land use and land tenure change in the - El Colegio de Chihuahua

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16land uses chemical fertilizers and hybrid seeds. There are more than 350 tractors. In fall and winter theannual crop area includes wheat (43% of the area) and oats (34%) and in summer almost 95% of annualarea is in cotton. The perennial land is almost all in alfalfa. The district has almost 32,000 cattle and sellmilk and wool.The Bajo Rio Conchos district is about 60% in active irrigation. Ejidos are about 55% from 5 to 10hectares and 30% under 5 hectares. Private lands are about 40% under 5 hectares, 25% between 5 and 10,and 25% over 10 hectares. The most important winter crop is wheat, and in summer about 60% of theannual production is cotton. Alfalfa is an important perennial crop.The important Lagunera district is only 40% in active irrigation, mostly gravity fed, and has morethan 2700 tractors. About 85% of all landowners use fertilizer, and more than 90% hybrid seeds. Importantwinter crops include oats (60%) and zacate grass (30%). In summer, cotton is the major annual (65%). Theperennial crops include alfalfa and walnuts. The district reports more than 200,000 goats, 45,000 pigs andalmost 100,000 cattle.E. Social driving forces for land use and land tenure changesThe land tenure and use patterns and trends described above are a result of a variety of factorsincluding physical geography (climate, soils, topography, hydrology, mineral endowment), prices andmarkets, and government policies, especially those concerning agriculture.E.1.US Agriculture PolicySince the 1930s farming has come and gone in the US southwest in boom and bust cycles related towater availability, technology and changing markets. New fertilizers and chemical inputs, as well as newmore resilient crops in the 1960s let to intensification and expansion of crops such as sorghum and alfalfa.The post Depression era is characterized by larger more capital intensive agricultural operations.Agricultural policy shifts emphasizing export markets let farmers to seek competitive advantages over otherregions of the country producing the same crops.The 1970s began a trend in which farmers began to grow more vegetables and fruits, whose return ismuch greater than grains and cotton, but whose capital outlay is more intensive. This is particularly true inareas where federally subsidized water is not available or is expensive, such as southeastern Arizona andsouthwestern New Mexico. In Cochise County, Arizona, for example orchards and greenhouses haveexpanded, as well as pivot irrigation systems.The 1973 Agriculture and Consumer Protection Act, which has since been amended andstrengthened, set the standard that farm subsidies would never rise above market levels. The 1996 FarmBill, for example, provides support for basic grains until 2002, while encouraging farmers to plant “for themarket”. Guarantees remain tied to market prices. Agriculture is no longer insulated from the market, andthis fact has dictated many of the changes seen over the last 10-15 years.Since the late 1970s, trade and agricultural policies have encouraged the expansion of agriculture forexport markets. However, the strong U.S. dollar, the international debt and inflationary crises of the 1980’s,and the expanding financial crisis and currency devaluations in almost every international market whichimports U.S. agriculture, have made this difficult.The North American Free Trade Agreement has opened up the U.S. market to Mexico’s agriculturalproducts. Many of the same crops such as vegetables that are grown more expensively in the Southwest .The devalued peso, cheap labor, and strong dollar make Mexico’s products more competitive. Also the1986Immigration Act restricting immigration, as well as the current crackdown on undocumented aliens bythe Immigration Service, make labor in the U.S. much more scare and expensive. Recent and pendinglegislation regarding quality and health standard for Mexican products will increase the costs of productionin Mexico and make products more expensive and possibly encourage U.S. farmers in the Southwest to gain
17advantage. These developments may have the impact of increasing the intensity of agriculture as well asdetermining the mix of crops. In favor of the more valuable crops where there is a comparative advantage.E.2.Debates overland use in the US Chihuahuan DesertAlthough land use in the US Chihuahan Desert has remained fairly stable in recent years, there areimportant pressures driving changes in specific places and that may influence future patterns. Theseincludes shifts in Federal defense spending that have resulted in the reductions in use of some military landsand intensification of others, such as the expansion of the base at Fort Huachuca in southern Arizona.Increasing autonomy of Indian tribes has resulted in accelerated development on many tribal lands includingmining, logging, tourist developments, and expansion of irrigation.Several policy changes have occurred on resource lands managed by the US government. Forexample, the US Forest Service has shifted from a policy than emphasized sustained yield timber harvestingand multiple uses for timber, recreation, watershed protection and wildlife, to a more ecosystemmanagement approach. The Bureau of Land Management has tried unsuccessfully to raise grazing feesfrom (1.60 per cow calf unit) in order to recoup management costs and reduce overgrazing. The NationalParks Service has been forced to implement people management in order to prevent overcrowding of parksand other protected areas. All agencies have been affected by the Endangered Species Act that requiresprotection and habitat management plans for species that are in danger of extinction.Many of these policy changes have been challenged in the courts by those who wish to maintain orexpand the private benefit from federal lands whether it be low cost timber or cheap grazing leases. Therehas also been a broader push to hand over federal lands to state or private ownership. This so calledSagebrush Rebellion has transformed into the Wise Use movement that believes that resources are bettermanaged and exploited in local or private ownership.There is also growing opposition from the property rights movement that opposes “taking” of landfor environmental protection and federal or state interference in local land use policy.E.3.Mexican Agricultural PolicyMexican agricultural policy has been changing rapidly in recent years and has had important impactson land use and land tenure. The most important shifts include support for export crops and livestock, thewithdrawal of agricultural subsidies, the opening to international and US markets solidified by the NorthAmerican Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and the dramatic reversal of land reforms allowing theprivatization of ejido land.The Mexican government has encouraged the production of grains, oilseeds, fruit and vegetables forexport through investments in irrigation districts, favorable support prices, credit for seeds and inputs, andassistance with marketing and transport. Similarly, incentives have been provided for stockraising usingimproved breeds fed with alfalfa and introduced grasses such as buffel.Mexico’s program of trade liberalization gained momentum when it joined GATT in 1986 as part ofits effort to diversify exports away from petroleum products. During the decade, Mexico’s agriculturalexports to the U.S. more than doubled, from just over $1 billion in 1980 to almost $2.3 Billion in 1989although the U.S. ran a net surplus in agricultural trade throughout this period ($3.3 billion for the decade).Although some Mexican products complete directly with U.S. products, many others face little significantcompetition while others, particularly fruits and vegetables, complement U.S. production as output peaks indifferent seasons. In recent years, Mexico has been the leading exporter of fruits and vegetables into theU.S. (supplying a sixth of the total in some years), starting under the General System of Preferencesprogram and continuing under NAFTA. Leading Mexican horticultural exports in the 1980s includedtomatoes, peppers, cucumbers, onions, melons and squash.Implementation of NAFTA began on January 1, 1994, immediately eliminating all non tariff barriersand some tariff barriers to trade in agricultural products with remaining tariffs to be phased out over periods
Page 1 and 2: USE AND LAND TENURE CHANGE IN THECH
Page 3 and 4: B. Historical Background3B.1.Land t
Page 5 and 6: Widespread discontent with foreign
Page 7 and 8: 7Turner declared the closing of the
Page 9 and 10: 9livestock (Tuckman, 1976; Nguyen,
Page 11 and 12: 11grown primarily in the north (11.
Page 13 and 14: Table 2: Arizona land Tenure13Count
Page 15: 1571.4% in Jimenez). Small plots (l
Page 19 and 20: E.4.Article 27 and Land Reform19Art
Page 21: 21decision makers felt Mexico shoul

land use and land tenure change in the - El Colegio de Chihuahua

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