Application of Meteorology to Safety at Nuclear Plants - gnssn

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/ifSAFETY \

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/APPLICATION OF METEOROLOGY TO SAFETYAT NUCLEAR PLANTS

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/The following States are Members of the International Atom ic Energy A gency:AFG H ANISTAN GERM ANY, FEDERAL NORWAYALBANIA REPUBLIC OF PA K ISTA NALGERIA GHANA PANAMAARGENTINA GREECE PARAGUAYAUSTRALIA GUATEM ALA PERUAUSTRIA H A IT I PHILIPPINESBELGIUM HOLY SEE POLANDBOLIVIA HUNGARY PORTUGALBRAZIL ICELAND ROMANIABULGARIA INDIA SA U D I ARABIABURMA INDONESIA SENEGALBYELORUSSIAN SO V IE T IRAN SIERRA LEONESO C IA L IST REPUBLIC IRAQ SINGAPORECAM BODIA ISRAEL SO U TH AFRICACAMEROON I T A L Y . SPAINCANADA IV O RY C O A S T SUDANCEYLON JA M A IC A SWEDENCHILE JAPAN SW ITZERLA N DCHINA JORDAN SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLICCOLOM BIA KENYA THAILANDCO N G O , D EM O C RA TIC KOREA, REPUBLIC OF TU N ISIAREPUBLIC OF KU W A IT TU RKEYC O ST A RICA LEBANON UGANDACUBA LIBERIA UKRAINIAN SO V IE T SO C IA L ISTCYPRU S LIBYA REPUBLICC Z EC H O SLO V A K SO C IA L IST LUXEMBOURG UNION OF SO V IE T SO C IA L ISTREPUBLIC M AD AGASCAR REPUBLICSDENMARK MALI U N ITED ARAB REPUBLICDO M IN ICAN REPUBLIC M EXIC O UNITED K IN G DO M OF GREATECUADOR MONACO BRITAIN AND NORTHERNEL SALVADOR M OROCCO IRELANDETH IOPIA NETHERLANDS U N ITED S T A T E S OF AMERICAFINLAND NEW ZEALAND URUGUAYFRANCE- NICARAGUA VENEZUELAGABON NIGERIA V IE T -N A MYUG O SLA VIAT h e A g e n c y ’ s S ta tu te w as approved on 2 3 O cto b er 1956 by th e C o n fe re n c e on th e S ta tu te o f th e IAEAh eld a t U nited N ation s H ead quarters, New Y o rk ; it en tered in to fo rc e on 2 9 Ju ly 1 9 5 7 . T h e H ead quarters o fth e A g en cy a re situ ated in V ie n n a . Its p rin cip a l o b je c tiv e is " t o a c c e le r a t e and e n la rg e th e co n trib u tio n o fa to m ic en ergy to p e a c e , h e a lth and prosperity throughout th e w orld” .© IAEA, 1968P erm ission to rep rod u ce or tra n s la te th e in fo rm a tio n c o n ta in e d in th is p u b lic a tio n m a y b e o b ta in ed byw ritin g to th e In te rn a tio n a l A to m ic Energy A gen cy , K arn tn er Ring 1 1 , A -1 0 1 0 V ien n a I , A u stria.Printed by the IAEA in AustriaDecember 1968

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/SAFETY SERIES No. 29APPLICATION OF METEOROLOGYTO SAFETYAT NUCLEAR PLANTSINTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCYVIENNA, 1968

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/APPLICATION OF METEOROLOGY T O SA FETY A T NUCLEAR PLANTS(S a fety S e rie s, No. 29)A BST RA C T. A report o f a panel convened by th e IAEA in V ien n a, 1 0 -1 4 A pril 1 9 6 7 . T h e n ieetin gwas attended by eig h t experts from six countries.C on ten ts: Introduction; S ite s e le c tio n ; Design and constru ction; O peration s; Em ergency planning anda ctio n at n u clear establish m en ts; T ra in in g ; A ppendix: A sim p le m ethod for com putin g a ir co n cen trationvalues — M od ification s to the b a sic m ethod; Bibliograp hy; List o f p articip ants.Sep arately a v a ila b le in English and F rench.(2 7 p p ., 1 4 .8 X 2 1 c m , paper-bound, 6 figures; 1968) P ric e : U S $ 1 .5 0 ; 12/6 stg.THIS REPORT IS ALSO PUBLISHED IN FRENCHA PPLICATIO N OF METEOROLOGY TO SA FETYA T NUCLEAR PLANTSIAEA, VIENNA, 1968S T I/P U B /2 1 1

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/FOREWORDThis report was prepared on behalf of the International Atom icEnergy Agency by an international panel of experts who met at theA gency's headquarters from 10 to 14 A p ril 1967. The applicationof meteorology to safety at nuclear plants is discussed in connectionwith site selection, design and construction, operation, and e m e r ­gency planning and action. The final chapter considers the trainingto be given to operators and health and safety personnel on m eteorologyproblem s. The appendix gives a sim ple method for computingair concentration values at ground level.is also included.An extensive bibliography

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/CONTENTSIntroduction .......................................................................................................... 1Site selection ..................................................................................................... 2Design and construction ................................................................................ 4Operations ................. ....................................................................................... 7Em ergency planning and action at nuclear establishments .... 9Training ...................................................................................... . .................... 11Appendix: A sim ple method for computing airconcentration values ........... ................................................. 12Modifications to the basic method .................................. 18B ib lio g ra p h y .......................................................................................................... 22List of participants ......................................................................................... 27

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/INTRODUCTIONH istorically, m eteorological considerations formed part of thesafety studies for the ea rliest reacto rs. In som e countries sm a llm eteorological research groups, working closely with both the healthphysics and reactor design groups, became a permanent part of thelarge nuclear research and experimental complexes, or meteorologistswere assigned to these tem porarily, to conduct safety analyses anddiffusion experim ents. A s the nuclear power industry grew, theseindividual m eteorologists and groups contributed to the methodologyof the m eteorological portions of reactor safety analyses, which havenow acquired a generally accepted content. Although meteorologistsform part of the staffs of some of the larger nuclear research installations,their se rv ices are generally not required on a permanentbasis in connection with the operation of individual nuclear powerplan ts.Since it is im p ossible to ensure that accidental radioactivityreleases w ill not occur in nuclear plants nor that plant-engineeredsafeguards w ill always be effective, it is prudent to consider as faras p ossible the diffusion and d isp ersion of radioactive e m issio n s,chiefly by the atm osphere. M eteorological factors should be consideredin connection with (1) site selection; (2) design and construction;(3) operation; and (4) em ergency planning and action atnuclear establishm ents.Under (1) the m eteorologist can provide information concerningthe selection of p referred sites that are otherw ise acceptable interm s of econom ic, p olitical and technical fa cto rs. Under (2) hecan, once the site has been selected, provide information on whichare based engineering decisions concerning the safety features tobe incorporated in the design, and the degree of containment requiredto lim it the consequences of a possible accident. Under (3), in consultationwith health and safety authorities he can help to determinemaximum acceptable levels of radioactive discharge under routineoperations, and a ssist in the scheduling of sp ecial operations.Finally, when deploying m onitoring team s and taking other con sequentialaction in the event of a serious accidental release, properuse of m eteorological measurements, including forecasts in (4) above,is vital to the quick im plem entation of rem ed ial actions that w illm in im ize the hazards to the surrounding population.So far as the local population is concerned, an acceptable safetystandard can be achieved both for norm al and accidental conditions1

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/in several alternative ways.The level of precision of the meteorologicaladvice sought may vary widely according to the designer'sjudgement of the relative merits of these alternatives. The meteorologistshould always be ready to supply the information on which thedesigner will make these judgements, particularly as this m ay berelated to the relative economic merits of the various alternatives.F o r this reason his information is often most useful when given interms of the frequencies (or probabilities) of occurrence of variousdiffusion regimes and associated meteorological parameters, e .g .the persistence of wind direction, and the lowest wind speed for agiven persistence period.The meteorological aspects to be considered under the aboverequirements will be discussed in detail below, and form thfe mainsubject of this report.SITE S E L E C T I O NMeteorology should contribute to the siting of nuclear plants bygiving information on elements that are useful for evaluating andcomparing a number of possible sites. The comparison may well bebased chiefly on wind analysis, air temperature profiles for the lowerlayers of the atmosphere, and rainfall intensity frequencies. Particularattention should be paid to the influence of local topography onthese parameters. It is usually necessary for preliminary site analysesto be carried out in a short time, and accordingly only existingmeteorological data can be used. The limitations of these data shouldbe kept in mind.Siting has to be considered in relation to population distribution(assumed constant or foreseeable), and hence the first considerationshould be the probability distribution of direction of travel of anyreleases of radioactivity. There is therefore a requirement for themeteorologist to provide suitable wind roses, primarily of directionbut including speeds if possible. Preferably the wind roses shouldrefer to expected emission (chimney) heights. It is recognized thatthese wind roses will not normally be available from existing m easurements,but in a country where climatological statistics or synopticmeteorological data exist they might usually be obtained with relativelyminor effort for the following heights:2

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/(a)(b)The surface (10-m height),At above 500 m (at higher levels) above mean sea level fromgeostrophic wind estimations,(c) At intermediate levels, by means of a series of pilot balloonmeasurements, radiosondes or rawin ascents.In each case the data may have to be processed by the meteorologistbefore use; e .g . in (a) the topography should be studied toestimate any local peculiarities; in (b) the position on synopticcharts of the given locality should be used, and again topography mayhave an effect. For (c) contour charts can be used if available butotherwise interpolation between stations may be possible. Ordinarilyan experienced meteorologist employing general synoptic or climat-ological data will be able to give an informed estimate of these windroses, and in all cases the best technical advice should be sought,nationally, or from the World Meteorological Organization (W M O )if necessary.With regard to the interpolation of wind rose data to the expectedheight of release, an experienced meteorologist can again make veryuseful estimates in terms of the kind of considerations given, forexample, by Findlater et al., 1966. Some general guidance on theabove aspects and other matters in this section can be found inChapter 11 of W M O Technical Note No. 33 (Meade, 1960), and thedesirability of on-site inspections and studies cannot be overestimated.The angular resolution of the wind rose data will dependlargely on the wind statistics available. Normally 20° sectors or2 2 .5 ° sectors should be aimed at, but analysis by 45° sectors maybe used if the greater detail is not readily available. The frequencyof calms1 is another important parameter. This should be estimatedas far as possible from the above wind data but it must be recognizedthat the result will depend on the sensitivity of the original instrumentationused. Any qualifications on this account should be pointed outto the design authorities.The stability of the atmosphere in the neighbourhood of the site,although of secondary importance to wind direction in this stage ofthe meteorological study, is useful and should also be considered.(Ideally, wind roses for different stability categories should be producedbut sufficient data to do this are rarely available.) Althoughin the choice between neighbouring sites the average stability doesnot usually vary much with distance, there are cases where the1 Calms, as used here, means a wind speed of less than 3 knots or 2 m/s.3

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/average stability does vary appreciably, particularly if the topographyis not uniform (e .g . between mountains and valleys, nearseas and lakes, etc.). The following are possible sources fromwhich the meteorologist m ay estimate stability:(1) Any series of radiosonde ascents or other special seriesof measurements of temperature in the vertical m ay beused. If these are available in conjunction with surfacetemperature measurements, studies of inversion frequencies,magnitudes and heights m ay be m ade, and this has beendone in some countries (e .g . Hosier 1961).(2) Attempts should also be made to obtain subjective assessmentsfrom any available cloud, fog and wind data (e.g . onthe lines of the Pasquill (1961) categories).It is again stressed that considerable meteorological knowledgewill be necessary to obtain useful information from such limited data,and the best technical assistance should be sought in this connection.Finally, it would be useful also to consider rainfall statistics.In this connection intensity of rainfall as well as total rainfall is veryimportant, and the best assessment should be made, from synopticdata if possible, in terms of established categories such as heavy,m edium and light rainfall.2 Any data on storm frequency would beuseful also. The frequency distribution of these elements on a mesometeorologicalscale is probably a function of other factors such aswind direction and topography, and useful assessments may dependon local meteorological knowledge.D E S IG N A N D C O N S T R U C T I O NThe object of meteorological studies conducted during the designand construction stage is to assist in the provision of design parameters,particularly those dependent on atmospheric diffusion. Thiswill ordinarily require some refinement and extension of estimatesthat were made during the site selection stage. Aspects of the designthat are influenced by meteorology include: the expected duration ofradioactivity releases in ordinary and accident conditions; the sizeof exclusion area; the stack characteristics including physicalz No international definitions for these categories have been laid down, so national classificationswill be necessary. The definitions established in some countries in the north temperatezones, for example, will not apply in tropical latitudes.4

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/factors such as height and efflux velocity, and location relative tonearby buildings and terrain features; and the sizing of certain socalledengineered safeguards such as filters, and gaseous holdupand other containment systems.These design parameters may be influenced by the meteorologicalvariables because of the air concentrations of gaseous radioactiveeffluents to which they lead. Several more or less equivalentmethods of calculating atmospheric diffusion exist, i.e . those byFrenkiel (1953), Laikhtman (1961), Sakagami (1956), Sutton (1953),and C ram er (1959), to cite but a few examples. The method mostwidely applied in practice at present is that of Pasquill (1961, 1962).Details of this calculation are given in the Appendix. In practicePasquill's method has the advantage of simplicity and can be usedwith confidence, provided certain limitations are kept in m ind.It should be remembered that Pasquill's method was developedprimarily from diffusion data for ground-level sources (cf. Barad,1958) and as yet there is no entirely satisfactory method of assessingthe effect of release height. A further limitation is the fact that themethod assum es uniform underlying terrain. In the cases of bothrough terrain and elevated release, particularly in conditions ofgreat stability, the method will tend to overestimate ground-levelconcentrations, as is shown by the observations of Le Quinio (1964),Simpson (1965), Singer (1966) and others. If the designer is willingto accept this factor of conservatism, the method is adequate. Otherwiserecourse to actual diffusion observations m ay be helpful.The effect of the presence of the reactor building as well asother structures nearby will have to be estimated. A simple modificationfor accounting approximately for this effect is described inthe Appendix. Some account must also be taken of the influence ofthe duration of the release on computed concentrations, since thisfactor m ay vary according to the postulated accident conditions,whereas Pasquill's (1961) method of directly using wind fluctuationmeasurements presupposes a release time at least e q u a l to the traveltime, i.e . the time from the source to the receptor t = x/u m . 3 In theuse of the practical method given by Pasquill there is basically norestriction as regards release time. Likewise, the routine emissionof radioactivity m ay take place on a more or less continuous basisthroughout the year. Adaptations of the basic method to cover thesepoints are also described in the Appendix.3 This point has been discussed recently by Watson and Simpson (1967) and by Slade (1965).5

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/In conformity with experience, it is the practice when calculatingdiffusion from large, fossil-fuel power plant stacks to allow for anoften considerable rise above the stack mouth due primarily to plumebuoyancy. Reactor gaseous effluents can, on the other hand, often(but not always) be assumed to be released at or near ambienttemperature, and it is not usually necessary to apply a large stackheightcorrection, at least for routine releases. In any case, neglectof plume rise due to buoyancy is conservative. 'Buoyant plume riseis discussed in detail by Slade.Finally, the effects of plume depletion by dry deposition and ofwashout by precipitation can be taken into account. See the Appendixfor a brief description of the method involved.The meteorological survey during the design and constructionstage will require, as a minimum, estimates of average wind speedand estimates of frequency of various amounts of cloud cover, asrequired by Pasquill's method. Obviously these estimates should bedetailed enough to reflect any seasonal and diurnal peculiarities ofa site. For the purpose of estimating annual average concentrationsas well as the frequency of occurrence of concentrations for variouscategories of stability, the wind rose as a function of these stabilitycategories is also required. The necessary cloudiness data can besupplemented by vertical temperature gradient or by insolation (radiation)data if these are available.Considering the degree of uncertainty, as reflected by the variousreservations expressed in the above discussion, that at present attachesto concentration estimates, it does not seem possible todayto recommend a standard set of observations or an elaborate datacollection program as most suitable and useful for any nuclearestablishment. It may also be advisable to mention that it is not onlyuseless but also dangerous (for the great amount of work implied andfor psychological reasons) to collect more data than can be utilized.It is to be expected that for em ergency purposes an anem om eterand wind vane will be a part of the permanent instrumentation, sothat this installation should be m ade early in the design and con-struction stage so as to acquire the necessary wind data. Cloudinessor other data related to atmospheric stability can be either obtainedfrom existing sources of meteorological data or estimated.The wind instrumentation can be selected on the basis of PublicationNo. 192 T . P . of the World Meteorological Organization. Asfar as installation of the instruments is concerned, it is advisable toemphasize that the criteria of representativeness for determining6

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/the diffusion of effluents can be different from those of synopticmeteorology. The instrument recorders should be located so thatthe readouts are available to the reactor health physicist and operatorin all circumstances, including emergencies. All diffusion calculationswhich make use of surface wind are based on observationsmade at a height of 10 m, in accordance with W M O standard practice.Some care will have to be taken in locating the wind instrumentationin the vicinity of buildings. The advice of a micrometeorologist maybe necessary in this connection. Since for purposes related toemergency planning information on the wind at the level of the top ofthe stack is desirable, it may also be necessary to have windmeasuringequipment mounted at this level.If a site is located near highly irregular terrain or which forsome other reason violates the conditions for applicability of simplemethods of diffusion calculation, it may be appropriate to performsome actual diffusion experiments. The use of smoke photographyhas proved a reasonably effective qualitative method for studyinglocal flow irregularities, and use can be made of radioactive orchemical tracers for quantitative determination of their effects atlonger distances.In addition to diffusion estimation, meteorological informationand advice is required in connection with more conventional aspectsof construction design such as: wind loads on structures, includingtornado design; protection against tidal and hurricane waves; andcooling tower, air conditioning and heating design. These items arenormally covered by construction codes and standards applicable tonuclear installations, and will not be discussed in detail here.O P E R A T IO N SWhen the plant is operating it may be possible to dispense withsom e of the instruments and measurem ents needed in the earlierstages. During this stage, only the speed and direction anemometersat stack, height and perhaps the rain gauge will be needed. However,the amount of the instrumentation which is retained for use duringoperation will depend to some extent on the type of facility in questionand also on the site. For example, a power reactor site m ay wellneed only a wind instrument whereas some processing plants or researchcentres m ay justify quite sophisticated instrumentation.Similarly, an uneven terrain may require more complicated instrumentationthan a plain terrain.7

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/Although during the operating stage of the plant there willnormally be a diminishing need for new meteorological information,it is important to realize that the meteorological instrumentation isan integral part of the process system, and as such should obtainthe same regular inspection and maintenance as is accorded to theother parts of the system. By this stage most of the relevant climatologicaldata will have been collected, and this information will havebeen used in the design of the plant and in establishing the properoperating conditions. If a measure of meteorological control of somespecial operations involving the release of amounts of radioactivematerials in excess of the design specifications has been prescribed,the meteorological instruments will continue to provide useful information.Normally the control of environmental contaminationwill be exercised through control of the measured discharge ratesaccording to the program set up from consideration of the factorsoutlined in the previous sections. However, some of the informationobtained during the previous stages may have been obtained from anearby site, for example a synoptic meteorological station. Itsvalidity should now be checked with the instruments installed at theplant, and the effect of any departures that are found should beassessed in terms of the original design and operating specifications.Likewise, changing patterns of land usage and population distributionin the area will also have to be assessed from time to time to checkthat the original specifications still give the desired level of safety.During the operating stage, records from the meteorologicalinstruments will continue to provide information which may be usedto modify and bring up to date the local climatological data used inthe earlier stages. However, the records should be scrutinized byexperienced personnel as a further check to make certain that thecalibration and sensitivity of the instruments are being maintained.During the operating stage the meteorological instrumentation remainsa part of the engineered safety features associated with theplant, and is intended to diminish the effects of accidents in the environment.It is important that the readings are reliable.Meteorological forecasts, together with a general statement ofthe current weather obtained from the local forecasting service, mayalso be valuable. The International Com m ission on RadiologicalProtection recommends that the radiation dose to the public should ingeneral be as low as practicable; operations managers should becareful about approving intentional releases of radioactivity on thebasis of uninterpreted local meteorological observations. If such8

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/planned releases are significant in quantity or frequency, specialforecasting capabilities or special restrictions based on meteorologyshould be established. Routine operations will not normally requireforecasting since the relevant environmental safety considerationswill have been built into the design and operating procedures. How ­ever, meteorological information m ay be useful for identifying thesource of any environmental contamination revealed during routinemonitoring.It would be advisable for the plant authorities to make arrangementsto receive severe weather warnings, including those of stagnationperiods, from the forecasting service.E M E R G E N C Y P L A N N IN G A N D A C T IO N A TN U C L E A R E S T A B L IS H M E N T S* Although the nature of the meteorological support that m ay beneeded during an emergency is discussed in detail in the followingparagraphs, the effectiveness of emergency plans will depend to alarge extent on the practices established during the operating stage.During the operating stage, particularly as time passes, there maybe a tendency to neglect the meteorological aspects of nuclear plantsafety altogether. It cannot be too strongly emphasized that thisnatural tendency must be resisted. In effect the operating stage isa preliminary to the effective handling of an emergency. Thereforeduring this stage it is important not only to maintain the equipmentbut also the effectiveness of support from the meteorological servicesthat will be needed during an emergency.It is a matter of choice whether meteorologists should actuallybe located on the site, but in any case there should be close cooperationbetween the national meteorological service and the healthand safety staff concerned, to ensure that efficient emergency actionwill be taken. Each site should be assigned as a responsibility to adesignated major meteorological office with full 24-h forecastingfacilities and able in an emergency to concentrate attention on thisproblem. When the meteorological station is not located on the site,the meteorological officers who will be involved should visit the sitein their area to maintain liaison, familiarize themselves with local9

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/features, and inspect the wind measuring instruments. It should bean integral part of the plant operational procedures that periodicexercises be conducted to test the communications and planning foran emergency, and these exercises should include every aspect ofall the actions taken in conjunction with the health and safety staff.All these arrangements should be kept constantly under review andpossible improvements considered.If an accidental release occurs it will be necessary to know atonce the expected trajectory of the effluent in the neighbourhood ofthe nuclear installation, and estimate expected concentrations andradiation levels downwind. At the site the first indication of thedirection of travel will be from locally installed instruments. Itagain follows that each site should have (meteorologically) well-sitedmeasuring instruments at one or more suitable heights and that theyshould be correctly oriented and maintained, as discussed in thedesign and construction section above. It would be advisable to havealways available a set of simple graphic aids (templates or mapoverlays) prepared in advance (if necessary in conjunction withmeteorological'advice preferably based on data obtained in previousstudies of the site conditions) to allow a very rapid first approximationto be m ade of the expected radiological conditions.In order to indicate in the event of large releases what sectorsshould be given attention as time proceeds and to consider possibleeffects at greater distances, forecasts of wind speed and directionat the surface and at a height of approximately 500 m , stability, inversionbase if possible, and expected precipitation should be availableimmediately. Particular attention should be given to anyexpected rapid and large-scale changes of these quantities, particularlythose that might accompany fronts. It will be very desirablefor meteorological m easurem ents and conditions observed at thesite to be communicated rapidly and regularly to the forecasterduring the emergency to help him provide the most accurate forecasts.The forecast period covered will normally be for the next6 - 1 2 h, and the distance of interest can be up to several tens ofkilometres from the site. In addition there is also the possibility offorecasts for longer periods and greater distance ranges, and alsoof the requirement for long-range trajectories.Subsequent to any large accident an inquiry will be likely, andthe meteorologist will then be required to assist in providing datafor studies. Retention of water collected at rainfall stations foranalysis can be envisaged in this connection.10

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/TRA IN IN GTo be effective, any safety system must be well understood andwell maintained. Meteorological data collection and utilization, asthey have been discussed here, are primarily requirements of safety.All operations personnel should have at least an elementary knowledgeof meteorology. Usually it will be the responsibility of health andsafety personnel to apply diffusion theories at their establishmentfor such purposes as the design and operation of environment surveillancesystems, emergency planning, emergency actions andplanned releases of radioactivity. It is necessary that they be wellacquainted with meteorological principles and practised in the useof diffusion transport and deposition calculations. As has beenstated above, when a trained meteorologist is available, he shouldfamiliarize himself with the particular details of local conditions.The amount of meteorology training that should be given tooperators and health and safety personnel will depend on the natureof the operation, the administrative arrangements and the availabilityof expert advice. In general, only a short course of trainingwith occasional refresher courses, if necessary, will be sufficientfor the operations personnel. Particular emphasis should be placedon the accurate reading of instruments, reporting of weatherinformation, and proper appreciation of meteorological terminologyand reports. The health and safety personnel will usually requiremore extensive training, and the personnel responsible for predictingconcentrations should therefore have demonstrated their capabilitiesbefore they are assigned responsibilities. In the application of diffusioncalculations, a half-informed attempt can be dangerous.It is equally important for the meteorologists concerned to havea good knowledge of the relevant problems of the nuclear installations.It is necessary to ensure that the meteorological services possessthe necessary expertise in micrometeorology and diffusion. Thiswould normally be readily achieved if the meteorological servicesof a country in addition to a forecasting service included a researchorganization dealing with micrometeorological problems. The lattershould be able to provide instructors on the nuclear installationproblem in the general meteorological training program. If this isnot possible the provision of assistance internationally should beconsidered.11

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/APPENDIXA S IM P L E M E T H O D F O RC O M P U T IN G AIR C O N C E N T R A T I O N V A L U E SOn the basis of available experimental data, including the well-known Prairie Grass diffusion experiments (cf. B a r a d (1 9 5 8 ),C r a m e r (1957)) and guided by theoretical expectations, Pasquill(1961, 1962) suggested a practical scheme for estimating diffusionthat is particularly suitable for use in the field. He defined a plumeheight, H (metres), and an angular plume width, 0, such that theconcentration at the edge of the plume equals 10% of its axial value.F o r practical purposes, it is sometimes m ore convenient to usePasquill's method in the form suggested by Gifford (1960), in whichthe plume dispersion coefficients, a and a?., are defined byH = 2 .1 5 az ( 1)andtan(0/2) = 2. 15 crv /x (2)Here x is distance downwind from the source, and the numerical coefficient2 .1 5 is the 10% ordinate of the normal distribution curve.In this form the dispersion coefficients can be regarded as thestandard deviations of the material distribution in the diffusing plume;and the equation for ground-level air concentration values, X (gramsor curies per cubic metre), isX = Q(7TOyaz u) 1 exp -(y2/ 2

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/x/ Distance from so u rce (metres)FIG. 1. Horizontal dispersion parameter, Oy, metres, as a function of downwind distance, x,metres, for various types of weather (Nucl. Saf.2 3(1961)48).The right-hand side of Eq. (3) contains a multiplicative factor of 2,which is a conventional device to account for the assumed "reflection"of the plume by the ground plane.Families of curves of crv and cr7 (in metres) as functions ofvarious meteorological categories are presented in Figs 1 and 2.These curves are based on the values of H and 6 given by Pasquillas converted by Eqs (1) and (2). Them anner of relatingthese curvesto prevailing conditions of wind speed and to factors influencingatmospheric stability is evident from the data given in Table I.13

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/y D istance from source (metres)FIG. 2. Vertical dispersion parameter, oz, metres, as a function of downwind distance, x, metres,for various types of weather (Nucl. Saf. 2 3 (1961) 48).Observations of the independent parameters given in Table I,namely, wind speed and cloudiness, are commonly carried out atmost meteorological installations and, in any case, present no greatinstrumentation problems. In practice, values of cry and

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/T A B L E I.M E T E O R O L O G IC A L C A T E G O R IE SSurface windspeed(m/s)Daytime insolation'’Strong Moderate SlightNight-time conditionsThin overcastor ^ 4/8 cloudiness2s 3/8 cloudiness< 2 A A-B B2 A-B B C E F4 B B-C C D E6 C C-D D D D> 6 C D D D DA Extremely unstable conditions D Neutral conditions aB Moderately unstable conditions E Slightly stable conditionsC Slightly unstable conditions F Moderately stable conditionsa Applicable to heavy overcast, day or night.k "Strong" incoming solar radiation corresponds to a solar altitude greater than 60” withclear skies; "slight" insolation corresponds to a solar altitude from 15° to 35° with clearskies. Table 170, Solar Altitude and Azimuth (List, 1951) (Turner, 1961) can be used indetermining the solar altitude.c The degree of cloudiness is defined as that fraction of the sky above the local apparenthorizon which is covered by clouds.Evaluation of Eq. (3) for various values of the parameters hasbeen carried out by Beattie (1961), Couchman (1961), Bryant(1964)and others. A s an aid to computations, the set of curves given byHilsmeier and Gifford (1962) is included here, Figs 3-6.It has been pointed out by Slade (1965, 1967) that the standarddeviation of the horizontal wind fluctuations,

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/T A B L E II.STA N D A R D D E V IA T IO NPasquill category °eA extremely unstable 25.0°B moderately unstable 20.0°C slightly unstable 15.0°D neutral 10.0°E slightly stable 5.0°F moderately stable 2 .5 ”FIG.3. Values of ux/Q as a function of downwind distance, x, metres, for various typesof weather,source at surface.16

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/Many investigators (cf. Slade, 1965) have found that the rangeR of 0, which is the difference between the extreme values that occurin about this same time period (30 min), is related tobyct0 = R (0)/6 = (0 m a x - 0 m in )/6 (5)FIG. 4. Values of u\/0 as a function of downwind distance, x, metres, for various types of weather;h = 10 m.Equation (5) provides a way to determine

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/* (metres)FIG.5. Valuesofux/Q as a function of downwind distance, x, metres, for various types of weather;h = 30 m.M O D IF IC A T IO N S T O T H E BASIC M E T H O DI. The effect of nearby buildingsReasoning that a reactor building must have a turbulent wake inits lee, Fuquay (1958) suggests treating the building effect as aninitial dilution factor D B whereDg = cAu (6 )and A is the cross-sectional area of the building normal to the wind.It is estimated that 1/2 § c s 2, i.e . any material escaping from thecontainment building is assumed to be dispersed rapidly into a volumeequal to c times the building cross-sectional area times the windspeed.The factor c represents an estimation of the relation of thebuilding cross-sectional area to the size of observed pressure wakes.18

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/The building dilution factor, D B, is combined with the atmosphericdilution factor, DA= Q /X , in a manner similar to Fuquay's(1958) handling of stack dilution:D total = d b + D a(7)FIG.6. Values of ux/Q as a function of downwind distance, x, metres, for various types of weather;h = 100 m.By combining Eqs (1), (2) and (3), it follows that, in the downwinddirectionX = Q/(a-a-y(Jz + cA)u (8 )where h is (conservatively) assumed to be equal to zero. Barry(1964) has reviewed the available experimental data on this subject.19

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/II.The effect of duration of the re leaseOver a period of time, the direction of the average wind changesin response to meteorological conditions such as fronts. The windrose, which gives the joint wind-speed and wind-direction frequencydistribution, is therefore a useful indicator of the characteristicfeatures of the climate in a particular locality. To estimate theaverage concentration, Xav, over a period of time, such as a yearor a season, that is very long compared with that (about 30 min) overwhich the m ean wind, u, in E q .(3 ) is normally computed, the followingformula can be used:(9)In E q .(9 ) f is the frequency, expressed in per cent, with which thewind blows towards a given sector, during the period in question;27rx/n is the sector width, n being the number of sectors in the circle(i. e. the number of directions into which the wind rose is divided),and Q, a z and u are average values over the long time period.For release times of from 1 h up to about 8 h, that is to abouta day or a night, Slade (1965) suggests multiplying the result fromE q .(3 ), which is valid for periods of 1/2 to 1 h, by a correctionfactor, (t/t0)b, where t is the period of time in question and t0 equals30 min. Values of b can be obtained from the relationR = R 30(t/30)b(9a)where R is the wind direction range over the period t, min, and R 30is the range over 30 min.III.Deposition and washoutChamberlain (1953, 1960) suggested that the effect of depositionof material from a diffusing cloud on to the underlying surface couldbe accounted for by defining a deposition velocity, Vg, as_ amount deposited /unit of horizontal surface/s, ug Volumetric concentration above this surface, Xi.e . u = VgX where w is the amount deposited per unit time.20

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/Values of Vg have been compiled by Chamberlain and others;see for example Gifford and Pack (1962), Hawley et al. (1964-68).To account for the resulting plume depletion, it is necessary toreplace Q in E q. (3) for X, by a quantity Q x, defined so thateod Q x/dX=.- J udX (11)-OOChamberlain (1960) also suggested accounting for the removal ofcloud material by the action of rainfall as an exponential depletionprocess,4Q r = Q exp (-A X / u ) (12)T A B L E III. O B S E R V E D D E P O S I T I O N V E L O C I T Y F O R 131I,cm s"1OverDownwind distance15-100 ma 300-340 mbGrass 2 .1 ' 0.8Soil 0.6Snow 0.2Carbon 0.7Sticky paper 0 .4a Chamberlain (1960).b Hawley et al. (1964).4 At the present time many aspects of this problem, including the values of the depositionvelocity, Vg, and of the rainout constant, A, are only very poorly understood. Some meteorologistsfeel that, simply as a matter of conservatism in the safety evaluation, it is better not to make anyallowance for plume depletion. Also, it should be noted that the method assumes a constant washoutrate over the entire length of the plume. However, high washout rates may be the result of veryintense showers, which are distributed very irregularly in space, to take one example. In this waya plume which has not been depleted for several kilometres may be precipitated to the groundsuddenly by a shower, carrying large deposits with it.21

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/With this definition the total rainout per second, u r, is given byur = A Q (21/2, 1/2 u a yeAx/u ) 1 exp ( - y 2/2 t X y )Observed values of the deposition velocity, , for 131I overvarious surfaces are given in Table III. For a complete discussionof rainout and washout effects, see Slade (1968).B I B L I O G R A P H YBARAD, M.L. (1958): Project Prairie Grass, a field program in diffusion, Geophysical ResearchPapers No*59, 1, 2, IKS. Air Force, Rep. AFCRL.BARRY, P.J. (1964): Estimation of Downwind Concentration of Airborne Effluents discharged inthe Neighbourhood of Buildings, Rep. AECL-2043 (1964).BEATTIE, J.R. (1961): An Assessment of Environmental Hazards from Fission Product Releases,Rep. AHSB (S) R9 (1961).BIERLY, E.W.,HEWSON, E.W. (1962): Some restrictive meteorological conditions to be consideredin the design of stacks, J. appl. Meteorology 1^(1962)383.BRYANT, P.M. (1964): Methods of Estimation of the Dispersion of Windborne Material and Datato Assist in their Application, Rep. AHSB (RP) R42 (1964).BUNCH, D.F. (Ed^ (1966): Controlled Environmental Radioiodine Tests, 1965 Progress Report 2,Rep. IDO-12053 (1966).BUNCH, D.F. (Ed.) (1968):IDO-12063 (1968).Controlled Environmental Radioiodine Tests, Progress Report 4, Rep.BUNCH, D.F. (1966): "The comparative environmental hazards from a release of methyl iodideor elemental iodine", Ninth AEC Air Cleaning Conference, Boston, Mass., 13-16 Sep. 1966.sCHAMBERLAIN, A.C. (1953):Rep. AERE HP/R 1261 (1953).CHAMBERLAIN, A.C. (1960):Int. J. Air Pollut., 3 (1960).Aspects of Travel and Deposition of Aerosol and Vapor Clouds,Aspects of the deposition of radioactive and other gases and particles,COUCHMAN, J.C . (1961): "Graphic and tabular aids for reactors hazards-evaluations", HealthPhysics Society Meeting, Las Vegas, Nev., 12-16 Jun.1961.22

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/CRAMER, H.E. (1957): "A practical method for estimating the dispersal of atmospheric contaminants",Proc. Conf. Appl. Meteorology, American Meteorological Society (1957).CRAMER, H.E. (1959):J. 20 (1959) 183,Engineering estimates of atmospheric dispersal capacity, Am. ind. Hyg.ECHO, J.B ., PELLETIER, C .A ., ZIMBRICK, J.D ., Elemental iodine-131 collection efficienciesof several filtering media (to be published).FINDLATER, J ., HARROWER, T .N .S ., HOWKINS, G.A ., WRIGHT, H.L. (1966): Surface and900 mb Wind Relationships, British Meteorological Office Scientific Paper No. 23, HMSO(1966).FRENKIEL, F.N. (1953): Turbulent diffusion: Mean concentration distribution in a flow fieldof homogenous turbulence, Advances in Applied Mechanics 3, Academic Press, New York (1953)61.FUQUAY, J .J. (1958): "Meteorological factors in the appraisal and control of acute exposures tostack effluents", Int. Conf. peaceful Uses atom. Energy (Proc. Conf. Geneva, 1958) 18, UN, Geneva(1958)272.HAWLEY, C .A ., Jr. et al. (1964, 1966, 1968): Controlled Environmental Radioiodine Tests atthe National Reactor Testing Station, Rep. IDO-12035 (1964), Rep. IDO-12047 (1966), Rep.IDO-12053(1966), Rep.IDO-12063 (1968), Rep.IDO-12065 (to be published).HAWLEY, C .A ., Jr., MARKEE, E. H., Jr. (1965): "Controlled environmental radioiodine tests",Radioactive Fallout from Nuclear Weapons Testing, AEC Symposium Series No. 5, Oak Ridge,USAEC Division of Technical Information Extension (1965)821.HILSMEIER, W .L., GIFFORD, R. (1962):USAEC - ORO 545 (1962).Graphs for Estimating Atmospheric Dispersion, Rep.HOSLER, C.R. (1961): Low Level Inversion Frequency in the Contiguous United States, Mon. Weath.Rev. U.S. Dep. Agric. 89 (1961) 319.LAIKHTMAN, D.L. (1961): Fizika Pogranichnogo Sloya Atmosfery, Leningrad, GidrometeorologicheskowIzlatel’stvo (1961).LE QUINIO, R ., HUGON, J. (1964): «Resultats d’Experiences de Diffusion Atmospherique en VraiGrandeur», La Pollution Radioactive des Milieux Gazeux (1964) 141.LE QUINIO, R. (1964): Abaques pour le Calcul de la Pollution Atmospherique due aux Effluentsd'une Source Punctuelle, Rapport CEA-N 488 (1964).LOWDER, L .j., ZIMBRICK, J.D ., PELLETIER, C.A ., The measurement of urine output of lactatingHolstein cows using carbon-14 labeled 2 ,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, submitted to the Journalof Dairy Science.23

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/LIST, A .J, (1951): Smithsonian M eteorological Tables, 6th Rev. E d ., Washington, D .C . (1951).MEADE, P.J. (I960): Meteorological Aspects of the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, 1: MeteorologicalAspects of the Safety and Location of Reactor Plants, WMO No. 97, Tech. Note 33, T.P.41.MARKEE, E.H., Jr., HAWLEY, C .A ., Jr. (1963):. "Controlled environmental radioiodine tests(CERT) at the National Reactor Testing Station", ORNL, Eight AEC Air Cleaning Conference, OakRidge National Laboratory, 22-25 Oct. 1963, Rep.TID-7677 (1963) 392.MARKEE, E.H ., Jr. (1967): "Turbulent transfer characteristics of radioiodine effluents from airto natural surfaces", Conf. American Meteorological Society on Physical Processes in the LowerAtmosphere, Ann Arbor, Mich., 20-22 Mar. 1967.PASQUILL, F. (1961): The estimation of the dispersion of windborne material, Met. Mag., Lond.90 (1961) 33.PASQUILL, F. (1962): Atmospheric Diffusion, Van Nostrand C o., New York (1962).PELLETIER, C .A ., ZIMBRICK, J.D . (1968): " Kinetics of environmental radioiodine transportthrough the milk food chain", Health Physics Society Mid-year Topical Symposium on EnvironmentalSurveillance in the Vicinity of Nuclear Facilities, Augusta, Ga., 24-26 Jan. 1968.SAKAGAMI, J. (1965): On the atmospheric diffusion of gas or aerosol near the ground, Nat. Sci.Rep. Ochanomizu Univ. 7 (1956) 25.SIMPSON, C.L. (1956): "Diffusion studies at Hanford", Conf. AEC Meteorological Activities,19-22 May 1964, Rep. BNL 914 (C-42) (1965).SINGER, I.A ., SMITH, M.E. (1966):Air Wat. Pollut. J. 10 (1966) 125.Atmospheric dispersion at Brookhaven National Laboratory,SLADE, D.H. (1965): Dispersion Estimates from Pollutant Releases of a Few Seconds to 8 Hoursin Duration, U.S. Dept, of Commerce, Rep. PB 168335 (Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific andTechnical Information) (1965).SLADE, D.H. (1967):Meteorology and Atomic Energy (Rev.), Chap.4, USAEC (in press),.Meteorology and Atomic Energy, USAEC Rep.TID-24190, Air Re­(in press).SLADE, D.H. (Ed.) (1968):sources Labs, ESSA, USDOCSTEWART, N .G ., GALE, H .T ., CROOKS, R.N. (1958): The atmospheric diffusion of gasesdischarged from the-chimney of the Harwell reactor BEPO, Int.J. Air Pollut. ^(October 1958).SUTTON, O. G. (1953): Micrometeorology, McGraw-Hill Publishing C o ., New York (1953).24

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/TURNER, D.B. (1961): Relations between 24-hour air quality measurements and meteorological factorsin Nashville, Tennessee, J. Air Pollut, Control Ass. 11 (1961)483.WATSON, E.P., GANERTSFELDER, C.C. (1963): Environmental Radioactive Contamination asa Factor in Nuclear Plant Siting Criteria, Rep. HW-SA-2809 (1963).WATSON, E .C ., SIMPSON, C.L. (1967): "Effect of wind variability on environmental consequencesof prolonged release of radioactive contaminants", Containment and Siting of NuclearPower Plants (Proc. Conf. Vienna, 1967), IAEA, Vienna (1967) 715.ZIMBRICK, J.D . (Ed.)t Controlled Environmental Radioiodine Tests, Progress Rep.4,IDO-12065 (to be published).Rep.Note: In the United States of America it has been the practice to publish meteorological papersof interest to the nuclear field in Nuclear Safety. Therefore, in addition to the above-listedbibliography, those articles which have appeared in Nuclear Safety are listed below:BRYANT, P.M. (Winter 1966-67):Nucl. Saf. 8 2 (1966-67) 161.Effect of diluting stack gases on downwind concentrations,CULKOWSKI, W.M. (1967):Saf. 8 3 (1967)257.Estimating the effect of buildings on plumes from short stacks, Nucl.CULVER, H.N. (1960): Maximum credible accident exposures at reactor site boundaries (comparisonof factors considered and postulated exposures), Nucl. Saf. 2 1 (1960) 83.ENGELMANN, R.J. (1966): Calculation of precipitation scavenging of particulates and gases fromthe atmosphere, Nucl. Saf. 7 3 (1966) 354.FLORA, J.W ., SMITH, G.H. (1964):Saf. 6 1 (1964)81.Atmospheric pollution from nuclear power plants, Nucl.FUQUAY, J .J ., SIMPSON, C.L. (1964): Atmospheric diffusion experiment and prediction models(comparison of results), Nucl. Saf. 5 4(1964)403.GIFFORD, F.A ., Jr. (1959):1 3 (1959)56.Atmospheric dispersion (observations and coefficients), Nucl. Saf.GIFFORD, F.A ., Jr. (1960): Atmospheric dispersion calculations using the generalized Gaussianplume model, Nucl.Saf. 2 2 (1960)56.GIFFORD, F.A ., Jr. (1961): Use of routine meteorological observations for estimating atmosphericdispersion, Nucl. Saf, 2 4(1961) 47.GIFFORD, F.A ., Jr., PACK, D.H. (1962):depletion), Nucl. Saf. 3 4(1962) 76.Surface deposition of airborne material (atmospheric25

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/GIFFORD, F.A ., Jr. (1962): The area within ground level dosage isopleths (estimate of populationdosage), Nucl. Saf. 4 2 (1962)91.HOSLER. C.R. (Winter 1963-64): Climatological estimates of diffusion conditions in the UnitedStates (broad scale dilution capacity), Nucl. Saf. 5 2 (1963-64) 184.MACHTA, L. (1963)*. Worldwide radioactive fallout from nuclear tests I (Properties and distributionof fallout), Nucl. Saf. 4 4(1963)103.MACHTA, L. (1963): Worldwide radioactive fallout from nuclear tests II (Properties and distributionof faUout) Nucl. Saf. 5 1 (1963)95.MILLER, C .E ., Jr., HILSMEIER, W.F. (1965): 2nd AEC Conference on Radioactive Falloutfrom Nuclear Weapons Tests, Nucl. Saf. 6 3 (1965)283.MOSES, H., STROM, G.H., CARSON, J.E. (1964):on stack plume rise, Nucl. Saf. 6 1 (1964)1.Effects of meteorology and engineering factorsSLADE, D.H. (Winter 1965-66): Summary of measurements of dispersion from quasi instantaneoussources, Nucl. Saf. 7 2 (1965-66) 225.SMITH, M.E. (1968): Reduction of ambient air concentrations of pollution by dispersion fromhigh stacks, Nucl. Saf. 9 1 (1968) 46.VAN DER HOVEN, I, (1967): Atmospheric transport and diffusion at coastal sites, Nucl. Saf. 85(1967)490.26

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/L IS T O F P A R T IC IP A N T SConsultantsCountryM r . L . Santomauro(Chairman)M r . P . J. S. B a rryM r . A . K . GangulyM r . F . A . GiffordM r . R. L e QuinioM r . R. J. M urgatroydItalyCanadaIndiaUnited States of A m e ricaFranceUnited KingdomO bserversM r . P . CagnettiM r . R . DouryItalyFranceScientific secretaryM r . C . A . Haw leyDivision of Health, Safetyand W aste Disposal,International AtomicEnergy Agency27

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/IAEA SALES AGENTSO rders for A gency p u b lica tio n s can be pla ced with your b o o k selle r or any of our s a le sag en ts lis te d below jARGENTINAFINLANDCom ision N acio n al deA kateem inen K irjakauppaE n erg ia A tom ica K esk u sk atu 2A venida del L ib ertad o rH elsin k iG en eral San Martin 8250FRANCEB u en os A ires - Sue* 29O ffice in tern atio n al deAUSTRALIAdocum entation e t lib ra irieH unter P u b lic a tio n s ,4 8 , rue G a y -L u ssa c23 M cK illop S tre et F -7 5 , P a r is 5 eM elbourne, C .lGERMANY , F e d e ra l R ep u blic ofAUSTRIAR . OldenbourgG eorg Fromme & Co. R o sen h eim er S tra s se 145S p e n g erg a sse 39 8 Munich 8A -1 0 5 0 , V ien n a VHUNGARYBELGIUMK ulturaHungarian Trading Co. for B ooksO ffice in tern atio n al de lib ra irieand N ew spapers3 0 , avenue MarnixP .O .B . 149B r u s s e ls 5B u d ap est 62BRAZILL iv raria K osm os EditoraISRAELRua do R o sa rio , 1 3 5-137H eilig e r and C o,R io de Ja n eiro3 Nathan S tra u ss S tre etJeru sa lemA g en cia Exp oen te O sca r M. S ilv aRua X a v ier de T o le d o , 1 4 0 -1 ® AndarITALY(C aixa P o s ta l No. 5 .6 1 4 ) A gen zia E d ito ria le In tem azio n aleSao Pau lo O rg an izzazio n i U n iv ersa li (A .E .I.O .U .)V ia M eravig li 16B Y E L O R U SSIA N S O V IE T S O C IA L IS TMilanR E P U B L ICS ee under U SSRJAPANMaruzen Company L td .CANADA6 , T o ri Nichom eT h e Q ueen*s P rin terN ihonbashiO ttaw a, Ontario (P .O . Box 605)CHINA (T aiw an )Tok yo C en tralB o o k s and S c ie n tific Supplie-sMEXICOS e r v ic e , L td .,L ib reria InternacionalP .O . B o x 83 A v. Sonora 206T a ip e i M exico 1 1 , D .F .C ZECH O SLO V A K S O C IA L IS T R E P U B L ICS .N .T .L .S p olen a 51Nove M estoPrague 1DENMARKE jn a r M unksgaard Ltd.6 NorregadeCopenhagen KNETHERLANDSN .V . MarUnus N ijh o ffLan ge Voorhout 9Th e HagueNEWZEALANDWhitcombe & T o m b s, Ltd.G .P .O . Box 1894W ellington, C .l

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/NORWAYSWITZERLANDJohan Grundt TanumL ib ra irie P ay o tK arl Jo h a n s gate 43 Rue G renus 6O slo 1211 G eneva 11PAKISTANK arach i E d u catio n S o cietyHaroon Cham bersSouth N ap ier Road(P .O . Box' N o. 4866)K a ra ch i 2POLANDO srodek R o zp ow szech n ian aW ydawnictw NaukowychP o ls k a Akadem ia NaukP a la c Kultury i NaukiTURKEYL ib ra irie H achette4 6 9 , I s tik la l C addesiB e y o g lu , Istan bu lUKRAINIAN S O V IE T S O C IA IIS TR E P U B L ICS ee under U SSRUNION O F S O V IE T SO C IA L IS TR E P U B L IC SM ezhdunarodnaya K nigaWarsaw S m olen skay a-Sen n aya 32*34M oscow G -200ROMANIAC artim exRue A. Briand 14-18B u c a re s tU N ITED KINGDOM O F G R E A TB R IT A IN AND N O RTH ERN IR E L A N DH er M a je s ty 's Stationery O fficeP .O . B o x 569London. S .E . lSOUTH A F R IC AVan S c h a ik ’s B o o k sto re (P tv ) Ltd*U N ITED S T A T E S O F AM ERICAL ib ri Bu ild in gChurph S tre etN atio n al A gency for(P .O . B ox 724) In tern a tio n a l P u b lic a tio n s , In c .P reto ria3 17 E a s t 34th StreetNew Y o rk. N .Y . 10016SPAINL ib re n a B o schVENEZUELARonda de la U niversidad 11Sr. B rau lio G ab riel C h acaresB a rce lo n a Gobernador a C and iii to 37SWEDENC .E . F r itz e s K ungl. H ovbokhandelF red sg a ta n 2S tock holm 16San ta R o sa lia(Apartado P o s ta l 8092)C a ra cas D .F .YUGOSLAVIAJu g o slo v e n sk a K n jigaT e r a z ije 27B elg rad eIA EA p u b lica tio n s can a ls o be purchase d re ta il a t the U nited N ations B ooksh op a tU nited N ations H eadquarters, New York , a t the news**stand a t the A g en cy 's H eadqu a rte rs, V ien n a, and at m ost c o n fe re n c e s , sy m p osia and sem in ars organ ized by theA gen cy.In order to fa c ilita te the d istrib u tio n of its p u b lic a tio n s , the A gency is prepared toa c c e p t paym ent in U N ESC O coupons or in lo c a l c u rre n c ie s .O rders and in q u iries from co u n tries w here s a le s agen ts have not y e t b een appointedmay be s e n t to :D istrib u tio n and S a le s Group, [n tem atio n al A tom ic Energy A g en cy ,K am tn er R in g 11, A -1 0 1 0 , V ienna I , A ustria

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/

This publication is no longer validPlease see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/INTERNATIONALATOMIC ENERGY AGENCYVIENNA, 1968PRICE: US $1 50Austrian Schillings 39,-(12/6 stg; F.Fr 7,40; DM 6,-)