chapter 5 - Department of Chemistry

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products guide, whose cover was illustrated with only a DNAmolecule, a flask, and a stylized data pad. In 1996, Beckmantouted “bio-spectrophotometry” with a line of biospectrophotometers.Reflecting the trend, the Analytical InstrumentsAssociation (AIA) changed its name to the Analytical and LifeScience Systems Association (ALSSA).In the early 1990s, Raman spectroscopy, taking advantageof the enhancements possible from combination with sophisticateddye lasers, was used in numerous biological applications,including fiber-optics technology (to study disease processesin the body), enzymology, and whole-cell studies.The AIDS epidemic continued. By 1991, 10 million humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV)–infected adults hadbeen reported in 162 countries worldwide. Estimated projectionsfor worldwide infections by 2000 are more than 40 million.Although a boon to biomedical research, the AIDSepidemic was both a current and a present bane to the healthcare-providing system. Health care costs rose at three timesthe rate of inflation, and demands for health care reform werein part protests against increased costs of medicines and medicaltechnologies, especially for antiviral drugs such as AZT.Emerging technologies, mostly biological, “including combinatorialchemistry, genomics, and microchemistry” were keytopics for discussion at ALSSA’s 1997 Senior Management Conference.In the late 1990s, AIA/ALSSA members accounted foralmost 90% of the North American instrument market. Combinatorialchemistry and drug discovery were indeed extremelyimportant in the 1990s. Companies such as Optiverse offeredhighly diverse stock libraries for drug discovery by using methodsdesigned by Tripos and Panlabs. This offering was similar tothe way biotech companies had earlier offered cloned genesor vectors. Particularly important were computerized methodsfor managing and analyzing the discovery process. Automatingthe process was critical. By using the Tecan Genesisliquid-handling platform, for example, Tecan produced itsCombiTec for solid-phase synthesis for drug discovery, andGilson produced an automated combinatorial chromatographysystem. So important was the field that in 1996, a CombinatorialChemistry Consortium was formed by a number of drugcompanies in conjunction with Molecular Simulations Inc.(MSI) to develop software for enhancing the discovery process.Bioinformatics began its rise to prominence. Gene-sequencingsoftware was dominated by Perkin-Elmer at 67% followedhttp://pubs.acs.orgby Oxford Molecular Group at 7%, although Oxford dominatedthe sequence analysis market. According to an interview inChemical & Engineering News, in the first quarter of 1998, 10%of biotech venture capital went into bioinformatics. By 1997,computational chemistry had become a “must-have tool”[C&EN, 1998, 76(42)].In 1997, more than 40 software-only companies for thechemical industry existed, and the software market was nearlydoubled from the year before. Much of this growth was basedon the huge push to sequence the human genome. By the early1990s, the first comprehensive maps of human chromosomeswere becoming available as part of the federally funded HumanGenome Project (HGP). By 1997, all 4.6 million base pairs in theE. coli genome had been sequenced. In 1998, the completegenome of C. elegans, a soil nematode, was mapped. Thisachievement was a milestone in genetics and molecular biology;it was the first multicellular animal whose DNA was completelysequenced, in part through funding for the HGP. Also in1998, Germany’s Bayer and America’s Millennium Pharmaceuticalsannounced a $465 million drug discovery collaborationbased on Millennium’s genome research. So promising was thehoped-for fallout of genomic science on medical technologythat in 1998, both Incyte Pharmaceuticals and Celera Genomics(a Perkin-Elmer business unit) announced their determinationto sequence the human genome privately. Glaxo Wellcome,Merck, Pfizer, and SmithKline Beecham all developed “internalprograms to manage the huge volumes of proprietary and publicdata” developing from gene-sequencing efforts.Other technologies proved useful to the new biology. By1998, MALDI, developed in the late 1980s by Karas and Hillenkcampin Germany, and by Tanaka and co-workers at theShimadzu Corp. in Japan, when combined with TOF/MS, hadentered the realm of bacterial identification, DNA and proteinsequencing, and the life sciences in general. DNA andprotein sequencers, enhanced HPLC, and almost any of thetraditional instruments could be and were fine-tuned towardlife science applications.The genetic engineering of transgenic plants and animals aswell as drugs had come into its own by the middle of the 1990s.In 1994, the first transgenic bull sired cows that produced humanlactoferrin in their milk. By 1995, mice with transgenichuman antibodies were available. In 1996, Dolly the sheep, thefirst cloned animal, was born.March 1999 Made to Measure 95
By the end of the decade, Monsanto and Novartis were marketingliterally tons of seed for genetically engineered corn andsoybeans. Meanwhile, the companies faced an increasing backlashfrom environmental groups such as Greenpeace, especiallyin the European Union.Chemical companies continued major pushes into the lifesciences, in part by divesting non–life sciences divisions andacquiring additional life sciences companies. Monsanto,DuPont, Hoechst, and Dow, among others, followed thistrend. In 1998, the leading biotech drugs surpassed $1 billionin annual sales for the first time.Click here to see full sizePETROLABadvertisementand to link toElectronic Reader ServiceNo More Revolutions?In 1995, it was announced in Today’s Chemist at Work thatPittcon ‘95 was evolutionary, rather than revolutionary, becauseof the dearth of new technologies compared with previousdecades. Similarly, at the Centcom Breakfast at Pittcon ‘97, LouisT. Rosso, chairman and CEO of Beckman Instruments, summarizedthe state of the modern analytical instrument business.“We are reaching the top of the classical ‘S’ curve, and therehave been few big breakthroughs technically in this industryover the last 10 years . . . And, as you look around the industry,you see consolidations, mergers, you see acquistions, yousee certain companies exiting the industry, and you see manycompanies philosophically looking more and more at internalefficiencies . . . Some of the things we all thought were so afew years ago just aren’t anymore . . . that great technologywas all we needed for success, that science as a business wouldnever stop growing, that government would always supportincreased university research, that regulators would enforcelaws . . . that access to university-generated science is free,that we can raise prices every year, and get higher prices overseas. . . These things just aren’t so anymore.”Now, the millennium.Stock photography supplied by: Archive Photos, American Stock,Camerique, Express Newspapers, Lambert and ThorntonnClick here to see full sizePCR-Chiral, Inc.advertisementand to link toElectronic Reader ServiceSources for the History ChaptersAnal. Chem.; issues from the years 1948–1999.Chem. Eng. News 1998, 76(2), 75th Anniversary issue.Chemicals and Long-Term Economic Growth: Insights from the Chemical Industry;Arora, A.; Landau, R.; Rosenberg, N., Eds.; Wiley: New York, 1998.Chronicle of America; Daniel, C.; Kirshon, J. W.; Berens, R., Eds.; JL InternationalPublishing: Liberty, MO, 1993.Grun, B. The Timetables of History; Simon & Schuster: New York, 1991.Hellemans, A.; Bunch, B. H. The Timetables of Science; Simon & Schuster:New York, 1988.A History of Analytical Chemistry; Laitinen, H. A.; Ewing, G. W., Eds.; AmericanChemical Society: York, PA, 1977.Housnell, D. A.; Smith, J. K., Jr. Science and Corporate Strategy: Du PontR&D, 1902–1980; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1988.Hudson, J. The History of Chemistry; Chapman & Hall: New York, 1992.Hyde, A. J. The Development of Modern Chemistry; Dover: New York, 1984.Johnson, L.; Schaffer, D. Oak Ridge National Laboratory: The First FiftyYears; The University of Tennessee Press: Knoxville, 1994.Kevles, D. J. The Physicists; Vintage Books: New York, 1979.McDonell, H. G. Evolution of Analytical Instrumentation: The Perkin-ElmerStory; Pittsburgh Conference Paper No. 379; Perkin-Elmer Corporation:Norwalk, CT, 1980.75 Years of Chromatography—A Historical Dialogue; Ettre, L. S.; Zlatkis, A.,Eds.; Elsevier: New York, 1979.Stephens, H. Golden Past Golden Future: The First Fifty Years of Beckman Instruments,Inc.; Claremont University Center: Claremont, 1985.Tindall, G. B.; Shi, D. E. America: A Narrative History, 4th ed.; Norton: NewYork, 1996; Vol. 2.Today’s Chemist; issues from the years 1988–1992.Today’s Chemist at Work; issues from the years 1992–1999.Wilson, M. K. The Top Twenty and the Rest: Big Chemistry and Little Funding;Annual Review of Physical Chemistry, Vol. 26, pp. 1–16, 1975.96 Made to Measure March 1999 http://pubs.acs.org
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