chapter 5 - Department of Chemistry

Todd Kiraly, Westbound Publications, Inc.

’90sFrom Mass Spec to Biotech:Survivingthe 20th CenturyMark S. LesneyThe Cold War is now behind us. Let usnot wrangle over who won it.— Mikhail Gorbachev, 1990In the 1990s, the promise and the perils of globalization—oneworld market, one world risk, and increasingglobal competition—continued to affect the world economyand the structure of the analytical instrument industry.Companies were absorbed in large conglomerates or boughtand sold, often as much for reasons of capital and stock issuesas for productivity or function. International marketing,multinational subsidiaries, and the rise of the World WideWeb transformed production, advertising, and sales of chemicalinstruments, tying the fortunes of industry to globalrather than local economic trends.©1999 American Chemical Society March 1999 Made To Measure 83

Previous general trends held as, approaching the new millennium,the “central science” led the transformation fromthe Age of the Atom to the Biotechnology Century. Whilemaintaining its role from previous decades, analytical instrumentationdramatically shifted emphasis from petrochemicalsto biologicals, from geophysics to genomics. Technologicaldemands from industries and research fields notpreviously associated with traditional chemical instrumentationled to additional innovations in simplification, standardization,computerization, and “small footprint” benchtopequipment that could be used by a changing and diversely educatedworkforce that serviced the economically affluentbaby-boom generation seemingly benton both “living forever” and having it all.Military technology continued to followits pattern of demanding high-techinstrumentation as superconductors,fiber-optics, computers, satellite sensing,and laser technology led the way.Regulatory analysis expanded in complexitybeyond individual pollutants toissues of global warming; biological andchemical warfare; and the subtleties ofendocrine disruption, bioremediation,and the genetic damage of large-scalepopulations, including the former Sovietstates. The possibilities of nanotechnology,biological computers, robotics, andartificial intelligence became plausiblesources of innovation in instrumentationrather than fantasy.On the international front, the emergenceof the European Union providedadded impetus for a business-friendlygovernment in the United States to lookfavorably on corporate mergers and international marketing,all of which affected the analytical instrumentationbusiness and the larger chemical industry dramatically.The vast majority of innovations in instrumentationwere not in new kinds of analysis (as in previous decades,when major new forms of chromatography or spectroscopycame to light) but rather in the area of enhancements andcombinations of instruments. The wealth of possibilities forinterfacing and combining analytical techniques seemedIt will be an era inwhich the boundariesbetween basic andapplied science erode.Commercial relevancewill be an intrinsicfeature if not a statedgoal of most science.— Frank Press, president ofthe National Academy ofSciences, 1992destined for the long-term goal of creating a multidimensionalanalytical technology using all the various methodsof analysis. This was the promise of the creation of a virtualStar Trek “tricorder,” which would analyze all things for allpeople just by pointing at an object. Such a developmentwas the prediction of Tony White, Perkin-Elmer CEO, atPittcon ‘96.The Corporate LandscapeVery early on, the promise of the past decade was suddenlypulled up short, according to Lawrence Schmid, president ofSDI, Inc. “A general instrument industry slowdown has beenunder way in the United States for thepast year,” he said. The reasons for thisvaried, but lowered government fundingand the sudden fear that biotechnologywould not live up to its promise were twoof the most important reasons given [Today’sChemist 1990, 3(1)]. The low levelof growth in gross national product (GNP)was the final straw. Referring to Pittcons‘90 and ‘91, Schmid projected that “theinstrument industry appears to be takinga conservative view of the future whichdoes not include accelerated product developmentprograms.” Referring toPittcon ‘93, Ward Worthy wrote, “Therewas a sort of consensus . . . that the glorydays of the 1980s, when annual double-digitgrowth rates were the norm,were gone.” The analytical instrumentindustry was relatively flat [TCAW 1993,2(4)].“The trends in the late 1980s continuedthrough 1990; mergers and acquisitionsincreased in size and frequency.” [Today’s Chemist1991, 4(2)]. Later in the decade, Spectronics left Milton Roywhen purchased by Life Sciences International (LSI) in1995; Teckmar and Dohrman merged in 1995. AnalyticalTechnology Inc. (ATI) took over Orion, Mattson, Unicam,Russell, and Cahn. Both ATI and LSI were eventually sold toThermo Instruments Systems.The Thermo line of companies, all subsidiaries of ThermoElectron (founded in 1956), were by far the most amazing ex-84 Made to Measure March 1999 http://pubs.acs.org

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ample of these corporate acquisitions. Thermo entered theinstrument business in 1970 with the development of a gasphasechemiluminescence analyzer for the automobile industryand made its first acquisition in 1979: Eberline Instruments.However, it was the decade of the 1990s that saw the largestgrowth. Thermo acquired Finnigan in 1990; Nicolet in 1992;Gamma-Metrics, Hilger Analytical, and Spectra-Physics Analyticalin 1993; IRT and CID Technologies in 1994; and Baird in1995. Also in 1995, Thermo bought Fison’s instrument division.Thermo had its own spinoff companies (e.g., Thermo Opteck,ThermoQuest, ThermoBioAnalysis, and ThermoSpectra)throughout the 1990s.In this period, joint ventures also become popular toincrease competitive edges: Dow Chemical joined with BPChemicals to compete against Exxon Chemical’s alliancewith Union Carbide in the development of technologies forlow-density polyethylene production. An even greaternumber of corporate collaborations formed to exploit thenew biotechnology (see “Biology Rules” section below).Stocks entered an amazing bull market in the latter half ofthe 1990s: The Dow–Jones Industrial Average was 4000 in1995, 7000 in 1997, and 9000 in 1998.Downsizing became a fact of life for companies eager to increaseproductivity. Because of downsizing, career issues ofsurvival and advancement became critical concerns for industrialchemists. In 1995, despite higher production and profits,the chemical industry had fewer workers than any time in nearlyeight years, even though employment still held up betterthan in many other manufacturing sectors [TCAW, 1995, 4(9)].A backlash against business appeared in the popular media.Cartoons such as “Dilbert” (regularly used in Omega Engineeringads after mid-decade) achieved a huge following as theymade fun of concepts of productivity, management schemes,downsizing, and corporate loyalty.Trends in InstrumentationDownsizing led to other changes, said a spokesperson for OrionResearch in an interview for this article: “The corporate Americantrend of downsizing meant that unskilled workers oftenwere being asked to run difficult chemical analyses. Our productsoften can be used to replace complex methods with muchsimpler ones, and we have seen this trend grow.”The push toward automation and ease of use in more complexinstruments was evident. Equipment evolved beyond thehttp://pubs.acs.orgneeds of advanced chemical knowledge: black-boxed for newusers and new uses. Computerized displays and automationenhanced this disconnect between the science and the userfor industry and the service laboratory—as had happened earlierfor clinical labs. Part of this trend was the push towardeasy data visualization and data management, which was promulgatedby companies such as Justice Software. Automationand the use of robotics were increasingly common, especiallyin pharmaceutical applications such as high-throughputscreening. One example of this was the Biomek IntegratedLaboratory enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) system.Also, a series of benchtop mass spectrometers was availablefrom Finnigan, Hewlett-Packard (HP), and othercompanies. And answering the dual demand for easy automationand life sciences instrumentation, Gilson produced the234 Autoinjector for HPLC in 1995.There certainly was a host of new wrinkles on old technologies.There was membrane-interface mass spectrometry(MIMS) and matrix-assisted laser desorption analysistime-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS); therewas capillary electrochromatography (a hybrid of LC andcapillary electrophoresis [CE]—electrophoresis with apacked column). The use of fiber-optics increased in variousforms of surface analysis, especially IR and near-IRspectroscopy. Single-molecule and -atom analysis andvisualization became possible using new forms of microscopy,paving the way for advances in nanotechnology.In 1994, CIBA-GEIGY and the Oak Ridge National Laboratory(ORNL) introduced the analytical “lab-on-a-chip”: a microchipthat performed reactions and analyzed the resultsby using CE. This development followed the production ofthe 1993 DuPont “chemical plant on a chip” and the 1991Affymax DNA-array microchips.Computer and software advances continued unabated. Theyear 1994 was remarkable in that more computers than televisionsets were sold. Continuing the push toward ease andminiaturization, Cray produced its deskside supercomputer,the EL94. By 1992, desktop molecular modeling was becomingroutinely available in products such as Alchemy III fromTripos and Autodesk’s HyperChem, as PCs and Macintoshesspread to more and more laboratories. Artificial intelligence(AI) and expert systems became ever more applicable andpowerful, and not only for chromatography: Witness GarryKasparov’s 1997 defeat at chess by an IBM computer.March 1999 Made to Measure 89

The Mosaic browser, developed in 1993 by a student, MarcAndreessen, and Eric Bina of the National Center for SupercomputingApplications, “did more than any other developmentto bring about the phenomenal growth of the Web andthe Internet” [TCAW, 1995, 4(4)]. There were only 100 Websites in 1992, but hundreds of thousands by the end of thedecade. With the development of the Internet came “[a] newtrend: using the Internet to provide information and supportfor products and services” [TCAW, 1995, 4(4)]. Some examplesof the enhanced use of the Web were the arrival of AmericanChemical Society (ACS) journals online and the ASAP (AsSoon As Publishable) publishing system for rapid release ofarticles, the availability of Pittcon ‘97 Web sites, and, in 1998,the ACS presentation of “Pittcon Live” on the Internet.Environmental FluxAt first, even the environmental movement seemed to haveslowed, despite the celebrations of the 20th anniversary,Earth Day and the comments of Jim Byrne, president ofCentcom, who announced at the 1990 Pittcon that “environmentalanalysis [was] undoubtedly one of the most significantgrowth areas for analytical instruments” [Today’sChemist, 1990, 3(4)]. Part of the problem was a backlashagainst what was seen as environmental excess. Articles inToday’s Chemist at Work emphasized what the writers saw asoverreaction to the dangers of chlorinated compounds,global warming, pesticides, dioxins, lead, and other environmental“risks.” In 1990, Patrick P. McCurdy, then editorof Today’s Chemist at Work, said, “Some scientists even seegood in global warming.” Contributing editor Ken Reese remarked,“Bashing lead, in fact, quite apart from the meritsof specific cases, has become politically correct” [TCAW1995, 4(3)].Antiregulatory-versus-environmentalist battles grew evermore heated. “Everything in life is full of one-in-a-hundredrisks. If the EPA [U.S. Environmental Protection Agency] isspending all its time trying to protect the public againstone-in-a-million hypothetical risks, then it’s spending itstime on trivia,” A. B. Nichols said [TCAW, 1992, 1(4)]. Congressionalbacklash in 1995 led to Republican moves toslice the EPA budget 34% and attempts to provide industryimmunity to certain Superfund liability provisions.One key triumph was overturning what had been seen asonerous overregulation. The hated Delaney clause was replacedin 1996 with far less restrictive requirements than“zero tolerance.”The 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, awarded to PaulCrutzen, Mario Molina, and F. Sherwood Rowland, whobroke the news on ozone depletion, was seen by most as avindication of their work. Still, antienvironmentalists complained“that the ozone depletion theory is based on badscience” and that the award was “a desecration upon theheritage of Alfred Nobel” [TCAW 1996, 5(10)].On the whole, the public did not appreciate attempts tocounter regulations, nor did they share in the view of a putuponindustry. Opinion polls conducted by the Chemical ManufacturersAssociation (CMA) in 1990 found that “there [was] alack of trust in chemical manufacturers on the part of the public;indeed, people [did] not like the chemical industry as awhole” [Today’s Chemist, 1990, 3(2)]. And even though the authorof a February 1992 Money magazine poll claimed thatchemists had “excellent” prestige, according to Today’s Chemistat Work, this label did not apply to the industry in which theyworked [TCAW, 1992, 1(4)]. As seen by the early CMA poll, theissues of antiscience and antichemical industry grew in importance.Polls taken in the latter part of the decade still showedthat a favorable opinion toward the chemical industry wasbarely higher than 20%, despite the efforts of the ResponsibleCare program, inaugurated in the 1980s.In 1992, promoting the spirit of voluntary self-regulation,the CMA adopted the Product Stewardship Code as part of ResponsibleCare and imposed a deadline for member adoption.The Green Chemistry program was another attempt at environmentallybenign and consumer-friendly manufacturing.In 1995, the Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge Awardswere established to reward companies that had managed tomake the transition to “green” manufacturing practices. InEurope, throughout the 1990s, HP spent nearly $1 million ayear on the popular Rhine Basin Program, which by 1997 hadexpanded to include environmental monitoring of 15 otherrivers and was expanding its partnership with various Europeanauthorities.As a result of this new wave of environmental and healthgive-and-take between industry and the general public, riskand risk assessment became hot topics. To deal with this issue,in 1995 Chemical & Engineering News sponsored a symposiumentitled “Risk Issues and the Chemical Industry: TheSummit on Risk-Based Public Policy.”90 Made to Measure March 1999 http://pubs.acs.org

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There were a number of reasons for the environment to beon everyone’s mind in the 1990s. In 1991, deforestationaround the world was projected at 40 million to 50 millionacres per year; Mount Pinatubo erupted in the Phillippines—the largest such eruption in the 20th century—causing transientglobal cooling and further erosion of the ozone layer;during the Persian Gulf War, Iraq ignited Kuwaiti oil wells,creating tremendous air and water pollution; and a massivecyclone killed more than 100,000 people in Bangladesh.In 1992, the crater of the asteroid strike purported tohave caused the extinction of the dinosaurs nearly 65 millionyears ago was discovered on the Yucatan Peninsula,and the Rio Earth Summit led to a world treaty on biodiversity.Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) production was officiallybanned by the end of 1995; companies such as Forma Scientificadvertised the first non-CFC refrigerants just in time.And in late 1997, 160 nations reached consensus on a globalwarming accord in Kyoto, Japan, much to the distress ofmany American industrialists, scientists, and politicians(for example, Willis Witters of the Washington Times). Also,according to meteorologists cited in The Washington Post,1998 was the hottest year on record (J. Warrick, The WashingtonPost, Dec. 18, 1998, p. A12).As a bottom line, the environmental technology market wasexpected to reach $500 billion worldwide by the year 2000.New Laws and RegulationsNot coincidentally, despite some successes at deregulation,even more regulations were applied to the chemical industry.EPA continued to be at the forefront of this issue. In 1991,the Clean Air Act identified 189 compounds in air as toxic,and EPA estimated that 20% of the five million undergroundpetroleum storage tanks in the United States were leaking.The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) also continuedto influence and regulate. In 1990, the Nutritional Labelingand Education Act made FDA-regulated food labelinga requirement on supermarket shelves. In 1992, the FDA declareda moratorium on silicone breast implants; this moratoriumled to successful legal suits and the bankruptcy ofDow-Corning. In 1996, the Food Quality Protection Act establishednew safety standards for pesticides in all foods,both raw and processed (in part to replace the DelaneyClause), and the FDA established fast-track approval for cancerdrugs similar to its program for acquired immune deficiencysyndrome (AIDS) drugs.Globalization especially led to new and complex regulatoryrequirements for operating in a world market. Highlightingcompliance with the International Standards Organization(ISO) became the thing to do in the 1990s, because proclaimingcompliance with local rules was a thing of the past. Onead from Analytical Products Group stated, “We’re in compliance.Aren’t we?” Many companies advertised their compliancewith ISO 9000, 9001, and 9002; many simply put anISO-certified or ISO-registered logo in their ads. ISO 14000,designed for environmental management and life-cycle assessment,debuted in 1996.EPA, of course, still retained its clout in the United States:Restek Corp., for example, advertised that its Rtx-CLPesticidescolumn rapidly analyzed “all 22 pesticides in EPAMethod 8081 in less than 25 minutes.” In 1996, a record numberof EPA enforcement actions were taken. In 1997, EPAchanged its proposed air monitoring regulations to includeCompliance Assistance Monitoring and “Any Credible Evidence,”which threatened industry with new lawsuits asmuch as it freed them of regulatory strictures.Standardization, of course, was critical with new regulations.In 1995, the American Association for Laboratory Accreditation(A2LA) set chemical standards for analysis thatwould prove acceptable to both EPA and ISO 9001 as a certifyingthird-party agency; by 1994, it became the only agencydeemed acceptable for such certification. In 1995, the NationalEnvironmental Laboratory Accreditation Conference(NELAC) convened to bring together industry, government,and academic laboratories interested in receiving accreditation.The director of NELAC also became the director of theNational Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program(NELAP) with a mandate to accredit laboratories according tostandards set by the EPA.As a side note, in 1997 the National Association of Manufacturersclaimed that the Occupational Safety and HealthAdministration (OSHA) was neither kinder nor gentler, becausepaperwork violations ranked number one.Research and DevelopmentR&D funding by American corporations fell precipitously inthe 1990s as management became more short-term orientedand risk averse. This corporate economic conservatismwas detailed in the Feb. 6, 1995, issue of Chemical & EngineeringNews and was a logical outcome of the economicdownturn. Life sciences helped offset the R&D declinesomewhat. In 1993, pharmaceutical companies outspentchemical companies in R&D even as general basic research’spercentage of the funding pie continued a 20-year decline.In 1994, the National Science Foundation (NSF) establishedsix new engineering research centers (ERCs) to focus ontechnologies to enable innovation in industry. In 1995, theDepartment of Defense (DOD) established a DOD industrycost-sharing program called the Technology ReinvestmentProgram (TRP), one of several ways to keep up defensespending while attempting to find a mutually accommodatingpeace dividend. But still, with generalized governmentcutbacks, total R&D in the United States was deemed virtuallystagnant. More, deeper cutbacks in government fundingwere projected [C&EN, 1995, 73(35)].Universities had their own problems. In 1992, NicholasDarby, a Dow Chemical Company research manager, summarizedthe situation: “ Leadership in many branches of chemistryresides outside the traditional academic boundaries.In many areas, industrial laboratories have assumed theleadership. Other academic departments, such as biochemistry,genetics, microbiology, chemical engineering, andeven mathematics, have stolen a march in other fields ofchemistry” [TCAW 1992, 1(5)].Much of the latter was, no doubt, due to the increasingimportance of biotechnology and the biomedical field. Inanother attempt to attract private dollars in the 1990s,biotechnology institutes to foster university–industry researchbecame even more common.Biology RulesLife sciences and biotech became increasingly more importantas the decade progressed. A Shimadzu ad in 1996 symbolizedwell the zeitgeist of the chemical instrumentationworld in the 1990s by combining DNA, a world map, a femalescientist, a graphic analytical trace, pharmaceuticals, laboratorychemicals, a woodland stream, and the ISO 9000 into onepicture. The only thing missing was the computer—whichwas obliquely supplied in the Brinkmann 1996 laboratory92 Made to Measure March 1999 http://pubs.acs.org

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products guide, whose cover was illustrated with only a DNAmolecule, a flask, and a stylized data pad. In 1996, Beckmantouted “bio-spectrophotometry” with a line of biospectrophotometers.Reflecting the trend, the Analytical InstrumentsAssociation (AIA) changed its name to the Analytical and LifeScience Systems Association (ALSSA).In the early 1990s, Raman spectroscopy, taking advantageof the enhancements possible from combination with sophisticateddye lasers, was used in numerous biological applications,including fiber-optics technology (to study disease processesin the body), enzymology, and whole-cell studies.The AIDS epidemic continued. By 1991, 10 million humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV)–infected adults hadbeen reported in 162 countries worldwide. Estimated projectionsfor worldwide infections by 2000 are more than 40 million.Although a boon to biomedical research, the AIDSepidemic was both a current and a present bane to the healthcare-providing system. Health care costs rose at three timesthe rate of inflation, and demands for health care reform werein part protests against increased costs of medicines and medicaltechnologies, especially for antiviral drugs such as AZT.Emerging technologies, mostly biological, “including combinatorialchemistry, genomics, and microchemistry” were keytopics for discussion at ALSSA’s 1997 Senior Management Conference.In the late 1990s, AIA/ALSSA members accounted foralmost 90% of the North American instrument market. Combinatorialchemistry and drug discovery were indeed extremelyimportant in the 1990s. Companies such as Optiverse offeredhighly diverse stock libraries for drug discovery by using methodsdesigned by Tripos and Panlabs. This offering was similar tothe way biotech companies had earlier offered cloned genesor vectors. Particularly important were computerized methodsfor managing and analyzing the discovery process. Automatingthe process was critical. By using the Tecan Genesisliquid-handling platform, for example, Tecan produced itsCombiTec for solid-phase synthesis for drug discovery, andGilson produced an automated combinatorial chromatographysystem. So important was the field that in 1996, a CombinatorialChemistry Consortium was formed by a number of drugcompanies in conjunction with Molecular Simulations Inc.(MSI) to develop software for enhancing the discovery process.Bioinformatics began its rise to prominence. Gene-sequencingsoftware was dominated by Perkin-Elmer at 67% followedhttp://pubs.acs.orgby Oxford Molecular Group at 7%, although Oxford dominatedthe sequence analysis market. According to an interview inChemical & Engineering News, in the first quarter of 1998, 10%of biotech venture capital went into bioinformatics. By 1997,computational chemistry had become a “must-have tool”[C&EN, 1998, 76(42)].In 1997, more than 40 software-only companies for thechemical industry existed, and the software market was nearlydoubled from the year before. Much of this growth was basedon the huge push to sequence the human genome. By the early1990s, the first comprehensive maps of human chromosomeswere becoming available as part of the federally funded HumanGenome Project (HGP). By 1997, all 4.6 million base pairs in theE. coli genome had been sequenced. In 1998, the completegenome of C. elegans, a soil nematode, was mapped. Thisachievement was a milestone in genetics and molecular biology;it was the first multicellular animal whose DNA was completelysequenced, in part through funding for the HGP. Also in1998, Germany’s Bayer and America’s Millennium Pharmaceuticalsannounced a $465 million drug discovery collaborationbased on Millennium’s genome research. So promising was thehoped-for fallout of genomic science on medical technologythat in 1998, both Incyte Pharmaceuticals and Celera Genomics(a Perkin-Elmer business unit) announced their determinationto sequence the human genome privately. Glaxo Wellcome,Merck, Pfizer, and SmithKline Beecham all developed “internalprograms to manage the huge volumes of proprietary and publicdata” developing from gene-sequencing efforts.Other technologies proved useful to the new biology. By1998, MALDI, developed in the late 1980s by Karas and Hillenkcampin Germany, and by Tanaka and co-workers at theShimadzu Corp. in Japan, when combined with TOF/MS, hadentered the realm of bacterial identification, DNA and proteinsequencing, and the life sciences in general. DNA andprotein sequencers, enhanced HPLC, and almost any of thetraditional instruments could be and were fine-tuned towardlife science applications.The genetic engineering of transgenic plants and animals aswell as drugs had come into its own by the middle of the 1990s.In 1994, the first transgenic bull sired cows that produced humanlactoferrin in their milk. By 1995, mice with transgenichuman antibodies were available. In 1996, Dolly the sheep, thefirst cloned animal, was born.March 1999 Made to Measure 95

By the end of the decade, Monsanto and Novartis were marketingliterally tons of seed for genetically engineered corn andsoybeans. Meanwhile, the companies faced an increasing backlashfrom environmental groups such as Greenpeace, especiallyin the European Union.Chemical companies continued major pushes into the lifesciences, in part by divesting non–life sciences divisions andacquiring additional life sciences companies. Monsanto,DuPont, Hoechst, and Dow, among others, followed thistrend. In 1998, the leading biotech drugs surpassed $1 billionin annual sales for the first time.Click here to see full sizePETROLABadvertisementand to link toElectronic Reader ServiceNo More Revolutions?In 1995, it was announced in Today’s Chemist at Work thatPittcon ‘95 was evolutionary, rather than revolutionary, becauseof the dearth of new technologies compared with previousdecades. Similarly, at the Centcom Breakfast at Pittcon ‘97, LouisT. Rosso, chairman and CEO of Beckman Instruments, summarizedthe state of the modern analytical instrument business.“We are reaching the top of the classical ‘S’ curve, and therehave been few big breakthroughs technically in this industryover the last 10 years . . . And, as you look around the industry,you see consolidations, mergers, you see acquistions, yousee certain companies exiting the industry, and you see manycompanies philosophically looking more and more at internalefficiencies . . . Some of the things we all thought were so afew years ago just aren’t anymore . . . that great technologywas all we needed for success, that science as a business wouldnever stop growing, that government would always supportincreased university research, that regulators would enforcelaws . . . that access to university-generated science is free,that we can raise prices every year, and get higher prices overseas. . . These things just aren’t so anymore.”Now, the millennium.Stock photography supplied by: Archive Photos, American Stock,Camerique, Express Newspapers, Lambert and ThorntonnClick here to see full sizePCR-Chiral, Inc.advertisementand to link toElectronic Reader ServiceSources for the History ChaptersAnal. Chem.; issues from the years 1948–1999.Chem. Eng. News 1998, 76(2), 75th Anniversary issue.Chemicals and Long-Term Economic Growth: Insights from the Chemical Industry;Arora, A.; Landau, R.; Rosenberg, N., Eds.; Wiley: New York, 1998.Chronicle of America; Daniel, C.; Kirshon, J. W.; Berens, R., Eds.; JL InternationalPublishing: Liberty, MO, 1993.Grun, B. The Timetables of History; Simon & Schuster: New York, 1991.Hellemans, A.; Bunch, B. H. The Timetables of Science; Simon & Schuster:New York, 1988.A History of Analytical Chemistry; Laitinen, H. A.; Ewing, G. W., Eds.; AmericanChemical Society: York, PA, 1977.Housnell, D. A.; Smith, J. K., Jr. Science and Corporate Strategy: Du PontR&D, 1902–1980; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1988.Hudson, J. The History of Chemistry; Chapman & Hall: New York, 1992.Hyde, A. J. The Development of Modern Chemistry; Dover: New York, 1984.Johnson, L.; Schaffer, D. Oak Ridge National Laboratory: The First FiftyYears; The University of Tennessee Press: Knoxville, 1994.Kevles, D. J. The Physicists; Vintage Books: New York, 1979.McDonell, H. G. Evolution of Analytical Instrumentation: The Perkin-ElmerStory; Pittsburgh Conference Paper No. 379; Perkin-Elmer Corporation:Norwalk, CT, 1980.75 Years of Chromatography—A Historical Dialogue; Ettre, L. S.; Zlatkis, A.,Eds.; Elsevier: New York, 1979.Stephens, H. Golden Past Golden Future: The First Fifty Years of Beckman Instruments,Inc.; Claremont University Center: Claremont, 1985.Tindall, G. B.; Shi, D. E. America: A Narrative History, 4th ed.; Norton: NewYork, 1996; Vol. 2.Today’s Chemist; issues from the years 1988–1992.Today’s Chemist at Work; issues from the years 1992–1999.Wilson, M. K. The Top Twenty and the Rest: Big Chemistry and Little Funding;Annual Review of Physical Chemistry, Vol. 26, pp. 1–16, 1975.96 Made to Measure March 1999 http://pubs.acs.org

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