.00 26.74 185.17 189.00 18.54 





SUMA_1 – the sum of results in General Body Coordination (examination I) 

Median 

25%-75% 

Min-Maks 

Fig. 2. Medium results achieved by girls (W) and boys (M) from the experimental group I (EI), experimental group II (EII) and control 

group (K), the sum of four trials in General Body Coordination (examination I)


Table 3. Medium results of the trials with reference to General Body Coordination of girls in groups experimental I (EI). experimental 

II (EII) and control (K), (examination II) 

VARIABLE 

EI N=8 EII N=7 K N=8 


ROWN_2 48.88 54.50 31.08 38.14 42.00 37.03 46.38 50.50 29.23 

PNJN_2 34.63 33.50 22.53 28.43 35.00 45.22 36.63 36.00 16.44 

BPRZE_2 56.75 57.00 10.85 39.57 38.00 27.75 46.38 46.00 22.67 

PRDE_2 33.13 32.50 11.23 29.86 31.00 19.95 31.88 31.00 12.93 

SUMA_2 173.38 181.00 14.52 136.00 144.00 29.66 161.25 160.50 15.89 





SUMA_2 – the sum of results in General Body Coordination 

nation I. In the case of group EI by 18.5 points, EII by 11 

points and K by 13.5 points. The reason of such a poor 

result in all three groups can be low verbal motivation 

of pupils because they were not properly motivated by 

the teachers who ran the tests (Table 3). 

When comparing the results obtained by the boys 

from three groups in examination II (Table 4) we noticed 

that, similarly to examination I, the control group 

achieved much better results than all the other groups. 

Both among boys and girls, the sum of results in all 

the tests is lower than in the case of examination I 

(Table 4 and Figure 3). 

However, EII group, which was undoubtedly the 

weakest in examination I, in examination II achieved re- 

SUMA_2 

220 

200 

180 

160 

140 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

Variable: SUMA_2 



– 50 – 

sult on a similar level, while EI and K groups had much 

lower results, respectively by 23.5 and 22.5 points. This 

can be due to, similarly to the case of girls, low involvement 

of the examined children in the performance of 

the tests. 

The results obtained by girls in examination I in 

Competence Test (Table 5) clearly show that the female 

pupils who start their education in the primary 

school are characterized by a comparable level of the 

competencies under research. Further examinations 

of the learnt competencies, which were carried out at 

the end of the school year, proved that the girls from 

EI group (who already obtained a very good result) improved 

their result by 27.5 points out of 30 possible to 

Median 

25%-75% 

Min-Maks 

Fig. 3. Medium results achieved by girls (W) and boys (M) from the experimental group I (EI) experimental group II (EII) and control 

group (K) the sum of four trials in General Body Coordination (examination II)


Table 4. Medium results of the trials with reference to General Body Coordination of boys in groups experimental I (EI). experimental 

II (EII) and control (K). (examination II) 

VARIABLE 

EI N=8 EII N=7 K N=12 


ROWN_2 37.88 35.50 43.62 34.71 34.00 21.41 42.58 42.50 18.53 

PNJN_2 28.75 25.00 47.46 33.29 38.00 42.97 39.75 35.00 30.79 

BPRZE_2 46.88 48.00 33.20 39.14 43.00 21.40 50.42 52.00 17.49 

PRDE_2 30.25 30.50 19.97 33.29 33.00 23.83 34.17 34.00 11.22 

SUMA_2 143.75 146.50 27.94 140.43 149.00 22.52 166.92 166.50 13.41 





SUMA_2 – the sum of results in General Body Coordination 

Table 5. Medium results achieved by girls in Competence Test in groups experimental I (EI). experimental II (EII) and control (K). 

(examination I and examination II) 

VARIABLE 

EI N = 8 EII N = 7 K N = 8 


KOMP_1 25.00 26.50 17.76 23.14 25.00 25.25 25.63 26.00 9.77 

KOMP_2 25.13 27.00 17.98 20.57 21.00 28.46 23.63 24.00 16.15 

KOMP_1 – result of the Competence Test (examination I) 

KOMP_2 – result of the Competence Test (examination II) 

Table 6. Medium results achieved by boys in Competence Test in groups experimental I (EI). experimental II (EII) and control (K). 

(examination I and examination II) 

VARIABLE 

EI N = 8 EII N = 7 K N = 12 


KOMP_1 24.63 25.00 23.97 23.86 24.00 12.44 21.75 23.00 14.95 

KOMP_2 22.88 22.50 15.22 16.71 18.00 40.98 21.08 20.00 16.49 

KOMP_1 – result of the Competence Test (examination I) 

KOMP_2 – result of the Competence Test (examination II) 

KOMP_2–1 – increase of the result in Competence Test (examination II – examination I) 

achieve. On the other hand, K and EII groups had lower 

results, by 2 and 4 points respectively (Table 5). 

Among the boys (Table 6), similarly to the case of 

the girls, the obtained results in examination I were 

comparable and the best result was achieved by EI 

group. 

On the other hand, examination II showed that 

the obtained results in the competence test among 

the boys are undoubtedly lower than in examination I 

(Table 6 and Figure 4). 

– 51 – 

A particularly poor result was achieved by EII 

group in which pupils obtained six points less than 

during the fi rst examination. There can be at least two 

reasons of this situation: fi rstly, two of the boys were 

absent from school for a long time during semester 

II and consequently, they had educational problems; 

secondly, the education program was not fully carried 

out by the teacher because of educational diffi culties 

which appeared while carrying out the one-year experiment.

KOMP_2-1 

15 

10 

5 

0 

-5 

-10 

-15 

-20 

-25 


Variable: KOMP_2-1 



– 52 – 

Median 

25%-75% 

Min-Maks 

Fig. 4. Increases (KOMP_2–1) achieved by girls (W) and boys (M) from the experimental group I (EI), experimental group II (EII) and 

control group (K), in the final result from Competence Test (examination I) 

Table 7. Comparison of the medium results achieved by girls and boys in Competence Test in groups experimental I (EI). experimental 

II (EII) and control (K). (examination I) 

VARIABLE 

EI N = 8 EII N = 7 K N = 12 


KOMP_K 25.00 26.50 17.76 23.14 25.00 25.25 25.63 26.00 9.77 

KOMP_M 24.63 25.00 23.97 23.86 24.00 12.44 21.75 23.00 14.95 

KOMP_K – result of the Competence Test for girls in examination I 

KOMP_M – result of the Competence Test for boys in examination I 

KOMP_1 

32 

30 

28 

26 

24 

22 

20 

18 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

Zmienna: KOMP_1 

EI K EI M EII K EII M K K K M 


Median 

25%-75% 

Min-Maks 

Fig. 5 Medium results achieved by girls (W) and boys (M) from the experimental group I (EI), experimental group II (EII) and control 

group (K), in the final result of Competence Test (examination I)


Table 8. Comparison of the medium results achieved by girls and boys in Competence Test in groups experimental I (EI), experimental 

II (EII) and control (K) (examination II) 

VARIABLE 

The comparison of results in the Competence 

Test between girls and boys in examination I in each 

group showed minimal differences in favor of the girls. 

However, none of these differences was statistically 

signifi cant (Table 7 and Figure 5). 

The same comparison which was made after examination 

II (Table 8 and Figure 6) revealed the same 

trend and the differences were also statistically insignifi 

cant, however, in each case they were again much 

bigger in favor of girls. Therefore, we can conclude that 

girls are better at learning chosen educational competencies. 

Similar conclusions had been drawn at by 

Rokita [10] (Table 8 and Figure 6). 

Discussion 

EI N = 8 EII N = 7 K N = 12 


KOMP_K 25.13 27.00 17.98 20.57 21.00 28.46 23.63 24.00 16.15 

KOMP_M 22.88 22.50 15.22 16.71 18.00 40.98 21.08 20.00 16.49 

KOMP_K – result of the Competence Test for girls in examination II 

KOMP_M – result of the Competence Test for boys in examination II 

KOMP_2 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Variable: KOMP_2 



In Poland, pilot [11, 12] and proper examinations [10, 

13, 14] concerning the employment of educational balls 

“edubal” at the stage of the early school education 

– 53 – 

Median 

25%-75% 

Min-Maks 

Fig. 6. Medium results achieved by girls (W) and boys (M) from the experimental group I (EI). experimental group II (EII) and control 

group (K). in the final result of Competence Test (examination II) 

have been carried out since 2002. The goals, which the 

authors pursued, concerned the infl uence of the introduction 

of educational balls “edubal” in the realization 

of the didactic process on the motor development and 

on the process of learning chosen didactic program 

contents (e.g. language and mathematics education) 

as well. 

Cichy and Rzepa wrote in their study about the 

relation between the use of educational balls “edubal” 

in grades I–III of primary school and the development 

of physical ability [12]. They carried out a one-year 

pedagogical experiment by means of the parallel 

group technique. After the realization of this experiment, 

they noticed that the education program which 

used educational balls infl uences the motor sphere in 

the same way as the traditional program. Krajewski 

came to the similar conclusion after he had carried 

out his examinations [14]. Analyzing the results obtained 

by the children in the range of general body


coordination, Krajewski stated that apart from the fact 

that the results were higher in relation to the examination 

before the experiment, there was no statistically 

signifi cant difference in each group both in all partial 

assessments and in the whole assessment of the general 

body coordination test. Also Rokita, who carried 

out his research in the rural environment, as well as 

Wójcik and Rzepa, who examined cases of children 

living in a big city, stated that independently of the 

environment in which the educational balls “edubal” 

were used, children’s physical ability is comparable 

and did not depend on the experimental factor [15, 

16]. In their research they confi rmed [11, 12, 17, 10] 

the existence of connections between the employment 

of educational balls “edubal” in the integrated 

education and the intellectual development of the children 

[10]. Rokita in his study of 2008 came to an interesting 

conclusion, that the employment of educational 

balls “edubal” enhances the speed of reading skills 

acquisition but it does not impinge the writing skills in 

the same way. 

The results obtained by the authors enable to state 

that the employment of educational balls “edubal” during 

the physical classes does not bring about any unfavorable 

changes in the spheres of physical ability and 

general body coordination. On the other hand, it can 

contribute to the achievement of goals of education in 

a more effective way at this stage. 

Taking into account the observations outlined 

above, we must conclude that the employment of the 

didactic means of this type can constitute an attractive 

supplement of the traditional classes conducted in 

school conditions. 

[1] Bruner J: What Have We Learned About Early Learning? 

European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 

1996, 4: 5–16. 

[2] Banaszkiewicz T: Szanse i zagrożenia edukacji fi zycznej 

w zintegrowanym kształceniu wczesnoszkolnym [Opportunities 

and Dangers of Physical Education in the Integrated 

Early School Education]; in Jonkisz J, Lewandowski M 

(eds.): Wychowanie i kształcenie w zreformowanej szkole 

[Education and Upbringing in Reformed School]. Wrocław, 

2003: 45–49. 

[3] Wilgocka-Okoń B: Gotowość szkolna dzieci sześcioletnich 

[School Readiness of Six-year-old Children]. Warszawa, 

Żak, 2003. 

[4] Cichy I, Popowczak M: Rozwój psychomotoryczny 

uczniów kończących pierwszą klasę szkoły podstawowej 

edukowanych programem tradycyjnym i nietradycyjnym 

– 54 – 

Conclusions 


1. Girls from EI group obtained better results than the 

girls from EII and K groups in almost all of the trials 

in the range of General Body Coordination which 

were conducted at the beginning and the end of the 

experiment. Only in examination II in jumps on one 

leg the control group’s girls achieved better results. 

2. Control group boys always obtained better results 

than the boys from experimental I and experimental 

II groups in both of the examinations in the tests of 

General Body Coordination. 

3. The results of all girls and boys in examination II 

in the range of General Body Coordination were 

slightly worse than the results of the same groups 

in examination I. These differences were not statistically 

signifi cant. 

4. Girls from experimental group I in both of the examinations 

obtained the best results from all the 

groups in the Competence Test and they were the 

only group that in examination II improved their result 

in comparison with examination I. 

5. The worst result among all the female and male 

groups in the Competence Test was achieved by 

control group of boys in examination I and experimental 

group II of boys in examination II. 

6. All the girls in each of the examined groups obtained 

better results in both examinations than their grade 

peers in the range of the Competence Test. 

7. We must conclude that the employment of educational 

balls “edubal” did not signifi cantly infl uence 

the results obtained in the test of the examined 

competences. 

[Psychomotor Development of Pupils At the End of Grade 

I of Primary School Educated by Means of Traditional 

and Non-Traditional Program]. Rozprawy Naukowe AWF 

Wrocław, 2009; 27: 17–23. 

[5] Cichy I: Próba określenia sprawności fi zycznej z wykorzystaniem 

piłek edukacyjnych uczniów kończących I klasę 

szkoły podstawowej [Attempt At Determining Physical Ability 

With the Use of Educational Balls At the End of Grade 

I of Primary School]; in Sekułowicz M, Kruk-Lasocka J, 

Kulmatycki L (eds): Psychomotoryka – ruch pełen znaczeń 

[Psychomotor Studies – Movement Full of Meanings]. 

Wydawnictwo Naukowe DSW, Wrocław, 2008; 221–228. 

[6] Pawłucki A: Szkolna dojrzałość motoryczna dzieci rozpoczynających 

naukę [School Motor Maturity of Children 

Who Start Their Education]. Roczniki Naukowe AWF 

Warszawa, 1984; 28: 111–117.


[7] Drozdowski Z: Wybrane zagadnienia metodologii badań 

naukowych w zakresie kultury fi zycznej [Chosen Issues of 

Research Methodology in the Range of Physical Culture]. 

Roczniki Naukowe AWF w Gdańsku, 1987; 4: 151–171. 

[8] Łobocki M: Metody i techniki badań pedagogicznych 

[Methods and Techniques of Pedagogical Examinations]. 

Kraków, Impuls, 2007. 

[9] Staśkiel A: Test koordynacji ciała Kipharda i Schellinga 

dla dzieci i jego pierwsze próby zastosowania w Polsce 

[Kiphard and Schelling Body Coordination Test for Children 

and Its First Attempts To Be Used in Poland. Physical 

Culture], Kultura Fizyczna, 1978; 12: 66–72. 

[10] Rokita A: Zajęcia ruchowe z piłkami edukacyjnymi „Edubal” 

w kształceniu zintegrowanym a sprawność fi zyczna 

oraz umiejętności czytania i pisania uczniów [Physical 

Classes with Educational Balls ‘Edubal’ in the Integrated 

Education and Physical Ability and Reading and Writing 

Skills of Students]. Studia i Monografi e, Wrocław, AWF, 

2008; 93. 

[11] Rzepa T: Aktywność ruchowa z piłką w osiąganiu wybranych 

celów kształcenia w zakresie języka polskiego 

w drugiej klasie szkoły podstawowej [Locomotive Activity 

with the Ball in the Achievement of Chosen Goals of 

Education in the Range of the Polish Language in Grade 

II of Primary School]; in Koszczyc T, Dembiński J (eds.): 

Instrumentalne wykorzystanie gier z piłką [Istrumental 

Use of Ball Games]. Wrocław, WTN, 2003; 57–61. 

[12] Cichy I, Rzepa T: Próba określenia kompetencji oraz 

poziomu sprawności ruchowej w kształceniu zintegrowanym 

z wykorzystaniem piłek edukacyjnych [Attempt 

at Determining Competencies and Level of Locomotive 

Ability in the Integrated Education with the Use of Educational 

Balls]; in Bartoszewicz R, Koszczyc T, Nowak 

A (eds): Dydaktyka wychowania fi zycznego w świetle 

współczesnych potrzeb edukacyjnych [Physical Educa- 

– 55 – 

tion Didactics in the Light of Contemporary Educational 

Needs]. Wrocław, WTN, 2005; 193–201. 

[13] Koszczyc T (ed.): Piłki edukacyjne „Edubal” w kształceniu 

zintegrowanym. Raport z badań [Educational Balls 

‘Edubal’ in the Integrated Education. Research Report]. 

Studia i Monografi e, Wrocław, AWF, 2008; 88. 

[14] Krajewski J: Gotowość szkolna dzieci kończących edukację 

przedszkolną prowadzonych programami tradycyjnym 

i niekonwencjonalnym [School Readiness of Children at 

the End of Their Kindergarten Education with the Use of 

Traditional and Non-Conventional Programs]. Rozprawa 

doktorska, Wrocław, AWF, 2007. 

[15] Rokita A: Sprawność fi zyczna dzieci klas I–III mieszkających 

na wsi [Physical Ability of Grade I–III Children Living 

in the Country]; in Koszczyc T (ed.): Piłki edukacyjne 

„Edubal” w kształceniu zintegrowanym [Educational Balls 

“Edubal” in the Integrated Education]. Studia i Monografi e, 

Wrocław, AWF, 2007; 88: 15–21. 

[16] Rzepa T, Wójcik A: Sprawność fi zyczna dzieci klas I–III 

mieszkających w mieście; w Piłki edukacyjne „edubal” 

w kształceniu zintegrowanym [Physical Ability of Grade 

I–III Primary School Children Living in Town; Educational 

Balls “Edubal” in the Integrated Education]; in Koszczyc 

T (ed.): Piłki edukacyjne „Edubal” w kształceniu zintegrowanym. 

Raport z badań [Educational Balls “Edubal” 

in the Integrated Education. Research Report]. Studia 

i Monografi e, Wrocław, AWF, 2007; 88: 26–32. 

[17] Rzepa T, Wójcik A: Umiejętności czytania i pisania dzieci 

klas I–III mieszkających w mieście [Reading and Writing 

Skills of Grade I–III Primary School Children Living in 

Town]; in Koszczyc T (ed.): Piłki edukacyjne „Edubal” 

w kształceniu zintegrowanym. Raport z badań [Educational 

Balls “Edubal” in the Integrated Education]. Studia 

i Monografi e, Wrocław, AWF, 2008; 88: 66–75.


2010 

MOTOR FITNESS AND COORDINATION ABILITIES 

VS. EFFECTIVENESS OF PLAY 

IN SITTING VOLLEYBALL 

SPRAWNOŚĆ MOTORYCZNA I ZDOLNOŚCI 

KOORDYNACYJNE A SKUTECZNOŚĆ GRY 

W SIATKÓWCE NA SIEDZĄCO 

Łukasz Jadczak*, Andrzej Kosmol**, 

Andrzej Wieczorek***, Robert Śliwowski* 

****Dr, University School of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland 

****Dr habil., assoc. prof., Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education, Warsaw, Poland 

****Dr habil., assoc. prof., University School of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland 

Key words: sitting volleyball, motor fitness, coordination abilities, efficiency 

Słowa kluczowe: siatkówka na siedząco, sprawność motoryczna, zdolności koordynacyjne, 

skuteczność 


Aim of the work. To find relations between coordination abilities, motor fitness and effectiveness of play 

of sitting volleyball players. 

Material and methods. The study material consisted of sixty players of the Polish sitting volleyball league. 

The test of general motor fitness included: dynamic strength of upper limbs, static strength of hand, muscular 

endurance of upper limbs, muscular strength of body, body flexibility (back muscles), endurance-speed. For 

the measurement of special motor fitness the following tests were used: attack, serve, overhand pass, forearm 

pass, tip. For the assessment of coordination abilities computer tests of coordination abilities were used which 

included measurement of time of simple reaction to visual stimulus (simple reaction), time of complex reaction 

to visual stimulus (complex reaction), effect of visual-motor coordination (Piórkowski test), orientation ability 

(a cross matching test), attention divisibility, orientation ability – perception. The assessment of effectiveness 

of play was performed according to the formula proposed by Coleman [1]. 

Results. The analysis of correlation between general and special fitness as well as coordination abilities and 

effectiveness of play indicates that the greatest impact on effectiveness of play of players in the Polish sitting 

volleyball league was exerted by the results of the following tests: body flexibility with endurance-speed in 

general fitness, ball passes, both overhand and forearm, and attack in special fitness, and in terms of coordination 

abilities particularly great impact was noted in the test of attention divisibility, orientation-perception and 

complex reaction. 

Conclusions. The level of majority of tested properties of motor fitness and coordination abilities shows 

a statistically significant relation with the effectiveness of basic technical and tactical actions applied when 

playing sitting volleyball. 

Cel pracy. Celem pracy było poznanie zależności między zdolnościami koordynacyjnymi i sprawnością motoryczną 

a skutecznością gry zawodników w piłce siatkowej na siedząco. 

Materiał i metody. Materiał badań stanowiło 60 zawodników polskiej ligi piłki siatkowej na siedząco. Badania 

sprawności motorycznej ogólnej obejmowały: siłę dynamiczną kończyn górnych, siłę statyczną ręki, wytrzymałość 

– 57 –


mięśniową kończyn górnych, siłę mięśni tułowia, gibkość tułowia (mięśni grzbietu), wytrzymałość-szybkość. Do 

pomiaru sprawności motorycznej specjalnej wykorzystano następujące próby: atak, zagrywka, odbicie sposobem 

oburącz górnym, odbicie sposobem oburącz dolnym, „kiwnięcie”. Do oceny zdolności koordynacyjnych zastosowano 

natomiast komputerowe testy zdolności koordynacyjnych, które obejmowały pomiar czasu reakcji prostej 

na bodziec wzrokowy (reakcja prosta), czasu reakcji złożonej na bodźce wzrokowe (reakcja złożona), efektu koordynacji 

wzrokowo-ruchowej (test Piórkowskiego), zdolności orientacji (test krzyżowy), podzielności uwagi, zdolności 

orientacji-postrzegania. Oceny skuteczności gry dokonano wg wzoru zaproponowanego przez Colemana [1]. 

Wyniki. Analiza korelacji między sprawnością ogólną i specjalną oraz zdolności koordynacyjnych ze skutecznością 

gry wskazuje, że największy wpływ na efektywność gry zawodników w polskiej lidze piłki siatkowej na 

siedząco miały wyniki testów: gibkości tułowia wraz z wytrzymałością – szybkością w obrębie sprawności ogólnej, 

odbicia piłki zarówno sposobem górnym, jak i dolnym oraz atak w obrębie sprawności specjalnej, a w zakresie 

zdolności koordynacyjnych szczególnie istotny wpływ odnotowano w teście podzielności uwagi, orientacji – postrzegania 

oraz reakcji złożonej. 

Wnioski. Poziom większości badanych cech sprawności motorycznej, jak i zdolności koordynacyjnych wykazuje 

istotny statystycznie związek ze skutecznością podstawowych działań techniczno-taktycznych mających 

zastosowanie podczas gry w piłkę siatkową na siedząco. 

Introduction 

The requirements of sports championship level make 

one to realise the signifi cance of somatic, motor and 

psychomotor components of the actions of top players 

in a given discipline. This undoubtedly close relation of 

constitutional properties, motor fi tness and motor abilities 

can be explained also on the basis of the theory 

of effective action. In praxeology of sports game, the 

factors determining the perfection of a player and 

a team (including motor abilities, somatic properties) 

are defi ned as dispositions to play which are displayed 

in various play situations in the form or so called interdispositions, 

make individual and/or team action possible 

for a player. The player’s (team’s) action abilities are 

thus defi ned as a dispositional and situational possibility 

to carry out a certain action and it is possessed by 

a player (team) who, using one’s individual dispositions, 

can carry out specifi c action in existing circumstances. 

The measure of championship of a player (team) is an 

ability of an effective action in more and more diffi cult 

competitive conditions [2]. 

Regular checking of physical preparation and technical 

abilities is signifi cant for the assessment of training 

results. Due to an ever growing interest and dynamic 

development of sitting volleyball visible in the international 

arena, there is a demand for reliable, precise and 

accurate analysis and assessment of the sports level 

of players as well as teams. There are no tests assessing 

special motor fi tness of sitting volleyball players in 

specialist literature. With some modifi cations resulting 

from specifi c character of moving on the court, the tests 

by Downs and Wood [3], Bolach [4], Bartlett et al. [5] 

prepared for disabled standing volleyball players can 

be adapted. 

– 58 – 

Coordination abilities, in particular sport and technical 

abilities, are of particular signifi cance in the process 

of sports training. They determine the degree and quality 

of motor learning, mastering and stability of motor 

abilities and their appropriate and effective application 

in changing conditions [6, 7]. 

The effects of coordination abilities on sports level 

have been widely documented in volleyball of healthy 

players [8, 9, 10, 11]. The lack of reports on the relation 

between coordination abilities, general and special motor 

fi tness, as well as effectiveness of play in disabled 

sitting volleyball players indicates the need to fi ll in 

this gap. The level of coordination motor abilities plays 

a signifi cant part in the actions of complex nature, and 

such occur in sitting volleyball. An equally important issue 

seems to be specifying the level of coordination 

motor abilities depending on the degree of disability. 

This issue has not been explored in literature either. 

The signifi cance of watching competition in sports 

practice is very well known. Information collected in this 

way makes it possible to assess the play in quantitative 

(duration of play, the number of elements of play, 

its topography) and qualitative terms (effectiveness of 

actions, character of player’s behaviour) and has been 

used in sports team games for years as a part of tactical 

preparation. In sitting volleyball similar actions are 

undertaken. However, the differences resulting from 

the adaptation of rules of the game should be taken 

into consideration. 

In volleyball of able-bodied players quite varied 

methods of recording the play have been used. Renner 

[16] recorded information on effectiveness of attack 

from zone II, III and IV, whereas Pieron and Ligot [17] 

assessed the effectiveness of selected elements of play 

on various levels of competition. Attempts have been


made to record the play using video tape recorder [18] 

as well as symbols and diagrams [19]. 

Kaplan [20, 21] combined the assessment of effectiveness 

and topography of play in attack with a detailed 

factor analysis, whereas Żeczew et al. [after Wołyniec 

and Saryczew 22] suggested their own method of assessment 

of effectiveness of play, combined with data 

processing with electronic digital machines. Subject to 

the assessment were both individual components of technique 

of volleyball play, e.g. block [23] and attack [24], and 

comprehensive technical and tactical actions of the team 

[25], using the methods of calculating effectiveness of basic 

elements of play developed by the authors. 

The discussed issues were also dealt with by Polish 

theorists [26, 27, 28, 29]. A computer assisted method 

of analysis and assessment of play, using an element of 

theory of extensive games developed by Wołyniec et al. 

[30] deserves particular attention. Nowadays computer 

programmes for quantitative and qualitative assessment 

of play are known and generally used in volleyball 

[31, 32, 33]. The data used in this way, often given still 

during the sports competition, increase the sports level 

of the team, and are used to prepare strategy and carry 

out game tactics with a specifi c opponent [34, 35, 36]. 

Sitting volleyball has all the hallmarks of sport of setting 

records, therefore it seems by all means justifi ed 

to use this type of tool also in this discipline. This kind 

of analysis of play in sitting volleyball of the disabled 

cannot be found in literature. Thus the aim of the study 

was to fi nd the relation between coordination abilities, 

motor effectiveness and effectiveness of play of sitting 

volleyball players. 


The participants of the study were sixty players of the 

Polish sitting volleyball league. The material includes 

the results of measurements of general and special 

motor fi tness, coordination abilities and effectiveness 

of play. 

The assessment of technical and tactical skills of 

the players was made on the basis of the effectiveness 

of basic elements of play (attack, serve, receiving 

a serve, block, the set, defence). 

The tests of motor fi tness and coordination abilities 

as well as effectiveness of play (video recordings) performed 

at the Polish Championships tournaments were 

carried out twice, six months apart, in order to verify 

whether the studied relations change in time, i.e. in different 

periods of training. 

– 59 – 

All tests (except for the assessment of effectiveness 

of play) were carried out in home training centres of 

the studied teams (Poznań, Elbląg, Wrocław, Kielce, 

Jelenia Góra, Szczecin, Katowice). 

The effectiveness of play was assessed according 

to the formula [1, 34]: 

PZ − PS 

WS = 

ΣWD 

where: WS – effectiveness indicator, PZ – points scored, 

PS – points conceded, WD – total of all actions. 

Each technical element (attack, block, defence, set, 

serve) was assessed in a three-degree scale according 

to the observation sheets used by the Polish Volleyball 

Association. 

The following tests were used for the assessment 

of general fi tness: 

● Static strength of hand measured with a hand dynamometer 

[37]. 

● Muscular endurance of upper limbs measured with 

a bent arm hang test [37]. 

● Dynamic strength of upper limbs measured with 

a seated medicine ball throw [38]. 

● Strength of body muscles measured with bends in 

30 s [39]. 

● Flexibility of body measured with a body lifting test 

[40] – from lying on the front, hands resting along 

the body, the subject was lifting the body as high 

as possible. The distance between the fl oor and the 

chin of the subject was measured. 

● Endurance and speed test [41] was modifi ed and 

involved covering the appointed distances moving 

on the buttocks. Instead of sitting on a medicine ball 

the subject was to touch the appointed circle with at 

least one buttock. 

The following tests were used for the measurement 

of special fi tness: 

a. Serve [42] – performing 24 serves from any place of 

serving area, aiming at selected zones alternately 

on the straight line and diagonally. For hitting the 

correct zone the player scored 1 point, for a good 

serve that missed 0 points, for a bad serve –1 

point. 

b. Attack [43] – the player stands in the position of the 

left attack (behind the connection of the attack line 

with side line). The setting player is in the zone III 

at the net (middle of attack) facing the player per-


forming the test. The attacking player passes the 

ball to the setting player then performs a run-up and 

a spike. After the attack he performs the action 10 

times. 

c. The tip [43] – the player takes position on the right 

attack (behind the connection of the attack line and 

the side line). The setting player is in the zone III at 

the net (middle of attack) facing the player performing 

the test. The tested player passes the ball to the 

setting player who sets it along the net. The player 

performs a run-up, like for the attack, and then at 

the last moment hits the ball with a one-hand fi nger 

pass to a selected zone of the court (on the other 

side of the net). 

d. Overhand pass [44] – the test involved receiving 

and passing the ball overhand to a rectangle sized 

1.5 m by 1.2 m on the wall at the height of 115 cm, 

from the distance of 1.5 m. 

e. Forearm pass [45] – a player makes forearm passes 

for the height of 1 m for one minute in the circle 

of the diameter of 4 m. 

For the assessment of coordination abilities computer 

tests of coordination skills [46] were used, which 

included the following tests: 

● Measurement of time of simple reaction to a visual 

stimulus (simple reaction). 

● Measurement of complex reaction to visual stimuli 

(complex reaction). 

● Measurement of effect of visual and motor coordination 

(Piórkowski Test). 

● Measurement of orientation ability (cross test). 

● Measurement of effect of attention divisibility (component 

of the ability to adjust) – attention divisibility. 

● Measurement of the effect of perception (component 

of orientation ability) – orientation – perception. 

For the assessment of relations between motor 

fi tness and coordination abilities and effectiveness of 

play Spearman’s rank correlation was used. 

Results 

The isolation of so called prognostic features which 

determine the achievement of high sports performance 

is very signifi cant for the training process. It helps to 

establish the character of training in its various phases, 

in particular in the period of a sensitivity of a given property 

to motor stimulation [47]. 

– 60 – 

The results of the tests of motor fi tness and coordination 

skills on two dates of tests and the effectiveness 

of play in the Polish sitting volleyball league were 

presented in Table 1. The structure of motor fi tness of 

sitting volleyball players was assessed with battery of 

tests, taking into consideration motor abilities most useful 

during the play i.e. the strength of abdomen muscles 

– body bends in 30 s, strength of hand grip measured 

with a hand dynamometer, muscular endurance measured 

with a bent arms hang, dynamic strength of upper 

limbs – a medicine ball throw, fl exibility of the body and 

endurance-speed. While establishing the set of tests of 

special motor fi tness in sitting volleyball, the main criterion 

was the analysis of technique of play in this discipline 

and they were selected in such a way so that all 

most frequent elements of play are contained in them 

– overhand and forearm passes, serve, attack, tip. The 

players representing high sports level are characterised 

by a similar and very high development of mechanisms 

of adaptation to physical exertion. An important factor 

which infl uences the results of competition, in particular 

in technical disciplines – and sitting volleyball is one of 

them – is the neuromuscular coordination. Its high level 

determines the achievement of sports success [46]. It 

is generally known that the basis of every sport discipline 

is the technique and the ability of its appropriate 

application in the conditions of sports competition. The 

rate of learning movement technique and its mastering 

depends mainly on the level of coordination abilities 

which are a “genetic” basis for mastering a sports 

technique [48]. Thus in the presented study the level 

of coordination abilities was assessed using the following 

tests: simple reaction, complex reaction, Piórkowski 

test, cross test, test of attention divisibility, orientationperception 

test. Previous analyses of motor fi tness and 

coordination abilities are the basis for the assessment 

of psychomotor and technical potential of individual 

players. In team games these elements are used in the 

conditions of sports competition. The measure of this 

competition is the effectiveness of the team which determines 

the fi nal result of a match (Table 1). 

Table 2 presents correlations between general fi tness 

on two dates of tests and effectiveness of play in 

the Polish sitting volleyball league. Only some general 

fi tness properties show signifi cant relations with the effectiveness 

of specifi c technical elements. In the tests 

of lifting the body and in endurance-speed test signifi - 

cant relation was noted between effectiveness and all 

tested play components. In able-bodied people lower 

limbs play a very signifi cant role in each element of


Table 1. The results of tests of motor fitness and effectiveness of play in the Polish league of sitting volleyball in the 1 st and 2 nd tests 

Body bends in 30 s 

Bent arm hang [s] 

TESTS 

Lifting the body [cm] 

Medicine ball throw 

[m] 

Endurance-speed [s] 

Hand grip strength [kg] 

Overhead pass 

[number of cycles] 

Underhand pass 

[number of cycles] 

Serve [pts.] 

Attack [pts.] 

Tip [pts.] 

Simple reaction [s] 

play. In sitting volleyball their function in largely limited, 

thus it should be assumed that disabled athletes compensate 

these limitations with other properties of motor 

fi tness, including also the range of body movement. 

A large range of movement related to the greatest possible 

sway of the body plays an important part in defence, 

during attack and receiving of the ball. Signifi cant relations 

of technical and tactical elements and speed endurance 

seem to be obvious. This property determines 

the speed and precision of moving in a long period of 

time which is constantly used in the game in each of its 

components. 

Also explosive strength of upper limbs, measured 

with a medicine ball throw test showed a signifi cant correlation 

with effectiveness of serve (on two dates of tests 

0.30 and 0.31), receiving (0.31 and 0.31), attack (0.36 

and 0.35), block (0.29 and 0.33) and defence (0.29 and 

0.30). Only setting of the ball did not show signifi cant 

relations with the dynamic strength of the upper limbs 

Participants 

Participants 

n = 60 

n = 60 

Number of test 

TESTS 

Number of test 

I II I II 

x 19.90 19.86 

Complex reaction [s] 

x 0.47 0.45 

SD 2.93 2.81 SD 0.16 0.13 

x 19.93 21.42 

x 45.17 44.35 

Piórkowski Test [s] 

SD 14.52 15.56 SD 9.47 7.89 

x 34.82 32.37 

x 57.93 56.14 

Cross test [s] 

SD 12.31 10.60 SD 13.49 10.93 

x 6.58 6.67 

x 47.00 46.60 

Divisibility of attention [%] 

SD 1.04 0.99 SD 21.97 20.40 

x 41.83 40.22 

x 51.10 51.40 

Orientation-perception [%] 

SD 8.71 8.59 SD 12.11 11.67 

x 51.17 51.81 

SD 7.62 7.93 

– 61 – 

EFFECTIVENESS [%] 

x 16.05 16.85 

x –5.0 

Serve 

SD 6.05 5.94 SD 6.66 

x 19.73 22.08 

x 12.4 

Receiving 

SD 8.25 9.51 SD 16.05 

x 5.80 6.52 

x 7.8 

Attack 

SD 3.89 3.01 SD 12.58 

x 13.63 14.35 

x 3.9 

Block 

SD 3.28 2.99 SD 10.01 

x 15.52 15.92 

x 4.5 

Set 

SD 2.70 2.50 SD 13.28 

x 0.26 0.26 

x 6.6 

Defence 

SD 0.05 0.04 SD 16.58 

which is probably related to the performing technique 

of this element, where the fastest possible reaching of 

the place where the ball is played and precision of its 

performance play a more important part. 

On the opposite end of the correlation between 

general fi tness and effectiveness there are strength of 

abdomen muscles measured using a 30 s body bends 

test, muscular endurance measured in the bar hang test 

and static strength of hand measured using a hand dynamometer. 

The lack of signifi cant correlations between 

these properties and the effectiveness of technical and 

tactical elements may be related to a smaller part they 

play in the game and may indicate the direction of players’ 

training. These results confi rm the earlier studies in 

which no signifi cant correlations were noted between 

muscular endurance of upper limbs, static strength of 

hand and elements of special fi tness. 

The data presented in Table 3 relates to correlation 

between the properties of special fi tness (overhand and


Table 2. Correlation coefficients between general fitness and effectiveness of play in the Polish sitting volleyball league 

Test No. of test 

Serve 

[%] 

forearm passes, serve, attack, tip) and the effectiveness 

of basic technical and tactical components (serve, 

receiving, attack, block, set, defence). Signifi cant correlations 

were noted in tests of overhand and forearm 

passes and attack with the effectiveness of all studied 

technical elements of the play. Signifi cant correlation 

was noted of the serve attempt with the effectiveness 

of this element in the game (0.37) and attack (0.39) 

which resembles a serve. The questions of correlation 

between the attempted tip with the effectiveness 

of technical and tactical elements i.e. serve (0.27 and 

0.30), attack (0.29 and 0.32), block (0.30 in the 2 nd test), 

set (0.28 in the 2 nd test) and defence (0.29 in the 2 nd test) 

Receiving [%] Attack 

[%] 

– 62 – 

Technical and tactical elements 

Block 

[%] 

Set 

[%] 

Defence 

[%] 

Body bends in I 0.13 0.13 0.17 0.14 0.04 0.09 

30 s 

II 0.09 0.08 0.18 0.08 0.00 0.07 

Bar hang 

I 0.04 0.11 0.09 0.12 0.10 0.10 

[s] 

II 0.02 0.09 0.08 0.10 0.08 0.09 

Body lifting I 0.36** 0.34** 0.42** 0.32* 0.35** 0.33* 

[cm] 

II 0.32* 0.35** 0.41** 0.35** 0.34** 0.36** 

Medicine ball I 0.30* 0.31* 0.36** 0.29* 0.21 0.29* 

throw 

[m] 

II 

0.31* 0.31* 0.35** 0.33* 0.23 0.30* 

Endurance-speed I –0.31* –0.37** –0.37** –0.36** –0.31* –0.32* 

[s] 

II –0.29* –0.35** –0.36** –0.35** –0.31* –0.32* 

Hand grip strength I 0.17 0.18 0.20 0.18 0.13 0.17 

[kg] 

II 0.18 0.18 0.21 0.19 0.13 0.16 

* r significant with p ≤ 0.05, ∗∗ r significant with p ≤ 0.01 

is quite different. A statistically signifi cant relation with 

serve and attack may be related to a similar movement 

structure. 

The data presented in Table 3 clearly show signifi - 

cant correlation between coordination abilities and effectiveness 

of play in the Polish sitting volleyball league. 

The relations of coordination abilities and the quality of 

serve are most visibly manifested in attempts of simple 

reaction (–0.35 and –0.39), complex reaction (–0.37 

and –0.41), attention divisibility (0.35 and 0.43) and orientation-perception 

(0.34 and 0.52). The reaction times 

allow to quickly initiate and perform a short-term motor 

movement responding to a special signal which is 

Table 3. Correlation coefficients between special fitness and effectiveness of play in Polish sitting volleyball league 

Test 

Overhand passes 

No. of test 

Serve 

[%] 

[number of 

cycles] 

Forearm passes 

II 

[number of 

cycles] 

Serve 

[pts.] 

Attack 

[pts.] 

Tip 

[pts.] 

II 

* r significant with p ≤ 0.05, ∗∗ r significant with p ≤ 0.01 

Receiving 

[%] 


Attack 

[%] 

Block 

[%] 

Set 

[%] 

Defence 

[%] 

I 0.45** 0.53** 0.56** 0.52** 0.51** 0.56** 

0.46** 0.55** 0.57** 0.53** 0.54** 0.58** 

I 0.43** 0.37** 0.47** 0.44** 0.39** 0.44** 

0.41** 0.39** 0.46** 0.42** 0.39** 0.43** 

I 0.14 0.07 0.16 0.15 0.12 0.08 

II 0.37** 0.34** 0.39** 0.44** 0.48** 0.40** 

I 0.35** 0.43** 0.36** 0.38** 0.37** 0.42** 

II 0.41** 0.50** 0.45** 0.48** 0.45** 0.49** 

I 0.27* 0.17 0.29* 0.22 0.18 0.21 

II 0.30* 0.25 0.32* 0.30* 0.28* 0.29*


Table 4. Correlation coefficients between coordination abilities and effectiveness of play in the Polish sitting volleyball league 

the movement of the arm hitting the ball (attack, serve). 

Due to a complex structure of movements in sitting volleyball 

(determining the position of the whole body and 

its individual parts in relation to the ball, net, court) the 

need to watch the opponent’s and own player’s movements, 

making decisions in a small space in a short 

time, the relation of the described coordination tests 

and effectiveness of play seems very signifi cant. Only 

in the fi rst test of the simple reaction and Piorkówski 

test no statistically signifi cant correlation with effectiveness 

of the analysed play components was observed. 

Discussion 

Test No. of test 

Simple reaction 

[s] 

Complex reaction 

[s] 

Piórkowski test 

[s] 

Cross test 

[s] 

Attention divisibility 

[%] 

Orientationperception 

[%] 

Serve 

[%] 

*r significant with p ≤ 0.05, ∗∗ r significant with p ≤ 0.01 

Receiving 

[%] 

It was assumed that the scope and level of motor fi tness, 

coordination abilities and somatic features is the 

basis for effective competition in sports team games. 

Thus, exploring the conditions of effectiveness of team’s 

actions may contribute to an improvement in quality 

of play. On the other hand, a number of factors which 

determine the sports performance of players and their 

effectiveness in play are an incentive to search for relations 

between them, which from the cognitive and practical 

point of view are of fundamental importance in the 

process of motor and tactical preparation of players. 

Therefore, the aim of the study was to assess the 

effect of motor fi tness and coordination abilities on the 

effectiveness of play in sitting volleyball. 

The studies of Klocek and Żak [11] on female 

players indicate that high level of general and special 

– 63 – 


Attack 

[%] 

Block 

[%] 

Set 

[%] 

Defence 

[%] 

I –0.35** –0.21 –0.21 –0.20 –0.19 –0.19 

II –0.39** –0.32* –0.32* –0.33** –0.33** –0.35** 

I –0.37** –0.47** –0.39** –0.50** –0.45** –0.50** 

II –0.41** –0.55** –0.45** –0.57** –0.52** –0.56** 

I –0.09 –0.16 –0.18 –0.10 –0.12 –0.14 

II –0.28* –0.37** –0.34** –0.31* –0.31* –0.33** 

I –0.27* –0.34** –0.35** –0.34** –0.31* –0.34** 

II –0.37** –0.43** –0.45** –0.47** –0.43** –0.44** 

I 0.35** 0.37** 0.39** 0.39** 0.40** 0.41** 

II 

0.43** 0.45** 0.45** 0.48** 0.45** 0.49** 

I 0.34** 0.35** 0.38** 0.43** 0.32* 0.42** 

II 

0.52** 0.53** 0.52** 0.59** 0.50** 0.57** 

– technical – motor fi tness determined their higher effectiveness 

in play. In motor area, the most signifi cant 

components determining the quality of play are speed 

and strength components, which together with the age 

of studied players determine a higher degree the effectiveness 

of presented technique. It has to be emphasized 

that special orientation and visual-motor coordination 

determine the quality of play in the area of 

coordination abilities. Referring the above observation 

to the results of the studies carried out by Szczepanik 

and Szopa [49] on a group of beginner, able-bodied volleyball 

players confi rm that among the features of motor 

fi tness, explosive strength of upper limbs and running 

speed determine the effectiveness of play. Although in 

sitting volleyball, due to disability, these abilities do not 

play any part, the changes in the levels of general fi tness 

properties, including explosive strength of upper 

limbs and endurance-speed, and special fi tness in own 

study confi rm a large part of these motoricity components 

in the area of quality of play, including also sitting 

volleyball. 

In the analysis of the collected material it should be 

borne in mind that a correlation coeffi cient, being a static 

measure, does not fully refl ect the cause-and-effect 

relation between the level of the studied coordination 

abilities, motor fi tness and effectiveness of play. The 

number of factors which may affect the relationships 

studied in this work is much larger and often diffi cult 

to study, in particular in the context of widely varying 

disabilities of examined players. The level of tactical


trainedness (individual and team), programme of training 

and technique mastering, level of motivation, mental 

resistance, state of health etc. may all be signifi cant. 

However, the noted relations may provide interesting 

information on the area of science that so far has not 

been much explored. 

The study of young female volleyball players carried 

out by Klocek and Szczepanik [47] and concerning the 

relation of motor fi tness and coordination abilities with 

the effectiveness of serve, receiving a serve and attack 

showed only a high relation of precision of receiving 

a serve and the results of the test of locomotive speed 

(r = 0.58) and spatial orientation (r = 0.43). Fitness abilities 

did not show correlation with the effectiveness of 

serve or attack. In own studies a statistically signifi cant 

negative correlation was found between the endurancespeed 

test, corresponding to the locomotive speed test, 

and effectiveness of all assessed elements of play, i.e. 

serve, receiving a serve, attack, block, defence and 

set. The ability of fast moving in a longer period of time 

plays a very signifi cant part during the game of sitting 

volleyball. This property determines the time necessary 

to take an appropriate position and potential adjustment 

of the stance before passing the ball. Body fl exibility 

also showed statistically signifi cant relation with the effectiveness 

of all technical components of the play. In 

volleyball played in a sitting position, where the impact 

of the lower limbs is small, the ability to manoeuvre the 

body in the greatest possible range of movement is very 

important and largely facilitates correct overhand and 

forearm passes as well as one-hand passes. Greater 

backward sway of the body in the form of so called 

“drawn bow” may contribute to a greater dynamics of 

the attack and, as a consequence, its better effectiveness. 

These speculations confi rm signifi cant relations 

of special fi tness test in attack and tipping of the ball 

with the effectiveness of play in attack (0.36 and 0.45 in 

the 1 st test and 0.29 and 0.32 in the 2 nd test). Statistically 

signifi cant correlation of special fi tness tests in attack 

and tip with effectiveness of serve may result from 

a similar structure of movement in the above elements. 

The relations between tests of overhand and forearm 

passes and the effectiveness of all assessed technical 

and tactical activities are not surprising, as their effective 

performance requires from the player a very good 

mastering of the basics of technique. A more controversial 

question is the one of the relation between the 

results of tests of passes and serve and attack in which 

the ball is hit with one hand with an inside part of the 

hand, not the fi ngers (overhand pass) or lower arms 

– 64 – 

(forearm pass). Also in a block, due to the manner of 

performance the ball is not hit in any of the above ways. 

This may be explained only partly by scoring points 

after returning of the ball on the opponent’s side (onehanded 

and two-handed) which was qualifi ed as attack 

or performance of the serve by underhand one-handed 

pass. Using other types of tests could complete and 

explain the reasons for the above situations. 

The tests aiming to fi nd a set of features which characterise 

a high class volleyball player involved studying 

their relations with the sports level and effectiveness 

of play. They confi rmed the signifi cance of appropriate 

body build [50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57], in particular 

the signifi cance of height, body proportion and length 

of limbs was emphasised. Also the signifi cance of the 

level of some fi tness abilities was emphasised, in particular 

speed and strength [11, 58, 59, 60]. On the basis 

of own studies aiming to fi nd motor fi tness features and 

coordination abilities which have the greatest impact on 

the effectiveness of play of players in the Polish sitting 

volleyball league, it is diffi cult to indicate unambiguously 

the properties which to a largest extent contributed 

to more effective play of individual players, formation 

or teams. Nevertheless, within properties of general 

fi tness we may indicate mainly endurance, speed and 

body fl exibility, as well as, to a lesser degree, dynamic 

strength of upper limbs as the ones which played 

a greater part in the effectiveness of play then others. 

The effect of the endurance-speed test on the effectiveness 

of play in the context of great age differences 

of the participants seems logical. On the other hand the 

manner of moving on the court required the participants 

to have an appropriately high level of body fl exibility. 

Dynamic strength of upper limbs affects the dynamics 

of such technical and tactical elements as attack 

and serve, which signifi cantly infl uence the course of 

a match in sitting volleyball. In terms of special fi tness, 

both overhand and forearm passes, as well as attack 

correlated to the effectiveness of play to a largest extent. 

Ball passes occur in various forms in almost every 

situation in the match, therefore their high level determines 

the effectiveness of such technical and tactical 

elements of the game as set, receiving or defence of 

the ball. The attack is the main source of scoring points, 

hence a high correlation with the effectiveness of play 

is unquestionable. 

The studies on the signifi cance of coordination 

abilities in volleyball indicate that there is a relationship 

between spatial orientation and usefulness for the 

game [61], reaction time and effectiveness of defence


and block [62], as well as between balance, spatial orientation 

and visual-motor coordination and the level 

of technique [8, 9]. The own study confi rms the signifi 

cance of the effect of orientation-perception, visualmotor 

coordination (cross test) and complex reaction 

on the effectiveness in all studied technical and tactical 

elements. The complexity of the game, changeability 

of situations, the need to constantly watch and control 

the actions of players of one’s own and the opponent’s 

teams as well as the ball in play explains the statistically 

signifi cant correlation of attention divisibility and 

effectiveness of play. 

The analysis of correlation between general and 

special fi tness and coordination abilities and effectiveness 

of play indicate body fl exibility and endurancespeed 

within general fi tness, as well as overhand and 

forearm passes and attack within special fi tness, as 

those that have the greatest impact on the effectiveness 

of play in the Polish sitting volleyball league. In 

terms of coordination abilities, attention divisibility, orientation-perception 

and complex reaction had a particularly 

great impact on the effectiveness of play on 

both dates of tests. In team games, including sitting 

volleyball, where the situation is constantly changing 

and players have to take into account the positions of 

the opponents, the ball, net, and fl oor in relation to one 

another, and this in a very short time, a high level of the 

above coordination abilities impacts the course of the 

game in a particular way. 

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– 65 – 

In this study we tried to explore the relationships between 

the motor fi tness and coordination abilities and 

the effectiveness of play of sitting volleyball players. 

An important methodological question, which would 

require a future verifi cation, is the selection of tests 

the reliability and precision of which will take into account 

the problem of various types of disabilities, which 

makes it very diffi cult to assess the motor fi tness – and 

therefore its impact on the effectiveness of play. 

Conclusions 


1. The effectiveness of basic technical and tactical 

elements (serve, receiving, attack, block, set, defence) 

show close relations with the level of motor 

fi tness and coordination abilities. 

2. In special motor fi tness tests overhand and forearm 

passes as well as attack have the greatest impact 

on the effectiveness of basic elements of play in sitting 

volleyball. 

3. The properties which have the greatest impact on 

the effectiveness of technical and tactical actions 

in sitting volleyball are endurance-speed and fl exibility 

of back muscles with the participation of body 

in tests of general motor fi tness. 

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attention divisibility and complex reaction show the 

greatest impact on the effectiveness of elementary 

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2010 

THE CALORIFIC COST OF YOUNG WOMEN’S 

LEISURE ACTIVITY 

KOSZT KALORYCZNY AKTYWNOŚCI WOLNOCZASOWEJ 

MŁODYCH KOBIET 

Bożena Królikowska*, Michał Rozpara **, Władysław Mynarski ***, 

Bogusława Graczykowska****, Daniel Puciato ***** 

***** Dr, Department of Active Forms of Tourism and Recreation, Opole University of Technology 

***** MSc, Department of Active Forms of Tourism and Recreation, Opole University of Technology 

***** Dr habil., assoc. prof., Department of Active Forms of Tourism and Recreation, Opole University of Technology 

***** Dr, Department of Active Forms of Tourism and Recreation, Opole University of Technology 

***** Dr, Department of Geography and Economics of Tourism, Opole University of Technology 

Key words: physical activity, leisure, calorific cost, accelerometry, caltrac, women 

Słowa kluczowe: aktywność fizyczna, wolnoczasowa, koszt kaloryczny, akcelerometria, 

caltrac, kobiety 


Aim of the research. The aim of the research is an attempt to compare a weekly calorific cost of leisure 

activity of women regularly and irregularly physically active in the everyday and habitual activity. 

Material and method. The research covered 34 women aging 18–35 and residing on the territory of the 

Opole province. For the research two groups of women were selected. The first one was made up of women 

who did not undertake a regular physical activity and the other one was made up of women exercising 

regularly. In this research a method of an indirect observation was applied and a weekly calorific cost of the 

two groups of women was measured with an accelerometer – Caltrac Monitor. The results of the monitoring 

of the weekly energetic expense done by women were expressed in kilocalories (kcal) per week and 

kilocalories per day. 

Results. The total calorific cost of everyday (habitual) activity done by women in their ordinary week was 

various in the compared groups. The women exercising regularly achieved almost twice higher calorific cost 

than the other research group, which was a result of their different lifestyles. In both groups of the women the 

calories spent on physical activity constituted approximately 70% of their total caloric cost of habitual activities 

and it exceeds the energetic cost accompanying passive forms of leisure activities. 

Conclusions. It should be noticed that the caloric expense of a physical leisure activity done in a free time 

per week by the researched women was too low to meet the health recommendations taken by Paffenbarger 

(about 2000 kcal per week and 300 kcal per day pro physical activity). Definitely, those who were close to meet 

the above recommendations were the women regularly physically active. 

Cel badań. Próba porównania tygodniowego kosztu kalorycznego wolnoczasowej aktywności kobiet regularnie 

i nieregularnie aktywnych fizycznie na tle czynności codziennych (habitualnych). 

Materiał i metoda. Badaniami objęto 34 kobiety w wieku 18–35 lat, mieszkanki województwa opolskiego. 

Wyróżniono dwie grupy badanych: osobniczki nieregularnie aktywne ruchowo oraz systematycznie ćwiczące. 

W pracy zastosowano metodę obserwacji pośredniej, a tygodniowy wydatek kaloryczny badanych kobiet mierzono 

akcelerometrem Caltrac Monitor. Uzyskane wyniki monitoringu tygodniowego wydatku energetycznego kobiet 

ujęto w kilokaloriach (kcal) na tydzień i kilokaloriach na dzień. 

– 69 –


Wyniki badań. Całkowity koszt kaloryczny przypadający na codzienną (nawykową) aktywność kobiet w zwyczajowym 

tygodniu ich życia był zróżnicowany w porównywanych grupach. U kobiet regularnie aktywnych był on 

blisko dwukrotnie wyższy niż u pozostałych badanych, co było skutkiem odmiennego trybu życia. W obu grupach 

kobiet kalorie wydatkowane na aktywność wolnoczasową stanowiły około 70% całkowitego kosztu kalorycznego 

ich aktywności habitualnej, przewyższając wydatek energetyczny towarzyszący biernym formom spędzania czasu 

wolnego. 

Wnioski. Należy zauważyć, że wydatek kaloryczny przypadający na aktywność fizyczną podejmowaną w czasie 

wolnym w ciągu zwyczajowego tygodnia życia badanych kobiet był zbyt niski, by spełniać zalecenia prozdrowotne 

przyjmowane przez Paffenbargera (około 2000 kcal na tydzień i 300 kcal w ciągu dnia na aktywność ruchową). 

Zdecydowanie bliższe spełnieniu tych zaleceń były kobiety systematycznie aktywne ruchowo. 

Introduction 

The civilization of the 21 st century provides us with numerous 

facilities but it also limits a proper functioning 

of a human system. The consequence of the occurring 

changes is a necessity to increase our care about health 

associated with an optimal mood and wellness [1]. The 

factor which decides about our health in 50–60% is our 

lifestyle [1–3]. The World Health Organisation defi nes it 

as an outcome of individual preferences and behavioural 

patterns as well as living conditions of the existence, 

determined by psychological, social, economic and cultural 

factors [4]. The essential part of a desired lifestyle 

is widely recognized everyday and habitual physical activity 

with the predominance of a physical effort [1, 5–10] 

which nowadays is currently recognized as one of the 

basic human needs, disregarding the stage of their lives, 

as their genome was shaped in a phylogenesis by an 

adoption of a system to extremely diffi cult surrounding 

conditions which required from a human to make frequently 

extremely intensive physical efforts. In the result 

of that a drastic limitation of physical activities becomes 

one of the threats to the health of modern generations 

preferring a sitting lifestyle [1, 6, 7, 11–14]. 

In the literature of this subject there are many defi - 

nitions of a physical activity. Bourchard, Shephard [6] 

identify it with work done by the skeletal muscles resulting 

in an energetic expense exceeding a static metabolism. 

They also take it for a primary health factor and 

its best indicator. An intentional, regular and rational 

physical activity is commonly nowadays identifi ed as 

a desired mean of health creation and prevention and 

treatment of civilization diseases (mainly hypokinetic). 

Its results are determined by a proper dose of physical 

effort: intensity and volume of exercises (their duration, 

number of repetitions, length of distance, caloric cost). 

The aim of activity is also important, as well as psychic 

attitude, infl uence of a surrounding [15–17]. 

According to WHO report, a dose of a physical 

activity which is positive for health should exceed the 

– 70 – 

volume of 3,5 hours a week [18]. American experts say 

that to maintain a state of health an adult should undertake 

a physical activity of an intermediate intensity in 

the majority of week days (4–5 times) for approximately 

30 minutes [7, 19] However, there are only general recommendations 

as a dose of an effective physical activity 

has to be individually adapted to the psychophysical 

abilities of a given person [1, 20, 21]. 

A caloric or, in other words, an energetic expense of 

the volume of a physical activity is taken for its best indicator 

[2, 22]. According to Kłosowski [23] the necessity 

of measuring a caloric cost of a physical effort of a nowadays 

human being results from a shortage of the equilibrium 

in a daily energetic balance, which is the reason 

for most problems connected with a phenomenon of hypokinesis. 

The amount of used energy as an indicator 

of an activity level can be expressed in traditional units 

of heat – in calories (cal), a kilocalorie (kcal) is frequently 

used. The energetic balance results from the sum of 

energy absorbed in a form of food and a daily energetic 

expense necessary to support life processes, as well as 

the energy used for various physical and psychic activities, 

which is called an active energetic expense. The 

bigger the caloric cost of physical activity, the bigger 

the chance to counteract an energetic balance of contemporary 

man and its benefi cial infl uence on human’s 

health [21]. It has been proved that in a case when 300 

kcal are spent daily, then the signifi cant changes in the 

level of physical fi tness and metabolism of a human being 

can be expected [24]. In the opinion of Paffenbarger 

and the co-authors [25], the satisfactory amount of 

a weekly physical activity is a physical effort leading 

to the energetic expense of 2000 kcal for people aging 

20–59 years and of a body mass of 70 kg. For smaller 

or bigger mass, the energetic expense should be proportionally 

lower or higher. It depends on the age and 

physical activity as well [25–27]. In the situation like 

this, a search for accurate, reliable and commonly accessible 

means (tools) of assessment and measuring 

a caloric expense of a physical activity has its utilitar-

ian reason. One of the methods used for this reason 

is a mechanical or electronic monitoring of a volume 

of a physical activity in which the measuring tools are 

movement indicators and acceleration indicators (accelerometers). 

In the group of accelerometers one of 

the most used measuring tools in this group is a device 

called Caltrac Monitor [17, 27]. 

Many foreign researchers have dealt with a problem 

of measuring a volume of a physical activity by means 

of accelerometers and they have proved their practical 

usefulness [28–32]. The devices of this type are more 

and more frequently applied in the national researches 

of a caloric cost of different forms of recreation and everyday 

physical activity [33–36]. 

In the literature of this subject we came across the 

research connected with the social activity according to 

the different ages. There was a lot of attention paid to 

the subject of the young generation. It should be emphasized 

that a physical activity is lower in girls and 

women than in boys and men [37–39]. The researches 

of physical activity volume, presented in this paper, 

show that such an activity is especially recommended 

for women at different age. 

The subject of this research work is a habitual and 

leisure activity of young women assessed along with its 

caloric cost. As a habitual activity we understand the 

everyday human activities connected with daily routine 

such as professional work, education and habits; that’s 

why it is called habitual activity [40]. Meanwhile the 

free leisure activity is mainly connected with the way 

of spending the free time by average human being. The 

activities done in this category may be of different kinds 

such as passive (imitative – inactive) and active (creative). 

We should take in mind that leisure activity is really 

an ambiguous term. It’s very often hard to say what 

is a leisure activity and what is a daily routine. 

The aim of the research 

The main aim is an attempt to assess a weekly caloric 

expense of a leisure activity done by women who are 

regularly and irregularly physically active in their everyday 

(habitual) lives. Such an aim of research was presented 

in a form of the following research questions: 

1. What is an average caloric expense accompanying 

daily and weekly activity of young women during 

their typical week? 

2. What part of their weekly caloric cost of everyday 

activity may be ascribed to the active and passive 

leisure activity of the researched women? 


– 71 – 

3. What part of an energetic expense connected with 

activities done in leisure time may be ascribed to 

a physical activity? 

4. In which way does a weekly caloric cost of a physical 

activity taken in a leisure time done by the researched 

women meet the criteria of a volume benefi 

cial for health? 

The research questions based on the following hypotheses: 

1. A weekly caloric cost of an activity done by women 

who are not regularly physically active will not be 

suffi cient to meet the criteria of a healthy lifestyle. 

2. A weekly volume of a physical leisure activity expressed 

in calories in women systematically undertaking 

a regular physical activity will probably meet 

the criteria of a healthy lifestyle in a scope of physical 

efforts. 

Research material, methods and tools 

There were thirty–four women, aged 18–35, who participated 

in this research and all of them were the residents 

of the Opole province. Over half of them – 55% 

were students, 25% joined studies with professional 

career and only 20% of them worked professionally. 

To realize these aims, they were divided into following 

groups: 

– those who do not exercise regularly; in a text they 

are addressed as a group irregularly physically active 

(and a group I), 

– those who are regularly undertaking a physical 

effort, called also the regularly physically active 

(group II); they were the fi tness instructors. 

The research process covered a sequence of seven 

days in the daily lives of the examined women in the 

autumn 2008. 

For the purpose of this work, the method of an indirect 

observation was applied. The measurement of a caloric 

expense was performed by means of an accelerometer 

– Caltrac Monitor – that reacts on the speeding of the 

whole body and enables a measurement of a physical 

activity for a period of several and several or more dozen 

of minutes as well as for a period of several days or even 

a whole month [35]. Before the tests started, in memory 

of the device the data concerning age, sex, height and 

weight of each participant has been stored. According 

to the recommendations, in the measurement process 

Caltrac was carried on a belt attached to a waist, so it


did not disturb a person in an unconstrained movement 

during a day. The registered values of the monitoring of 

the burnt calories were written down in a card of habitual 

activity, which was especially worked out for this reason. 

It was done every morning when the device was put on 

and every evening while taking it off as well as before and 

after the main daily activities. The bath and night sleep 

were not taken into consideration because of the technical 

restrictions of the device. 

To make the analysis of the results of monitoring of 

an energetic expense, the activities done during a day 

were classifi ed: 

1. Activities done permanently, so called daily activities 

– morning and evening washing, preparing and 

having meals, moving to work, school, home, etc., 

activities connected with professional work, studying 

and housework. 

2. Activities done in leisure time: 

a) passive – perceptive forms of spending free time 

(having a nap, watching TV, listening to music, 

etc.), 

b) active (creative) ways of spending free time 

such as: 

– efforts of intellectual kind (reading magazines, 

books, solving cross-word puzzles, 

activities involving enriching knowledge for 

the sake of self-improvement), 

– physical activities (different forms of exercising, 

gardening, DIY activities, etc.). 

The results of a weekly monitoring were expressed 

in kilocalories (kcal a week –1 ). The results were also 

showed in calories per day (kcal a day –1 ). 

– 72 – 

Research results and discussion 

The average age of the researched women physically 

active irregularly amounted to 23 ± 2.88 and in a case 

of those systematically active reached 24.7 ± 3.93. The 

average height was 165.45 ± 6.82 in the fi rst group 

and 166.79 ± 4.76 cm in the second one. The average 

weight of non-active ones was up to 60.00 ± 7.43 

and 58.07 ± 5.12 kg in the group of those regularly exercising. 

The BMI-index in the group of the examined 

women who were not active ranged from 18.42 to 25.08 

kg × m –2 , on average 21.87 kg × m –2 . In a similar example 

– 18.78–26.45 kg×m –2 was the value of BMI for the 

group of women who were regularly active. In this case 

the average reached the level of 20.90 ± 2.00 kg × m –2 

(Tab. 1). Only two women out of each group presented 

BMI indicator whose value of 18–25 kg × m –2 was exceeded, 

which stands for their slight overweight [41]. 

While analyzing a caloric expense of the habitual 

activity of the women who were irregularly active during 

the entire monitored week of their lives, it can be 

concluded that an average caloric expense equaled 

2521.70 kcal, which divided into a daily portion equaled 

360.24 kcal (Tab. 2). In the own researches there was 

observed the high level of the diversity of the habitual 

human weekly activity of women irregularly physically 

active. A weekly activity per person differs a lot – 

635.42 kcal/week. The lowest weekly caloric expense 

per person reached 1514.00 kcal, (216.43 kcal/day) and 

the highest one 3440.00 kcal (491.43 kcal/day). In the 

group of regularly active women the average number 

of calories burnt during a weekly habitual activity was 

Table 1. Numeric characteristics of age, features and somatic built indicators of women irregularly (I) and regularly (II) physically 

active 

Variables Unit Group x s V Min Max t p* 

Age [years] 

Height [cm] 

Weight [kg] 

BMI [kg×m –2 ] 

I 23.00 2.88 12.4 17.0 30.0 

II 24.71 3.93 15.0 20.0 35.0 

I 165.45 6.82 4.2 147.0 176.0 

II 166.79 4.76 2.5 154.0 175.0 

I 60.00 7.43 12.9 46.0 70.0 

II 58.07 5.12 8.2 53.0 72.0 

I 21.87 1.92 8.0 18.2 25.8 

II 20.90 2.00 9.9 18.8 26.5 

* In Tables 1–5 the significance level p < 0.05 is written in bold letters and the level p < 0.01 has been denoted in bold italics. 

–1.7 0.5 

–0.3 0.3 

0.4 0.1 

1.1 0.7


Table 2. Numeric characteristics of a weekly and daily caloric cost of total indicators of a caloric cost of a physical activity done by 

women irregularly (I) and regularly physically active 

Variables Unit Group x s V Min Max t p 

Weekly caloric cost 

of activities done 

regularly 


of a leisure activity 

(total) 


of habitual activity 

[kcal/week] I 1693.75 464.29 27.41 1029.00 2566.00 

4887.79 kcal/week (698.26 kcal/day), which was twice 

as much as in the group I, with a standard deviation of 

836.00 kcal, a minimum value per person was 3855.00 

kcal (550.71 kcal/day) and maximum one 6411.00 kcal 

(915.86 kcal/day). The big differences in the burnt energy 

in both groups surely result from a character of the 

undertaken activities with a predominance of a physical 

effort on the part of the women regularly active, their 

lifestyle and somatic structure (weight) of their bodies 

as well as the intervals that the said activity was done. 

Their interests and hobbies turned out to be important 

as well, but they were not explored. 

If we take into consideration the group of women 

who were irregularly active, it can be stated that their 

everyday activities took 1693.75 kcal (Tab. 2), on average, 

which constituted 67% in the percentage scheme 

33% 

[kcal/week] II 2964.57 792.47 26.73 1877.00 4328.00 

[kcal/day] I 241.96 66.33 27.41 147.00 366.57 

[kcal/day] II 423.51 113.21 26.73 268.14 618.29 

[kcal/week] I 827.95 351.32 42.43 325.00 1391.00 

[kcal/week] II 1923.21 684.99 35.62 1162.00 3603.00 

[kcal/day] I 82.06 47.12 57.43 21.57 167.00 

[kcal/day] II 231.09 104.67 45.30 127.43 500.00 

[kcal/week] I 2521.70 635.42 25.20 1514.00 3440.00 

[kcal/week] II 4887.79 836.00 17.10 3855.00 6411.00 

[kcal/day] I 360.24 90.77 25.20 216.29 491.43 

[kcal/day] II 698.26 119.43 17.10 550.71 915.86 

Group I 

67% 

– 73 – 

–5.89 0.000 

–6.12 0.000 

–9.38 0.000 

of the whole burnt calories in the process of the monitoring 

(Fig. 1). In a case of regularly active systematically 

researched women the caloric cost of such activities 

reached a far higher level of 2964.57 kcal a week, 

(423.51 kcal/day), (Tab. 2). The percentage share of 

the constant activities in the total caloric cost, for this 

group, was 61% (Fig. 1). 

The higher energetic expense in the group of women 

regularly active was the effect of fi tness exercises 

done by them, which were treated as the obligatory activities. 

This share of a caloric cost in the total activities 

regularly taken was up to 1702.14 kcal/day, i.e. 243.16 

kcal/day (Tab. 3). It is known that the fi nal results of 

everyday activities’ caloric cost assessment of the examined 

women are affected by different factors such 

as: the kind of professional work, the duration of an ac- 

Fig. 1. The percentage scheme of the total weekly caloric cost in the groups of irregularly (I) and regularly physically active (II)


Table 3. Numeric characteristics of a weekly and daily caloric cost of activities constantly done by women irregularly (I) and regularly 

physically active 

Morning activities 

Variables Unit Group x s V Min Max 

Commuting from home to work/ 

school 

Activities connected with work/ 

learning 

Commuting home from work/ 

school 

Activities connected with 

housework 

Activities done before a night 

rest 

tivity, its intensity or the weight of a researched person. 

It may explain such a big discrepancy of the results in 

the compared groups. It comes from the results shown 

in Table 3 that the women in both groups burnt the most 

calories while doing their obligatory activities and taking 

the majority of their time during a day, and they are 

as follows: work, learning, housework, which can be 

observed in relation to the women that are systematically 

physically active. 

[kcal/week] I 110.00 27.82 25.29 69.00 192.00 

[kcal/week] II 157.79 61.90 39.23 67.00 272.00 

[kcal/day] I 15.71 3.97 25.29 9.86 27.43 

[kcal/day] II 22.54 8.84 39.23 9.57 38.86 

[kcal/week] I 390.90 221.96 56.78 135.00 982.00 

[kcal/week] II 357.57 153.34 42.88 156.00 680.00 

[kcal/day] I 55.84 31.71 56.78 19.29 140.29 

[kcal/day] II 51.08 21.91 42.88 22.29 97.14 

[kcal/week] I 467.10 146.38 31.34 243.00 687.00 

[kcal/week] II 1702.14 701.79 41.23 712.00 2993.00 

[kcal/day] I 66.73 20.91 31.34 34.71 98.14 

[kcal/day] II 243.16 100.26 41.23 101.71 427.57 

[kcal/week] I 403.95 171.75 42.52 159.00 844.00 

[kcal/week] II 306.36 146.27 47.74 165.00 679.00 

[kcal/day] I 57.71 24.54 42.52 22.71 120.57 

[kcal/day] II 43.77 20.90 47.74 23.57 97.00 

[kcal/week] I 265.45 110.23 41.52 79.00 468.00 

[kcal/week] II 383.93 208.38 54.28 106.00 658.00 

[kcal/day] I 37.92 15.75 41.52 11.29 66.86 

[kcal/day] II 54.85 29.77 54.28 15.14 94.00 

[kcal/week] I 56.35 16.58 29.42 11.00 94.00 

[kcal/week] II 56.79 16.88 29.72 35.00 89.00 

[kcal/day] I 8.05 2.37 29.42 1.57 13.43 

[kcal/day] II 8.11 2.41 29.72 5.00 12.71 

– 74 – 

The total weekly caloric cost of the daily activities of 

the researched women resulted also from an energetic 

expense of leisure activities – all activities undertaken 

in their free time. The average value of the energy spent 

on leisure activity in a group of women irregularly active 

was 827.95 kcal/week, which gave only 82.06 kcal/ 

week and constituted 33% of all burnt calories during 

a week. In group II the same value exceeded by almost 

100% the results achieved by the women irregularly

physically active, and on average it weekly reached – 

1923.21 kcal (231.09 kcal/day), which constituted 39% 

of the total amount of calories burnt by them per week. 

The data presented in Table 2 shows that all the 

differences between the groups (a weekly caloric cost: 

habitual activities constantly done, total leisure activities, 

all week learning activity) are statistically signifi - 

cant (p < 0.001). 

It is commonly known that not only the quantity but 

also the way we make use of leisure time is important. 

A human can spend it on less or more valuable activities. 

In this context it appears important to put a question 

in what way the examined women used their free 

time and especially what kind of place their physical 

activities take among the leisure conduct. 

The analysis of the aspect of the leisure behaviours 

were started with comparing a caloric cost of passive 

leisure activities in groups I and II connected with the 

activities such as watching TV, socializing, listening to 

music, having a nap. An average caloric expense of the 

women irregularly active was 253.55 kcal, which calculated 

per day was 36.22 kcal and constituted 31% 

of a weekly caloric cost of their leisure activity (Fig. 

2). In the group of regularly active women an average 

amount of spent calories, in this fi eld of their lifestyles, 

was 305.57 kcal/week (43.65 kcal/day; Tab. 4), what 


– 75 – 

constituted 16% of a weekly energy expense of a leisure 

activity (Fig. 2). It can be said that the caloric costs 

of the leisure activities of a passive character was twice 

as high as in the group of the irregularly active women 

and at the same time that such behaviours fi ll their free 

time space. 

An intellectual effort was taken into consideration 

also as a part of leisure activity of an intellectual kind. 

In the group I this part the results were not analyzed 

because during a week only 2 persons out of 20 undertook 

the activities of this type. Therefore it is possible to 

conclude that it is not a preferable way of spending free 

time when it comes to this group. On the other hand, 

the group II spent on average 221.64 kcal/week on an 

intellectual activity (Tab. 4), which constituted 11% of 

the total amount of burnt calories (Fig. 2). 

Another group of activities which we focused on 

in our analysis was a leisure activity connected with 

a physical effort. Its caloric cost in the group of irregularly 

active per week was 574.40 kcal, which converted 

on a daily rate was 82.06 kcal. It was 69% of their 

weekly energetic expense on a leisure activity (Fig. 2). 

A huge standard deviation (329.85 kcal/week) indicates 

a signifi cant dissipation of the results among the average 

value. The analyzed form of activity covered mainly 

such activities as: going shopping/an outing to a super- 

Table 4. Numeric characteristics of a weekly and daily caloric cost of leisure activities done by women irregularly (I) and regularly 

physically active 


Passive leisure activity 

Active leisure activity 

(intellectual) 

Active leisure activity 

(physical efforts) 

[kcal/week] I 253.55 136.65 53.89 68.00 660.00 

[kcal/week] II 305.57 136.03 44.52 103.00 605.00 

[kcal/day] I 36.22 19.52 53.89 9.71 94.29 

[kcal/day] II 43.65 19.43 44.52 14.71 86.43 

[kcal/week] I – – – – – 

[kcal/week] II 221.64 76.57 34.55 114.00 401.00 

[kcal/day] I – – – – – 

[kcal/day] II 31.66 10.94 34.55 16.29 57.29 

[kcal/week] I 574.40 329.85 57.43 151.00 1169.00 

[kcal/week] II 1396.00 747.26 53.53 778.00 3320.00 

[kcal/day] I 82.06 47.12 57.43 21.57 167.00 

[kcal/day] II 199.43 106.75 53.53 111.14 474.29 

–1.09 0.282 

– – 

–4.37 0.000


69% 

Group�I 

Fig. 2. A percentage scheme of a weekly caloric cost of a leisure activity of women irregularly (I) and regularly physically active (II) 

market, going to church or settling different matters in 

town and for a few people it was a walk or an individual 

gymnastics at home or going to a disco with friends. 

Those who were systematically physically active, in 

their free time during a week, burnt considerably more 

calories than those belonging to the group I – on average 

they burnt 1396 kcal per week, (199.43 kcal/day), 

which constituted 73% of their weekly leisure activity 

(Tab. 4, Fig. 2). 

Considering the whole team of the research 

women consisting of the persons declaring a shortage 

of a regular participation in forms of physical rest 

as well as those regularly making physical efforts, it 

was interesting to fi nd out if or to what extend their 

caloric expense of leisure activities was close to 

a recommended healthy conduct which was stated 

by Paffenbarger and the coauthors and Kuński [25, 

26]. Taking into consideration a required amount of 

energetic expense spent on a physical activity taken 

by the authors mentioned above (about 2000 kcal per 

week and 300 kcal per day pro physical activity), we 

31% 

– 76 – 

73% 

Group�II 

16% 

calculated an average value for each group of the researched 

women [27]. In case of those who were irregularly 

active it was the value of 1714.29 kcal/week, 

which was 244.90 kcal/day and in the group of irregularly 

active ones 1659.18 kcal/week (237.03 kcal/day; 

Tab. 5). 

It results from the calculations that the group irregularly 

active women lacked 1139.83 kcal/week 

(162.84 kcal/day) to meet the recommendations of 

a healthy activity. A signifi cantly smaller difference was 

observed in a group of the examined women who regularly 

were active – 263.18 kcal/week (37.60 kcal/day). 

In the group of the women that are irregularly active 

it was possible to observe a considerable difference 

between an actual caloric cost of a leisure activity and 

a required one (66%), which constituted only 34% of the 

required amount, while in the group of those regularly 

active ones up to84 %. It is necessary to add that in 

the latter group a signifi cant part of energy was used 

for a physical effort, however, it was not qualifi ed as 

a leisure activity but an activity connected with work 

11% 

Passive�leisure�activity 

Active�leisure�activity� 

(intellectual) 

Active�leisure�activity� 

(physical� efforts) 

Table 5. The degree of meeting the recommendations of a weekly volume a physical activity done by women irregularly (I) and 

regularly physically active 


A weekly recommended 

volume of a physical 

activity 

The degree of meeting 

the recommendations of 

a weekly volume a physical 

activity 

[kcal/week] I 1714.29 212.40 12.39 1314.29 2000.00 

[kcal/week] II 1659.18 146.32 8.82 1514.29 2057.14 

[kcal/day] I 244.90 30.34 12.39 187.76 285.71 

[kcal/day] II 237.03 20.90 8.82 216.33 293.88 

[kcal/week] I –1139.89 347.95 –30.52 –1677.57 –345.29 

[kcal/week] II –263.18 793.89 –301.65 –1074.14 1662.86 

[kcal/day] I –162.84 49.71 –30.52 –239.65 –49.33 

[kcal/day] II –37.60 113.41 –301.65 –153.45 237.55 

0.84 0.407 

–4.39 0.000

66% 

Group�I 

–conducting fi tness classes. Having taken into consideration 

a caloric cost of these activities, it appeared that 

the examined women from the group II, would have met 

the requirements of a proper volume of a physical activity 

benefi cial for health on the average. 

In the result of the analysis of the achieved results, 

it is possible to state that the fi rst hypothesis taken 

in this thesis was verifi ed positively. A caloric cost 

of a weekly physical activity of the examined women 

who are active irregularly turned out to be relatively 

low, which proves the fact that none of them meets 

the requirements of the recommended volume of 

a physical activity benefi cial for health. However, the 

second hypothesis assuming that a weekly energetic 

expense that accompanies a physical activity of the 

women regularly active will meet the above criteria 

was not proved. This group also does not meet the 

recommended standards, though it considerably approaches 

them. 

Summing up, it is possible to state that despite the 

increasing knowledge of the infl uence of a physical 

activity on a human system and possibilities to measure 

its caloric cost, for too many people undertaking 

a regular physical effort still remains only in the sphere 

of opinions and declarations and they are not put into 

practice in their everyday lives, which was proved by 

the results of our research. 

Therefore we search for the ways of constant education 

of a society in the fi eld of intentional practicing 

regular physical activity, e.g. in a form of healthy 

training and more effective ways of changing a lifestyle 

whose aim will be a care about health and a good psychical 

and physical condition. The diagnosis like this, 

in the reference to a young generation, is necessary to 

assess a present and future state of a society’s physical 

activity in order to determine the directions and aims of 

its promotion. 


34% 

Fig. 3. The percentage of meeting the recommendations of a weekly volume a physical activity done by women irregularly (I) and 

regularly physically active (II) 

– 77 – 

16% 

Conclusions 

Group�II 

84% 

Completed�part 

Not�completed�part 

1. A caloric expense of everyday (habitual) activity in 

the women who are irregularly active in their ordinary 

week was 2521.70 kcal on average. Assuming 

that this value covers all kinds of undertaken activities, 

including also those that can be qualifi ed 

as physical ones, it is insuffi cient in the context of 

health care needs. 

2. The total caloric cost, covering the same activities, 

in the second group of the examined women who 

undertake a regular activity is almost twice higher 

(4887.79 kcal), which is an effect of other lifestyle in 

the fi eld of physical activity 

3. A leisure activity of the examined women which covers 

both passive and active physical activities and 

in the case of the women who are regularly active, 

it also includes their intellectual effort in the total caloric 

cost per week. In the group of those irregularly 

active it was at the level of 827.95 kcal (67%) and 

in the group of the regularly active it was 1923.21 

kcal (61%) on average. The above values probably 

refl ect the fact that all these women have different 

daily leisure time budgets and spend it in a different 

way. 

4. In the group of the irregularly active women the 

number of calories burnt in their physical activity 

(a physical effort) was 574.40 kcal, which constituted 

69% of the caloric cost of their leisure activity, 

and for those who are regularly active the caloric 

cost is twice higher – 1396.00 kcal (73%). In both 

cases it is higher than the value of an energetic cost 

accompanying a passive activity. 

5. While comparing a caloric expense of a physical 

weekly leisure activity of the researched women 

with the Paffenbarger’s assumptions, it is necessary 

to state that in both groups (those irregularly


and regularly active) it does not meet the recommendations 

for a healthy conduct. In the fi rst group 

the difference between a real and a recommended 

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enough? Preliminary pedometer indicies for public health. 

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2010 

CHANGES IN SOMATIC AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT 

IN CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS IN THE YEARS 

1980–1988 AND IN 2000 

ZMIANY W ROZWOJU SOMATYCZNYM 

I MOTORYCZNYM U DZIECI I MŁODZIEŻY 

W LATACH 1980–1988 I W ROKU 2000 

Bartłomiej Sokołowski*, Maria Chrzanowska** 

***Dr, Department of Physiotherapy, University School of Physical Education in Cracow, Poland 

***Prof., Department of Anthropology, University School of Physical Education in Cracow, Poland 

Key words: Cracow children and adolescents, physical development, secular trends 

Słowa kluczowe: dzieci i młodzież krakowska, rozwój fizyczny, trendy sekularne 


Aim of the work. Comparison of body height and weight and the development of selected motor abilities in 

children and adolescents from Cracow population on the basis of examinations performed from 1980 through 

1988 and in 2000. 

Material and methods. The work includes materials collected by the teams of researchers from the Department 

of Anthropology and Anatomy, University School of Physical Education in Cracow while implementing 

“The Cracow Child 2000” project and during former examinations in the years 1980–1988. Results for age groups 

of 8–16 years were taken into consideration. Body height and weight got examined as well as the results of 

motor fitness tests: standing broad jump, sit-ups from the lying position for 30 s, and the sit and reach test. The 

values of arithmetic means were compared and the significance of their differences was calculated. 

Results and conclusions. The girls and boys examined in 2000 are characterised by higher body height and 

weight when compared to the ones tested in the years 1980 through 1988. In the tests of explosive strength of 

lower extremities, flexibility and dynamic strength of abdominal muscles lower results were achieved by the 

examined in 2000. Only in the test of abdominal muscles in younger school age, the contemporary teenagers 

were better. Among children and adolescents from Cracow population, there occurred a tendency to achieve 

higher indexes of morphological development accompanied by lower motor abilities. 

Cel pracy. Porównanie wysokości i masy ciała oraz rozwoju wybranych zdolności motorycznych dzieci i młodzieży 

populacji krakowskiej na podstawie badań przeprowadzonych w latach 1980–1988 i w roku 2000. 

Materiał i metody. W pracy wykorzystano materiały zebrane przez pracowników Zakładu Antropologii 

i Anatomii Akademii Wychowania Fizycznego w Krakowie podczas realizacji projektu „Dziecko Krakowskie 2000” 

i wcześniejszych badań w latach 1980–1988. Wzięto pod uwagę wyniki dla grup wiekowych 8–16 lat. Uwzględniono 

wysokość i masę ciała oraz wyniki testów motorycznych: skoku w dal z miejsca, siadów z leżenia tyłem w 30 s 

i skłonów tułowia w przód. Porównano wartości średnich arytmetycznych i obliczono ich istotność. 

Wyniki i wnioski. Dziewczęta i chłopcy badani w roku 2000 charakteryzują się większą wysokością ciała 

i większą masą ciała w porównaniu do swoich rówieśników badanych w latach 1980–1988. W próbach siły 

eksplozywnej kończyn dolnych, gibkości i siły dynamicznej mięśni brzucha gorsze wyniki osiągali badani w roku 

2000. Jedynie w teście mięśni brzucha w młodszym wieku szkolnym lepsza była młodzież współczesna. Wśród 

dzieci i młodzieży populacji krakowskiej ujawniła się tendencja do osiągania wyższych wskaźników rozwoju morfologicznego, 

przy jednoczesnym obniżeniu zdolności motorycznych. 

– 81 –

Introduction 

Biological and physical development of children and 

adolescents has long been the subject of researchers’ 

interest in many countries. The number of works in the 

fi eld is so large that it would be impossible to quote 

them within the frames of this paper. Also in Poland 

studies of the issue have a tradition reaching the beginnings 

of the 20 th century [1, 2]. Many of the elaborations 

were developed in the ‘60s and ‘70s when the 

phenomenon of secular trends in the context of social 

and economic differences was presented [3–11]. In 

that period, as well as in the ‘80s, a similarity of somatic 

development and motor fi tness was observed 

[12–16]. 

However, later studies indicated a different tendency 

in the intergenerational variability, i.e. disparate directions 

of changes in somatic and motor development, 

defi ned as “scissors opening” [17– 24]. 

A considerable contribution into the research of the 

level and dynamic of somatic and functional features 

development was made by the University School of 

Physical Education in Cracow [25– 35]. 

On the basis of longitudinal and cross-sectional 

studies there were constructed tables and centile charts 

of high diagnostic values. Developmental norms of somatic 

and motor fi tness characteristics were worked 

out in different time intervals by regional or national 

research centres. 

In 1980 the scientists of the Unit of Anthropology and 

Anatomy at the University School of Physical Education 

in Cracow started a large scale long-term studies (lasting 

till 1992) of children from schools located in Nowa 

Huta, one of the districts in Cracow. 

After 20 years, in 2000 the workers of the Unit performed 

cross-sectional studies of a random cohort of 

children and adolescents in Cracow. In both research 

series the level of development of somatic and motor 

characteristics was estimated. 

The aim of the paper is then an attempt to fi nd out 

whether there exist differences in the level of somatic 

and motor development in boys and girls from Cracow 

population examined contemporarily, i.e. in 2000 and 

the ones examined in 1980–1992 and, if they exist, 

to assess their intensity and diversifi cation directions. 

Such investigation can also allow verifi cation of the thesis 

claiming that contemporary adolescents are characterised 

by a better morphological development but 

lower motor fi tness when compared to their peers of 

the previous years. 


– 82 – 

Research material and methods 

The project called “The Cracow Child 2000” included 

2093 girls and 2409 boys aged 4–20 from four Cracow 

districts: Śródmieście, Krowodrza, Podgórze and Nowa 

Huta. All types of schools were considered. The examined 

were selected with two-stage draw by ballot box 

method with no returning. Twenty two somatic features 

were measured as well as motor fi tness tests contained 

in the European Tests of Physical Fitness. 

In 1980 the examination included all children from 

the fi rst classes of preliminary schools located in 

Mistrzejowice – a part of Nowa Huta amounting at 360 

girls and 460 boys, 820 in total. The longitudinal studies 

got preformed annually for the following 10 years. 

Nineteen somatic features were measured and eight 

motor fi tness tests contained in the International 

Tests of Physical Fitness were conducted. 

This work only included research results of those age 

groups which consisted of suffi cient number of people, 

i.e. 8–16 years old. Body height and weight got taken into 

consideration as well as results of the motor tests that 

were identically performed in both studies i.e. standing 

broad jump (explosive strength of lower extremities), situps 

from the lying position for 30 s (dynamic strength of 

abdominal muscles) and the sit and reach test (fl exibility). 

For the needs of this paper the measure data obtained 

in longitudinal studies were treated as crosssectional 

data. 

The values of arithmetic means of body height, 

weight and motor tests obtained within the frames of 

the Child of Cracow 2000 project were compared with 

the means of children examined in 1980–1988 and the 

differences signifi cance was calculated . 

Research results 

The information presented in Table 1 indicates that both 

boys and girls examined in 2000 were taller than the 

ones examined in 1980–1988 in all age groups. All the 

differences are statistically signifi cant. 

A similar regularity can be observed at the comparison 

of body weight (Table 2). Children of both sexes examined 

later are characterised by higher weight, however, 

at the age of 16 years the differences are small. 

Results of motor abilities tests are different. Girls 

examined in 2000 in the standing broad jump got much 

worse results. The differences are statistically signifi - 

cant. A similar tendency, but less intensifi ed, was noticed 

in boys from the same cohort (Table 3).


Table 1. Body height 

Year 

Boys 

Girls 

Difference Age 

N x SD N x SD 

2000 

1980 

133 

460 

129.50 

126.32 

5.75 

5.38 

3.18*** 8 

140 

360 

129.50 

125.54 

6.10 

6.00 

2000 

1981 

194 

456 

134.00 

132.22 

5.97 

5.52 

1.78*** 9 

143 

358 

133.90 

131.26 

5.48 

6.00 

2000 

1982 

126 

450 

140.90 

137.36 

6.36 

5.84 

3.54*** 10 

115 

354 

139.90 

136.87 

6.85 

6.47 

2000 

1983 

138 

435 

145.90 

142.19 

6.91 

6.27 

3.71*** 11 

154 

352 

145.50 

142.62 

6.69 

6.99 

2000 

1984 

198 

432 

150.80 

147.82 

7.36 

6.64 

2.98* 12 

200 

350 

152.80 

148.94 

6.82 

7.44 

2000 

1985 

143 

430 

158.30 

154.42 

8.85 

7.44 

3.88*** 13 

175 

350 

158.70 

155.20 

6.50 

6.96 

2000 

1986 

262 

420 

165.70 

161.92 

8.29 

8.20 

3.78*** 14 

239 

346 

161.60 

156.34 

6.05 

6.18 

2000 

1987 

188 

420 

171.80 

168.82 

7.77 

7.70 

2.98*** 15 

167 

346 

164.00 

161.61 

6.19 

5.71 

2000 

1988 

233 

348 

174.90 

173.33 

6.87 

6.85 

1.57** 16 

132 

219 

164.60 

162.98 

5.72 

5.73 

According to t°-Student the differences are: significant at the level * p ≤ 0.05. **p ≤ 0.01. ***p ≤ 0.001 

Table 2. Body weight 

Year 

Boys 

Girls 


N x SD N x SD 

2000 

1980 

133 

460 

28.30 

26.10 

5.70 

4.35 

2.20*** 8 

140 

360 

27.80 

25.70 

5.54 

4.37 

2000 

1981 

194 

456 

31.00 

28.22 

7.17 

4.80 

2.78*** 9 

143 

358 

29.90 

27.58 

5.84 

5.05 

2000 

1982 

126 

450 

35.40 

31.13 

7.97 

5.50 

4.27*** 10 

115 

354 

34.50 

30.74 

8.36 

5.80 

2000 

1983 

138 

435 

38.80 

35.13 

8.70 

6.73 

3.67*** 11 

154 

352 

37.20 

35.15 

7.79 

6.71 

2000 

1984 

198 

432 

41.80 

38.82 

9.86 

7.48 

2.98*** 12 

200 

350 

43.00 

40.22 

7.93 

7.82 

2000 

1985 

143 

430 

47.60 

43.44 

10.79 

8.32 

4.16*** 13 

175 

350 

47.00 

44.83 

8.84 

8.45 

2000 

1986 

262 

420 

52.80 

49.42 

10.45 

9.28 

3.38*** 14 

239 

346 

51.00 

49.07 

9.41 

7.85 

2000 

1987 

188 

420 

59.40 

56.22 

11.78 

9.42 

3.18*** 15 

167 

346 

55.00 

52.46 

7.93 

7.97 

2000 

1988 

233 

348 

63.70 

61.71 

11.04 

8.87 

1.99* 16 

132 

219 

54.80 

54.13 

7.25 

7.48 


– 83 – 

Difference 

3.96*** 

2.64*** 

3.03*** 

2.88*** 

3.86*** 

3.50*** 

5.26*** 

2.39*** 

1.62* 

Difference 

2.10*** 

2.32*** 

3.76*** 

2.05** 

2.78*** 

3.17** 

1.93** 

2.54*** 

0.63

Table 3. Standing broad jump 


Year 

N 

Boys 

x SD 


N 

Girls 

x SD 

2000 

1980 

132 

460 

115.60 

127.20 

18.87 

19.00 

–11.60*** 8 

140 

360 

105.20 

121.30 

17.11 

17.70 

2000 

1981 

194 

456 

128.20 

142.50 

23.92 

15.14 

–14.30*** 9 

142 

358 

119.90 

138.20 

21.97 

14.83 

2000 

1982 

126 

450 

139.10 

148.50 

21.70 

17.10 

–9.40*** 10 

113 

354 

129.20 

144.40 

20.82 

15.88 

2000 

1983 

137 

435 

149.30 

156.80 

22.07 

16.80 

–7.50*** 11 

154 

352 

138.40 

156.13 

20.51 

16.25 

2000 

1984 

197 

432 

153.20 

158.58 

23.94 

17.10 

–5.38** 12 

196 

350 

144.80 

160.10 

20.08 

16.80 

2000 

1985 

143 

430 

169.60 

177.72 

23.55 

18.41 

–8.12*** 13 

175 

350 

154.00 

173.11 

22.85 

17.11 

2000 

1986 

262 

420 

181.70 

185.72 

26.15 

20.14 

–4.02* 14 

231 

346 

156.20 

175.18 

21.47 

16.97 

2000 

1987 

188 

420 

193.90 

197.24 

22.89 

21.93 

–3.34 15 

165 

346 

162.80 

174.78 

25.06 

17.69 

2000 

1988 

230 

348 

199.80 

210.13 

25.11 

20.63 

–10.33*** 16 

131 

219 

164.00 

176.28 

23.57 

18.08 


Table 4. Sit and reach 

Year 

Boys 

Girls 


N x SD N x SD 

2000 

1980 

124 

460 

47.10 

48.36 

6.90 

5.72 

–1.26* 8 

130 

360 

48.30 

50.34 

5.56 

5.18 

2000 

1981 

192 

456 

46.90 

50.20 

6.24 

5.60 

–3.30*** 9 

143 

358 

49.50 

51.68 

5.55 

5.28 

2000 

1982 

124 

450 

46.90 

50.72 

6.05 

6.12 

–3.82*** 10 

115 

354 

49.60 

52.92 

7.06 

6.24 

2000 

1983 

136 

435 

48.10 

49.82 

6.14 

6.04 

–1.72** 11 

154 

352 

50.30 

53.76 

6.61 

6.30 

2000 

1984 

197 

432 

46.70 

49.88 

6.35 

4.10 

–3.18*** 12 

198 

350 

53.10 

55.32 

6.53 

6.74 

2000 

1985 

143 

430 

47.90 

50.31 

8.10 

6.35 

–2.41*** 13 

175 

350 

54.60 

56.62 

7.94 

6.22 

2000 

1986 

262 

420 

48.60 

53.18 

7.95 

6.92 

–4.58*** 14 

234 

346 

54.10 

58.79 

7.14 

6.41 

2000 

1987 

188 

420 

51.50 

53.56 

9.07 

7.45 

–2.06** 15 

167 

346 

56.10 

59.88 

7.90 

6.31 

2000 

1988 

230 

348 

54.30 

56.55 

8.34 

7.76 

–2.25** 16 

131 

219 

58.40 

61.11 

7.83 

6.03 


– 84 – 

Difference 

–16.10*** 

–18.30*** 

–15.20*** 

–17.73*** 

–15.30*** 

–19.11*** 

–18.98*** 

–11.98*** 

–12.28*** 

Difference 

–2.04*** 

–2.18*** 

–3.32*** 

–3.46*** 

–2.22*** 

–2.02** 

–4.69*** 

–3.78*** 

–2.71***


Table 5. Sit-ups 

Year 

N 

Boys 

x SD 


N 

Girls 

x SD 

2000 

1980 

128 

460 

18.10 

15.20 

3.70 

4.20 

2.90*** 8 

136 

360 

17.10 

14.36 

3.26 

4.18 

2000 

1981 

194 

456 

19.60 

17.94 

3.78 

4.22 

1.66*** 9 

142 

358 

18.10 

16.38 

3.33 

4.49 

2000 

1982 

125 

450 

21.60 

20.38 

4.63 

4.33 

1.22** 10 

115 

354 

19.50 

18.38 

3.44 

4.75 

2000 

1983 

136 

435 

22.90 

23.02 

4.06 

3.99 

–0.12 11 

153 

352 

21.30 

21.35 

3.19 

3.99 

2000 

1984 

198 

432 

22.80 

24.72 

4.47 

4.02 

–1.92*** 12 

197 

350 

21.90 

22.14 

3.86 

4.06 

2000 

1985 

142 

430 

24.60 

25.99 

4.33 

3.98 

–1.39*** 13 

174 

350 

22.00 

22.82 

4.34 

3.86 

2000 

1986 

261 

420 

25.00 

28.08 

3.70 

3.76 

–3.08*** 14 

228 

346 

21.00 

24.14 

3.47 

4.16 

2000 

1987 

188 

420 

25.10 

29.96 

4.19 

3.74 

–4.86*** 15 

160 

346 

21.30 

24.62 

3.78 

4.13 

2000 

1988 

230 

348 

25.00 

30.77 

4.10 

3.60 

–5.77*** 16 

130 

219 

23.10 

25.04 

3.55 

4.18 


Flexibility was measured by the sit and reach test 

and both boys and girls examined in 2000 achieved 

worse results than those examined in 1980–1988 in all 

age groups (Table 3). 

In the abdomen dynamical strength test (Table 5) in 

boys and girls aged 8, 9 and 10 the number of sit-ups 

done within 30 seconds is higher in children examined 

in 2000. However, from the age of 11 years there appears 

an increasing advantage of those examined in 

1980–1988. At the age of 14, 15 and 16 the differences 

are considerable, particularly in boys. 

Discussion 

The studies over the phenomenon of body weight 

and height secular trend show its different intensity in 

Poland, depending on a region and social structure of 

the examined population. The infl uence of economic 

conditions on physical development of children and 

adolescents should also be taken into consideration. 

A majority of researchers observed a continuous tendency 

for an increase of body height and weight. 

The results of our paper also indicate higher values 

of the basic somatic characteristics in contemporary 

– 85 – 

Difference 

2.74*** 

1.72*** 

1.12* 

–0.05 

–0.24 

–0.82* 

–3.14*** 

–3.32*** 

–1.94*** 

adolescents. In all age groups both boys and girls examined 

in 2000 are taller than those examined in 1980– 

1988. The greatest difference for boys (3.88 cm) occurs 

at the age of 13, and the smallest one at 16 (1.57 cm). 

For girls the greatest difference takes place at the age 

of 14 (5.26 cm), and the smallest at 16 (1.62 cm). 

The same trend refers to body weight. Differences 

amount from 1.99 to 4.27 kg in boys, whereas in girls 

they are a bit smaller (from 1.93 to 3.76 kg) and at the 

age of 16 the difference (0.63kg) is not signifi cant statistically. 

Przewęda and Dobosz [17], who obtained similar 

results, explained the fact with a fashion for a slim girlish 

fi gure. The process of getting slimmer in girls after 

puberty period was also observed by Chrzanowska 

et al. [36] when comparing two random cohorts from 

Cracow population examined in 1983 and 2000. 

Results of studies on intergenerational tendencies 

of motor abilities development are not clear. Bocheńska 

[9] observed a unity of morphological and motor fi tness 

changes on the basis of data of 1938 and 1962. 

Przewęda and Trześniowski [15] and Charzewski and 

Przewęda [16] while examining Polish adolescents in 

the ‘70s and ‘80s noticed a motor development progression. 

Similar results were obtained by Zaradkiewicz

[37] in relation to the population of the middle-east 

macro-region in the years 1979–1989. Dudkiewicz [38] 

compared the level of somatic features and motor abilities 

development in children and adults examined in 

1971 and 1986 from the Kieleckie region; the research 

showed a linear development of somatic features and 

physical fi tness. However, results of later studies indicated 

the phenomenon of ‘scissors opening’ which 

bases on a better and better development of somatic 

features accompanied by a decrease of motor abilities. 

Przewęda and Dobosz [17] revealed the phenomenon 

in children and adolescents on a national scale while 

comparing the results of auxological picture assessment 

in 1979, 1989 and 1999. Bronikowski [18] found 

the phenomenon in Poznań children examined in 1979 

through 1999. The alarming fall of physical fi tness was 

raised by Raczek [19] on the basis of results of studies 

performed in 1965, 1975 and 1985 including subjects 

aged 8–18. Żak and Szopa [20] confi rmed regression 

of fi tness in Cracow adolescents who were examined in 

1983 in comparison with norms of 1973–1974. Mleczko 

and Ozimek [22] also demonstrated unfavourable tendencies 

in development of motor fi tness in Cracow population 

aged 15–19. The syndrome of ‘open scissors’ in 

Polish students was described by Pilicz [23] while analyzing 

studies results of 1954–1979, whereas Mleczko 

and Januszewski [24] determined the direction of 

changes in Cracow students in the years 1972–2008. 

This paper confi rms the thesis of different tendencies 

in somatic features and motor abilities development. 

Particularly considerable differences unfavouring 

the 2000 population were observed in girls at 

the standing broad jump; in boys the differences are 

slightly lower. Flexibility measurement also indicated 

a lower level of the feature development in contemporary 

adolescents; the differences occur consistently in 

both sexes aged 8–16. Different results obtained in individual 

age ranges at the static strength of abdominal 

muscles tests are diffi cult to be interpreted. In boys and 

girls aged 8–10 better results were achieved by the examined 

in 2000; at the age of 12–16 in boys and 14–16 

in girls an advantage of those examined in 1980–1988 

begins to be more and more visible. It can be assumed 

that at the younger school age there emerged a strong 

infl uence of a better somatic development in contemporary 

children. While getting older, the strength, being 


– 86 – 

the ability only slightly conditioned genetically [31], is 

infl uenced by environmental factors, especially physical 

activity which in 2000 was weaker than in the ‘80s. 

Changes of body build proportions and different stages 

of puberty processes during this period of ontogenesis 

might have infl uenced the results. Different commitment 

of the examined into the implementation of the 

diffi cult tests should also be taken into account. 

There are many reasons for regression of motor 

abilities. Przewęda [39] claims that in order to develop 

one’s motor activity, fi rstly they must want to do so; 

whereas currently there can be observed a decrease of 

motivation for physical activity in young generation. The 

Internet and computer games consume too much time. 

Children and adolescents spend many hours in closed 

rooms in sitting position without any movements and it 

leads to atrophy of muscles and disturbances of physiological 

processes. Pańczyk [40] emphasizes isolation 

from natural environment which also infl uences negatively 

the development of young organisms. The teachers 

and peers’ pressure at school affect mental health 

resulting in frequent frustrations and depressions. 

Przewęda [39] suggests working out such a model 

of education that could prepare children for later selfcontrol 

of their physical condition. Highly promoting the 

idea, it should be remembered that its implementation 

must be preceded by deep changes in the social consciousness. 

Results summary and conclusions 

1. Girls and boys examined in 2000 are characterised 

by higher body height and weight in comparison 

with their peers examined in 1980–1988. 

2. In the tests of explosive strength of lower extremities, 

fl exibility and abdominal dynamic strength lower 

results were obtained by the examined in 2000. 

Only in the test of abdominal muscles, boys and 

girls examined in 2000 were better at the younger 

school age. 

3. In the light of the obtained results in children and 

adolescents from Cracow population, a tendency 

appeared for achieving better indexes of morphological 

development accompanied by lowering of 

the motor abilities level.


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2010 

A SIMPLE METHOD OF ASSESSMENT 

OF ENERGY EXPENDITURE OF 

LOW-IMPACT AEROBIC EXERCISES 

PROSTA OCENA WYDATKU ENERGETYCZNEGO 

AEROBIKU TYPU LOW-IMPACT 

Wanda Pilch*, Łukasz Tota**, Szczepan Wiecha**, Dorota Ambroży*** 

*** Dr, Physiology and Biochemistry Unit, Institute of Human Physiology, University School of Physical Education, 

Cracow, Poland 

*** MSc, Physiology and Biochemistry Unit, Institute of Human Physiology, University School of Physical Education, 

Cracow, Poland 

*** Dr, Theory and Methodology of Gymnastics Department, University School of Physical Education, Cracow, 

Poland 

Key words: aerobic, energetic expenditure, heart rate 

Słowa kluczowe: aerobik, wydatek energetyczny, częstość skurczów serca 


Aim of the work. Estimating the character, intensity and energy expenditure in young women during one 

hour of aerobic low-impact training. 

Material and methods. The exercise ability of ten women was measured as well as threshold physiological 

parameters, which determine adaptation of the organism to the physical strain. The exercise test on the 

laboratory track was performed until subject’s refusal. During the test maximal heart rate (HR) and maximal 

oxygen consumption (V . 

O max) were measured. In the second stage of the study, during one hour of aero- 

2 

bics exercises, the dynamic changes of HR were observed using the sport-testers produced by Polar Electro 

Corporation. To estimate energy expenditure indirect calorimetric method was used. To use this method, one 

minute absorption of oxygen has to be measured, than by knowing caloric equivalent (which is 5 kcal for one 

liter of oxygen) it is possible to measure the energy output in women during aerobic. 

Results and conclusions. According to energy expenditure during one hour of aerobics low-impact (308 

kcal) it may be classified as light work. 

Cel pracy. Określenie charakteru i intensywności wysiłku, a także wydatku energetycznego poniesionego 

przez młode kobiety podczas godzinnych zajęć aerobiku typu low-impact. 

Materiał i metody. Przeprowadzono ocenę możliwości wysiłkowych badanych 10 kobiet oraz progowych 

wielkości wskaźników fizjologicznych określających adaptację organizmu do wysiłku. Przeprowadzono na bieżni 

laboratoryjny test wysiłkowy ze stopniowo narastającym obciążeniem, wykonywany do odmowy. W trakcie testu 

oznaczano m.in. maksymalny rytm pracy serca (HR) oraz maksymalne pochłanianie tlenu (V . 

O max). W drugim 

2 

etapie obserwowano dynamikę zmian HR w czasie godzinnych zajęć aerobiku, stosując w tym celu sporttestery 

firmy Polar Electro. W celu oznaczenia wydatku energetycznego posłużono się metodą kalorymetrii pośredniej, 

która polega na pomiarze minutowego poboru tlenu w trakcie ocenianego wysiłku. Znając równoważnik kaloryczny, 

który dla jednego litra tlenu odpowiada 5 kcal wydatkowanej energii, możliwe jest wyrażenie wydatku 

energetycznego poniesionego przez badane kobiety podczas zajęć aerobiku w kcal. 

Wyniki i wnioski. Na podstawie przeprowadzonych pomiarów i porównań stwierdzono, że wydatek energetyczny 

o średniej wartości 308, jaki podczas godzinnych zajęć z aerobiku low-impact poniosły młode kobiety 

o średniej wysokości, przeciętnej masie ciała oraz małym otłuszczeniu, można zaliczyć do pracy lekkiej. 

– 89 –

Introduction 


The modern kind of aerobics involves the whole body, 

and the correctly performed exercises increase the 

level of one’s physical fi tness as well as tolerance to 

exertion. The term "exertion abilities" means the unit 

of the psychophysical properties of the body which enable 

the performance of certain exercises connected 

with the physical load; the term ‘exertion tolerance’ 

determines the body’s ability to perform the physical 

work from the moment the discomfort appears to the 

moment when the need to interrupt occurs. Aerobics is 

a system of physical exercises including the intensity, 

which require the big amount of oxygen to be delivered 

to a certain body. Looking at the intensity of aerobic, we 

can divide it into three parts: low-impact, hi-lo, hi-impact. 

These exercises enable the increase in exertion 

abilities as a result of fi tness and health training, based 

on the intense oxygen exchange. The modern aerobics 

is the strict co-ordination of the movement with music 

in time and space. Consecutive exercises should form 

harmony together with the music which, like dance, is a 

unique experience including movement for both the instructor 

and the participants of the classes. Depending 

on the intended intensity of the exercises we use different 

melodies. There are two increasing and two decreasing 

phrases (depending on the pitch of the sound 

a phrase ends with) which are alternatively arranged in 

the musical theme. The phrase corresponds to a choreographical 

fi gure of eight (sequence), whereas the 

musical theme corresponds to a choreographic block 

[1]. The pace also changes depending on the advancement 

level of the group [2]. 

In the low-impact system, warming, strengthening, 

and calming elements can be distinguished 

I. Warming exercises: their aim is to prepare body for 

more intense exercises in the main aerobics part. In 

this part we use basic steps repeated many times. 

Duration is about 5–10 min. 

II. Main part, strengthening part. This part is constructed 

from a sequence of movement combined 

into blocks. The aim of this part is to maintain constant 

pulse using different choreography. Duration 

is about 30–40 min. 

III. Calming: we use some stretching exercises to calm 

down and relax the body. 

The high frequency of the systoles results in a substantial 

energetic effort and it increases the level of 

physical fi tness. The effi ciency of circulatory systems 

– 90 – 

and respiratory systems is considered to be the most 

important element of one’s fi tness which promotes 

health. An improvement in the cardiopulmonary function 

is conductive to the reduction of many cardiovascular 

diseases; it also enhances the ability to work and facilitates 

the opposition to tiredness [3]. Cardiopulmonary 

fi tness is the ability of the system to deliver oxygen in 

amounts which are essential for taking up effective 

muscular work and prolonged physical activities. The 

effi cient functioning of cardiopulmonary system is important 

for delivering oxygen and nutritional substances 

and removing unnecessary products of metabolism [4]. 

The aim of the research was to determine the character 

and intensity of the exertion as well as energy expenditure 

among young women during an one-hour long 

low-impact aerobics classes. 

Methodology of the research 

10 women leading an active way of life took part in the 

research. Their anthropometrical indicators fi tted in the 

range for thin women aged 21–23 – Tab. 1 [5, 6]. 

Technology of performed measurements 

The research was carried out in a gym and a physical 

research classroom of Chair of Physiology and 

Biochemistry at University School of Physical Education 

in Cracow. 

The program of the research included 2 types of 

tests: a laboratory exertion test in which the load has 

gradually increased until the moment of the subjective 

feeling of inability to continue workout, as well as 

HR observation during aerobics exercises in the gym. 

Before the research was carried out, the basic biometrical 

parameters had been measured. The height of the 

bodies was measured by means of an anthropometre, 

whereas the mass of the bodies was taken with the help 

of an electronic scale Tanita, made in Japan. 

The test started with 2-minutes long warm-up on a 

mechanical track with the speed of 6 km/h. The speed 

of the track’s movements was increased 1 km/h every 2 

consecutive minutes. During the exertion, the frequencies 

of the systoles (HR) and the respiratory parameters 

such as ˙VO 2 (ml/kg), ˙VO 2 (l/min) were recorded. After 

fi nishing the exertion, parameters were also measured 

during 3 minutes of repose. 

The second type of the research, the low-impact 

aerobics exercises, lasted for 70 minutes and the following 

stages could be distinguished:

A simple method of assessment of energy expenditure of low-impact aerobic exercises 

III stage – 10 minutes, (warm-up – simple exercises 

based on elementary steps), 

III stage – 40 minutes, (choreographic routine), 

III stage – 15 minutes, (weight training of basic muscular 

groups), 

IV stage – 5 minutes, (relaxation part, stretching). 

The dynamics of changes in the frequency of the 

systoles was measured with a versatile device Acurex 

plus by Finnish company Polar-Electro. Microcomputers 

(sport-testers) make it possible to constantly monitor 

the heart’s work during each exertion. In the present 

research, the microcomputers were used during both 

track-tests and aerobics classes. 

A computer program enabling the current monitoring 

of the results from a device by the Finnish company 

Medicro OY had been applied in the registration and 

analysis of the respiratory data. This device registers 

the respiratory parameters. The heart’s work was monitored, 

its average size at different phases of exercising 

was calculated and identical HR values during the tracktest 

were compared in order to estimate the burning of 

calories from aerobics classes. The corresponding ˙VO 2 

values were also recorded and they were subsequently 

accepted as adequate to the performed workout during 

4 stages of aerobics. The time of individual phases as 

well as the adequate level of ˙VO 2 made it possible to estimate 

the global use of oxygen and, consequently, the 

Table 1. Somatic characteristics of the group 

No. Age Body height [cm] 

– 91 – 

energy expenditure as well. It was also demonstrated 

how the marked ˙VO 2 values and HR measured during 

aerobics classes were shaped in relation to the maximum 

values. In this way, the values of the measured 

parameters among the participants of the research and 

their potential abilities were received and presented. 

The material included in this research is represented 

by the results of 10 women – students of University 

School of Physical Education in Cracow who lead an 

active way of life most of the time. The average age of 

women taking part in the research amounted to 22.5 

years, the height – 166.5 cm, whereas the body’s mass 

– 55.5 kg (Table 1). 

Results 

The frequency of the systoles (HR) during aerobics 

classes made it possible to trace the dynamics of 

changes of the heart’s work in particular stages of exertion. 

The biggest difference in the heart’s rhythm was 

recorded during the second part of aerobics classes 

(choreographic routine) in which the average HR count 

amounted to 143.6 beats per minute. The highest heartbeat 

at this stage was 192 beats per minute, whereas 

the lowest equalled 106 beats per minute (Table 2). 

The lower intensity was observed in parts I and II 

of aerobics classes (warm-up and physical exercises) 

Body mass 

[kg] 

1 24 177 56 25.0 

2 22 160 49 20.5 

3 23 176 59 24.5 

4 22 163 60 33.5 

5 25 170 64 30.0 

6 22 159 49 21.5 

7 21 168 50 21.5 

8 22 162 55 26.5 

9 22 158 45 17.0 

10 22 172 68 38.0 

x 22.5 166.5 55.5 25.8 

SD 1.18 7.06 6.42 6.42 

FAT 

[%]


Table 2. The average frequency of heart rate in different parts of the aerobic 

No. 

I part II part III part IV part 

max min max min max min max min 

1 155 74 184 131 165 110 161 100 

2 155 63 174 129 172 110 133 107 

3 148 99 177 116 159 110 148 107 

4 151 104 165 120 146 101 146 107 

5 141 81 173 108 134 84 112 91 

6 142 94 166 106 167 88 127 94 

7 122 97 167 109 159 92 120 80 

8 176 110 192 145 183 115 145 118 

9 142 74 166 110 136 96 119 92 

10 151 107 155 110 133 97 110 85 

x 148,3 90,3 171,9 118,4 155,4 100,2 132,1 98,1 

SD 13,74 16,16 10,58 12,81 17,36 10,70 17,27 11,74 

in which the lowest average heart count totalled 111.3 

beats per minute and 107.3 beats per minute, whereas 

the highest average HR count amounted to 142.9 beats 

per minute (Table 2). 

During the graded track test, the maximum values 

of the heart’s systoles and the minute consumption of 

– 92 – 

oxygen in global and relative frames were determined; 

the time of the race and the run distance were registered. 

The highest relative value VO 2 max equaled 50.0 

ml/kg/min, whereas the lowest totalled 39.5 ml/kg/min. 

The average count of the examined group was 45.4 ml/ 

kg/min. (Table 3). 

Table 3. The maximal oxygen consumption and heart rate, time and distance during maximal aerobic test on a treadmill 

No. 

˙VO 2 max [ml/kg/ 

min] 

˙VO 2 max 

[l/min] 

HR max [sk/min] Time of run [min] 

Distance 

[m] 

1 50.0 2.8 209 16.9 2496 

2 45.2 2.47 198 15.0 2350 

3 44.2 2.57 194 16.3 2407 

4 39.8 2.66 205 15.1 2353 

5 39.5 2.58 199 14.0 2140 

6 46.4 2.43 187 12.5 1825 

7 49.4 2.64 199 15.0 2357 

8 47.3 2.73 215 15.6 2466 

9 48.5 2.50 187 15.0 2343 

10 43.5 3.11 197 15.5 2455 

x 45.38 2.65 199 15.09 2319.2 

SD 3.7 0.19 8.88 1.20 199.83


Table 4. Comparison of heart rate on each stage of aerobics with the results obtained a speed run on a treadmill. 

No. 

The average values of the heart’s systoles’ frequency 

calculated from 70-minute low-impact fi tness 

classes are close to those received during the graded 

test with the race speed of 7 km/h (Table 4). 

To determine the diffi culty of the work carried out 

by the examined women during aerobics, the bal- 

HR [1/min] V [km/h] 

HR 1 HR 2 HR 3 HR 4 V 1 V 2 V 3 V 4 

1 128.3 151.4 135.7 129.5 6.5 7.0 6.5 6.5 209 

2 111.3 157.1 131.8 121.0 6.5 8.0 7.0 6.5 198 

3 130.2 149.4 133.0 117.4 8.0 9.0 8.0 6.0 194 

4 130.6 140.0 124.1 125.5 6.5 7.0 6.5 6.5 205 

5 122.1 133.4 109.1 102.0 6.5 6.5 6.0 6.0 199 

6 127.8 141.1 121.2 115.7 6.5 7.5 6.5 6.5 187 

7 117.9 133.9 121.3 104.3 6.5 7.0 6.5 6.0 199 

8 142.9 164.4 142.0 129.3 7.5 8.5 7.5 6.5 215 

9 109.7 132.9 107.3 104.3 6.5 7.5 6.0 6.0 187 

10 131.3 132.2 118.6 94.5 7.0 7.0 6.5 6.0 197 

x 125.2 143.5 124.4 114.3 6.8 7.5 6.7 6.29 199 

SD 10.9 11.40 11.28 12.37 0.53 0.78 0.63 0.26 8.88 

– 93 – 

HR max 

ance sheet including the results from the track and 

during the aerobics classes were compared. HRmax 

and ˙VO 2 max ˙VO 2 max obtained during the track attempt 

with the average frequency of the heart’s systoles 

and corresponding oxygen consumption were compared 

(Table 5). The results suggest that the exercised 

Table 5. Comparison of VO 2 max and HR during aerobic, with maximal aerobic test performed on a treadmill 

No. 

Aerobics Treadmill 

% ˙VO 2 max %HR max 

˙VO 2 max HR max 

1 22.9 65.12 50.0 209 

2 35.1 65.77 45.2 198 

3 50.5 68.27 44.2 194 

4 20.0 63.35 39.8 205 

5 12.0 58.57 39.5 199 

6 22.7 67.57 46.4 187 

7 23.0 59.92 49.4 199 

8 48.5 67.22 47.3 215 

9 29.0 60.67 48.5 187 

10 27.9 60.45 43.5 197 

x 29.16 63.69 45.38 199 

SD 12.3 3.57 3.7 8.88

Table 6. Cost of work (kcal) during low-impact aerobic 


No. I part II part III part IV part Total 

1 15 284 40.5 7.5 347 

2 15 288 67 10 380 

3 64.5 314 97.5 17.5 493 

4 15 120 15 5.0 155 

5 10 100 8.25 2.75 121 

6 12.5 240 19 5 276 

7 25 180 37.5 6.5 249 

8 20 338 30 22.5 410 

9 28 228 45 12.5 313 

10 28.5 234 37.5 7.5 337 

x 26.35 232.6 39.72 9.67 308.35 

SD 19.37 79.26 26.34 6.19 113.22 

work can be clasifi ed as a light one, because it was 

calculated that demand for oxygen totaled on average 

29.16% ˙VO 2 max. The average value HRmax for aerobics 

classes amounted to 63.7% HRmax obtained on 

track (Table 5). 

During the low-impact aerobics classes, the participants 

burnt off 308.4 ± 113.2 kcal on average. The 

span of the result was considerable and it totaled as 

much as 372 kcal. The highest value was 493 kcal, 

the lowest 121 kcal. The analysis of the cost of work 

at particular parts of classes points to the fact that the 

biggest energy expenditure was reached in part II and 

it equaled 232.6 kcal, whereas the lowest was reached 

in part IV – 9.67 kcal. In both fi rst and second examples 

the individual span of results was very high: SD – 79.26 

kcal and SD – 6.19 kcal (Table 6). 

Discussion 

The change of chemical energy included in energy 

substrates into mechanical work carried out by a 

person takes place with a specifi c effi ciency. The 

consumption of 1 litre of oxygen with RQ equal to 1 

causes the production of energy corresponding to 5 

kcal. The prolonged physical exertion executed below 

the anaerobic threshold is powered at the expense of 

changes during which most of the energy is freed from 

oxidation of fatty acids, glucose and amino acids. The 

sort of the used substrate of oxygen changes is de- 

– 94 – 

pendent upon the intensity and lasting of the exertion 

as well as metabolic preferences of the muscle tissue. 

The energy used to move comes from the complicated 

chemical processes [11]. 

The high level of oxygen-related metabolic abilities 

is needed not only for people actively involved in athletic 

sport. Few people realise that the growth of maximum 

speed of oxygen-related metabolism of muscles 

enables the elderly or sick to go for a walk without much 

exertion and function everyday in the society. In case of 

the effective functioning of oxygen supply mechanism, 

the resynthesis of high-energy phosphogenic compounds 

and glycogen takes place, which later results in 

symptoms of tiredness [12, 13]. 

Physical exertion can be divided into hard, very 

hard, moderate and light exertion depending on energy 

expenditure [14]. Light exertion is characterised by energy 

expenditure which does not exceed 5 kcal/min, 

whereas hard is defi ned as even exceeding 10 kcal/ 

min [7]. Having in mind those parameters, it can be observed 

that exertion after 70 minutes of the low-impact 

aerobics exericses totaled not much than 4 kcal/min. 

This result is characteristic for light kinds of exertion. 

Nevertheless, it must be highlighted that differentation 

of energy expenditure of the participants fl uctuated between 

121 and 493 kcal, but it did not exceed the moderate 

kind of exertion [14]. 

According to Kubica [7], energy expenditure in different 

sports can be subdivided into groups with light,


moderate, hard and very hard character. The foundation 

of such division is connected with the number of kcal 

which are burnt off or the oxygen taken. The exertion 

which was reached by the examined participants of the 

low-impact aerobics classes corresponds to the moderate 

work. It can be further compared to golf classes 

where the average energy expenditure amounts to 300 

kcal/h. Some of the participants with higher average 

number of the burnt kcal could compare their exertion 

to the race walking where the average exertion equals 

550 kcal/h. 

Jaskólski [14] characterizes sport classes in terms 

of energy expenditure expressed in KJ/min in his work. 

The numbers gained by the participants of the study fi t 

into the range of recreational activities 14.6–32.7 KJ/ 

min. These results can be compared to e.g. canoeing 

classes. He also presents energy expenditure in 

different sports depending on the body mass and the 

burnt kcal/min. The average body mass of the examined 

totalled 55 kg, and the number of the burnt kcal/ 

min: 4.4 kcal/min. Therefore, according to Jaskólski, 

the reached exertion expenditure could be compared 

to dancing classes (4.8 kcal/min) or, for people below 

the average during the classes, to recreational cycling 

(3.2 kcal/min). 

By defi ning the size of the workout, Christensen 

makes a reference not only to the number of kcal and, 

consequently, the value of VO 2 , but also to the frequency 

of the heart’s work. The average HR reached by the 

low-impact aerobics classes’ participants points to the 

average load of the system. Taking into consideration 

wide discrepancies of this parameter between the exercises, 

we conclude that among people with HR higher 

than 125 beats per minute during the research, the load 

was considerable [7]. 

Aerobics is classifi ed as a modern gymnastic form 

and defi ned as a form of exercises carried out to the 

accompaniment of music. It requires from the exercising 

people not only good fi tness but also co-ordination 

of movements. Taking into account the energy expenditure 

of a dancer during particular dances, it undoubtedly 

depends on the character of the dance. The similar 

correlation can be found during fi tness classes. 

As it has already been mentioned, nowadays there 

are many types of aerobics classes. Considering their 

– 95 – 

energy expenditure, it should be taken into consideration 

that they differ in respect of pace, character, and 

length of classes (what considerably varies them). 

In the research done by Pilch et al. [10], the energy 

expenditure of the low-impact aerobics classes was put 

to simple assessment. The results of the research highlight 

the fact that taking into consideration the workout, 

this type of aerobics is more demanding than the lowimpact 

one. The participants of the study burnt off 510 

kcal on average with HR 148 beats per minute. There 

was also a substantially higher consumption of oxygen: 

1.71 l/min. 

Judging from the aerobic effort point of view, the 

measurements taken during low-impact aerobics classes, 

conducted according to the schedule in our own 

research, proved beyond doubt the adequacy of terminology, 

since the pulse rate of examined participants 

reached 70% of maximal pulse level. 

Quite big differences in the obtained values of the 

parameters demonstrate personal differences in exertion 

ability levels, as well as co-ordination and one’s 

‘attitude to exercises’. The differences in the obtained 

values point to the fact that there is a necessity to look 

generally at the number of the burnt calories during aerobics 

classes. This results from presented research. In 

the group of 10 people the differences in the obtained 

energy expenditure values during the same classes 

are so considerable that it can be claimed that the participants’ 

attitude and reliability have a great impact on 

those values. 

Conclusions 

1. The analysis of HR and VO 2 results obtained during 

the graded exertion test ‘until refusal’ will make 

it possible to estimate the energy expenditure of 

other exercises during which the exertion pulse is 

marked. 

2. During the low-impact aerobics classes the participants 

incurred energy expenditure amounting to 

308 kcal on average. 

3. The obtained results make it possible to suppose 

that the low-impact aerobics is the exertion with the 

oxygen character of metabolic changes.


[1] Oleksy-Mierzejewska D: Fitness – teoretyczne i metodyczne 

podstawy prowadzenia zajęć. Wydanie Monografi czne, 

Katowice, 2002. 

[2] De Angelis M, Vinciguerra G, Gasbarri A, Pacitti C. Oxygen 

uptake, heart rate and blood lactate concentration diuring 

a normal training session of an aerobic dance. Class J 

Appl Physiol 1998; 78 (2): 121–127. 

[3] Cooper K: Aerobics. New York, Bantom Books, 1968. 

[4] Grant S, Armstrong G, Sutherland R. et al.: Physiological 

and psychological responses to a university fi tness session. 

Br J Sports Med 1993; 27 (3): 162–166. 

[5] Chrzanowska M: Biologiczne i społeczne determinanty 

rozwoju podskórnej tkanki tłuszczowej u dzieci i młodzieży. 

Wydawnictwo Monografi czne, Kraków, AWF, 1992; 49. 

[6] Szopa J: Zmienność ontogenetyczna, zróżnicowanie 

środowiskowe oraz genetyczne uwarunkowania rozwoju 

komponentów ciała w populacji wielkomiejskiej w wieku 

7–62 lat. Wydawnictwo Monografi czne, Kraków, AWF, 

1985; 22. 

[7] Kubica R: Podstawy fi zjologii pracy i wydolności fi zycznej. 

Wydawnictwo Skryptowe, Kraków, AWF, 1999. 


– 96 – 

[8] Pilch W: Ocena wysiłku tancerzy podczas symulacji 

zawodów tańca towarzyskiego w konkurencji tańców 

latynoamerykańskich; in II Międzynarodowa Konferencja 

Naukowa „Zdrowie: istota, diagnostyka i strategie zdrowotne 

w warunkach nauczania, pracy i sportu”, Krynica 

Górska, 13–15.11.2003. 

[9] Berry MJ, Cline CC, Berry CB, Davis M: A comparison 

between two forms of aerobic dance and treadmill running. 

Med Sci Sports Exerc, 1992; 24(8): 946–51. 

[10] Pilch W, Wnorowski J, Szyguła Z: Prosta ocena wydatku 

energetycznego podczas aerobiku high-impact. Medicina 

Sportiva Practica, 2006; vol. 7, no. 3: 30–32. 

[11] Borkowski J: Bioenergetyka i biochemia tlenowego wysiłku 

fi zycznego. Wrocław, AWF, 2003. 

[12] Malarecki I: Zarys fi zjologii wysiłku i treningu sportowego. 

1995. 

[13] Costil DL: Naukowe podstawy treningu długodystansowca. 

Sport Wyczynowy, 1976. 

[14] Jaskólski A: Podstawy fi zjologii wysiłku fi zycznego. Wrocław, 

AWF, 2005.

REVIEW PAPERS 

PRACE PRZEGLĄDOWE


2010 

THE MUSCLE RELAXATION ABILITY AND RESULTS 

IN SPORT OF WORLD ELITE COMPETITORS 

ZDOLNOŚĆ ROZLUŹNIANIA MIĘŚNI A WYNIKI 

SPORTOWE ZAWODNIKÓW ŚWIATOWEJ ELITY 

Włodzimierz Starosta* 

**Prof. Dr habil, International Association of Sport Kinetics; University School of Physical Education and Tourism 

in Białystok, Poland 

Key words: muscle relaxation, method of relaxation, results of relaxation, different sports, 

effectiveness of sport technique, competitors of world elite 

Słowa kluczowe: rozluźnianie mięśni, metody rozluźniania, skutki rozluźniania, różne 

dyscypliny, efektywność techniki sportowej, zawodnicy światowej elity 


In the theory and methodology of sport training there are issues which are extremely important and which 

are marginal. As a rule, the first kind of issues becomes the subject of intensive research, whereas the second 

occasionally and fragmentarily are subject to scientific penetration. Sometimes, these extremely important, 

although not being sufficiently dealt with, cease to be the subject of interest. It seems that the same lot fell 

upon the extremely important issue which was and still is – the ability of muscle relaxation. Despite the 

significant progress in the knowledge about sport training, muscle relaxation accounts for a relatively little 

exploited reserve in the practice of physical education and sport. There are fewer and fewer such reserves, 

since in contemporary record-seeking sport, more often it is the odds and ends that affect the final result. The 

ability to relax muscles is not trifle, since according to scientists and coaches the low level of muscle relaxation 

inhibits the achievement of maximal sport results. 

The superficial overview of contemporary literature related to physical education and sport demonstrates 

that the issue has recently become barely noted, though 30–40 years ago it was a subject of various research 

works, carried out by specialists of various scientific disciplines in many countries Taking into account the evident 

shortage of new information, as well as the lack of interdisciplinary interpretation of the issue, particularly from 

the point of view of the science about human movement – antropokinesiology, the work hereby focuses on 

the achievement of the following aims: 1. Definition of the place of the muscle relaxation ability in the science 

about human movement. 2. Manifestation of the muscle relaxation ability in various sport disciplines. 3. Search 

for the relationship between this ability and other motor abilities. 4. Establishment of the relation between the 

level of the ability of muscle relaxation and sport techniques. 5. Attempt to establish the influence of the ability 

of muscle relaxation on the effectiveness of technique and on the sport success. 

W teorii i metodyce treningu sportowego są zagadnienia wyjątkowo ważne i marginalne. Z reguły te pierwsze 

stanowią przedmiot intensywnych badań, te drugie zaś podlegają sporadycznym i fragmentarycznym penetracjom 

naukowym. Czasami te wyjątkowo ważne, mimo niewystarczającego ich opracowania, przestają być przedmiotem 

zainteresowania. Wydaje się, że taki los spotkał niezwykle ważne zagadnienie, jakim była i pozostała 

zdolność rozluźniania mięśni. Mimo ogromnego postępu wiedzy o treningu sportowym rozluźnienie mięśni 

stanowi dotychczas stosunkowo mało wykorzystaną rezerwę w praktyce wychowania fizycznego, a także sportu. 

A rezerw tych jest coraz mniej. We współczesnym sporcie wyczynowym bowiem o końcowym sukcesie coraz 

częściej decydują drobiazgi. Zdolność rozluźniania mięśni do drobiazgów nie należy, bo jej niski poziom według 

uczonych i trenerów hamuje osiągnięcie maksymalnych wyników sportowych. 

– 99 –


Przegląd współczesnego piśmiennictwa dotyczącego wychowania fizycznego i sportu wskazuje, iż 

zagadnienie to ostatnio stało się ledwo zauważalne, choć 30–40 lat wstecz było przedmiotem badań w licznych 

krajach prowadzonych przez specjalistów rozmaitych dyscyplin naukowych. Uwzględniając wyraźny niedobór 

nowszych informacji, a także nie zawsze interdyscyplinarnego interpretowania tego zagadnienia, szczególnie 

z punktu widzenia nauki o ruchach człowieka – antropokinezjologii, ukierunkowano niniejszą pracę na osiągnięcie 

następujących celów: 1. Określenie miejsca zdolności rozluźniania mięśni w nauce o ruchach człowieka. 

2. Przejawianie się zdolności rozluźnienia mięśni w różnych dyscyplinach sportu. 3. Poszukiwanie związku tej 

zdolności z innymi zdolnościami motorycznymi. 4. Ustalenie relacji pomiędzy poziomem zdolności rozluźniania 

mięśni a techniki sportowej, 5. Próba ustalenia wpływu zdolności rozluźniania mięśni na efektywność techniki 

i sukces sportowy. 

Introduction 

In the theory and methodology of sport training issues 

that are exceptionally important and those that are 

marginal co-exist concurrently. The fi rst ones become 

a subject of intense studies, and the latter of sporadic 

research. At times those important issues cease to be 

the subject of any interest. It seems that this is what has 

happened to an issue of great importance – muscle 

relaxation ability. Exercises with „…the biggest tension 

and the biggest relaxation” were used already in 

the ancient times. What is this ability? This is how it is 

understood by W. Farfel, a physiologist: “Relaxation 

– a widely used term in sport, which nevertheless 

has no accurate defi nition or quantitative dimension. 

I perceive relaxation as an ability of random 

reduction of unnecessary and refl ective muscle 

tonus.” [1, p. 16]. Despite continuous progress in 

knowledge muscle relaxation remains a reserve in 

physical education and sport, which has been little 

exploited so far. 

The review of specialist literature indicates that 

this issue has recently become practically barely 

perceptible, even though 30–40 years ago it was the 

subject of research in numerous countries, and the focus 

of interest of specialists from many scientifi c disciplines. 

Taking into account the shortage of the latest 

information, and what is more the interpretation of this 

issue which is not always interdisciplinary in nature, 

especially from the viewpoint of science of human 

movements – anthropokinesiology [2], the objective 

of this study was: 1. Determination of the position 

of muscle relaxation ability in the science of human 

movements. 2. Manifestation of muscle relaxation ability 

in various sport disciplines. 3. Seeking associations 

Only the one who is able to master the art of relaxation 

can achieve success in sport 

– 100 – 

[Matwiejew, Nowikow, 1982] 

of this ability with other motor abilities. 4. Determination 

of relations between the level of muscle relaxation ability 

and the sport. 5. Attempt at determination of the way 

that the muscle relaxation ability infl uences the effectiveness 

of the technique and achievements of sport 

success. 

1. The position of muscle relaxation ability 

in the science of human movements 

This ability has been called differently in the past 

(Fig. 1). Can this ability really be regulated if its existence 

depends on so many environmental factors? 

These factors comprise among others: the level of 

motor abilities and kinaesthetic impressions, psychical 

properties and attitude, training system and others 

(Fig. 2). It seems that similarly as all forms of specific 

“feeling of the body”, “feeling of the movement” 

or “feeling of the accessories” this ability depends 

both on genetic and on environmental factors [3]. 

Recently it has been included into basic coordination 

abilities [4] (Fig. 3). This ability depends on internal 

coordination, e.g. intramuscular and intermuscular 

coordination, as well as on movement coordination (its 

external dimension) (Fig. 4). This diagram emphasises 

the two-dimensional nature of the manifestation of the 

analysed ability. 

The muscle relaxation ability is an issue which 

is on the border line of physiology, psychology and anthropokinesiology. 

Its mechanism has been described 

by W. Farfel in an interesting way: “If certain movements 

are executed freely, especially the diffi cult or unknown 

ones, tension may increase in muscles which do 

not participate directly in the given movement. 

This impedes coordination of movements, in which

The muscle relaxation ability and results in sport of world elite competitors 

Ability of free muscles relaxation 

[Lebiedjanska, 1952] 


[Topoljan, 1953] 


[Miedwiedjew, 1954] 

Muscles relaxation 

Free relaxation 

[�owicka,1955] 

[Farfel, 1960] 


[Zaciorski, 1961] 

Rational muscles reluxation 

[Zaciorski, 1966] 

Ability of muscles relaxation 

[Farfel, Nazarow, 1971] 

Skill of muscles relaxation 

[Farfel, 1975] 

Art of relaxation 

[Nowikow, Matwiejew, 1982] 

Ability of free relaxation 

[Ljach, 1989] 

Free relaxation 

[Handelsman, Jedokimowa, 1990] 

Ability of relaxation 

Scope of ability relaxtion 

Relaxation 

[Hirtz, 1994] 

[Hirtz, 1994] 

[Kempf, 1995] 

Ability of muscles relaxation 

[Starosta, 1995] 

Fig. 1. Calendar of formation the term of muscle relaxation ability in opinion of different authors [Starosta, 2009] 

– 101 – 

H 

I 

G 

H 

L 

E 

V 

E 

L 

O 

F 

S 

T 

E 

E 

R 

I 

N 

G 

M 

O 

V 

E 

M 

E 

N 

T 

A 

P 

P 

A 

R 

A 

T 

U 

S 

Movements 

culture

Personal data 

(age, sex, degree of 

advancement, sport experience, 

movement experience). 

Motor abilities 

(degree of physical abilities, 

particularly coordination). 

Ability of differentiation 

space, time and strength 

movement in standard and 

variable conditions. 

Level of kinesthetic impressions 

(i.e. „body feeling”, „movement 

feeling”) and other specific for the 

discipline (i.e. „ball feeling”, „water 

feeling”, „feeling of the opponent”, 

„mat feeling”, „javelin feeling” 

Sport equipment 

(adequate in quality, adequately adapted to 

the competitor and not worse than the one of 

the competitors) 


Psychic qualities 

(psychic predispositions, motivation, 

resistance to stress, ability to react in difficult 

and unusual situations, temperament and 

others). 

Psychic attitude 

(i.e. to perform exercises correctly, to 

achieve a defined sport result or to set a 

record). 

Training system 

(methods, means, versatility, variability of 

exercises used, training loads and others). 

Ability of muscle relaxation 

l 

Fig. 2. Selected conditions changing the level of ability of muscle relaxation [Starosta, 2009] 

during tensing of one group of muscles relaxation of 

another is necessary. That is why coaches draw the attention 

of their students-athletes to the necessity of mastering 

the ability of relaxing those muscles, the excessive 

tensing of which impedes the performance of a given 

movement. Practice has shown that manifestation of 

this ability in many cases encounters severe diffi - 

culties.” [1, p. 15]. This is confi rmed by an example, described 

by the Author, which relates to the freestyle lowering 

of the hand. The antigravitational tension has been 

– 102 – 

Specificity of the training and 

competition site 

(climatic zone, temperature and air 

humidity, illumination of the sport facility, 

number of spectators and their 

reactions.). 

Personality of the coach 

(authority, competence, requirements, 

kindness, remarks adequate to the 

existing situation ). 

registered fi rst by measuring the speed of the falling hand 

[5], then by making a comparison of the hand weight with 

its weight calculated according to N. Bernstein [6] and 

fi nally by its “differentiated” weighing [7]. The tests comprised 

an athlete and a person not practicing sport (Fig. 

5). In the fi rst case the recorded relaxation equalled 

88%, and in the latter case – 48%. 

In another study the level of relaxation ability 

in the athletes was also much higher (73%) than 

in persons not practicing any sport at all (55%) [8].


Fig. 3. Relationship between coordination and physical abilities in different sport disciplines [Starosta 1995] 

In highly advanced athletes specialised in modern pentathlon 

after a 4km long cross country run the relaxation 

index was lowered on average by 16.3%, after 

a swimming training by 11.0%, after fencing tournament 

by 11.5%, and after an exhausting run on the treadmill 

by 7.6% [8]. On the basis of a 9-week long experiment, 

during which special exercises were applied, 

a statistically signifi cant increase of the relaxation 

index was proven [8]. 

2. Manifestation of muscle relaxation ability 

in various sport disciplines 

A high movement culture comprise skilful tensing and 

relaxation of muscles. The muscle relaxation ability 

– 103 – 

differs from their tensing even in highly advanced 

athletes. Discoordination with respect to relaxation 

and tensing may be a cause of straining or even breaking 

of muscle fi bres [9; 10]. It is much simpler to manifest 

muscle control culture in local rather than in global 

movements. The fi rst ones involve few muscles or their 

parts, and in the second group large muscle groups 

of the entire body. Muscle relaxation in the fi rst group 

is much simpler than in the latter group. The relations 

that occur between local and global movements 

have not been undertaken in scientifi c research 

[2]. 

Observation of athletes participating in “cyclical” 

sport disciplines enables the determination, in those 

best ones, of a signifi cant “freedom of movement”,

Fig. 4. Kinds and structure of coordination [Starosta, 2009] 


Fig. 5. Muscle relaxation in athlete (A) and non-athlete (B) [Farfel, 1995, 16, after Nazarov] 

– 104 – 

)

1. Movement harmony 


2. Movement transmission 

3. Movement fluency 

4. Movement elasticity 

5. Movement rhythm 

6. Movement lightness 

7. Movement precision 

8. Movement anticipation 

which proves exceptional muscle relaxation. It is much 

more evident in black athletes at the fi nal metres of their 

short distance run. The relaxation of large muscle 

groups proves the ability of full and rational use 

of those muscles. Muscle relaxation is much simpler 

in “cyclical” sport disciplines. It is much more complex 

in “acyclical” disciplines, especially those in which the 

movement has to meet high aesthetic requirements, 

among others, in sport and artistic gymnastics, in sport 

ballroom dance. In those disciplines movements should 

be characterised by: smoothness, harmony, rhythm, 

lightness, accuracy, transfer (Fig. 6). Manifestation of 

A 

b 

i 

l 

i 

t 

y 

o 

f 

m 

u 

s 

c 

l 

e 

r 

e 

l 

a 

x 

a 

t 

i 

o 

n 

– 105 – 

1. Kinesthetic differentiation of movement 

2. Movements rhythmisation 

3. Movements connection 

4. Movements adaptation 

5. Maintenance of balance 

6. Speed of reaction 

7. Space and time orientation 

8. Movements symmetrization 

9. Movements expressiveness 

10. Cooperations 

Fig. 6. Mutual conditions determining muscle relaxation, quality features of movement and other coordination abilities [Starosta, 2009] 

their high level is not possible without the ability of 

muscle relaxation. 

Muscle tension can be affective and coordinational 

by nature. The fi rst one of them is caused by: 

fear, anxiety about loosing or fear of spectators, ”the 

pre-start anxiety”. This has been observed in 30% 

of professional golf players. The second one causes 

contraction of antagonistic muscles (opposite to 

those involved in the exercise) when the athletes perform 

a decisive movement. It is even noted in the 

case of outstanding athletes with long-lasting experience.

3. The connection of muscle relaxation 

ability with other motor abilities 

A master control of the motor system, which is called 

the movement culture, comprises the ability of tensing 

and relaxing of muscles. An athlete unable to relax 

muscles to the maximum extent would not be able 

to tense them in an optimum way, i.e. “just right”. 

Optimum muscle relaxation allows using the master 

level technique and maintaining a high endurance level, 

speed and force while the effort is made during training 

and competitions. Of particular importance in sports requiring 

a complex technique is maintaining the coordination 

durability over a longer time (e.g. martial arts, 

in sport games), which allows the execution of accurate 

movements. 

Muscle relaxation ability is a result of a high level of 

intramuscular and intermuscular coordination. It is 

3. 

5. 

9. 


1. 2. 

Movements differentiation Movements rhythmization 

Movements 

connection 

Muscle relaxation 

Maintenance of balance 

7. 8. 

Space and time orientation 

Movements expressivensss 

– 106 – 

a specifi c manifestation in an individual, which depends 

on quick variability in the processes of stimulation and 

restraining. It seems that a higher level of the ability 

of rhythmic and quick muscle relaxation at a high 

movement frequency characterises black athletes. 

This may be confi rmed by successive success 

achieved by representatives of this race during highest 

rank competitions and the ever better world records 

broken by them in sprinter runs. Final games in those 

competitions during world championships and Olympic 

Games presented on television in slow motion show the 

“wonderful muscle play” in them. An interesting view 

was presented on this issue by T. Tellez, coach of the 

famous sprinter champion C. Lewis: “...he was truly inspired 

by Borzow’s runs. In his opinion the sprinter ran 

in the most natural way, always at his own speed... 

Walery Borzow was the most perfect running machine 

created by humankind.” [11]. 

6. 

10. 

4. 

Movements 

adaptation 

Speed of reaction 

Movements symmetrization 

Cooperations 

Fig. 7. Correlation between ability of muscles relaxation and other coordination abilities and their hierarchy [Starosta, 2009]


The “wonderful muscle play” – is the end product 

of successful composition of a few more important 

coordination abilities: movement differentiation and 

their rhythmisation, symmetrisation, combination and 

adaptation of movements, muscle relaxation (Fig. 7). 

A leading position among them is occupied by the 

muscle relaxation ability which takes place in combination 

with their selective tensing – creating a seemingly 

natural chain of manifestations of mutually interdependent 

coordination abilities. The muscle relaxation degree 

depends, to a large extent, on the ability of 

force based movement differentiation. It also comprises 

the level of muscular tension, i.e. its portioning 

depending on the specifi c situation. Such portioning 

has been called “force accuracy” [12]. The application 

of optimum force characterises presently 

the technique of almost all sport disciplines. This 

even concerns the discipline of weight lifting. Its excess 

violates the most vital fragments of the technique and 

frequently leads to “lost battles”. A strong relation also 

exists between the ability of movement rhythmisation 

and muscle relaxation. This has been formulated quite 

precisely by K. Meinel: “The concept of movement 

rhythm comprises dynamic movement structure, 

based on periodical variability of muscle tension 

and relaxation.” [13, p. 180–181]. This variability is determined 

by the speed of performed movements. It may 

be achieved easier for movements with a smaller speed 

than those with a greater speed [14]. The manifestation 

of this variability is simpler in cyclical movements that in 

acyclical ones (arrhythmic ones), especially in the short 

lasting ones (e.g. throws). The most complex mosaic-like 

nature of muscle tension and relaxation 

Exercises combined 

with the moving from 

tension to muscles and 

to relaxation through: 

-usual degree of muscle 

tension; 

- contrasting immediately 

from tension to relaxation; 

- gradual. 

Groups of relaxation exercises 

Exercises in which 

relaxation of some 

muscles is connected 

with the tightening of 

other 

– 107 – 

occurs in series of diversifi ed exercises (arrangements) 

e.g. sport or artistic gymnastics. It may be 

described as kaleidoscopic fi reworks of those two 

important types of muscle work. 

4. Relation between muscle relaxation and tension 

Proportional interaction of relaxation and tensing 

of specifi ed muscles at the appropriate moment is 

a necessary prerequisite for intermuscular coordination. 

The performance of movements, and especially 

those that are complex from coordination point of view 

and unknown, independently of the exercising person, 

increases the tensing of muscles which are not directly 

involved in that movement. The excessive muscle tonus 

and their insuffi cient relaxation cause a phenomenon 

called “constraining” (of the body, movements, muscles) 

or “stiffening”. Such tension reduces the quality 

of the performed movements making them awkward 

and inaccurate. This type of tension may be 

effectively overcome by the application of special 

relaxing exercises [14, 15] (Fig. 8). It is also possible 

to reduce this type of tension by applying the so-called 

“coaching tricks” (Fig. 9). 

A physiological effect of relaxation depends to 

a large extent on the type of earlier muscle work [17, 

18]. Consequently W. Fedorow and A. Furmanow [19] 

have carried out a two-year long experiment on female 

volleyball players to determine the impact of “momentary 

relieving” on muscle relaxation. The degree to 

which the muscles go from tension to relaxation, i.e. 

the relaxation amplitude was determined. In the experimental 

group force tensions have been changed 

1. 2. 3. 4. 

These exercises 

require holding inertial 

movement of the 

relaxed part of the body 

thanks to other 

movements. 

It consists of regular 

physical exercises 

at the time when 

competitors are offered 

to independently define 

their time of rest and at 

this time perform 

maximal muscle 

relaxation 

Fig. 8. Groups of exercises aimed at muscles relaxation according to the increasing degree of their complexity [Łowicka 1956, 1957]


Ways of tension elimination 

1. 2. 3. 4. 

Explanation regarding 

the incorrectness of 

performing exercises 

with tension. 

(exercises should be 

performed with lightness, 

freely, as if “in a play”). 

Particularly important 

when working with 

children. In American 

schools special slogans 

and banners are hung to 

remind of the muscle 

relaxation. 

Special relaxation 

exercises. 

Aim: developing abilities 

recognizing muscle 

relaxation; earning to 

relax them freely (4 

groups according to 

�owicka, 1964). 

– 108 – 

Using special means: 

During the execution of 

exercises –sing, smile, 

talk, close your eyes for a 

moment. 

Observing the mimicry 

of the competitor, which 

expresses tension. Before 

performing the exercise- 

tighten the muscles of the 

entire body, hold the 

breath, then suddenly 

relax them (with a forceful 

expiration), and them 

immediately take up the 

exercise. 

Fig. 9. Ways (pedagogical methods) of eliminating coordination tension [Zaciorski, 1966, 175–176] 

by a momentary elimination of external resistance 

combined with deep enforced exhaling. This assured 

quick and deep muscle relaxation. In the con- 

Methods of autogenic 

training of J.H. Schultz 

are applied not only to 

eliminate tension but also 

to accelerate 

recuperation, decrease 

excessive stimulation 

during competitions. 

trol group in identical exercises the external resistance 

has been eliminated more smoothly. In this group at the 

beginning of the experiment an insignifi cant reduction 

Fig 10. Measurements results of muscle hardness tension and relaxation in female volleyball players of experimental and control group in one 

year training [Fedotov, Furmanov, 1971]


Fig. 11. Changeability of reaction time (A) and internal movement speed (B) in female volleyball players of experimental and control group in 

one year training [Fedotov, Furmanov 1971] 

Fig. 12. Changeability of joint fl exibility in female volleyball players of experimental and control group in one year training [Fedotov, Furmanov 

1971] 

– 109 –


Fig. 13. Relationship between movement abilities and relaxation amplitude [Fedotov, Furmanov 1971] 

in muscle hardness (tonometry), and then return to the 

initial condition were observed (Fig. 10). In the experimental 

group the muscle tension hardness has decreased 

and its tonic relaxation has been considerably 

reduced. The reaction time to a moving ball was 

shorter in this group by 14.7% than in the control group 

(Fig. 11), and additionally the movement amplitude in 

the joint was enhanced by 39.7% as compared to the 

control group (Fig. 12). In addition, in female athletes 

of the experimental group an improvement was noted 

as for: the strength of the back muscles – by 8.5%, 

strength of the hand muscles – 7.8%; jumping ability – 

1.3%, strength of attacking blow – 17.2%. The differences 

in results were statistically signifi cant. Statistically 

signifi cant relation between the increasing amplitude 

of muscle relaxation and all the motor skills 

allowed for in the tests was ascertained (Fig. 13). 

The biggest dependency was noted between the relaxation 

amplitude and the time of sight and motor reaction 

(0.826) and the initial movement speed (0.842). 

5. Muscle relaxation and the sport technique 

According to some authors [3, 20, 21, 22] sport technique 

comprises forms (“external movement image”) 

and contents (“internal movement image”) 

– 110 – 

(Fig. 14). Developing of the form is much simpler, as 

observation of the structure of a performed movement 

allows relatively quick determination of its basic indices. 

Much more complicated is the analysis of constituent 

elements of the contents, one of the most important of 

which is the ability of muscle relaxation. An interesting 

statement on this issue was made by J. Weismuller, 

multiple champion of the Olympic Games and the world 

record winner in swimming: ”The biggest secret behind 

my success is relaxation. Relaxation is important 

even when I’m swimming at the greatest 

speed.” [24, p. 4]. Excellent mastering of the technique 

is characterised by unconstrained and natural execution 

of particular movements. The muscle relaxation ability 

stands out from their tensing even in advanced athletes 

[9, 10]. “»The secret« of highly advanced competitors 

lies in their ability of not becoming tense in the 

decisive moments of a sport competition.” (…) The 

muscle play during performance of movements is 

characterised by a kaleidoscopic change in tension 

and relaxation.” [24, p. 34]. 

In an incorrectly implemented teaching process the 

emphasis is placed on muscle tension, disregarding the 

mastering of the ability of their relaxation. That is why in 

some US gyms we may see slogans like: “Remember, 

success in sport is only possible if you master the


Fig. 14. Contents of sport technique [Starosta 2001] 

art of relaxation”, “It’s not the result that counts, 

but the freedom of movements” [25, p. 175], ”You’ll 

never become a champion if you don’t master the 

ability of muscle relaxation”. Interesting remarks on 

this subject were made by N. Ozolin: “A lot of attention 

has to be paid to »unconstrained« performance of 

all sport exercises, without unnecessary muscle 

tension. It is indispensable for the athlete to be well 

familiar with the essence of »relaxation« in movements 

and to be aware of its importance. The main 

way leading to mastering the freedom and lack of tension 

in movements – is conscious striving at executing 

them »as if playing«.” [26, p. 143]. 

The majority of 7–11-year old children have 

a natural muscle relaxation ability, which disappears 

at a later age, if not further developed. In 

such a way the phenomenon of movement illiteracy is 

created. It is among others a consequence of reduced 

movement activity, limiting movements only to those 

that are indispensable and specialised, avoiding or limiting 

natural movements. This specifi c type of illiteracy 

– 111 – 

was also observed in high class wrestlers in short distance 

runs. 

Particularly interesting conclusions are reached during 

observation of athletes, who during tournaments focus 

on maximum muscle relaxation. These measures 

are particularly intensifi ed in athletes specialised 

in jumping and in sprint runs. For them muscle relaxation, 

and in particular, relaxation of those in the 

lower extremities, becomes of utmost importance, determining 

the achievement of the desired result. Such 

relaxation was achieved slightly differently by U. Bolt, 

a Jamaican, world champion and record winner in 

a 100-metre run. Before the start of a fi nal run during 

world championships in Berlin he ‘played with the spectators”, 

laughed and made funny faces. However, once 

in the “starting blocks” he focused particularly hard on 

the forthcoming start. Perhaps this is a new and much 

better way of achieving an extraordinary muscle relaxation 

during a run? 

W. Legień, a world champion, made an interesting 

statement about the training of Japanese judokas:

“Training of the Japanese comprises in the fi rst place 

a lot of relaxing exercises. They are all well stretched. 

Each muscle remains so relaxed at any time that 

it allows the athlete to perform even the most astounding 

movements. And this is apparently more important 

in judo than superhuman force.” [27]. S. Smith, 

winner of a tennis tournament in Wimbledon [1972] 

in singles has formulated 6 commandments important 

for achieving success in this sport discipline. 

The most important one concerned muscle relaxation 

during the tournament: ”Even the most gifted athlete 

cannot win a single tournament if he or she feels rigid 

during the play. Stiffening, fi rst of all, deprives the 

athlete of the freedom of movements, violates their 

coordination and causes quicker fatigue.” And we 

read on: “In numerous cases stiffening disturbs the 

rhythm, and excessively tense muscles prevent 

smooth performance of a blow.” [28, p. 52]. 

6. An attempt at determination of the impact 

of muscle relaxation ability on the effectiveness 

of the technique and sport success 

The muscle relaxation ability is exceptionally 

important for the entire human organism, as it is 

connected with reducing mental tension. The mus- 

Decreasing muscle 

tension 

(rising the level of 

qualitative features of 

movement, and 

particularly of its 

accuracy). 


Results of muscles relaxation 

Lowering heart 

contractions and 

blood tension 

[Jakobson, 1948; 

Handelsman, 

Jewdokimowa,1990]. 

Decreasing 

the frequency 

of breaths 

– 112 – 

cular system and the psyche are strictly interrelated, as 

they are bound by the central nervous system which 

assures the unity of the human organism. Muscle 

stiffening limits the selectivity of their tensing and 

lowers the movement accuracy without which the 

technique becomes insuffi ciently effective. Muscle relaxation 

is indispensable not only before the start, but 

also during the tournament. For example W. Legień, 

the Olympic judo champion, relaxed his muscles 

before the execution of each throw. The relaxation 

may be defi ned: “…as a state of full well being, 

psychical and physical freeing. Relaxation means 

regeneration; it eliminates stress, gives a feeling 

of inner peace and contentment. It replenishes the 

energy and adds new strength.” [29, p. 29]. This is 

conducive not only to lowering muscle tonus, but also 

for the frequency of heart systoles and blood pressure; 

widens the blood vessels, reduces the number of brain 

waves and energy use (Fig. 15). 

The sprinter run of the Olympic champion and world 

record winner F. Griffi th-Joyner was defi ned as being 

full of grace. And this is how she achieved such movement 

precision: “In 1987 we looked through old video 

cassettes to try and fi nd out why I was not running as 

well as I could, without making use of the entire energy. 

We came to the conclusion that the reason was in- 

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 

Increased 

economy of 

movements 

(Lowering energy 

consumption by 

30%). 

Increasing 

movement 

amplitude 

Increasing the level 

of coordination 

abilities 

(particularly, 

differentiation of 

movements) 

Widening of blood 

vessels 

(rise of body 

temperature by 2-6 C). 

6. 7. 8. 9. 10 

Increase in the 

level of speed, 

strength and 

endurance 

Fig. 15. Impact of muscle relaxation on particular systems of the human organism [Starosta, 2009]* 

Decreasing the 

number of brain 

waves 

(to the level proper to 

sleep). 

During symmetrization of 

movements – transfer 

„refreshment” of kinesthetic 

impressions. 

(among others specific to:„ball 

feeling”, „water feeling”, „bar 

feeling”, „feeling of the 

opponent”, „field feeling” and 

other [Starosta, 1991, 2003]. 

* Based on data elaborated by: A. Handelsman, T. Jewdokimowa [1990], W. Jakobson [1948], H-D. Kempf 1994, W. Starosta [1991, 2003].


suffi cient relaxation. Legs worked quickly, but I did 

not manage to move as quickly as I wanted. And 

so I sought ways of obtaining better relaxation. 

Now I move my legs equally quickly, but in each step I 

manage to overcome a bigger distance. Breaking of the 

world record required running the 100-metre run in 47– 

49 steps, while before that I would make ca. 56 steps.” 

[30]. This statement clearly indicates the existence of 

a dependence between the level of muscle relaxation 

ability and the movement amplitude (elongated steps), 

as well as movement aesthetics. The obtained effect 

was fully justifi ed by results of earlier studies: “The application 

of relaxation exercises in the period when stiffness 

increases in the joints considerably enhances the 

training effectiveness (ca. 10%). What is more, those 

exercises are conducive to increasing the amplitude, 

both active and passive.” [31, p.79]. 

An interesting case was noted for the record breaking 

javelin throw by J. Sidło during the competition 

Table 1. Determining factors changing the level of muscle relaxation [Starosta, 2009] 

– 113 – 

held in Jena. In the fi rst throw he achieved the result 

of 71.59 which assured him winning the fi rst place. In 

the second throw he broke the Polish record – 77.32. 

The third throw was performed according to instructions 

given by his coach, Z. Szelest: “..lightly, without 

any effort at all. And so in such an »effortless way« 

the javelin fl ew 80.15, which was a new record of 

Europe, inferior only by 26 cm to the best record 

won by an American-Held, which has not been recognised 

yet as the world record.” [32]. The hazard of 

muscle stiffness may also occur in the least expected 

moment. Here is a story reported by a bronze medal 

winner of the Olympic Games in Tokyo in a 400-metre 

run, A. Badeński: “Had I then been a few years 

older and more experienced than I was, I would have 

returned home with a gold medal. After 300 metres I 

was in the lead by four metres, and I should have continued 

very relaxed to the fi nish, maintaining my 

advantage. And instead I tried to overcome the op- 

increasing – improving decreasing – deteriorating 

1. Mastering the correct coordination of exercises 

2. In endurance exercises – performing exercises until exhaustion. 

3. In ballistic exercises – performing exercises „in no time” – inertly. 

4. Performing relaxation exercises after every exercises engendering “tension” 

. 

5. Feeling local fatigue. 

6. Massage, self- massage and hydro-massage. 

7. Developing attitudes towards relaxation. 

8. Deliberate control of the technique of exercises. 

9. Control of the face mimcry (showing tension). 

10. Applying rhythmic breathing. 

11. Performing exercises with the accompaniment of music. 

12. Turning the attention to the surrounding environment (other objects and 

tasks) 

13. Using ideomotor and autogenic training (i.e. of Schultz, 1956] 

14. Singing, talking, smiling – during the performance of exercises. 

15. Performing exercises with eyes closed. 

16. Focusing attention to the correct performance of exercises( accuracy, 

amplitude of movements). 

17. Loud counting of movements, uttering words or phrases related to the 

particularities of the technique and the character of effort. 

18. Optimistic attitude towards performed exercises. 

19. Recalling an amusing event or anecdote prior to the exercises performed. 

20. Spontaneous – natural laughter before exercises („relaxing laugh”) 

[Bevin, 2000]. 

21. Swimming and bathing in warm water. 

22. Performing exercises alternatively with maximal and decreased intensity. 

23. Performing exercises alternatively with the right and left side of the 

body („refreshing kinesthetic impressions”)[Starosta, 1991]. 

24. Shaking arms, legs and the trunk. 

25. Relaxed „fall” of the trunk, raised arms and legs. 

26. Conscious relaxation of muscles while sitting or lying. 

27. Relaxed swaying of the arms and legs. 

28. Progressive relaxation E. Jakobson [1948]. 

1. Coordination complexity of the exercise. 

2. Weakness of those muscles used during exercises. 

3. Low level of fl exibility. 

4. Emotional stimulation (i.e. number of spectators, 

rank of competitions and other). 

5. The eagerness to perform exercises „at full steam”. 

6. Low temperature of the surrounding. 

7. Performing complex and unknown exercises. 

8. Performing exercises aimed at „obtaining 

results”. 

9. Negative attitude prior to the performance of exercises. 

10. Unfavorable psychic microclimate in the team. 

11. Negative evaluation of the performed exercises. 

12. Tense relationships between the athletes and 

coach. 

13. Personal problems of the competitor (ego). 

14. Very high temperature of the surrounding. 

15. Series of failures suffered. 

16. Intensive strength exercises. 

17. Lack of suffi cient psychomotor and biological 

recuperation. 

18. Lack or insuffi cient number of relaxing exercises 

in the process of training. 

19. Exhaustion and weariness 

[Nazarow, 1964]. 

20. Bad frame of mind. 

21. Uncertainty of the possessed sport abilities 

22. Exessive training load.

ponents and over a distance of three-four metres 

I became so stiffened that in the end I got a terrible 

cramp; my only thought was – to get to the fi nish.” [33]. 

The contemporary civilisation popularised 

a style of living “relaxed” as an antidote to stress 

which accompanies humans almost in any conditions. 

What do the saying: “relaxation”, “be relaxed”, 

“relax” mean? Behaviour without any constraints, without 

psychical and muscular tension. In many cases “relaxation” 

entails the use of relaxing substances (such 

as beer) which are to add courage, to unblock control 

centres and lower self-control. It is much more rational 

to make use of numerous natural means and 

methods increasing the effectiveness of various 

types of motor activities of an individual without 

exposing the health to harm (Table 1). Muscular “relaxation” 

is strictly connected with the psychical 

one. Both take place in the central nervous system 

and have a mutual interaction. This means that to 

a large extent they are mutually interdependent, i.e. the 

“mental relaxation” affects the “muscle relaxation” 

and vice versa. Both types of “relaxation” depend 

on the type of psychical approach of a person 

based on the concept formulated by D. Uznadze 

[34, 35, 36]. This may be illustrated by the performance 

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– 114 – 

of A. Małysz, winner of numerous medals during highest 

rank competitions in ski jumping. When his focus 

was on technically correct jump he managed to achieve 

successive successes. Later he shifted his focus to 

achieving a specifi c result and occupying a specifi ed 

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were already mentioned a long time ago [37]. The 

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– 115 – 

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DISCUSSIONS 

POLEMIKI I DYSKUSJE


2010 

TIME PERCEPTION AND MOTOR BEHAVIOUR 

OF LIVING BEINGS 

POSTRZEGANIE CZASU A ZACHOWANIE RUCHOWE 

ISTOT ŻYWYCH 

Wacław Petryński* , Mirosław Szyndera** 

***Dr, Faculty of Tourism, Katowice School of Economics, Katowice, Poland 

***Dr, Faculty of Tourism and Recreation, University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland 

Keywords: motor control, physiology, psychology, sociology 

Słowa kluczowe: sterowanie ruchami, fizjologia, psychologia, socjologia 

The authors discuss influence of time perception development on behaviour control in living beings, including 

humans. At first they present “classical” division into energetic and coordinative constituents. Next they 

add third group, i.e. psychological elements, and then the fourth category, i.e. cultural factors. Unlike divisions 

made in most scientific papers, which usually take into account energetic and coordinative constituents only, 

the explanation of the processes involved in human behaviour needs taking into account all four circles of 

elements: energetic, coordinative, psychological and cultural ones. In the course of evolution they developed 

along with central nervous system. This development included also the capability of better and better formation 

of a unique ability, necessary for understanding of reality: the time perception, which significantly influenced 

all behaviour patterns. 

Autorzy omawiają wpływ rozwoju postrzegania czasu na sterowanie zachowaniem istot żywych, w tym 

człowieka. Na wstępie przedstawiają „klasyczny” podział na czynniki wysiłkowe (energetyczne) i zbornościowe 

(koordynacyjne). Następnie dodają trzecią grupę, czyli procesy psychologiczne, i wreszcie czwartą, czyli wartości 

kulturowe. W odróżnieniu od większości prac naukowych, uwzględniających zwykle jedynie czynniki wysiłkowe 

i zbornościowe, wyjaśnienia procesów określających zachowanie człowieka upatrują we wszystkich czterech 

„kręgach” czynników: wysiłkowym, zbornościowym, psychologicznym i kulturowym. W toku ewolucji gatunkowej 

rozwijały się one wraz z ośrodkowym układem nerwowym. Rozwój ten obejmował również możliwość coraz 

lepszego kształtowania niezwykłej zdolności niezbędnej do rozumienia rzeczywistości, czyli postrzegania czasu, 

które wywarło znaczący wpływ na wzorce wszelkich zachowań. 

Introduction 

The behaviour of living beings – including humans – has 

been for a long time an important point of interest for many 


– 119 – 

The development of a mankind consists of two stages: 

at fi rst a human started to think about things, 

and then – to think about thinking. 

John D. Barrow 

scientists in different disciplines. Here it would be instructive 

to quote an anecdote by Nikolai A. Bernstein: 

“You probably do not know that God has a cousin who has never 

been very famous. So, the cousin asked God to help him achieve

fame and glory in science. To please the cousin, God gave him ability 

to get any information about physical systems in no time and 

to travel anywhere within a microsecond. First the cousin decided 

to check whether there was life on other planets. No problems: he 

travelled to all the planets simultaneously and got an answer. Then 

he decided to fi nd out what the foundation of matter was. Again, this 

was easy: He became extremely small, crawled inside the elementary 

particles, looked around, and got an answer. Then, he decided 

to learn how the human brain controls movements. He acquired the 

information about all the neurons and their connections, sat at his 

desk and looked at the blueprint. If the story has it right, he is still 

sitting there and starring at the map of neuronal connections” [1]. 

So, in the development of motor science we come 

across three important factors: 

The matter of human behaviour is probably most 

complicated issue in contemporary science, much 

more intricate than e.g. quantum mechanics or molecular 

biology. 

In physics Sir Isaac Newton created a mathematical 

projection of real world, which opened way for application 

of the deduction method for its description. On the 

other hand, in physical culture, the essence of which is 

much more complicated than relations between mass, 

force and acceleration, mainly the inductive way of reasoning 

is adopted [2, 3]. 

In contemporary researches into human behaviour, 

deduction and induction are not used as complementary 

methods, but they rather collide with each other. 

Moreover, an extremely inductive stream of thinking 

in physical culture sciences was behaviourism, which 

placed all the deductive methods in so called “black 

box”. Unfortunately, the consequences of behavioural 

approach to motor control problems are discernible 

even now, though behaviourism itself seems to be no 

more so infl uential as before. 

In physics the Newton’s achievements became 

some important turning point: According to outstanding 

COORDINATION 

(NEUROPHYSIOLOGY) 


EFFICACIOUS 

MOTOR ACTIONS 

– 120 – 

mathematician René Thom, before Newton the observations 

went ahead of theory, and after Newton – the 

theory did overtake observations [2]. Some great theories, 

e.g. the quantum mechanics, would not be possible 

with observations as a starting point, because quantum 

phenomena were then far beyond the capabilities 

of both human sense organs and even measurement 

instruments. Unfortunately, in physical culture sciences 

we still observe mainly striving for collecting “new, original 

experimental data”, and scientists are expected to 

make fi rst of all observations and measurements, and 

not to formulate theories. 

Two circles – energy and coordination; 

physiology 

Fig. 1. Interrelations between coordination and energy transformations; efficacious motor actions 

The fi rst complex and systemic theory of living beings 

motor behaviour had been created by Bernstein in 1947 

[4, 5]. In classical paradigm of human movement analysis, 

two main factors are taken into account: energetic 

and coordinative ones [6, 7]. More detailed such division 

had been presented by Gundlach [8]. The interrelation 

of both these factors is shown in Fig. 1. 

In a living organism the energetic or physiological 

factors are determined by energy transformation (metabolic 

processes), which result in muscle contraction 

and expenditure of work into environment. Information 

processing in living creatures bases also on energy 

fl ows (neural impulses), but their power is negligible 

as compared to those developed by muscles; so, the 

muscles act as mighty servomechanisms. To achieve 

a certain level of effi cacy, a living organism has to use 

both energetic and coordinative capabilities. In Fig. 1 

such a situation is represented by the fi eld ”Effi cacious 

motor actions”. 

ENERGY 

TRANSFORMATIONS 

(METABOLISM)

The sheer use of energetic and coordinative capabilities 

in a living being does not need any time perception. 

Even primitive animals, as worms or snails, are able to 

perform quite coordinated movements. However, their 

motion is aimed at looking for stimuli in environment using 

the “trial-and-error” method. Bernstein wrote: 

“Consider a worm that crawls to an obstacle or a snail that 

reaches the tip of a grass blade. When there are complications of 

this kind, these animals start rather animated, aimless searching 

movements in all directions. In the more highly developed neokinetic 

animals, movements follow sensations; that is, movements are 

directed and controlled by sensations. In the lower animals, the opposite 

is true: Sensations are served and provided by movements” 

[7] 1 . 

Third circle – emotions and reason; 

psychology 

More advanced animals developed remote sense 

organs – teleceptors. The most complicated of them 

seems to be vision. At fi rst the eyes were placed at 

the sides of head, enabling panoramic view. Then, especially 

in predators, they moved to one plane, what 

enabled stereoscopic, three-dimensional view [9]. 

Such an ability to see has facilitated the perception 

and evaluation of position and its change, i.e. motion. 

The process of place changing was inseparably connected 

with some speed, and this made necessary to 

perceive – at least in some sense – a new important 

factor: the time. 

Detailed analysis of time perception has been 

presented by Holly Andersen and Rick Grush [10]. 

They described this phenomenon from psychological 

(William James) philosophical (Edmund Husserl) and 

physical (William Hamilton) point of view. Time is one 

of the most elusive, abstract and mysterious notions in 

whole human knowledge; by now it was impossible to 

formulate an internally coherent, succinct defi nition of it. 

So, in four-dimensional space-time continuum, where 

the results of motor control processes are observable, 

it is necessary to turn to less philosophical, but more 

“tangible” description of time 2 . The more accessible 

1 The quoted fragment has been excellently translated from Russian by 

Mark L. Latash. The only quibble concerns the word “aimless”. In the Russian 

original it reads “беспорядочное”, i.e. “disorganised, chaotic”, and not “aimless”. 

2 Here we come across very important factor in science. To be useful, 

any scientifi c tool has to be not only effi cacious and formally correct, but also 

understandable and easy to use by scientists who are not specialists in a given 

branch. This is why mathematics is not as commonly used as it should be: 

because it is perceived as being too complicated for non-mathematicians. 

Here we observe similar situation with description of the notion of time: its 

Time perception and motor behaviour of living beings 

– 121 – 

(but less detailed) analysis of temporal aspects of motor 

performances in sport had been presented by Hans- 

Volkhart Ulmer [11]. 

Not without reason the word “tangible” had been 

written in parentheses, because no living being has 

specifi c sense organs for detecting the time lapse. 

Using sense organs, time may be recognized only indirectly, 

by analysis of movement and velocity. Such analysis 

has been made already by Leonardo da Vinci, who 

analyzed perception of velocity (inseparably connected 

with time) in space from the point of view of painter [12]. 

The sensory observable phenomena, translation and 

speed, are physically inseparably associated with sensory 

unobservable time. 

By the way: it has to be stressed that stimuli are not 

information carriers per se. They are received by sense 

organs which produce appropriate sensory inputs. The 

specifi c information is being ascribed to these sensory 

inputs only in the central nervous system. So, red 

light means for a sailor “port side”, while for a driver – 

“stop”. 

The occurrence of teleceptors resulted in formation 

of some kind of time perception. The simplest 

was the division into past and present, later some 

animals mastered also the ability to anticipate – to 

some extent – also future events. Thus, the teleceptors 

enabled extending the time-space continuum, 

accessible to reasonable analysis, little bit “forth” and 

“back” in time. Moreover, the quantity of information 

provided by teleceptors was so great that it evoked 

the necessity of signifi cant development of the central 

nervous system, to make it able to process this 

increasing (both qualitatively and quantitatively) information. 

This is why Bernstein quotes Sir Charles 

Sherrington, who stated that “teleceptors created the 

brain” [4]. 

Another important element is the ability to abstract 

projection of reality in mind. In animals it is not a verbal 

language, but nevertheless a code of information 

processing, used by them, enables to project in their 

minds some images of past events, thus making the 

ground for memory. The memory includes information 

processing, i.e. employment of instinct, intelligence 

and intuition. Thus, it makes possible the processes 

of learning and skills acquiring. In humans crucial are 

also close connections of the origins of movements 

and language [13]. 

philosophical descriptions are hardly useful for motor control specialists, i.e. 

it is not enough “user friendly”.

COORDINATION 

1. I want 

I have skill 

I have no energy 

Time perception in the range available to senses 

makes the ground for phenomenon addressed as “timing”. 

Arturo Hotz describes this notion as follows: 

Timing is the temporal punctuality towards a spatial point, 

and also the functional potential to be at proper time, with optimum 

speed, and in relevant place [14]. 

The ability to judge spatial, motor and temporal 

aspects of phenomena and processes, which happen 

in environment, have changed the role of movement in 

living beings. In his seminal work On construction of 

movements Bernstein wrote: 

Teleceptors turned to be a mighty centralizing factor because 

they enabled an animal to react to a distant stimulus. The dimensions 

of its own body were negligible small as compared with a distance 

to the stimulus. This brought to foreground the movements 

in space of whole body, thus pushing to background the partial 

metamere reactions which played the main role in the era of tangoceptors 

domination [5]. 

As stated by Bernstein, movements became no 

more necessary to look for stimuli, but the information 

“extracted” from external stimuli was exploited by 

animals to control movements. Thus, the movements 

became more economical, intentional and conscious. 

In this respect we observe great qualitative change in 

motor control: here we have to do not with sheer coordination, 

which may be aimless, but with intentionally 

performed motor skills. So, the load of intellectual 

elements in otherwise motor activity makes the differ- 


EMOTIONS 

AND MIND 

EFFICACIOUS 

DELIBERATE 

MOTOR ACTIONS 

3. I have skill 

I have energy 

I don’t want 

Fig. 2. Interrelations between coordination, energy transformations and emotions+mind; efficacious deliberate motor actions 

– 122 – 

2. I want 

I have energy 

I have no skill 

ENERGY 

TRANSFORMATIONS 

ence between sheer agility and sophisticated dexterity. 

The agility is only coordinated cooperation of muscles 

which does not need to be deliberated and goal directed, 

while the dexterity means solving the complex tasks 

by means of movements. 

Perception of time by a dog has been excellently 

described by Jack London in the following fragment 

of his famous novel White Fang (quoted by Bernstein, 

1991 3 ): 

“Another advantage he possessed was that of correctly judging 

time and distance. Not that he did this consciously, however. He did 

not calculate such things. It was all automatic. His eyes saw correctly, 

and the nerves carried the vision correctly to his brain. The 

parts of him were better adjusted than those of the average dog. 

They worked together more smoothly and steadily. His was a better, 

far better, nervous, mental, and muscular coordination. When his 

eyes conveyed to his brain the moving image of an action, his brain, 

without conscious effort, knew the space that limited that action and 

the time required for its completion. Thus, he could avoid the leap of 

another dog or the drive of its fangs and at the same moment could 

seize the infi nitesimal fraction of time in which to deliver his own 

attack. Body and brain, his was a more perfected mechanism. Not 

that he was to be praised for it. Nature had been more generous to 

him than to the average animal. That was all” [15]. 

The ability to remember past events enabled a living 

being to collect experiences, and later use them 

to probabilistic prognosis of the future [16]. The animal 

3 Unfortunately, this important quotation is not included into otherwise 

excellent translation of this book into English (Bernstein, 1996, p. 130). It was 

surprise even for the translator, Mark L. Latash.

ecame able to judge in advance, either should it avoid 

some thing or phenomenon, or should it look for them. 

Thus emerged the motivation. 

Motivation, involving emotional and rational factors, 

make a third important circle of elements infl uencing 

the behaviour of living beings (Fig. 2). 

Here the fi eld of effi cacy has to include three factors: 

• energy, 

• skill, 

• will (motivation). 

Lack of any of these elements makes an effi cacious 

motor performance of a living being impossible. 

In fi eld 1 there is lack of energy; in such a situation 

some development of effort abilities – strength, endurance, 

effi ciency etc. – is necessary. 

Field 2 represents the lack of skills. To eliminate it, 

necessary is some specifi c, motor and mental training. 

In fi eld 3 we have to do with lack of motivation. In 

humans building a proper motivation is a basic condition 

for any deliberated (voluntary) activity. 

Summing up, it is possible to state that the tangoceptors 

enabled reaction to contact stimuli. Next, the 

development of teleceptors, together with elementary 

time perception, made it possible to react to distant 

stimuli. Additionally, the ability to make abstract projections 

of reality in mind (the most developed code of doing 

it is the language) and time perception (timing) enables 

probabilistic anticipation of stimuli. Development 

of these abilities was possible only in highly advanced 

central nervous system and they constitute the cornerstones 

of increasing effi ciency and effi cacy of actions 

performed in environment by living creatures. The temporal 

structure of informational processes – and proper 

timing – is very important in many human activities, e.g. 

in combat sports [17]. 

Fourth circle – skills and tradition; culture 

Homo sapiens is the only being which developed time 

perception beyond the limits determined by sense organs. 

The past developed into historical perspective, 

the future into “end of the universe”. High precision of 

time measurement made possible the observation of 

phenomena and processes lying far beyond the capabilities 

of human senses, e.g. those belonging to the 

sphere of quantum mechanics. Also sport measurements, 

with accuracy of up to 1/100 or 1/1000 second, 

are at present possible only with special devices. 


– 123 – 

Moreover, using of GPS navigation devices, more and 

more common by now, needs to take into account 

also the rules of theory of relativity, i.e. forces engineers 

to understand also some relativistic “plasticity” 

of time [18]. Paradoxically enough, by now scientists 

were not able to formulate any good defi nition of time. 

Nevertheless, humans had understood the notion of 

time to much higher extent than any other living creature. 

Historical perspective enabled an individual human 

to collect not only his own experiences, but also 

to make use of the experiences of previous generations. 

As John T. Cacioppo and Gary G. Berntson have 

stated, “humans are social animals” [19], but – unlike 

other living beings taking advantage of group cooperation 

– they are able to extent their “sociality” also far 

in the past and far in the future. The entire heritage, 

both material and spiritual, of a whole mankind, being 

consolidated and enriched in the course of history, and 

transferred from one generation to the next one, has 

been termed culture [20], which includes also science 

and technology. 

Many human behaviour patterns are conditioned 

culturally. So, in scheme of factors infl uencing a human 

behaviour, there emerges a fourth circle: the cultural 

one (Fig. 3). 

As in the “three-circle scheme” (Fig. 2), the coordination 

may be here identifi ed with sensorimotor skills 

(sensorimotor habit patterns). 

The specifi c fi eld in Fig. 3 is the B-fi eld: a place of 

actions possible to be performed (there is enough energy, 

skill and will), but not allowed culturally. In other 

words, this is a place for criminal behaviour. 

The ability to use verbal code of information processing 

is unique to humans and enables time perception 

without mental limitations in past and present; here 

arises the notion of eternity. This makes possible to create 

the tribal and, at higher level of development, also 

the social behaviour of large human groups. 

Discussion and conclusion 

The diversity of origins of human behaviour affords 

many interpretational diffi culties. The energy circle 

“belongs” to physiology; the coordination one – to neurophysiology, 

the motivation one – to psychology, and 

the cultural one – to sociology. Each of these branches 

of science has its own scientifi c workshop, traditions, 

achievements (and defeats). Some kind of false “scientifi 

c pride” makes it diffi cult to fi nd a common language

CULTURE 

COORDINATION 

for all these branches of science. Moreover, all the 

branches listed above are rooted in inductionist rather 

and not deductionist methodology of science development. 

Nevertheless, in contemporary science some kind 

of mathematical description, deductionist in its core, is 

more and more necessary and here we come across 

confl icts between both these streams. Mathematics is 

in fact some kind of language enabling fully formalised 

expression, reliable reasoning and drawing accurate 

conclusion about the real world even without direct contact 

with it. Such a language enables using the purely 

mental method of proving the correctness of thinking 

and drawing conclusions, independent of direct observations 

and measurements in reality. Unfortunately, 

the mathematical formalism is hardly understandable 

to many biologists, psychologists and sociologists, so 

they treat the pure intellectual process of reasoning and 

creation of conclusions with some mistrust. Moreover, 

the information processing system in humans is multilevel 

and multimodal, and mathematics is not a “native” 


Abbreviations: 

A – I have skills; I have energy; I am allowed to do it; I DON’T WANT TO DO IT. 

B – I have skills; I have energy; I want to do it; I AM NOT ALLOWED TO DO IT. 

C – I have energy; I want to do it; I am allowed to do it; I HAVE NO SKILLS. 

D – I have skills; I want to do it; I am allowed to do it; I HAVE NO ENERGY. 

1 – I have skills; I am allowed to do it; I HAVE NO ENERGY; I DON’T WANT TO DO IT. 

2 – I have skills; I have energy; I don’t want to do it; I am not allowed to do it; 

3 – I have energy; I want to do it; I have no skills; I am not allowed to do it. 

4 – I want to do it; I am allowed to do it; I HAVE NO SKILLS; I HAVE NO ENERGY. 

Cultural motor actions: I have skills; I have energy; I want to do it; I am allowed to do it. 

D 

Fig. 3. Interrelations between coordination, energy transformation, emotions+mind and culture; cultural motor actions 

4 

– 124 – 

EMOTIONS 

AND MIND 

1 

CULTURAL 

MOTOR 

ACTIONS 

3 

2 

C 

A B 

ENERGY 

TRANSFORMATION 

code at any of the levels and modes. Thus, it may serve 

only as auxiliary tool for verifying of reasoning correctness, 

but it not mirrors truly the information processing 

in living beings, including human. In other words, mathematics 

cannot release physical culture scientists from 

thinking and looking for new ways of reality description. 

Unfortunately, in contemporary biological sciences – in 

a broad sense – the apparently reliable ground of easily 

observable, measurable and countable experimental 

facts do not make any more a fertile base for real progress 

in science. 

As seeing from evolutionary perspective, one may 

state that the most primeval from among all four circles 

is energetic one. Next comes the coordinative one, next 

emotional/rational (psychological) and fi nally the cultural 

one. On the basis of daily experience it is possible to 

formulate the hypothesis that the older the “circle”, the 

stronger is “rooted” in information processing system in 

human. Thus, in situation of overloading the information 

processing system (e.g. in high danger) the capability

of it becomes limited and fi rst the cultural circle – most 

sophisticated, but at the same time most vulnerable to 

any disturbances – is being “switched off”, then the psychological, 

and fi nally the coordinative one. This is also 

fully coherent with Abraham Maslow’s theory [21]. 

Time is the most abstract notion from among all 

the elements infl uencing behaviour of living creatures, 

including a human. No living being has special sense 

organs to perceive it. According to Hotz: 

“The time is an invention of humans which arose from the real 

need to better orientate themselves in events. The Nature gives 

some rhythms. The periodical returns of sun and moon, beating of 

heart – it enables us to learn and experience the notion of time. 

When we line such periods and count them, then we obtain the time” 

[14]. 

Nevertheless, just this elusive phenomenon infl uences 

greatly an overall behaviour of all living beings, 

including human. The modality of space and motion 

perception results in the necessity of taking into consideration 

also that new element: the time. More and more 

advanced understanding of this phenomenon – and 

making proper use of this understanding – gave better 

chances in permanent, evolutionary fi ght for surviving. 

The humans have developed two magnifi cent abilities: 

abstract projection of reality (language) and perceiving 

the time as a universal factor which orders the succession 

of events in perspective much wider than that determined 

by limits of sense organs. Both these abilities 

make two main pillars of abstract thinking which make 

the ground for culture formation. The culture, in turn, 

infl uences also the most primeval behaviour patterns of 

humans, i.e. the motor ones. 

Summing up, it is to be stated that: 

• Information extracted from contactceptive stimuli 

(mainly touch) is so primitive that it does not need 

a code of processing including any time perception, 

• Information extracted from teleceptive stimuli (in 

humans mainly vision) carries so rich information 

that it was necessary to create a code of processing 

including elementary time perception (timing, 

limited by sense organs capabilities). 

• Verbal information has to be processed with highly 

sophisticated code including time perception in 

historical and cultural scope; this is purely human 

perspective of reality perception. 

It is to be noted that the perception of time is not 

the same as its full understanding. By now scientists 

were not able to formulate good defi nition of time. 


– 125 – 

Nevertheless, employing increasingly advanced codes 

and methods of information processing, including more 

and more thorough time understanding, was possible 

only when the central nervous system reached successive, 

higher and higher stages of development. This 

process was illustratively described by Bernstein [4, 5, 

6, 7]. 

Currently it is more and more obvious that reality 

does not obey the divisions of science into particular 

branches as made by learned people. These divisions 

are more and more often perceived as senseless or 

even harmful to science. K. Popper wrote: 

“...universities completely needlessly have fragmented the 

knowledge into different, specialized branches. Each of them, without 

any necessity, had been closed in its own ritual and terminology. 

It is necessary to counteract this fragmentation of science [2]”. 

On the other hand it becomes clear that it is impossible 

to solve the greatest intellectual and practical 

problems within the frames of one branch of science 

only. So, it becomes necessary to apply so called interdisciplinary 

approach. Bogdan Czabański wrote: 

“In motor learning – to make the image of particular elements 

more clear – one may divide the emotional, cognitive, motor and 

social layers, but it is always to be remembered that they make one 

coherent system of learning in humans” [22]. 

Unfortunately, the movements’ creation and control 

seems to be not very interesting to psychologists 

or even specialists in cognitive science. Cacioppo and 

Berntson wrote: 

“... the study of complex aspects of the mind and behaviour will 

benefi t from yet a broader collaboration of neuroscientists, cognitive 

scientists, and social scientists” [19]. 

Here very characteristic is the absence of a very 

important aspect of human behaviour, i.e. the motor 

one. James Kalat, other outstanding psychologist, expressed 

this still more clearly: 

“... most of psychologists do not care much about the movement. 

The investigation of muscle contractions seems to be less 

»psychological« than research into visual perception, learning processes, 

social interactions, motivation or emotion. Nevertheless, 

quick movements of a skilled typist, professional musician or athlete 

need very complex brain activity. Movement understanding is the 

great challenge both for psychologists and biologists” [23]. 

Hence, it seems that just the living beings’ motor 

activity constitutes fundamental element of biological 

“jigsaw puzzle” enabling scientists to understand and 

describe the behaviour of animals and humans. In other 

words, omitting the motor aspects of human behaviour

makes it diffi cult (if not completely impossible) to understand. 

Roughly one may then state that: 

• Performing goal-aimed, reactive operations in tangible 

(recognized by contactceptors) environment 

does not need any recognition of time, 

• Performing deliberate, active operations in observable 

(recognized by teleceptors) environment needs 

time recognition at level of timing, 

• Performing cultural, creative operations in perceivable 

environment needs time recognition reaching 

beyond the limits of direct sensory observations. 

The experimental research of these phenomena 

and processes in humans are very diffi cult, because, 

according to Bernstein’s theory, Homo sapiens may 

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– 126 – 

adopt information processing procedures from perceptive 

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observable. The researcher may directly observe 

only the fi nal result, the movement, but not information 

processing underlying the creation of this movement. 

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– 127 – 

[23] Kalat JW: Biological Psychology [in Polish: Biologiczne 

podstawy psychologii]. Warszawa, Wydawnictwo Naukowe 

PWN, 2006.

ANNOUNCEMENTS 

INFORMACJE


2010 

THE INTERNATIONAL FORUM 

“Health and Longevity” 

Kielce, Poland 

20–22.05.2010 

HONORARY PATRONAGE 

THE POLISH MINISTER OF HEALTH 

World Health Organization – Office in Poland 

ORGANISERS 

The Faculty of Health Sciences 

The Jan Kochanowski University of Humanities and Sciences in Kielce 

The Foundation For the Development of Surgery 

Holycross Cancer Center 

The City of Kielce 

Health promoting Association Qigong – Soaring Crane 

MEDIA PATRONAGE 

Radio FAMA 

THE AIM OF FORUM 

The aim of the forum is to propagate the idea of a healthy lifestyle in the context of ageing of 

societies, the exchange of ideas and experiences as well as presenting the results of scientific 

research towards functioning of man in health and sickness. 

The Forum is one of the elements of a great venture taken up by the Jan Kochanowski University 

of Humanities and Sciences in Kielce, Holycross Cancer Center and the Government of Kielce 

and the Region, concerning the Tumour Prevention Centre in Kielce. 

Correspondence address: mfzid@ujk.edu.pl 

http://www.ujk.edu.pl/mfzid/ 

– 131 –


2010 

COMPETITION OF RESEARCH PAPERS 

ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHING 

FOR PROF. BOGDAN CZABAŃSKI’S AWARD 

Submission requirements: 

• Only papers published in the year prior to the date of competition may be 

submitted. 

• Papers (off-prints) must be sent before the end of March 2011 to the Organizers’ 

address: 

Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego 

Katedra Dydaktyki Wychowania Fizycznego 

ul. Witelona 25, 51-617 Wrocław, Poland 

Tel. 0 (prefi x) 71 347-31-69, fax 348-25-27 

www.awf.wroc.pl/czabanski 

e-mail: olepio@awf.wroc.pl 

• Independent academics and former award winners must not partake in the competition. 

• A research paper can be a teamwork effort, but the team of authors must not include an 

independent academic. 

Evaluation criteria: 

• Submitted papers must be research papers. 

• All papers must be on the subject of physical education teaching. 

Jury: 

Three independent academics, professors 

of the University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw, Poland: 

• Prorector for Research, 

• Head of Chair of Physical Education Didactics, 

• Head of Chair of Swimming. 

The jury convenes on 24 April 2011. 

The jury’s fi nal decision will be made available to all participants. 

Only one paper will be awarded with the prize (diploma of merit and 1.000 PLN). 

The award will be presented during the inauguration ceremony of the academic year 

2011/2012 at the University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw, Poland. 

– 132 –

full text - Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego w Krakowie

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