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28 Fighting the Diseases of PovertyFigure 12 Cereal yield vs. income, 1975–2003Cereal yield (kg per hectare)10,0008,0006,0004,0002,000cy1975cy2003cyp1975cyp200300 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000Source: Based on data from World Bank (2005b)GDP per capita (2000 International $, PPP)populations above 50,000 had twice the death rates of rural areas inthe 1830s (Fogel, 2000). Evidently, overcrowding, lack of knowledgeabout hygiene, and the lack of safe water and sanitation madeurban populations more susceptible to contagious diseases such ascholera, typhoid and tuberculosis. The image of urban sufferingcompared to a healthier rural life is reinforced in the mind of anyonewho visits the over-crowded and polluted urban areas of the developingworld, which give the impression that life in developing countriesis worsening as cities grow.In fact, however, urban residents are better off in most developingcountries. When measured by the United Nations’ Human DevelopmentIndex and its related Human Poverty Index, there is moreprogress and less deprivation in urban areas (UNDP, 2000). Forinstance, in Swaziland, the rural HDI was 35 per cent below theurban level in 1999, reflecting less access to safe water, sanitationand public health services; lower rates of literacy; and higher ratesof undernourishment. Figure 11 shows the urban–rural divide for