Guidelines for Dental Treatment of Patients with Inherited Bleeding ...

TREATMENT OF HEMOPHILIAMAY 2006 • NO 40GUIDELINES FOR DENTALTREATMENT OF PATIENTSWITH INHERITEDBLEEDING DISORDERSAndrew BrewerOral & Maxillofacial Surgery DepartmentThe Royal InfirmaryGlasgow, ScotlandMaria Elvira CorreaCentro de Hematologia e Hemoterapia da UnicampSao Paulo, BrazilOn behalf ofWorld Federation of Hemophilia Dental Committee

Published by the World Federation of Hemophilia (WFH)© World Federation of Hemophilia, 2006The WFH encourages redistribution of its publications for educational purposes by not-for-profithemophilia organizations. In order to obtain permission to reprint, redistribute, or translate thispublication, please contact the Communications Department at the address below.This publication is accessible from the World Federation of Hemophilia’s web site at www.wfh.org.Additional copies are also available from the WFH at:World Federation of Hemophilia1425 René Lévesque Boulevard West, Suite 1010Montréal, Québec H3G 1T7CANADATel. : (514) 875-7944Fax : (514) 875-8916E-mail: wfh@wfh.orgInternet: www.wfh.orgThe Treatment of Hemophilia series is intended to provide general information on the treatment andmanagement of hemophilia. The World Federation of Hemophilia does not engage in the practice ofmedicine and under no circumstances recommends particular treatment for specific individuals. Doseschedules and other treatment regimes are continually revised and new side effects recognized. WFHmakes no representation, express or implied, that drug doses or other treatment recommendations in thispublication are correct. For these reasons it is strongly recommended that individuals seek the advice of amedical adviser and/or to consult printed instructions provided by the pharmaceutical company beforeadministering any of the drugs referred to in this monograph.Statements and opinions expressed here do not necessarily represent the opinions, policies, orrecommendations of the World Federation of Hemophilia, its Executive Committee, or its staff.Treatment of Hemophilia MonographsSeries EditorDr. Sam SchulmanAcknowledgementsThe WFH is grateful to members of the WFH Dental Committee for their work in developing theseguidelines. Thanks also to Dr Richard A. Lipton and Barbara McDonald for their help.Series editor’s noteThe monograph adds to two previous WFH monographs on oral and dental care, prophylaxis andtreatment (Treatment of Hemophilia Monographs No. 3 and 27). It is written by dentists for dentists anddoes not provide specific guidelines regarding doses of factor concentrates. Details on that and resultsfrom a decade of treatments and oral surgical procedures have been published by Franchini et at(Haemophilia 2005;11:504-9) and may be helpful to read for the hematologist involved in the team.

Table of ContentsForeword..................................................................................................................................................................... 1Introduction................................................................................................................................................................ 1Minimizing the use of clotting factor concentrates............................................................................................... 1Prevention................................................................................................................................................................... 2Dental treatment ........................................................................................................................................................ 3Periodontal treatment ............................................................................................................................................... 3Removable prosthodontics....................................................................................................................................... 3Orthodontic treatment .............................................................................................................................................. 3Restorative procedures ............................................................................................................................................. 3Endodontics.................................................................................................................................................. 4Anesthesia and pain management .......................................................................................................................... 4Surgery ........................................................................................................................................................................ 41. Treatment plan......................................................................................................................................... 42. Pre-operative period ............................................................................................................................... 53. Peri-operative period .............................................................................................................................. 54. Post-operative period.............................................................................................................................. 5Post-extraction hemorrhage ..................................................................................................................................... 5Fibrin glue .................................................................................................................................................... 6Splints............................................................................................................................................................ 6Management of oral infections ................................................................................................................................ 61. Dental infections...................................................................................................................................... 62. Periodontal infection................................................................................................................................73. Topical treatment..................................................................................................................................... 7Dental emergencies ................................................................................................................................................... 7Conclusion.................................................................................................................................................................. 7References ................................................................................................................................................................... 8

Guidelines for Dental Treatment of Patients withInherited Bleeding DisordersDental Committee, World Federation of HemophiliaForewordThe dental treatment of patients with inheritedbleeding disorders has been widely discussed inthe literature with the aim of developingguidelines for common procedures. Themajority of guidelines recommend the use ofclotting factor replacement therapy beforeinvasive oral surgery and the use of the inferioralveolar nerve block for restorative dentaltreatment. The dose of clotting factor used variesand this may be due to problems relating to boththe availability and cost of factor concentrates indifferent parts of the world.Successful protocols are the result ofcooperation between hematologists and dentists.These protocols suggest the use of factorconcentrate along with the use of localhemostatic techniques, such as suturing, andlocal measures, such as the use of oxidizedcellulose, for example Surgicel ® or fibrin glue inconjunction with post-operatively administeredantifibrinolytic agents where appropriate. Theuse of local techniques has resulted in certainminor oral surgery procedures being done withminimal or no coagulation factor replacement.The purpose of these guidelines is to provide abasis for the development of local protocols forthe dental treatment of patients with inheritedbleeding disorders.IntroductionHemophilia is an X-linked hereditary disorder.Hemophilia A is a deficiency of factor VIII andhemophilia B (Christmas disease) is a deficiencyof factor IX. Hemophilia is considered severewhen plasma activity is

2 Guidelines for Dental Treatment of Patients with Inherited Bleeding Disordersprovide guidelines that allow dental treatmentto be carried out safely whilst minimizing theuse of factor concentrates.Historically, international guidelines for oralsurgery recommended the administration ofclotting factor concentrates both before and aftersurgery. Doses are calculated to increase thelevel of factor VIII or IX to 50-100 IU/dL for aperiod of at least seven days [9,10]. Ublansky etal. [11] advised an increase of factor VIII or IX to50% for either regional or infiltration localanesthesia.The literature describes many successful dentaltreatment protocols that provide a remarkablereduction in the number of bleeding episodesfollowing oral procedures using oralantifibrinolytic agents, systemic hemostaticreplacement therapy, and local hemostaticagents [12-17].In a WFH monograph by Harrington [18], lowerdoses (30% of normal) of clotting factorconcentrates are recommended for infiltrationanesthesia of the lower jaw and periodontalcurettage. For more invasive surgicalinterventions, the recommendation is to increasethe factor level from 50-100 IU/dL of normalpre-operatively, and use an oral antifibrinolyticagent pre- and post-operatively.Sindet-Pedersen [15,17] suggests that the dose offactor replacement therapy can be significantlyreduced if used with an oral rinse of anantifibrinolytic agent (tranexamic acid) is usedfollowing a dental extraction. He recommends asingle dose of factor, in cases of severehemophilia A elevating the factor VIII level to10IU/dL. Desmopressin, a synthetic derivativeof the hormone vasopressin, has been shown toincrease factor VIII level in some patients withmild or moderate forms of hemophilia A or type1 von Willebrand disease. Unfortunately, not allpatients respond so this should be checkedbefore performing any surgical procedure. Itsuse is well documented in cases of mild andmoderate hemophilia A [19-21]. DDAVPreleases bound factor VIII and is therefore notused to treat patients with hemophilia B. Areport by Ehl et al. [22] showing a clinicalresponse to desmopressin in four patients withhemophilia B with baseline factor IX levels of 1.4to 5% for oral surgery. They report a reductionin the use for plasma products followingtreatment.Fibrin glue is used as a local hemostatic measurein some centres for achieving hemostasis andreducing the needs for clotting factorreplacement therapy (see section on page 6).PreventionThe prevention of dental problems is anessential component of oral care. A successfulregimen will reduce the need for treatment andshould reduce the number of emergency visits.Dental prevention depends on a number ofdifferent factors. Some of these may not beavailable in developing countries but areincluded to demonstrate the ideal situation.• Brushing twice daily with a fluoridetoothpaste.- 1,000-ppm fluoride toothpaste forchildren under 7 years of age.- 1,400-ppm fluoride toothpaste forpeople over 7 years of age.The use of fluoride toothpaste depends onthe fluoride concentration in the watersupply as well as the use of additionalfluoride supplements. It should not be usedif fluoride supplements are taken or if thewater supply has a fluoride content of 1ppm or more.• The toothbrush should have mediumtexture bristles because hard bristles cancause abrasion of the teeth and soft bristlesare inadequate to remove plaque.• Interdental cleaning aids, such as floss, tape,and interdental brushes, should be used toprevent the formation of dental caries andperiodontal disease.• Fluoride supplements may be used, but arenot recommended if the water supply has afluoride content of 1 ppm or more.Supplements include:- Fluoride drops- Fluoride tablets- Topical application of fluoride usingtrays- Fluoride mouthrinses which can be usedon either a daily or a weekly basis.

Guidelines for Dental Treatment of Patients with Inherited Bleeding Disorders 3• The consumption of foods and drinks with ahigh sugar or acid content should be limitedto mealtimes. Three exposures per day is therecommended maximum. The aim is toensure that the intake of food and drinkdoes not cause the pH of the oral cavity tofall below the critical level of pH 5.5.• Artificial sweeteners can be used as analternative to sugars in food and drinks.Examples are aspartame, sorbitol,acesulfamate, etc.• Regular dental visits, usually every 6months, will help identify problems early,reinforce prevention, and emphasize theimportance of reducing the intake of foodand drink containing high levels of sugar oracid.The Scottish Intercollegiate Guideline Networkhas published Preventing Dental Caries inChildren at High Risk, which includes a quickreference guide, may also be a useful resource[23]. It is available from their website athttp://www.sign.ac.uk/pdf/sign47.pdf.Dental treatmentIt is essential to prevent accidental damage to theoral mucosa when carrying out any procedure inthe mouth. Injury can be avoided by:Careful use of saliva ejectors;Careful removal of impressions;Care in the placement of X-ray films,particularly in the sublingual region;Protection of soft tissues during restorativetreatment by using a rubber dam or applyingyellow soft paraffin (vaseline ® ).blood loss. In addition, chlorhexidine gluconatemouthwash can be used to control periodontalproblems. Antibiotics may be required to helpreduce the initial inflammation.Blood loss of all kinds can be controlled locallywith direct pressure or periodontal dressingswith or without topical antifibrinolytic agents.Periodontal surgery in patients with bleedingdisorders must always be regarded as a highriskprocedure with a significant risk of bloodloss. It should only be considered wereconservative treatment has failed and oralhygiene is good. Periodontal surgery can be agreater challenge to hemostasis than a simpleextraction. The procedure must be carefullyplanned and the risks fully explained to thepatient.Removable prosthodonticsPatients with bleeding disorders can be givendentures as long as they are comfortable. If apartial denture is provided it is important thatthe periodontal health of the remaining teeth ismaintained.Orthodontic treatmentFixed and removable orthodontic appliancesmay be used along with regular preventiveadvice and hygiene therapy. Special care shouldbe taken when treating patients with a severebleeding disorder to ensure that the gingiva isnot damaged when fitting the appliance.Periodontal treatmentHealthy periodontal tissue is essential to preventbleeding and tooth loss. If oral hygiene is poortreatment must start as soon as possible after thepatient has had a dental examination andtreatment plan formulated to prevent additionaldamage to the periodontal tissues. In cases ofsevere periodontal disease, it may be necessaryto carry out supragingival scaling initially alongwith oral hygiene education. Subgingival scalingcan start as soon as the inflammation hasdecreased. The treatment may need to be carriedout over several visits to prevent excessiveRestorative proceduresRestorative treatment can be undertakenroutinely providing care is taken to protect themucosa. There is a risk of bleeding with the useof matrix bands or wooden wedges. This can becontrolled by local means or the application oftopical agents. The risks of using localanesthetics and the requirement for prophylaxisare discussed in a later section.

4 Guidelines for Dental Treatment of Patients with Inherited Bleeding DisordersEndodonticsEndodontic treatment is generally low risk forpatients with bleeding disorders. If apulpectomy is indicated, the possibility of thetooth requiring conventional endodontictreatment must also be considered. It isimportant that the procedure be carried outcarefully with the working length of the rootcanal calculated to ensure that the instrumentsdo not pass through the apex of the root canal.The presence of bleeding in the canal isindicative of pulp tissue remaining in the canal.Sodium hypochlorite should be used forirrigation in all cases, followed by the use ofcalcium hydroxide paste to control the bleeding.Formaldehyde-derived substances may also beused in cases where there is persistent bleedingor even before the pulpectomy.Anesthesia and pain managementDental pain can usually be controlled with aminor analgesic such as paracetamol(acetaminophen). Aspirin should not be useddue to its inhibitory affect on plateletaggregation. The use of any non-steroidal antiinflammatorydrug (NSAID) must be discussedbeforehand with the patient's hematologistbecause of their effect on platelet aggregation.There are no restrictions regarding the type oflocal anesthetic agent used although those withvasoconstrictors may provide additional localhemostasis. It is important to advise patientsand parents of children about the risks of localoral trauma before the anesthetic wears off.A buccal infiltration can be used without anyfactor replacement. It will anesthetize all theupper teeth and lower anterior and premolarteeth.The mandibular molar teeth are usually treatedusing the inferior alveolar nerve block. Thisshould only be given after raising clotting factorlevels by appropriate replacement therapy, asthere is a risk of bleeding into the muscles alongwith potential airway compromise due to ahematoma in the retromolar or pterygoid space.The intraligamental technique or interosseoustechnique should be considered instead of themandibular block. Articaine ® has been used as abuccal infiltration to anesthetize the lower molarteeth. A lingual infiltration also requiresappropriate factor replacement since theinjection is into an area with a rich plexus ofblood vessels and the needle is not adjacent tobone. There is a risk of a significant airwayobstruction in the event a bleed [24].LOCAL ANESTHETIC TECHNIQUESNO HEMOSTATICCOVER REQUIREDBuccal infiltrationIntra-papillary injectionsIntraligamentaryinjectionsSurgeryHEMOSTATICCOVERREQUIREDInferior dental blockLingual infiltrationSurgical treatment, including a simple dentalextraction, must be planned to minimize the riskof bleeding, excessive bruising, or hematomaformation. The following points will helpprevent problems:Emergency surgical intervention in dentistry israrely required as pain can often be controlledwithout resorting to an unplanned treatment.All treatment plans must be discussed with thehemophilia unit if they involve the use ofprophylactic cover.1. Treatment planThe treatment plan should be formulated usingthe following guidelines:• Conduct a thorough clinical andradiographic examination.• Identify which treatment may requireprophylactic cover. If multiple extractionsare required, only one or two teeth shouldbe extracted at the first appointment toensure that hemostasis can be achieved. It isimportant to remember the patient’s socialcircumstances (Do they live alone? What aretheir preferences for treatment) as well asthe clinical condition when making thisdecision.• Observe all patients for a prolonged periodafter a dental extraction. This may be for a few

Guidelines for Dental Treatment of Patients with Inherited Bleeding Disorders 5hours for those patients with a mild bleedingtendency whilst those with more severeconditions or a history of prolonged bleedingdespite hemostatic cover may requiresupervision overnight in hospital. [25]• Discuss treatment requiring theadministration of coagulation factor ordesmopressin (DDAVP) with thehemophilia unit. They will be responsiblefor arranging the administration andmonitoring of treatment products.• Discuss the use of local hemostatic agents.This could include the use of oxidizedcellulose (Surgicel ® ) or fibrin glue. Fibringlue should not normally be used in patientswho have never received human-derivedblood products or those who are receivingtreatment with recombinant factor VIII or IXbecause of the potential risks of human viraltransmission.• Consider whether to use antibioticsfollowing a dental extraction. This iscontroversial, but there are a number ofanecdotal reports suggesting that their usemay prevent a late bleed, which is thoughtto be due to infection. However, if a patienthas an infection before treatment, it shouldbe treated with antibiotics.• Always carry out treatment asatraumatically as possible.2. Pre-operative period• Ensure that the oral cavity is as healthy aspossible before any surgical procedure. Thiscan be achieved by arranging treatmentwith a hygienist to remove as much calculusand plaque as possible. The regular use ofan antibacterial mouthwash, for examplechlorhexidine, may also help.• Consider using an antifibrinolytic agent. Itmay be helpful to start the treatment the daybefore the surgery. Tranexamic acid (usualadult dose 1 g three times a day) and epsilonaminocaproic acid (EACA) (50 mg/kg fourtimes a day), are the most commonly useddrugs. They should be continued for a totalof 7 days.3. Peri-operative period• Have the patient rinse with chlorhexidinemouthwash for 2 minutes before theadministration of the local anesthetic.• Carry out the extraction out asatraumatically as possible.• Suture the socket if the gingival margins donot oppose well. Brewer [26] reports a smallseries where sutures were not usedroutinely and there was no significantincrease in post-extraction hemorrhage.Resorbable and non-resorbable sutures maybe used at the operator’s discretion. Theonly problem with non-resorbable sutures isthe need for a post-operative visit and thepossibility of bleeding when the suture isremoved.• Use local hemostatic measures if indicated.These include the use of oxidized celluloseor fibrin glue (see notes on the use of fibringlue).• Use a soft vacuum formed splint to protectthe socket if needed.4. Post-operative periodThe patient must be given detailed postoperativeinstructions:• No mouth rinsing for 24 hours;• No smoking for 24 hours;• Soft diet for 24 hours;• No strenuous activities for 24 hours;• Prescribed medication must be taken asinstructed;• Analgesia should be prescribed for use ifrequired;• Salt-water mouthwashes (1 teaspoon of saltin a glass of warm water) should be usedfour times a day starting the day after theextraction for 7 days [27];• Antibacterial mouthwash may be used;• Emergency contact details must be given tothe patient in case of problems.Post-extraction hemorrhageCareful pre-operative planning and the use ofantifibrinolytic agents will prevent many postoperativeproblems [28]. However, postextractionbleeding will occur on occasion. Ifpost-extraction hemorrhage occurs:Contact the hemophilia unit and consider usingadditional factor concentrate.Inspect the site of the bleed. If there is anyevidence of a tear in the gingiva or otherobvious bleeding point this should be treatedusing local measures as previously described.

6 Guidelines for Dental Treatment of Patients with Inherited Bleeding DisordersInstruct the patient to sit up and bite on a dampgauze swab for at least 10 minutes.Use a 10% solution of tranexamic acid or EACAto dampen the swab or as a mouthwash if thebleeding is difficult to stop.Monitor the patient’s blood pressure as it mayincrease due to worry and pain. If the patienthas pain, a suitable analgesic should beprescribed whilst if there is no pain a small doseof a benzodiazepine or similar will help toreduce the worry and reduce the blood pressure.Fibrin glueIn some hemophilia centres, fibrin glue is usedas a local hemostatic measure, along with anoral antifibrinolytic agent, to achieve hemostasisand reduce the need for clotting factorreplacement therapy. All fibrin glue containshuman or animal components, which has madea number of physicians and patients beinghesitant to use this treatment particularly forpatients who are receiving recombinant factorconcentrates or have never received bloodproducts derived from humans.Fibrin glue mimics the final pathway ofcoagulation cascade at the point wherefibrinogen is converted into fibrin in thepresence of thrombin, factor XIII, fibronectin,and ionized calcium. The cascade reactionprovokes the cleavage of fibrinogen throughthrombin, forming fibrin peptides A and B fromeach molecule of fibrinogen resulting in theformation of the fibrin monomers. Thrombinitself also activates factor XIII, which in thepresence of calcium permits the stabilization ofthe clot. Fibronectin takes part in the process aswell and its inclusion in the adhesive systemappears to promote cellular migration and theactivation of fibroblasts in the area where thefibrin glue was applied [29-32].SplintsSoft vacuum-formed splints can be used toprovide local protection following a dentalextraction or prolonged post-extraction bleed.The following technique is used to construct thesplint pre-operatively:• Take a dental impression before theextraction and cast a model in thelaboratory.• Remove the tooth being extracted from themodel.• Construct a soft vacuum-formed splint tocover the socket completely.• Keep the splint in place for at least 48 hoursbefore checking the socket. If there is anysign of bleeding it should be replaced andchecked every 24 hours.If the splint is to be used to stop a postextractionhemorrhage, the impression must bethoroughly cleaned and disinfected before it istransported to the laboratory.Management of oral infectionsDental infectionsMany patients with infections of dental originare managed without the use of antibiotics butinstead by dental extraction or endodontictreatment, for example [33].Antibiotics are often used to treat an acutebacterial infection. This should be considered forall patients with inherited bleeding disorderssince surgical intervention should be avoided ifpossible. The initial treatment usually startsbased on the normal oral pathogens,Streptococcus viridans, anaerobic gram-positivecocci and anaerobic gram-negative rods.Antibiotic regimes should cover all of thesegroups of organisms [34].Penicillin is a first-line antibiotic used to treatdental infections. It can be taken orally in theform of penicillin V. Metronidazole is extremelyeffective in treating anaerobes and is often usedin combination with penicillin to give goodcoverage of both the aerobic and anaerobicbacteria present in the oral cavity. The doses ofthe drugs may vary depending on theavailability in different countries but thetreatment should continue for 5–7 days.A number of different formulations of penicillinare available with a broader spectrum ofactivity. These can be used either alone or inconjunction with metronidazole. However, itisimportant to remember that if these drugs areineffective treatment of the infection willbecome more complicated.Erythromycin and clindamycin have beenprescribed to patients who are allergic topenicillin [33]. These drugs can be used in

Guidelines for Dental Treatment of Patients with Inherited Bleeding Disorders 7conjunction with metronidazole. Erythromycinmay be effective in people with penicillinallergies, but it may not be suitable for moresevere infections [34].Clindamycin produces high alveolarconcentrations [35], and bactericidal activity isreached with the usual recommended oral doseof 150 mg every 6 hours. In more severe cases itcan be given intravenously. It has been reportedthat clindamycin can cause antibiotic-associatedcolitis and therefore is often reserved for thetreatment of the more serious infections or whenpenicillin has failed [33,34].Periodontal infectionPeriodontal pockets host a variety of differentbacteria, the majority of them being anaerobic.Regular oral hygiene prevents these bacteriafrom causing gingival inflammation.In patients with severe gingival inflammation, inparticular those who are immune compromised,the use of an antimicrobial agent may beindicated. Metronidazole is considered the drugof choice due to its action against anaerobicorganisms. It may be used in conjunction witheither penicillin or erythromycin. However,antimicrobial therapy is no substitute for oralhygiene treatment.Topical treatmentThe most common forms of topical treatmentinvolve the use of an antibacterial mouthwash.These have value as an adjunct to hygiene phasetreatment. The most common treatments are:• Chlorhexidine gluconate: Chlorhexidine isavailable as a mouthwash, spray, andtoothgel. It is most commonly used as atwice a day mouthwash with the patientrinsing their mouth with the solution for 30–60 seconds. The toothgel may be used inaddition to the mouthwash. chlorhexidinehas a tendency to stain teeth so the length ofeach course of treatment should be limited.• Povidine-iodine: povidine-iodine isavailable as a mouthwash and can be usedfor the treatment of acute periodontalproblems. In addition, it may be useful toirrigate the periodontal pockets. It must beused with caution during pregnancy.Dental emergenciesDental emergencies can occur at any time;however, it is important to remember that notreatment should be carried out without priorplanning as this could result in additionalproblems.The most common dental problems are pain dueto caries and bleeding from the periodontaltissues. Pain related to caries can usually betreated with either antibiotics or pulpectomy inorder to allow time for the planning of theextraction. Bleeding from the periodontal tissuescan usually be controlled with antibiotics until anappointment with a hygienist can be arranged.The management of dental trauma is morecomplex as it usually involves both the gingivaand the teeth. Local measures will usually controlgingival bleeding and temporary splinting can beused for fractured or loose teeth.With dental trauma, it is important to rememberthat we are part of the comprehensivehemophilia care team treating these patients.Treatment planning for an emergency requiresinput from the whole team to reduce the risk offurther problems.ConclusionThe monograph has been written to helphealthcare workers develop local guidelines forthe management of patients with inheritedbleeding disorders. They should be studied inconjunction with the two previously publishedWFH monographs Primary Dental Care of Patientswith Hemophilia [18] and Oral Care for People withHemophilia or a Hereditary Bleeding Tendency [36].We should like to thank the members of thedental committee for their help and support inthe development of these guidelines and hopethat they help hemophilia healthcare workersthroughout the world improve dental care fortheir patients.

8 Guidelines for Dental Treatment of Patients with Inherited Bleeding DisordersReferences1. White GC 2nd, Rosendaal F, Aledort LM, Lusher JM, Rothschild C, Ingerslev J. Factor VIII and FactorIX Subcommittee. Definitions in hemophilia. Recommendation of the scientific subcommittee onfactor VIII and factor IX of the scientific and standardization committee of the International Societyon Thrombosis and Haemostasis. Thromb Haemost, 2001; 85(3):560.2. Nilsson IM. Hemophilia. Stockholm: Pharmacia Plasma Products: 1994.3. Fried M W. Management of hepatitis C in the hemophilia patient. Am J Med 1999; 107(6B):85S-89S.4. Kumar A, Kulkami R, Murray DL, et al. Serologic markers of viral hepatitis A, B, C and D in patientswith hemophilia. J Med Virol 1993; 41:205-9.5. Eyster ME, Diamondstone LS, Lien JM, et al. Natural history of hepatitis C virus infection inmultitransfused hemophiliacs: effect of coinfection with human immunodeficiency virus. TheMulticenter Hemophilia Cohort Study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1993; 6:602-10.6. Brewer AK and Giangrande, P. Letter to British Dental Journal. Br Dent J 2005; 198(4):217.7. Shapiro SS, Huntin M. Acquired inhibitors to the blood coagulation factors. Sem Thromb Hemost 1975;1:336.8. Sultan Y, the French Hemophilia Study Group. Prevalence of inhibitors in a population of 3435hemophilia patients in France. Thromb Haemost 1992; 67:600-2.9. Mulkey TF. Outpatient treatment of hemophiliacs for dental extractions. J Oral Surg 1976; 34:428-34.10. Evans BE. Cuidado Dental en Hemofilia. El Tratamiento de la Hemofilia, Federación Mundial de laHemofilia. Berkeley, California: Cutter Laboratories, Inc, 1981.11. Ublansky JH. Comprehensive dental care for children with bleeding disorders – a dentist’sperspective. J Can Dent Assoc 1992, 58(2);111-14.12. Larsen PE. Dental Management of the Patient with Hemophilia. (Letter) Oral Surg Oral Med OralPathol 1989; 67(5):632-33.13. Sindet-Pedersen S, Ingerslev J, Ramström G et al. Management of oral bleeding in haemophilicpatients. Lancet 1988; 3:566.14. Sindet-Pedersen S. Haemostasis in oral surgery – the possible pathogenetic implications of oralfibrinolysis on bleeding. Experimental and clinical studies of the haemostatic balance in the oralcavity, with particular reference to patients with acquired and congenital defects of the coagulationsystem. Dan Med Bull 1991; 38(6):427-43.15. Sindet-Pedersen S; Gram J, and Jespersen J. The possible role of oral epithelial cells in tissue-typeplasminogen activator-related fibrinolysis in human saliva. J Dent Res 1990; 69(6):1283-86.16. Sindet-Pedersen S; Stenbjerg S, Ingerslev J and Karring T. Surgical treatment of severe periodontitis in ahaemophiliac patient with inhibitors to factor VIII. Report of a case. J Clin Periodontol 1988; 15:636-38.17. Sindet-Pedersen; Gram J and Jespersen J. Characterization of plasminogen activators in unstimulatedand stimulated human whole saliva. J Dent Res 1987; 66(6):1199-1203.18. Harrington B. Primary dental care of patients with haemophilia. Treatment of Hemophilia MonographSeries. Montreal, Canada: World Federation of Hemophilia, 2004.19. Mannuci PM, Aberg M, Nilsson IM, Roberteson B. Mechanism of plasminogen activator and factorVIII increase after vasopressin drugs. Br J Haematol 1975; 30:81-3.20. Kobrinsky N, Israel ED, Gerrard J et al. Shortening of bleeding time by DDAVP in various bleedingdisorders. Lancet 1984; 1:1144-48.21. Saulnier J, Marey A, Horellou MH et al. Evaluation of demospressin for dental extraction inpatientswith haemostatic disorders. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1994; 77(1):6-12.22. Ehl S; Severin T; Sutor AH. DDAVP (desmopressin; 1-deamino-cys-8-D-arginine-vasopressin)treatment in children with haemophilia. Br J Haematol 2000; 111:1260-62.

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