Quote Imperatives - Nijmegen Centre for Semantics

Quoted imperativesEmar MaierRadboud University NijmegenSinn und Bedeutung 14, ViennaSeptember 29, 2009Contents1 Embedded imperatives 11.1 Imperatives in indirect discourse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Preview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Mixed quotation 32.1 Between direct and indirect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.2 A presuppositional analysis of mix quotes . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Imperatives 83.1 Schwager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83.2 Mixed quoting imperatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Interjection 114.1 Shan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Conclusion 131 Embedded imperatives1.1 Imperatives in indirect discourseEnglish(1) *John {said/demanded/told me} that call his mother• generalization: no embedded imperatives– cf. Sadock&Zwicky, Palmer, Han. . .1

• reporting imperatives ⇒ direct discourse or infinitival/modal paraphrase(2) John said, “Call my mom!”(3) John {said/told me} to call his mother(4) John {said/demanded/told me} that I should call his motherJapanese(5) Taro-ga [yatu-no uti-ni sugu ko-i] toTaro to his house immediately come-IMP Quotdenwa-o kakete-ki-tamade a phone call‘Taro called me up and said to come to his house right away’• reported imperative ⇒ direct• adjusted indexical ⇒ indirect– Kuno (1988): “blended, quasi-direct discourse”– Oshima (2006): indirect imperative• challenges for the Oshima position:German– how to embed a speech act, semantically, under say?– shiftable indexical parameters in imperatives∗ come! ≈ I command you that you must come∗ Taro (=speaker c ′) commanded me (=addressee c ′) that . . .∗ monstrous shifting?(6) Hans hat dir doch gestern schon gesagt, ruf meinen Vater an‘Hans told you already yesterday to call my dad’• embedded/shifted imperative, *complementizer ⇒ direct• other indexicals adjusted ⇒ indirectcf. Schwager (2005)2

English revisited(7) John said call my mom• infinitive?– Who did John say to call at 3pm– *Who did John say call at 3pm• imperative, *wh-move, *complementizer ⇒ direct• indexicals ⇒ indirectcf. Crnic and Trinh (2008)1.2 PreviewPreview• thesis:– embedded imperatives are quoted– following Kuno– against Oshima, Schwager, and Crnic&Trinh• analysis:– Taro said “come!” to his house– Hans hat dir doch gestern schon gesagt, “ruf [meinen]Vater an!”• formalization:– Geurts&Maier: mixed quotation as presupposition– Schwager: imperatives as modals– Shan: interjected quotes as mix quoted constructions2 Mixed quotation2.1 Between direct and indirectFour kinds of quotes(8) Otto used the word “fool”(9) Otto said, “You’re a fool”(10) Otto said that I’m a fool(11) Otto said that I’m a “fool”3

Mixed quotation(12) Otto said that I’m a “fool”• indirect features:• direct:Formalism– use-inference– grammatical incorporation– ellipsis/anaphora across quotes– mention-inference– indexicals/expressives shift– grammar/spelling/pronunciation errors and non-words retained• syntax+semantics tree grammar G (cf. Potts (2007), Shan (2007))• e.g. 〈I’m a fool, fool(i), t〉 ∈ G• G ⊆ A ∗ × L × T ype– A ∗ = set of finite strings over alphabet A (note: ∩ denotes stringconcatenation)– L = formal language– T ype = set of types∗ basic: e (entities), t (propositions)• composition rule 1: 〈σ 1 ∩ σ 2 , (ϕ 1 (ϕ 2 )), τ 1 〉Example〈σ 1 , ϕ 1 , τ 2 τ 1 〉 〈σ 2 , ϕ 2 , τ 2 〉〈Otto says that I am a fool, (say(fool(i)))(o), t〉〈Otto, o, e〉〈says, say, tet〉〈that, , tt〉〈I, i, e〉〈am a fool, fool, et〉4

Semantics〈Otto says that I am a fool, (say(fool(i)))(o), t〉• 〈σ, ϕ, τ〉 c = ϕ c ∈ D τ– i c := the speaker of c– (say(ϕ))(α) c := the proposition that α c utters some sentencethat in her utterance context c ′ expresses proposition ϕ c– so: (say(fool(i)))(o) c = the proposition that Otto utters somethingthat expresses that I’m a foolDisquotational semantics of pure quotation• allow non-words in the grammar– e.g. 〈misunderestimate, ∅, eet〉– e.g. 〈syudg7 mvc, ∅, ∅〉• add utterance type u• add composition rule (pure quote):〈‘ ∩ σ ∩ ’, 〈σ, ϕ, τ〉, u〉〈σ, ϕ, τ〉• add semantics:– D u = G– 〈σ, ϕ, τ〉 c = 〈σ, ϕ, τ〉(Potts 2007:cf.)Direct discourse as pure quotation• 〈 says, say d , uet 〉〈Otto says, ‘I am a fool’, (say d (〈I’m a fool, fool(i), t〉))(o), t 〉〈Otto . . .〉〈says, say d , uet 〉 〈‘I’m a fool’, 〈I’m a fool, fool(i), t〉, u〉〈I’m a fool, fool(i), t〉〈I . . .〉〈am a fool . . .〉5

2.2 A presuppositional analysis of mix quotesGeurts and Maier (2003)(13) George said that Tony “misunderestimates me”≈ George said that Tony has the property he refers to as ‘misunderestimatesme’• mixed quotation triggers a presupposition– presupposition: George used the expression ‘misunderestimatesme’ to express some property– assertion: George says that Tony has that property• formalization:– presupposition framework: DRT+PA∗ construction stage: G couples forms with PrelDRSs(L = PrelDRS language (with types, lambdas, and (unresolved/insitu) presuppositions)∗ resolution stage: context DRS ⊕ PrelDRS → output DRS– ternary relation express∗ express(x, 〈misunderestimates me . . .〉, X)≈ x uses string misunderestimates me to refer to X• (Geurts and Maier 2003; Maier 2008, 2009:cf.)Mixed quotation• add composition rule (mixed quotation): 1⎡〈“ ∩ σ ∩ ⎢”, ⎣XXexpress(y, 〈σ, ϕ, τ〉, X)⎤〉⎥⎦ , τ〈σ, ϕ, τ〉Example• stage 1: construction 231 Here, double quotes denote mixed quotation, single quotes denote pure quotation.Dashed boxes denote presuppositions (van der Sandt 1992)2 G-triples now represented vertically, with round instead of angled brackets3 The y in express(y〈. . .〉 . . .) should really be a presupposition as well6

0B@say(George said that Tony “misunderestimates me”X(x)xXtony(x) express(y, 〈misunderestimates me〉, X)ygeorge(y)t)(y)1CAGeorge0B@say(said that Tony “misunderestimates me”X(x)xXtony(x) express(y, 〈misunderestimates me〉, X)et)1CAsay0264B@xtony(x)Tony “misunderestimates me”X(x)Xexpress(y, 〈misunderestimates me . . .〉, X)t3751CA0264B@Tonyxxtony(x)e3751CA0264B@“misunderestimates me”XXexpress(y, 〈misunderestimates me, ∅, et〉, X)et0misunderestimates me1@∅Aet3750@misunderestimates∅eet1A0@meie1A• stage 2: resolution7

say(xX(x)X)(y)tony(x)express(y, 〈misunderestimates me〉, X)ygeorge(y)x y Xtony(x) george(y)express(y, 〈misunderestimates me〉, X)say( X(x))(y)• paraphrase: there is a George, and a Tony. George uses the term“misunderestimates me” to refer to some property. George says thatTony has that property.Problematic predictions• note: express(y, 〈σ, ϕ, τ〉, X) only wellformed if X has type τ• non-constituents ⇒ no type (τ = ∅) ⇒ not mix quotable?(14) She allowed as how her dog ate “strange things when left to its owndevices” (Abbott 2005)• indexicals must shift?(15) And I even pissed off the youngest one so much that he told me toquote unquote “stick a lamp up my ass” (Maier 2006)3 Imperatives3.1 SchwagerImperatives express propositions(16) Taro called me up and said “come!” to his house right away≈ . . . said that what he referred to as ‘come!’ to his house. . .8

Xexpress(x, 〈come! . . .〉, X)• type of X?• propositional analysis of imperatives ⇒ 〈come!, . . . , t〉 ⇒ 〈“come!”, . . . , t〉and X is type tImperatives as modals• idea: come! ≈ you must come• 〈come!, IMP(come(j)), t〉〈!, IMP, tt〉〈∅, j, e〉〈come, come, et〉• semantics:– j c := addressee c– IMPϕ c := the proposition that in all worlds compatible withspeaker c ’s demands ϕ c is true– refinement: IMP comes with presuppositions to enforce performativity(cf. Schwager (2005), but ignore for now)∗ speaker c is an authority wrt ϕ∗ speaker c is does not already know that ϕ∗ . . .3.2 Mixed quoting imperativesCombining mixed quotes and propositional imperatives(17) Taro said “come!” to his house9

⎛said that “come!” to his houseto his house(X)say(X⎜⎝ express(y, 〈come! . . .〉, X)et)⎞⎟⎠say⎛⎡⎢⎣⎜⎝“come!” to his houseto his house(X)Xexpress(y, 〈come! . . .〉, X)t⎤⎥⎦⎞⎟⎠to his house. . .⎛⎡⎢⎣⎜⎝“come!”XXexpress(y, 〈come! . . .〉, X)t⎛come!⎞⎝ IMP(come(j)) ⎠t⎤⎥⎦⎞⎟⎠. . .Problems• Taro said “come!” to his house⇒〈to his house . . . tt〉• John said “call!” my mom⇒〈my mom . . . tt〉• Hans hat dir gesagt, “ruf!” meinen Vater “an”⇒ ??10

4 Interjection4.1 ShanShan (2007) on interjections(18) The politician admitted how she “lied [her] way into [her job]”• idea:Details– lied . . . way into . . . is a binary construction– form: A ∗ × A ∗ → A ∗– interpretation: D (et)e × D e → D t– typed, interpretable ⇒ mixed quotable– . . . how she “lied . . . way into . . . ”(her,her job)• ruf. . . an is primitive construction• ruf . . . Vater an obtained by lambda abstraction• add variables to G:– for every τ: 〈x, X, τ〉 is a variable in G• add lambda abstraction:〈λxσ, λXϕ, τ 1 τ 2 〉λ〈x, X, τ 1 〉 〈σ, ϕ, τ 2 〉• formal function application instead of concatenation if one of the argumentsis a construction (γ): 4〈γ(σ), ϕ 1 (ϕ 2 ), τ 1 〉〈γ, ϕ 1 , τ 2 τ 1 〉 〈σ, ϕ 2 , τ 2 〉• special case: infix brackets notation〈“ ∩ γ([ ∩ σ ∩ ]) ∩ ”, ϕ 1 (ϕ 2 ), τ 1 〉〈“ ∩ γ ∩ ”, ϕ 1 , τ 2 τ 1 〉 〈σ, ϕ 2 , τ 2 〉4 We can also define concatenation as a special case of function application, more inthe spirit of Shan (2007)11

Example(19) Hans hat dir gesagt, “ruf [meinen] Vater an!”“ruf [meinen] Vater an”⎛⎝meinen. . .(et)e⎞⎠⎛“ ∩ λxruf ∩ x ∩ Vater ∩ ⎞⎡an!”⎤X⎢⎣ X ⎥⎦⎜⎟⎝ express(. . .) ⎠((et)e)t⎛⎝λxruf ∩ x ∩ Vater ∩ an!λX(IMP(call(X(father))(j)))((et)e)t⎞⎠λ⎛⎝xX(et)e⎞⎠⎛⎝ruf ∩ x ∩ Vater ∩ an!IMP(call(X(father))(j))t⎞⎠. . .⎛⎝ruf ∩ x ∩ Vater ∩ ancall(X(father))et⎞⎠⎛⎝λyruf ∩ y ∩ ancalleet⎞⎠⎛⎝x ∩ VaterX(father)e⎞⎠⎛⎝xX(et)e⎞⎠⎛⎝Vaterfatheret⎞⎠Applications(20) Hans hat dir doch gestern schon gesagt, “ruf [meinen] Vater an!”‘Hans told you already yesterday call.Imp my father’(21) Taro said “come to [his] house!”(22) John said “call [my] mom!”12

(23) She allowed as how her dog “[ate] strange things when left to itsown devices”(24) And I even pissed off the youngest one so much that he told me toquote unquote “stick a lamp up [my] ass”.5 ConclusionConclusions• thesis:– embedded imperatives are mixed quoted– following Kuno– against Oshima, Schwager, Crnic&Trinh• analysis:– Taro said “come to [his] house!”– Hans hat dir doch gestern schon gesagt, “ruf [meinen]Vater an!”• formalization:– Geurts&Maier: mixed quotation as presupposition– Schwager: imperatives as modals– Shan: interjected quotes as mix quoted constructionsFurther research• worry: unrestricted application of invisible “. . . ” and invisible [. . . ]⇒ vacuous?• investigate pragmatic restrictions– do not switch perspective (⇒ report indirectly)– use mixed/direct quote when relevant phrase would get lost inindirect report∗ e.g. mispronunciation, expressive, imperative,. . .– mixed quote full constituents– minimize mixed quote– use [. . . ] to avoid conflicts13

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