Moral essays. With an English translation by J.W. Basore

THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARYEDITED BYT. E. PAGE, UTT.D.E. CAPPS, PH.D., LL.D. W. H. D. ROUSE, litt.d.SENECAMORAL ESSAYSIi:

ipssr^^SENECAMOEAL ESSAYSWITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BYJOHN W. BASORE, Ph.D.PRIXCETOS CXIVERSITYIN THREE VOLUMESILONDON : WILLIAM HEINEMANN LTDNEW YORK: G. P. PUTNAM'S SONSMCMXXVIII

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME IPAGEIntroduction .De ProvidentiaDe ConstantiaDe Ira .De ClementiaIndex of Names^vii48106356450

INTRODUCTIONSprung from the rich and talented Spanish familyof the Annaei, Lucius Annaeus Seneca, second son ofSeneca the rhetorician, became the most importantpublic and literary figure at Rome in the age of Nero.His mother was Helvia, a lady of native intelligence,some culture, and many \irtues. An elder brother,Novatus, known after his adoption as Galho, wasgovernor of Achaia under Claudius, and sur\ives inChristian annals (Acts xviii. 12-17) with undeservedodium as the Roman official before whom the apostlePaul was arraigned. Mela, the younger brother, ofmore retiring disposition, but rated by his fatheras the ablest of the three, lives only as the fatherof a famous son—the epic poet Lucan, whoseprecocious and flamboyant powers marked him outas the prodigy of his distinguished, but ill-fated,family, of which no chief member survived thecatastrophe of the Pisonian conspiracy. Lucan, hisfather, and both his uncles were all objects ofNero's vengeance.The career of Seneca himself was marked byspectacular shifts of fortune, amid which he appearsa puzzHng and at times a pathetic figure—thevictim alike of imperial hostility and favour. Born

INTRODUCTIONat Corduba about 4 B.C., he was brought to Romewhile still a child in arms. There, carefully nurturedand broadly trained in rhetoric and philosophy,he entered upon the senatorial career and gainedthe quaestorship probably under Tiberius. By hiseloquence in the Senate, he is said to have arousedthe jealousy of Caligula and to have escaped deathonly because, it was averred, he was already doomedby ill-health to die. Of his ill-health we hear muchin his writings, but he outlived Caligula and missedno opportunity to take pitiless revenge upon himwith his pen. Under Claudius he fell upon actualdisaster. Through the agency of the empress Messahna,Seneca, now estabhshed as a man of lettersand, apparently, of fashion, was accused of an intriguewith the notorious Julia Livilla, sister of Caligula,whom her uncle promptly upon his accession hadrecalled from exile, and both were banished. Afterhe had spent eight weary and fretful years in dismalCorsica, during which, however, he found some solacein writing and study, Agrippina, now the wife ofClaudius, secured his recall in a.d. 49, and raised himto the post of tutor to her young son, the futureemperor Nero. A year later he was praetor. Fromthis time Seneca's fortunes were linked with thoseof Nero. He grew in honour, wealth," and power, andfor five years after Nero's accession was, along withBurrus, the virtuous old praetorian, the emperor'sacknowledged confidant and guide. But graduallyhis influence weakened, and after the death ofBurrus in a.d. 62 he sought unavailingly for obscurity" There are many references to the lordly wealth whichSeneca amassed. Cf. Tac. Ann. xiii. 42.6; Juv. x. 16;Dio, Ixi. 10. 2.viii

—INTRODUCTIONin retirement. Three years later, charged withcomphcity in the conspiracy of Piso, he was forcedto commit suicide, and met death with dignity andStoic fortitude.The special significance of Seneca is, in brief,that he revived the subject of philosophy in Latinhterature, spiritualized and humanized Stoicism, andbecame the exponent of a new style, that exploitedthe short sentence, rhetoric, and declamation. Theartificiahties of his pointed style have found manycritics, both early and late. Cahgula« called hisspeeches—not now extant " prize declamations,sand without hme," the archaist Gelhus ^ condemnshis influence, and Fronto censures his literary '^affectations.QuintiUan** with truer discernment indictsmore severely his taste than his methods, for it isin the excesses of rhetoric that he most often offends.*That he was the most brilliant vvriter, as well as themost independent thinker, of his day fevv will nowdeny.In philosophy Seneca's interests were purelyethical. He was a bold, but inconsistent, moraUsta preacherrather than an exemplar of Stoic virtue.His discourses are, in the end. Stoic sermons, informalin structure, lacking too often the marks of orderedpresentation, but usually effective in the quicknessof their appeal. While ostensibly an adherent ofStoic materiahsm, he shows the independence of aneclectic and becomes particularly noteworthy in his" Suet. Calig. 53. " xii. 2.« Epist. p. 156 (Naber).

INTRODUCTIONconception of deity and the kindred doctrine of thebrotherhood of man, in both of which he went farbeyond his times. Although, utiUzing the Stoicdoctrine of a Unity out of a plurality of gods (as,while there are many vii'tues, Virtue is one), he causesconfusion by his terminology, yet he verges constantlytoward the representation of God as a moraland spiritual being, a beneficent Providence, instinctwith fatherly regard for the human race. Closelylinked with this conception is a bitter condemnationof gladiatorial contests, slavery, and any form ofcruelty of man to fellow man.Seneca was a voluminous writer of both prose andpoetry. Besides some epigrams, ten extant tragediesare associated with his name, though one, the Octavia,appears from internal evidence to be unmistakablythe work of a later poet. The other nine playsare unique and notable specimens of Roman tragedyadapted from Greek originals, of which, however,they appear to be little more than rhetorical travesties.But their influence upon the dramaticliterature of Italy, France, and England, though distorting,was profound. His extant prose works comprisea significant group of writings that are moralin purpose, a quasi-scientific treatise—the NaturalesQuaestiones in seven books —and the Apocolocyntosis,a satirical skit on the apotheosis of the emperorClaudius. To the group of moral writings belong thetwenty books of the Epistulae Morales, a unit byreason of their form, and a series of more formal compositions,which, developed with vague consciousnessof an argumentative second person, are likewiseunited by a similarity of form. These quasi-dialoguesare the twelve treatises grouped together in the

INTRODUCTIONAmbrosian manuscript iinder the title Dialogi " andtraditionally known as Dialogues, the De dementia,originally in three books, and the seven books ofthe De Beneficiis, all of which it has been convenientfor the purpose in hand to combine under the comprehensivetitle of Moral Essays.The chronology of Seneca's writings is in mostcases doubtful. Of the essays included in this volume,the De Provideniia and the De Constantia are associatedby Waltz ^ with the early years of the exile (a. d, 41-42),but equally -wise conjecture will place them later.When Seneca Avrote the De Ira, Cahgula was undoubtedlydead, and Novatus, to whom it was dedicated,had not yet been adopted by Junius Galho.It shows bitter hostiUty to CaUgula, and may wellhave been ^^Titten when the memorj- of his excesseswas fresh. By reason of the allusion to the age ofNero (i. 9- l)j the De dementia may be definitelyassigned to the year a.d. 55 or 5Q.Concerning LuciUus, to whom the De Provideniia,the Naturales Quaestiones, and the Epistulae are addressed,Seneca himself supplies incidental information.A native, probably, of Naples or Pompeii, byhis own energy he attained equestrian rank andwas appointed procurator of Sicily. He was astudent of philosophy, -vWth a leaning toward Epicureanism,and a writer of both prose and poetry.His name has gained some importance in literar}'histon*' as the conjectural author of the Aetna, aphilosophical poem ascribed in the manuscripts to" Quintilian used the term (x. 1. 129), but that he appliedit only to the treatises of the Ambrosian corpus may bedoubted.* Vie de Seneque, p. 7, note.

INTRODUCTIONVirgil. Younger than Seneca, he seems to havemaintained with him a long friendship of pecuharloyalty. If, as Waltz supposes, the De Providentiabelongs to the early years of the exile, Seneca'sown fortunes may well have called forth the questioningof Lucilius concerning the ways of Providencewhich gave excuse for the essay. In treating hissubject Seneca elaborates the thesis that no evilscan befall the good man, by interpreting adversities,not as evils, but as wholesome opportunities providedby a beneficent deity for the testing of virtue. Thediscourse closes with a passage of restrained rhetoric,giving Stoic approval of suicide as a reasonabledeparture from trials too great.Annaeus Serenus, the young friend, or relative, ofSeneca to whom are addressed the De Constantiaand two other treatises, is said to have been prefectof Nero's nightwatchmen {praefectus Neronis vigilum).He is mentioned by Tacitus " as an intimate friendof Seneca, who with a show of loyalty screened theindiscretions of Nero in his aflPair with Acte. Senecahad for him the deepest affection and counselled himin philosophy with fatherly solicitude. He apparentlywas an Epicurean. Though much younger thanSeneca, he died first, probably in a.d. 62. Senecadescants upon his premature death in one of hisLetters (Ixiii. 14), and refers feelingly to the bitternessof his grief.The essay itself is exceptional in its orderly arrangement.After affirming the superiority of theStoics over other schools of philosophy, the authortakes as his text the Stoic paradox that the wise mancan receive no injury. This he proceeds to relieve" Ann. xiii. 13.

1INTRODUCTIONby an exposition of the true inwardness of the wiseman's fortunes. Setting up a distinction between" injury " and " insult," he shows seriatim theinvulnerabihty of the wise man to both, and afterconditioned praise of Epicurus 's \iew, closes thediscussion with a justification of the Stoic position.Of Seneca's brother Novatus, to whom the De Irais addressed, something has already been said. Hewas much beloved for his amiabiUty, was an eminentdeclaimer, if we are to trust Jerome," and at anunkno>\'n date was adopted by the rhetorician JuniusGalho. He reached the consulship, was governor ofAchaia in a.d. 52, and died by his o^^ti hand in 66.Seneca used authorities assiduously, and for theelaborate disquisition On Anger had several available; Sotion, his master in philosophy, had -sATitten— e/jt opy/}?, and may well have been one. Though thearrangement of the essay is noticeably faulty,* and j.its style is fer\id with rhetoric, the wealth of its TCillustrative matter gives it unusual interest. Book I.deals with the outward aspects, the harm, and thevarious definitions of anger ; Book II. discusses itsorigin, its nature, and its remedies ; Book III. repeatsmuch that has been said before, and continues >\iththe new topic of how to check the anger of others.The De dementia, addressed to the emperor Nero,was written just after the young prince had finishedhis eighteenth year, and was intended to gxiide himtoward the ideal of a merciful and popular ruler. Itgives interesting evidence of Seneca's own pubhc» In the statement of Jerome (ad a. Abr. 2080) the sonmay be confused with his adoptive father." Compare the similarity of the topical divisions in ii. 18.and iii. 5. 2.

INTRODUCTIONwisdom, of his tendency to flattery, and of his methodin dealing with his difficult pupil. Unfortunately,more than half of the work has been lost.The most important manuscript of the Dialoguesis the Codex Ambrosianus, at Milan, belonging to thetenth or the eleventh century. This has been designatedA, and the readings of its later correctors,A ^"^. An additional manuscript available for theDe Ira is the Codex Laurentianus (designated L) of thetwelfth or thirteenth century. The best manuscriptof the De dementia is the Codex Nasarianus (designatedN) in the Palatine collection of the Vatican.This belongs to the eighth or ninth century. Twoothers of the twelfth century are the Codex Amplonianusat Erfurt (designated A), which is not complete,and the Codex Parisinus 8542 (designated T).In the critical notes O is used to designate a consensusof N, A, and other principal manuscripts.For the complete apparatus the editions of Hermesand Hosius may be consulted.The texts adopted for translation are, for theDialogues, that of Hermes, Leipzig, 1905, for theDe Clementia, that of Hosius, Leipzig, IPOO. Exceptminor changes in punctuation and orthography,divergencies from these have been duly recordedin the critical notes.J. W. B.Princeton, N.J.

:SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHYEditions and TranslationsThe editio princeps was published at Naples in 1475.This omitted the Apocolocyntosis, but contained somespurious works along with some of the works of the elderSeneca. Famous editions of the sixteenth and seventeenthcenturies were those of Erasmus, Justus Lipsius, and J. F.Gronovius.Noteworthy are the more recent editions ofF. E. Ruhkopf, Leipzig, 1797-1811.C. R. Fickert, Leipzig, 1842-1845.F. Haase, Leipzig (Teubner), 1852.M. C. Gertz, De Beneficiis and De dementia, Berlin,1876 ; Diaiogi XII., Copenhagen, 1886.C. Hosius, De Beneficiis and De dementia, Leipzig(Teubner), 1900.E. Hermes, Diaiogi XII., Leipzig (Teubner), 1905.Select essays, with commentary, appear in the editionsof Hurst and ^Vhiting (New York, 1884), A. P. Ball ^'ewYork, 1908), and J. D. Duff (Cambridge, 1915).WeU known are the older translations of Thomas Lodge(London, 1614) and Roger L'Estrange (London, 1673).Works for ReferenceE. V. Arnold, Roman Stoicism, Cambridge, 1911.A. Bougery, Seneque prosateur, Paris, 1922, pp. 1-205 (adiscussion of Seneca's art and influence).S. Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius,

BIBLIOGRAPHYLondon, 1904 (particularly the chapter on the " PhilosophicDirector ").F. W. Farrar, Seekers after God (Seneca, Epictetus, andMarcus Aurelius), London, 1874.R. M. Gummere, Seneca the Philosopher and his ModernMessage, Boston, 1922.F. L. Lucas, Seneca and Elizabethan Tragedy, Cambridge,1922, pp. 25-52 (" Seneca the Man "),C. Martha, Les Moralistes sous VEmpire Remain, Paris,1907.W. C. Summers, The Silver Age of Latin Literature,London, 1920, pp. 175 ff.Ren4 Waltz, Vie de Seneque, Paris, 1909 (the best life ofSeneca).

VOL. ISENECAMORAL ESSAYS

L. ANNAEI SENECAE DIALOGORVMLIBER IAD LVCILIVMQVARE ALIQVA INCOMMODA BONIS VIRISACCIDANT, CVM PROVIDENTIA SIT(De Providentia)1 1. Quaesisti a me, Lucili, quid ita, si providentiamundus regeretur, multa bonis viris mala acciderent.Hoc commodius in contextu operis redderetur, cumpraeesse universis providentiara probaremus et interessenobis deum ; sed quoniam a toto particulamrevelli placet et unam contradictionem manente liteintegra solvere, faciam rem non difficilem, causamdeorum agam.2 Supervacuum est in praesentia ostendere non sinealiquo custode tantum opus stare nee hunc siderumcoetum discursumque fortuiti impetus esse, et quaecasus incitat saepe turbari et cito arietare, banc inoflFensamvelocitatemprocedere aeternae legis imperio2

THE DIALOGUES OFLUCIUS ANNAEUS SENECABOOK ITO LUCILIUS ON PROVIDENCEWhy, though there is a Providence, some Misfortunesbefall Good Men.You have asked me, Lucilius, why, if a Providencerules the world, it still happens that many evils befallgood men. This would be more fittingly answeredin a coherent work designed to pynve th fiti {\Prnvidencedoes presiH e nvpr the universe, and that Godconcerns himself with us . But since it is your wishthat a part be severed from the whole, and that Irefute a single objection while the main question isleft untouched, I shall do so ; the task is not difficult,—I shall be pleading the cause of the gods.For the present purpose it is unnecessary to showthat this mighty structure of the world does notendure without some one to guard it, and that theassembhng and the separate flight of the stars aboveare not due to the workings of chance ; that whilebodies which owe their motion to accident often fallinto disorder and quickly colhde, this swift revolutionof the heavens, being ruled by eternal law, goes3

iSENECAtantum rerum terra marique gestantem, tantum'clarissimorum luminum et ex disposito relueentium ;non esse materiae errantis hunc ordinem nee quae ;temere coierunt tanta arte pendere, ut terrarumgravissimum pondus sedeat immotum et circa seproperantis caeli fugam spectet, ut infusa vallibusmaria molliant terras nee ullum incrementum flumi- :num sentiant, ut ex minimis seminibus nascantur i3 ingentia. Ne ilia quidem quae videntur confusa etincerta, pluvias dico nubesque et elisorum fulminum ;iactus et incendia ruptis montium verticibus eflfusa,!tremores labantis solialiaque quae tumultuosa parsrerum circa terras movet, sine ratione, quamvis subitasint, accidunt, sed suas et ilia causas habent nonminus quam quae alienis locis conspecta miraculo|sunt, ut in mediis fluctibus calentes aquae et nova4 insularum in vasto exsilientiiun mari spatia. lamvero si quis observaverit nudari litora pelago in serecedente eademque intra exigumn tempus operirijcredet caeca quadam volutatione mode contrahi imdaset introrsum agi, modo ermnpere et magno cursurepetere sedem suam, cum interim illae portionibuscrescunt et ad horam ac diem subeunt ampliores" Seneca's rhetoric omits the intermediate step of thetransformation into rain.

ON PROVIDENCE, i. 2-4on unhindered, producing so many things on landand sea, so many brilhant Ughts in the sky all shiningin fixed array ; that this regularity does not belongto matter moving at random, and that whatevercombinations result from chance do not adjust themselveswith that artistry whereby the earth, theheaviest in weight, abides immovable and beholdsthe flight of the sky as it wliirls around it, and theseas, flooding vths spring up from the tiniest seeds. Even thosephenomena which seem irregular and undetermined—I mean showers and clouds, the stroke of crashingthunderbolts and the fires that belch from the rivenpeaks of mountains, tremors of the quaking ground,and the other disturbances wliich the turbulent elementin nature sets in motion about the earth, these,no matter how suddenly they occur, do not happenwithout a reason ; nay, they also are the result ofspecial causes, and so, in like manner, are thosethings which seem miraculous by reason of the incongruoussituations in which they are beheld, suchas warm waters in the midst of the sea-waves, andthe expanses of new islands that spring up in thewide ocean. Moreover, if any one observes how theshore is laid bare as the sea withdraws into itself,and how within a short time the same stretch iscovered over again, he will suppose that it is someblind fluctuation which causes the waves now toshrink and flow inwards, now to burst forth and inmighty sweep seek their former resting-place,whereas in fact they increase by degrees, and trueto the hour and the day they approach in proper-

SENECAminoresque, prout illas lunare sidus elicuit, ad cuiusarbitrium oceanus exundat. Suo ista tempori reserventur,eo quidem magis quod tu non dubitas de6 providentia sed quereris. In gratiam te reducam cvundiis adversus optimos optimis. Neque enim rerumnatura patitur ut umquam bona bonis noceant ;interbonos viros ac deos amicitia est conciliante virtute.Amicitiam dico ?Immo etiam necessitudo et similitudo,quoniam quidem bonus tempore tantum a deodiffert, discipulus eius aemulatorque et vera progenies,quam parens ille magnificus, virtutum non lenis6 exactor, sicut severi patres, durius educat. Itaqueciun videris bonos viros acceptosque diis laborare,sudare, per arduum escendere, malos autem lascivireet voluptatibus fluere,cogita filiorum nos modestiadelectari, vernularum licentia, illos disciplina tristioricontineri, horum ali audaciam. Idem tibi de deoliqueatBonum virum in deUciis non habet, experitur,Iindurat, sibi ilium parat.1 2. " "Quare multa bonis viris adversa eveniunt ?Nihil accidere bono viro maH potest ; non miscenturcontraria,Quemadmodmn tot amnes, tantum supernedeiectorum imbrivun, tanta medicatorum vis fontimnnon mutant saporem maris, ne remittunt quidem, itaadversarum impetus rerum viri fortis non vertit ani-6

ON PROVIDENCE, i. 4-ii. 1tionately larger or smaller volume according as theyare attracted by the star we call the moon, at whosebidding the ocean surges. But let such matters bekept for their fitting time,—all the more so, indeed,because y_mi c\n nnt lack faith in Prn\-idence, butcomplain of it . I shall reconcile you with the gods,who are ever best to those who are best. ForNfttnrp npvpr permits gnnrl to be injured by good ;between good men and the gods there exists afriendship brought about by virtue.Friendship, do I say ? Nay, rather there is a tieof relationship and a likeness, since, in truth, a good_man differs from God in the element of time only ;he is God's pupil, his imitator, and true offspring ,whom his all-glorious parent, being no mild taskmasterof \artues, rears, as strict fathers do, vriihmuch severity. And so, when you see that men whoare good and acceptable to the gods labour andsweat and have a difficult road to climb, that thewicked, on the other hand, make merry and aboundin pleasures, reflect that our children please us bytheir modesty, but slave-boys by their forwardness ;that we hold in check the former by sterner disciphne,while v,'e encourage the latter to be bold.Be assured that the same is true of God. He doesnot make a spoiled pet of a good man ; he testshim, hardens him, and fits him for his own service .You ask, " Why do many adversities come to goodmen ? " No evil can befall a good man ;nppo^itpsdo not mingle . Just as the countless rivers, the vastfall of rain from the sky, and the huge volume ofmineral springs do not change the taste of the sea,do not even modify it, so the assaults of adversitydo not weaken the spirit of a brave man. It always7

;SENECAmum. Manet in statu et quicquid evenit in suumcolorem trahit ; est enim omnibus externis potentibr.2 Nee hoc dico : non sentit ilia, sed vincit et alioquiquietus placidusque contra incurrentia attollitur.Omnia adversa exercitationes putat. Quis autem, virmodo et erectus ad honesta, non est laboris adpetensiusti et ad officia cum periculo promptus ? Cui non3 industrio otium poena est ? Athletas videmus, quibusvirium cura est, cum fortissimis quibusque confligereet exigere ab is per quos certamini praeparantur, uttotis contra ipsos viribus utantur ; caedi se vexariquepatiuntur et si non inveniunt singulos pares, pluribus4 simul obiciuntur. Marcet sine adversario virtustunc apparet quanta sit quantumque polleat, cumquid possit patientia ostendit. Scias licet idem virisbonis esse faciendima, ut dura ac difficilia non reformidentnee de fato querantur, quicquid accidit boniconsulant, in bonum vertant. Non quid sed quemadmodumferas interest.5 Non vides quanto aliter patres, aliter matres indulgeant? Illi excitari iubent liberos ad studia obeundamature, feriatis quoque diebus non patiuntiu: esseotiosos et sudorem illis et interdum lacrimas excutiunt; at matres fovere in sinu, continere in umbravolunt, numquam contristari, numquam flere, num-6 quam laborare. Patrium deus habet adversus bonos81

-ON PROVIDENCE, n. 1-6maintains its poise, and it gives its o'vm colour toeverj'thing that happens ; for jt is mightier than allexternal things. And yet I do not mean to say thatthe brave man is insensible to these, but that heovercomes them, and being in all else unmoved andcalm rises to meet whatever assails Tiim. All hisadversities he counts mere training. WTio, moreover,if he is a man and intent upon the right, is not eagerfor reasonable toil and ready for duties accompaniedby danger ? To what energetic man is not idlenessa pimishment ? Wrestlers, who make strength ofbody their chief concern, we see pitting themselvesagainst none but the strongest, and they require ofthose who are preparing them for the arena that theyuse against them all their strength ; they submit toblows and hurts, and if they do not find their matchin single opponents, they engage -with several at atime. Without an adversary, prowess shrivels . Wesee how great and how efficient it really is, onlywhen it shows by endurance what it is capable of.Be assured that good men ought to act hkewise ; theyshould not shrink from hardships and difficulties, norcomplain against fate ; they should take in good partwhatever h^^ppP^gj ^"^ C>ir>n1^ tui-r. if tr^ g^r>^ ]SJotwhat you endure^ but how you endure, is important.Do you not see how fathers show their love in oneway, and mothers in another ? The father ordershis children to be aroused from sleep in order thatthey may start early upon their pursuits,—even onholidays he does not permit them to be idle, and hedraws from them sweat and sometimes tears. Butthe mother fondles them in her lap, wishes to keepthem out of the sun, wishes them never to be un-^^PPy> never to cry, never to toil. Toward good 9

SENECAviros animum et illos fortiter amat et " Operibus,"inquit, " doloribus, damnis exagitentur, ut verumcolligantrobur."Languentper inertiam saginataneclabore tantum sed motu et ipso sui onere deficiunt.Non fert ullum ictum inlaesa felicitas ; at cui assiduafuit cum incommodis suis rixa, callum per iniuriasduxit nee ulli malo cedit sed etiam si cecidit de7 genu pugnat. Miraris tu, si deus ille bonorumamantissimus, qui illos quam optimos esse atque excellentissimosvult, fortunam illis cum qua exerceanturadsignat ? Ego vero non miror, si aHquando impetumcapiunt spectandi magnos viros conluctantis cum8 aliqua calamitate. Nobis interdum voluptati est, siadulescens constantis animi irruentem feram venabuloexcepit, si leonis incursum interritus pertulit,tantoque hoc spectaculum est gratius, quanto idhonestior fecit. Non sunt ista, quae possint deorumin se vultum convertere, puerilia et humanae oblecta-9 menta levitatis. Ecce spectaculum dignum ad quodrespiciat intentus operi suo deus, ecce par deodignum, vir fortis cum fortuna mala compositus,utique si et provocavit. Non video, inquam, quidhabeat in terris luppiter pulchrius, si eo^ convertereanimum velit, quam ut spectet Catonem iam partibusnon semel fractis stantem nihilo minus inter ruinas10 publicas rectum. " Licet," inquit, " omnia in unius^eo added by Goerenz.10

ON PROVIDENCE, it. 6-10men God has the mind of a_^th£r, he cherishes forthem a manly love, and he says, " Let them beharassed by toil, by suffering, by losses, in order thatthey may gather true strength." Bodies gro-vvTi fatthrough sloth are weak, and not only laboiu-, buteven movement and their very weight cause themto break do-ft-n. Unimpaired prosperity cannot withstanda single blow ; but he who has struggledconstantly %vith his ills becomes hardened throughsuffering, and pelds to no misfortune ; nay, even ifhe falls, he still fights upon his knees. Do you wonderif that God, who most dearly loves the good, whowishes them to become supremely good and \artuous,allots to them a fortune that will make them struggle ?For my part, I do not wonder if sometimes the godsarp mnT-Pfl hy th e Hpsjre to bchold great men WTCstle•^th some calamity . We men at times are stirredwith pleasure if a youth of steady courage meetswith his spear an onrushing wild beast, if unterrifiedhe sustains the charge of a Hon. And the morehonourable the youth who does this, the more pleasingthis spectacle becomes. But these are not thethings to draw down the gaze of the gods upon us—they are childish, the pastimes of man's frivolity.But lo ! here is a spectacle worthy of the regard ofGod as he contemplates his works ; lo ! here a contestworthy of God,—a brave man matched againstill-fortune, and doubly so if his also was the challenge.I do not know, I say, what nobler sight the Lordof Heaven could find on earth, should he wish totiurn his attention there, than the spectacle of Cato,after his cause had already been shattered morethan once, nevertheless standing erect amid theruins of the commonwealth. " Although," said he,11

;SENECAdicionem concesserint, custodiantur legionibus terrae,classibus maria, Caesarianus portas miles obsideat ;Cato qua exeat habet ; una manu latam libertativiam faciei. Ferrum istud, etiam civili bello purumet innoxium, bonas tandem ae nobiles edet operas :libertatem, quam patriae non potuit, Catoni dabit.Aggredere, anime, diu meditatum opus, eripe terebus humanis. lam Petreius et luba concucurreruntiacentque alter alterius manu caesi. Fortiset egregia fati conventio, sed quae non deceat magnitudinemnostram ; tam turpe est Catoni mortem ab11 ullo petere quam vitam." Liquet mihi cum magnospectasse gaudio deos, dum ille vlr, acerrimus sui vindex,alienae saluti consulit et instruit discedentiumfugam, dum studia etiam nocte ultima tractat, dumgladium sacro pectori infigit, dum viscera spargit etillam sanctissimam animam indignamque quae ferro12 contaminaretur manu educit. Inde crediderim fuisseparum certum et efficax vulnus ; non fuit diis immortalibussatis spectare Catonem semel. Retenta acrevocata virtus est, ut in difficiliore parte se ostenderet; non enim tam magno animo mors initur quamrepetitur. Quidni libenter spectarent alumnum suumtam claro ac memorabili exitu evadentem ? Mors illosconsecrat, quorum exitum et qui timent laudant.1 3. Sed iam procedente oratione ostendam, quam" After Caesar's victory at Thapsus (46 b.c), these twosupporters of the opposition, despairing of pardon, soughtdeath in hand-to-hand combat. Seneca accords withCassius Dio (xHii. 8. 4) in placing the incident before thesuicide of Cato at Utica.* Cato stabbed himself, but accomplished death bytearing open the hideous wound which his physician hadattempted to dress (Plutarch, Cato the Younger, Ixx.Cassius Dio, xliii. 11. 5).12

—ON PROVIDENCE, ii. lO-iii. i" all the world has fallen under one man's sway,although Caesar's legions guard the land, his fleetsthe sea, and Caesar's troops beset the city gates,yet Cato has a way of escape ; with one singlehand he will open a wide path to freedom. Thissword, unstained and blameless even in civil war,shall at last do good and noble service : the freedomwhich it could not give to his country it shall giveto Cato ! Essay, my soul, the task long planned ;deUver yourself from human affairs. Already Petreiusand Juba have met and he fallen, each slain by theother's hand." Their compact with Fate was braveand noble, but for my greatness such would be unfit.For Cato it were as ignoble to beg death from anyman as to beg hfe." I am sure that the gods lookedon with exceeding joy while that hero, most ruthlessin avenging himself, took thought for the safety ofothers and arranged the escape of his departingfollowers ; while even on his last night he pursuedhis studies ; while he drove the sword into his sacredbreast ; while he scattered his vitals, and drew forthby his hand that hohest spirit, too noble to be defiledby the steel.* I should hke to beheve that this iswhy the wound was not well-aimed and efficaciousit was not enough for the immortal gods to look butonce on Cato . His virtue was held in check and calledback that it might display itself in a harder role ;for to seek death needs not so great a soul as toreseek it. Surely the gods looked with pleasureupon their pupil as he made his escape by soglorious and memorable an end ! Death consecratesthose whose end even those who fear mustpraise.But as the discussion progresses, I shall show how13

SENECAnon sint quae videntur mala.Nunc illud dico, istaquae tu vocas aspera, quae adversa et abominanda,primum pro ipsis esse quibus accidunt, deinde pro universis,quorum maior diis cura quam singulorum est,post hoc volentibus accidere ac dignos malo esse, sinolint.His adiciam fato ista sic et recte^ eadem legebonis evenire qua sunt boni.Persuadebo deinde tibi,ne umquam boni viri miserearis ;potest enim miserdici, non potest esse.2 Difficillimum ex omnibus quae proposui ^videturquod primum dixi, pro ipsis esse quibus eveniuntista quae horremus ac tremimus. " Pro ipsis est,"inquis, " in exiliiun proici, in egestatem deduci, liberosconiugem ecferre, ignominia affici, debilitari ?"Si miraris haec pro aliquo esse, miraberis quosdamferro et igne curari nee minus fame ac siti.Sed sicogitaveris tecum remedii causa quibusdam et radiossa et legi et extrahi venas et quaedam amputarimembra quae sine totius pernicie corporis haerere nonpoterant, hoc quoque patieris probari tibi, quaedamincommoda pro is esse quibus accidunt, tam me^ et recte Petschenig from A : ire et Madvig.14

—ON PROVIDENCE, iii. 1-2the things that seem to be evils are not really so.This much I now say,—that those things which youcall hardships, which you call adversities and accursed,are, in the first place, for the good of the personsthemselves to whom they come ; in the second place,that they are for the good of the whole hiunanfamily, for which the gods have a greater concern -hthanfor single persons ; again, I say that good menare wilUng that these things should happen and, ifthey are unwilling, that they deserve misfortune.I shall add, further, that these things happen thusby destiny, and that they rightly befall good menby the same law which makes them good. I shallinduce you, in fine, never to commiserate a good man.For he can be called miserable, but he cannot be so.Of all the propositions which I have advanced,the most difficult seems to be the one stated first,that those things which Ave all shudder and trembleat are for the good of the persons themselves towhom they come. " Is it," you ask, " for their owngood that men are driven into exile, reduced towant, that they bear to the grave Avifeor children,that they suffer pubhc disgrace, and are broken inhealth " ? If you are surprised that these things arefor any man's good, you must also be surprised thatby means of surgery and cautery, and also by fastingand thirst, the sick are sometimes made well. Butif you will reflect that for the sake of being curedthe sick sometimes have their bones scraped andremoved, and their veins pulled out, and that sometimesmembers are amputated which could not be leftwithout causing destruction to the whole body, youwill allow yourself to be convinced of this as well,that iUs are sometimes for the good of those to whom15

:SENECAhercules quam quaedam quae laudantur atque appetunturcontra eos esse quos delectaverunt, simillimacruditatibus ebrietatibusque et ceteris quae necant3 per voluptatem. Inter multa magnifica Demetrinostri et haec vox est, a qua recens sum ; sonatadhuc et vibrat in auribus meis :" Nihil," inquit," mihi videtur infelicius eo, cui nihil umquam evenitadversi." Non hcuit enim illi se experiri. Ut exvoto ilU fluxerint omnia, ut ante votum, male tamende illo dii iudicaverunt. Indignus visus est a quovinceretur aliquando fortuna, quae ignavissimumquemque refugit, quasi dicat " : Quid ego istum mihiadversarium adsumam ? Statim arma submittet ; nonopus est in ilium tota potentia mea, levi comminationepelletur, non potest sustinere vultum meum. Aliuscircumspiciatur ciun quo conferre possimus manum ;4 pudet congredi cum homine vinci parato." Ignominiamiudicat gladiator cum inferiore componi et sciteum sine gloria vinci, qui sine periculo vincitur. Idemfacit fortuna :fortissimos sibi pares quaerit, quosdamfastidio transit. Contumacissimum quemque et rectissimumaggreditur, adversus quem vim suam intendatignem experitur in Mucio, paupertatem in Fabricio,exihum in Rutilio, tormenta in Regulo, venenum inSocrate, mortem in Catone. Magnum exemplum nisimala fortuna non invenit." A catalogue of stock types of virtue ; see Index underthe names.16

SENECA6 Infelix est Mucius, quod dextra ignes hostiumpremit et ipse a se exigit erroris sui poenas ? Quodregem, quem armata manu non potuit, exusta fugat ?Quid ergo ? Felicior esset, si in sinu amicae foveretmanum ?6 Infelix est Fabricius, quod rus suum, quantum a reQuod helium tarn cum Pyrrhopublica vacavit, fodit ?quam cum divitiis gerit ? Quod ad focum cenatillas ipsas radices et herbas quas in repurgando agrotriumphalis senex vulsit ? Quid ergo ? Felicior esset,siin ventrem suum longinqui litoris pisces et peregrinaaucupia congereret, si conchylis superi atqueinferi maris pigritiam stomachi nausiantis erigeret, siingenti pomorum strue cingeret primae formae feras,captas multa caede venantium ?7 Infelix est Rutilius, quod qui ilium damnaveruntcausam dicent omnibus saeculis ? Quod aequioreanimo passus est se patriae eripi quam sibi exiBum ?QuodSullae dictatori solus aliquid negavit et revocatustantum non retro cessit et longius fugit ?" Viderint,"inquit, " isti quos Romae deprehendit felicitas tua.Videant largum in foro sanguinem et supra Servilianumlacum (id enim proscriptionis Sullanae spoliarium est)" An ironical allusion to Sulla's assumption of the titleof Felix.18

ON PROVIDENCE, in. 5-7Is Mucius unfortunate because he grasps theflames of the enemy with his right hand and forceshimself to pay the penalty of his mistake ? becausewith his charred hand he routs the king whom withhis armed hand he could not rout ? Tell me, then,would he be happier if he were warming his hand inhis mistress's bosom ?Is Fabricius unfortunate because, whenever hehas leism-e from affairs of state, he tills liis fields ?because he wages war not less on riches than onPyrrhus ? because the roots and herbs on which hedines beside his hearth are those that he himself,an old man and honoured by a triumph, grubbed upin cleaning off his land ? Tell me, then, would hebe happier if he loaded his beUy Avith fish from adistant shore and with birds from foreign parts ? ifhe aroused the sluggishness of his loathing stomachwith shell-fish from the eastern and the western sea ?if he had game of the first order, which had beencaptured at the cost of many a hunter's hfe, servedwith fruit piled high around ?Is Rutilius unfortunate because those who condemnedhim will have to plead their cause throughall the ages ? because he was more content toendure that his country should be robbed of himthan that he should be robbed of exile ? becausehe was the only one who refused anything to thedictator Sulla, and when recalled from exile all butdrew back and fled farther away " ? Let those,"says he, "whom your 'happy' era" has caught atRome, behold it. Let them see the forum streamingwith blood, and the heads of senators placed abovethe pool of ServiUus—for there the victims of Sulla'sproscriptions are stripped,—and bands of assassins19

SENECAsenatorum capita et passim vagantis per urbem percussorumgreges et multa milia civium Romanorumuno loco post fidem, immo per ipsam fidem trucidata ;8 videant ista qui exulare non possunt." Quid ergo ?Felix est L. Sulla, quod illi descendenti ad forum gladiosummovetur, quod capita sibiconsularium virorumpatitur ostendi et pretium caedis per quaestorem actabulas publicas numerat ? Et haec omnia facit ille,ille qui legem Corneliam tulit !9 Veniamus ad Regulum : quid illi fortuna nocuit,quod ilium documentum fidei, documentum patientiaefecit ? Figunt cutem clavi et quocumque fatigatumcorpus reclinavit, vulneri incumbit, in perpetuamvigiliam suspensa sunt lumina. Quanto plus tormentitanto plus erit gloriae.hoc pretio aestimasse virtutem ?Vis scire quam non paeniteatRefice ilium et mitte10 in senatum ; eandem sententiam dicet. Felicioremergo tu Maecenatem putas, cui amoribus anxio etmorosae uxoris cotidiana repudia deflenti somnus persymphoniarum cantum ex longinquo lene resonantiumquaeritur ? Mero se licet sopiat et aquarumfragoribus avocet et mille voluptatibus mentemanxiam fallat, tam vigilabit in pluma quam ille incruce ; sed illi solacium est pro honesto dura tolerareet ad causam a patientia respicit, hunc voluptatibusmarcidum et felicitate nimia laborantem magis his" The lex Cornelia de sicariis et veneficis, which waspassed under Sulla and provided severe punishment formurder, gives point to Seneca's sneer.20

ON PROVIDENCE, m. 7-10roaming at large throughout the city, and manythousands of Roman citizens butchered in one spotafter, nay, by reason of, a promise of security,—let"those who cannot go into exile behold these things !Is Lucius Sulla happy because his way is clearedby the sword when he descends to the forum ?because he suffers the heads of consulars to beshown him and has the treasurer pay the price oftheir assassination out of the pubUc funds ? Andthese all are the deeds of that man—that man whoproposed the Cornehan Law "!Let us come now to Regulus : what injury didFortune do to him because she made him a patternof loyalty, a pattern of endurance ? Nails piercehis skin, and wherever he rests his wearied body heHes upon a wound ; his eyes are stark in eternalsleeplessness. But the greater his torture is, thegreater shall be his glory. Would you hke to knowhow httle he regrets that he rated \Trtue at such aprice ? Make him whole again and send him backto the senate ; he will express the same opinion.Do you, then, think Maecenas a happier man, who,distressed by love and grie\^ng over the daily repulsesof his wayward vrife, courted slumber by means ofharmonious music, echoing faintly from a distance ?Although he drugs himself yviih. wine, and divertshis worried mind with the sound of ripphng waters,and beguiles it \\ith a thousand pleasures, yet he,upon his bed of down, will no more close his eyes'than that other upon his cross. But while theone, consoled by the thought that he is sufferinghardship for the sake of right, turns his eyes fromhis suffering to its cause, the other, jaded vnihpleasures and struggling with too much good fortune,21

!SENECA11 quae patitur vexat causa patiendi. Non usque eo inpossessionem generis humani vitia venerunt, utdubium sit an electione fati data plures nasci Reguliquam Maecenates velint ; aut si quis fuerit, qui audeatdicere Maecenatem se quam Regulum nasci maluisse,idem iste, taceat licet, nasci se Terentiam maluit12 Male tractatum Socratem iudicas, quod illam potionempublice mixtam non aliter quam medicamentumimmortalitatis obduxit et de morte disputavit usquead ipsam ? Male cum illo actum est, quod gelatusest sanguis ac paulatim frigore inducto venarura vigor13 constitit ? Quanto magis huic invidendum est quamillis quibus gemma ministratur, quibus exoletus omniapati doctus exsectae virilitatis aut dubiae suspensamauro nivem diluit ! Hi quicquid biberunt vomituremetientur tristes et bilem suam regustantes, at illevenenum laetus et libens hamiet.14 Quod ad Catonem pertinet, satis dictum est summamqueilli felicitatem contigisse consensus hominumfatebitur, quem sibi rerum natura delegit cum quometuenda conlideret. " Inimicitiae potentium gravessunt ; opponatur simul Pompeio, Caesari, Crasso.Grave est a deterioribus honore anteiri ; Vatinio" The difficult and none too admirable wife of Maecenas.Seneca {Epist. cxiv. 6) remarks caustically upon theirrelations that " Maecenas married his wife a thousandtimes though he never had but one." Here the rhetoricaltypes are in descending scale: the heroic Regulus, theeffeminate Maecenas, the contemptible Terentia !* The cup of hemlock which Socrates drained with goodcheer after discoursing on the immortality of the soul.See the account in Plato's Phaeclo." As the pohtical tool of Caesar he defeated Cato in thecandidature for the praetorship in 55 B.C.22

ON PROVIDENCE, in. 11-14is harassed less by what he suffers than by the reasonfor his suffering. Surely the human race has notcome so completely under the sway of vice as tocause a doubt whether, if Fate should give thechoice, more men would rather be born a Regulusthan a Maecenas ; or if there shoxild be one boldenough to say that he would rather have been borna Maecenas than a Regulus, the fellow, although hemay not admit it, would rather have been born aTerentia " !Do you consider that Socrates was ill-used becausehe drank doAvn that draught ^ which the state hadbrewed as if it were an ehxir of immortal life, andup to the point of death discoursed on death ? Washe ill-treated because his blood grew cold, and, asthe chill spread, gradually the beating of his pulsesstopped ? How much more should we envy himthan those who are served in cups of precious stone,whose wine a catamite—a tool for anything, anunsexed or sexless creature—dilutes \vith snow heldabove in a golden vessel ! They will measure outafresh all their drink in vomit, with WTy faces tastingin its stead their own bile ; but he will quaff thepoison gladly and with good cheer.Touching Cato, enough has been said, and it willbe granted by the consensus of mankind that thatgreat man reached the pinnacle of happiness,—hewhom Nature chose tobe the one with whom herdread power should clash. " The enmity of thepowerful," said she, " is a hardship ; then let himmatch himself at one and the same time againstPompey, Caesar, and Crassus. It is a hardship tobe outstripped by an inferior in the candidacy forofl&ce ; then let him be defeated by Vatinius." It is23

;SENECApostferatur. Grave est civilibus bellis interessetoto terrarum orbe pro causa bona tam infeliciterquam pertinaciter militet. Grave est manus sibiafferre ; faciat. Quid per haec consequar ? Utomnes sciant non esse haec mala quibus ego dignumCatonem putavi."1 4. Prosperae res et in plebem ac vilia ingeniadeveniunt ; at calamitates terroresque mortalium subiugum mittere proprium magni viri est. Semper veroesse felicem et sine morsu animi transire vitam igno-2 rare est rerum naturae alteram partem. Magnus vires ; sed unde scio, si tibi fortuna non dat facultatemexhibendae virtutis ? Descendisti ad Olympia, sednemo praeter te ; coronam habes, victoriam nonhabes Non gratulor tamquam viro forti, sed tanquamconsulatum praeturamve adepto ; honore3 auctus es. Item dicere et bono viro possum, si illinullam occasionem difficilior casus dedit in qua una*vim animi sui ostenderet ": Miserum teiudico, quodnumquam fuisti miser. Transisti sine adversariovitam ; nemo sciet quid potneris, ne tu quidem ipse."Opus est enim ad notitiam sui experimento ;quidqmsque posset nisi temptando non didicit. Itaquequidam ipsi ultro se cessantibus malis obtulerunt etvirtuti iturae in obscurum occasionem per quam4 enitesceret quaesierunt. Gaudent, inquam, magniviri aliquando rebus adversis, non aliter quam fortes24^una Gertz and Hermes omit,

ON PROVIDENCE, in. l4-iv. 4a hardship to engage in civil war ; then let himfiffht the whole world over for a just cause, everth ill success but with equal stubbornness. It.-- a hardsliip to lay hand upon oneself then let himdo it.;And what shall I gain thereby ? that all mayknow that these things of which I have deemed Catoworthy are not real ills."Success comes to the conmion man, and even tonunonplace abiUty ; but to triumph over thecalamities and terrors of mortal hfe is the part of agreat man only. Truly, to be always happy and topass through Ufe v\-ithout a mental pang is to beignorant of one half of nature. You are a greatman ; but how do I know it if Fortune gives youno opportunity of shoAving j'our worth ? You haveentered as a contestant at the Olympic games, butnone other besides you ;you gain the crown, thevictory you do not gain. / You have my congratulations—notas a brave mail, but as if you had obtainedthe consulship or praetorship you have enhancedyour prestige.;In hke manner, also, I may say to aEfood man, if no harder circumstance has given hime opportunity whereby alone he might show thelength of his mind, " I judge you unfortimatebecause you have never been unfortunate ;youhave passed through hfe without an antagonist ; noone \n\\ know what you can do,—not even yourself."For if a man is to know himself, he must be tested ;no one finds out what he can do except by trjang.And so some men have presented themselves voluntarilyto laggard misfortune, and have sought anopportunity to blazon forth their worth when it wasabout to pass into obscurity. Great men, I say,rejoice oft-times in adversity, as do brave soldiers in25

;SENECAmilites bello. Triumphum ego murmillonem subTib. Caesare de raritate munerum audivi querentem :" Quam bella," inquit, " "aetas perit !Avida est periculi virtuset quo tendat, non quidpassura sit cogitat, quoniam etiam quod passura estgloriae pars est.Militares viri gloriantur vulneribus,laeti fluentem meliori casu sanguinem ostentantidem licet fecerint qui integri revertuntur ex acie,5 magis spectatur qui saucius redit. Ipsis, inquam,deus consulit, quos esse quam honestissimos cupit,quotiens illis materiam praebet aliquid animosefortiterque faciendi, ad quam rem opus est aliquarerum difficultate. Gubernatorem in tempestate, inacie militem intellegas. Unde possum scire quantumadversus paupertatem tibi animi sit, si divitiis diffluis ?Unde possum scire quantum adversus ignominiam etinfamiam odiumque populare constantiae habeas, siinter plausus senescis, si te inexpugnabilis et inclinationequadam mentium pronus favor sequitur ?Unde scio quam aequo animo laturus sis orbitatem,si quoscimique sustulisti vides.''consolareris :Audivi te, cimi aliostunc conspexissem, si te ipse consolatus6 esses, si te ipse dolere vetuisses. Nolite, obsecro vos,expavescere ista, quae dii immortales velut stimulosadmovent animis : calamitas virtutis occasio est.lUos merito quis dixerit miseros qui nimia felicitate26

ON PROVIDENCE, iv. 4-6warfare. I once heard Triumphus, a gladiator inthe time of Tiberius Caesar, complaining of thescarcity of shows ": How fair an age," he said," "has passed away !True worth is eager for danger and thinks ratherof its goal than of what it may have to suffer, sinceeven what it will have to suffer is a part of itsglory. Warriors glory in their wounds and rejoice todisplay the blood spilled with luckier fortune. Thosewho return from the battle unhurt may have foughtas well, but the man who returns with a wound winsthe greater regard. God, I say, is shomng favourto those whom he wills shall achieve the highestpossible virtue whenever he gives them the meansof doing a courageoiis and brave deed, and to thisend they must encounter some difficulty in life.You learn to know a pilot in a storm, a soldier inthe battle-hne. How can I know with what spirityou will face poverty, if you wallow in wealth ?How can I know Avith what firmness you ^vill facedisgrace, ill fame, and pubhc hatred, if you attain toold age amidst rounds of applause,—if a popularityattends you that is irresistible, and flows to youfrom a certain leaning of men's minds ? How do Iknow with what equanimity you would bear the lossof childi'en, if you see around you all that you havefathered ? I have heard you offering consolation toothers. If you had been offering it to yourself, ifyou had been telhng yourself not to grieve, then Imight have seen your true character. Do not, Ibeg of you, shrink in fear from those things whichthe immortal gods apply hke spurs, as it were, toour souls. Disaster is Virtue's opportunity. Justlymay those be termed unhappy who are dulled by27

;SENECAtorpescunt, quos velut in mari lento tranquillitasiners detinet ;quicquid illis incident, novum veniet.7 Magis virgent saeva inexpertos, grave est teneraecervici iugum. Ad suspicionem vulneris tiro pallescit,audacter veteranus cruorem suum spectat, qui scit sesaepe vicisse post sanguinem.Hos itaque deus quosprobat, quos amat, indurat, recognoscit, exerceteos autem quibus indulgere videtur, quibus parcere,molles Venturis malis servat. Erratis enim, si querniudicatis exceptum.Veniet et^ ad ilium diu felicemsua portio ;quisquis videtur dimissus esse, dilatus8 est. Quare deus optimum quemque aut mala valitudineaut luctu aut aliis incommodis afficit ? Quiain castris quoque periculosa fortissimis imperantur ;dux lectissimos mittit, qui nocturnis hostes aggredianturinsidiis aut explorent iter aut praesidium locodeiciant. Nemo eorum qui exeunt dicit ": Male deme imperator meruit," sed " bene iudicavit." Itemdicant quicumque iubentur pati timidis ignavisqueflebilia :" Digni visi sumus deo in quibus experireturquantum humana natura posset pati."9 Fugite delicias, fugite enervantem felicitatem, quaanimi permadescunt et nisi aliquid intervenit quodhumanae sortis admoneat, manent^ velut perpetuaebrietate sopiti.28Quem specularia semper ab afflatu^ et Gruter inserts. * manent Hermes inserts.

ON PROVIDENCE, iv. 6-9an excess of good fortune, who rest, as it were, indead calm upon a quiet sea ; whatever happens willcome to them as a change. Cruel fortune bearshardest upon the inexperienced ; to the tender necktlie yoke is heavy. The raw recruit turns pale atthe thought of a wound, but the veteran looks undauntedupon his own gore, knowing that blood has-often been the price of his victory. In like mannerGod hardens, reviews, and disciplines those whomhe approves, whom he loves. Those, however, whomhe seems to favom-, whom he seems to spare, he isreally keeping soft against ills to come. For youare >\Tong if you suppose that any one is exemptfrom ill. Even the man who has prospered long willhave his share some day ; whoever seems to havebeen released has only been reprieved. Why is itthat God afflicts the best men with ill health, orsorrow, or some other misfortune ? For the samereason that in the army the bravest men are assignedto the hazardous tasks ; it is the picked soldier thata general sends to surprise the enemy by a nightattack, or to reconnoitre the road, or to dislodge agarrison. Not a man of these will say as he goes,My commander has done me an ill turn," butinstead, " He has paid me a comphment." In hkemanner, all those who are called to suffer what wouldmake cowards and poltroons weep may say, " Godhas deemed us worthy instruments of his purpose to -discover how much human nature can endure."Flee luxury, flee enfeebhng good fortune, fromwhich men's minds grow sodden, and if nothingintervenes to remind them of the common lot,they sink, as it were, into the stupor of unendingdrunkenness. The man who has always had glazed29

SENECAvindicaverunt, cuius pedes inter fomenta subindemutata tepuerunt, cuius cenationes subditus et parietibuscircumfusus calor temperavit, hunc levis aura non10 sine periculo stringet. Cum omnia quae excesseruntmodum noceant, periculosissima felicitatis intemperantiaest : movet cerebrum, in vanas mentes imaginesevocat, multum inter falsum ac verum mediae caliginisfundit. Quidni satius sit perpetuam infelicitatemadvocata virtute sustinere quam infinitis atqueimmodicis bonis rumpi ? Lenior ieiunio mors est,cruditate dissiliunt.11 Hanc itaque rationem dii sequuntur in bonis virisquam in discipulis suis praeceptores, qui plus laborisab is exigunt, in quibus certior spes est. Numquidtu invisos esse Lacedaemoniis liberos suos credis,quorum experiuntur indolem publice verberibus admotis? Ipsi illos patres adhortantur, ut ictusflagellorum fortiter perferant, et laceros ac semianimesrogant, perseverent vulnera praebere vulne-12 ribus. Quid mirum, si dure generosos spiritus deustemptat ? Numquam virtutis molle documentum est.Verberat nos et lacerat fortuna ;patiamur ! Nonest saevitia, certamen est, quod quo^ saepius adierimus,fortiores erimus. Solidissima corporis pars estquam frequens usus agitavit. Praebendi fortunaesumus, ut contra illam ab ipsa duremur ;paulatimnos sibi pares faciet, contemptum periculorum ad-13 siduitas periclitandi dabit. Sic sunt nauticis corpora^ quod quo Hermes, after Thomas : quo id Gertz : quodA^ : quod si A^.30

ON PROVIDENCE, iv. 9-13windows to shield him from a draught, whose feet havebeen kept warm by hot apphcations renewed fromtime to time, whose dining-halls have been temperedbv hot air passing beneath the floor and circulatinground the walls,—this man will run great risk if heis brushed by a gentle breeze. While all excessesare hurtful, the most dangerous is unhmited goodfortune. It excites the brain, it evokes vain fanciesin the mind, and clouds in deep fog the boundarybetween falsehood and truth. Would it not bebetter, summoning virtue's help, to endure everlastingill fortune than to be bursting Avith unhmitedand immoderate blessings ? Death from starvationcomes very gently, but from gorging men explode.And so, in the case of good men the gods followthe same rule that teachers follow with their pupils ;they require most effort from those of whom theyhave the surest hopes. Do you imagine that theLacedaemonians hate their children when they testtheir mettle by lashing them in public ? Their ownfathers call upon them to endure bravely the blowsof the whip, and ask them, though mangled andhalf-dead, to keep offering their wounded bodies tofurther wounds. Why, then, is it strange if God triesnoble spirits with severity ? No proof of \irtue is evermild. If we are lashed and torn by Fortune, let usbear it ; it is not cruelty but a struggle, and theoftener we engage in it, the stronger we shall be.The staunchest member of the body is the one thatis kept in constant use. We should offer ourselvesto Fortune in order that, struggling with her, wemay be hardened by her. Gradually she will makeus a match for herself. Famiharity with exposureto danger will give contempt for danger. ' So the

;SENECAferendo mari dura, agricolis manus tritae, ad excutiendatela militares lacerti valent, agilia suntmembra cursoribus ; id in quoque solidissimum estquod exercuit.Ad contemnendam patientiam malorumanimus patientia pervenit ;quae quid in nobisefficere possit seies, si aspexeris quantum nationibus14 nudis et inopia fortioribus labor praestet. Omnesconsidera gentes in quibus Romana pax desinit,Germanos dico et quicquid circa Histrum vagarumgentium occursat. Perpetua illos hiemps, tristecaelum premit, maligne solum sterile sustentatimbrem culmo aut fronde defendunt, super durataglacie stagna persultant, in alimentum feras captant.15 Miseri tibi videntur ? Nihil miserum est quod innaturam consuetudo perduxit ;paulatim enimvoluptati sunt quae necessitate coeperunt. Nullaillis domicilia nullaeque sedes sunt nisi quas lassitudein diem posuit ; vilis et liic quaerendus manu victus,horrenda iniquitas caeli, intecta corpora ; hoc quodtibi calamitas videtur tot gentium vita est ! Quid16 miraris bonos viros, ut confirmentur, concuti ? Nonest arbor solida nee fortis nisi in quam frequensventus inciu'sat ;et radices certius figit ;ipsa enim vexatione constringiturfragiles sunt quae in apricavalle creverunt. Pro ipsis ergo bonis viris est, utesse interriti possint, multum inter formidolosa" Submission to the course of nature was a fundamentalStoic doctrine.32

ION PROVIDENCE, iv. 13-16biidies of sailors are hardy from buffeting the sea,tb.e hands of farmers are callous, the soldier's muscleshave the strength to hurl weapons, and the legs of;i runner are nimble. In each, his staamchest memberis the one that he has exercised. /By enduring illsthe mind attains contempt for the endurance ofthem ;you will know what this can accomphsh inour own case, if you will observe how much thepeoples that are destitute and, by reason of theirwant, more sturdy, secure by toil. Consider all thetribes whom Roman civilization does not reach—mean the Germans and all the nomad tribes thatassail us along the Danube. They are oppressed byeternal winter and a gloomy sky, the barren soilgrudges them support, they keep off the rain withthatch or leaves, they range over ice-bound marshes,and hunt wild beasts for food. Are they unhappy,do you think ? There is no unhappiness for thosewhom habit has brought back to nature.** For whatthey begin from necessity becomes gradually apleasure. They have no homes and no restingplacesexcept those wliich weariness allots for theday ; their food is mean and must be got by thehand ; terrible harshness of climate, bodies unclothed,—suchfor countless tribes is the life whichseems to you so calamitous ! Why, then, do youwonder that good men are shaken in order that theymay grow strong ? No tree becomes rooted andsturdy unless many a wind assails it. For by itsvery tossing it tightens its grip and plants its rootsmore securely ; the fragile trees are those that havegrown in a sunny valley. It is, therefore, to theadvantage even of good men, to the end that theymay be unafraid, to live constantly amidst alarmsVOL. I D 33

SENECAversari et aequo animo ferre quae non sunt malanisi male sustinenti.1 5. Adice nunc, quod pro omnibus est optimumquemque, ut ita dicam, militare et edere operas.Hoc est propositum deo quod sapienti viro, ostenderehaec quae vulgus appetit, quae reformidat, nee bonaesse nee mala ; apparebit autem bona esse, si ilianon nisi bonis viris tribuerit, et mala esse, si tantum2 malis irrogaverit. Detestabilis erit caecitas, si nemooculos perdiderit, nisi cui eruendi sunt : itaquecareant luce Appius et Metellus. Non sunt divitiaebonum ; itaque habeat illas et Elius leno, ut hominespecuniam, cum in templis consecraverint, videant etin fornice. Nullo modo magis potest deus concupitatraducere, quam si ilia ad turpissimos defert, ab3 optimis abigit. " At iniquum est virum bonumdebilitari aut configi aut alligari, malos integris corporibussolutos ac delicatos incedere." Quid porro ?Non est iniquum fortes viros arma sumere et in castrispernoctare et pro vallo obligatis stare vulneribus,interim in urbe securos esse percisos et professosimpudicitiam ? Quid porro ? Non est iniquum nobilissimasvirgines ad sacra facienda noctibus excitari,4 altissimo somno inquinatas frui ? Labor optimoscitat. Senatus per totum diem saepe consulitur,cum illo tempore vilissimus quisque aut in campo" In Stoic dogma virtus was the sole good and dedectisthe sole evil. All things not related to these standardswere considered neither good nor evil, and, consequently,negligible {a5id((>opa).* The Vestal Virgins, who maintained the publicworship of Vesta.34

ON PROVIDENCE, iv. 16-v. 4and to bear -with patience the happenings which areills to him only who ill supports them.Consider, too, that it is for the common good tohave the best men become soldiers, so to speak, anddo service. It is God's purpose, and the wise man'sas well, to show that those things which the ordinaryman desires and those which he dreads are reallyneither goods nor evils." It vnW appear, however,that there are goods, if these are bestowed only ongood men, and that there are evils, if these are inflictedonly on the evil. Blindness will be a curse ifno one loses his eyes but the man who deserves tohave them torn out ; therefore let an Appius and aMetellus be deprived of the light. Riches are nota good ; therefore let even the panderer EUus possessthem in order that men, though they hallow wealthin temples, may see it also in a brothel. In nobetter way can God discredit what we covet thanby bestowing those things on the basest men whilewithholding them from the best. " But," you say,"it is unjust that a good man be broken in healthor transfixed or fettered, while the wicked arepampered and stalk at large with whole skins."What then ? Is it not unjust that brave men shouldtake up arms, and stay all night in camp, and standwith bandaged wounds before the rampart, whileperverts and professional profligates rest secure withinthe city ? What then ? Is it not unjust that thenoblest maidens ^ should be aroused from sleep toperform sacrifices at night, while others stained withsin enjoy soundest slumber ? Toil summons thebest men. The senate is often kept in session thewhole day long, though all the while every worthlessfellow is either amusing himself at the recreation-35

SENECAotium suum oblectet aut in popina lateat aut tempusin aliquo circulo terat.Idem in hac magna re publicafit ; boni viri laborant, impendunt, impenduntur etvolentes quidem ; non trahuntur a fortuna, sequunturillam et aequant gradus. Si scissent, antecessissent.5 Hanc quoque animosam Demetri fortissimi viri vocemaudisse me memini :" Hoc unum," inquit, " de vobis,di immortales, queri possum, quod non ante mihinotam voluntatem vestram fecistis ;prior enim adista venissem, ad quae nunc vocatus adsum. Vultisliberos siunere ? vobis illos sustuli. Vultis aliquampartem corporis ? sumite ; non magnam rem promitto,cito totum relinquam. Vultis spiritum ? quidni ?nuUam moram faciam, quo minus recipiatis quod6 dedistis. A volente feretis quicquid petieritis. Quidergo est ? Maluissem offerre quam tradere. Quidopus fuit auferre ? Accipere potuistis ; sed ne nuncquidem auferetis, quia nihil eripitur nisi retinenti."Nihil cogor, nihil patior invitus nee servio deo sedassentior, eo quidem magis, quod scio omnia certa et7 in aeternum dicta lege decurrere. Fata nos ducuntet quantum cuique temporis restat prima nascentiumhora disposuit.Causa pendet ex causa, privata acS6

ON PROVIDENCE, v. 4-7ground, or lurking in an eating-house, or wasting histime in sonae gathering. The same is true in thisgreat commonwealth of the world. Good menlabour, spend, and are spent, and withal willingly.Fortune does not drag them—they follow her, andmatch her pace. If they had knowm how, theywould have outstripped her. Here is anotherspirited utterance which, I remember, I heard thatmost valiant man, Demetrius, make :" Immortalgods," he said, " I have this one complaint to makeagainst you, that you did not earlier make knownvour will to me ; for I should have reached the soonerthat condition in which, after being summoned, Inow am. Do you wish to take my children ?—it wasfor you that I fathered them. Do you wish to takesome member of my body ?—take it ; no greatthing am I offering you ; very soon I shall leave thewhole. Do you wish to take my life ?—why not ? Ishall make no protest against your taking back whatonce you gave. With my free consent you shall havewhatever you may ask of me. What, then, is mytrouble ? I should have preferred to offer than torelinquish. What was the need to take by force ?You might have had it as a gift. Yet even nowyou will not take it by force, because nothing can bewTenched away from a man unless he withholds it."I am under no compulsion, I suffer nothing againstmy will, and Iam not God's slave but liis follower,and the more so, indeed, because I know thateverything proceeds according to law that is fixedand enacted for all time. Fate guides us, and itwas settled at the first hour of birth what lengthof time remains for each. Cause is linked withcause, and all pubUc and private issues are directed37

SENECApublica longus ordo rerum trahit.Ideo fortiter omnepatiendum est, quia non, ut putamus, incidunt cunctased veniunt. Olim constitutum est quid gaudeas,quid fleas, et quamvis magna videatur varietatesingulorum vita distingui, summa in unum venit ;8 aceipimus peritura perituri. Quid itaque indignamur ?Quid querimur ? Ad hoc parti ^ sumus. Utatur utvult suis natura corporibus ; nos laeti ad omnia etfortes cogitemus nihil perire de nostro.Quid est boni viri ? Praebere se fato. Grandesolacium est cum universo rapi ;quicquid est quodnos sic vivere, sic mori iussit, eadem necessitate etdeos alhgat.Irrevocabilis humana pariter ac divinacursus vehit. Ille ipse omnium conditor et rectorscripsit quidem fata, sed sequitur ; semper paret,9 semel iussit. " Quare tamen deus tam iniquus indistributione fati fuit,ut bonis viris paupertatem etvulnera et acerba funera ascriberet ? " Non potestartifex mutare materiam ; hoc passa est. Quaedamseparari a quibusdam non possunt, cohaerent, individuasunt.Languida ingenia et in somnum ituraaut in vigiham somno similUmam inertibus nectunturelementis ; ut efficiatur vircumcuradicendus,fortiorefato opus est. Non erit ilh planum iter ;sursum^ parti Hermes : parati A.38

;ON PROVIDENCE, v. 7-9bv a long sequence of events. Therefore everythingsliould be endured with fortitude, since things donot, as we suppose, simply happen—they all come.Long ago it was determined what would make yourejoice, what would make you weep, and althoughthe hves of individuals seem to be marked by greatdissimilarity, yet is the end one—we receive whatis perishable and shall ourselves perish. Why,therefore, do we chafe ? why complain ? For thiswere we born.is her own, as she pleases ; let us be cheerful andLet Nature deal with matter, whichfbrave in the face of everything, reflecting that it isnothing of our own that perishes.What, then, is the part of a good man ? To offerhimself to Fate. It is a great consolation that it istogether with the universe we are swept alongwhatever it is that has ordained us so to hve, so todie, bv the same necessity it binds also the gods.One unchangeable course bears along the affairs of 'men and gods alike. Although the great creatorand ruler of the universe himself WTote the decreesof Fate, yet he follows them. He obeys for ever, he 'decreed but once. " Why, however," do you ask," was God so unjust in his allotment of destiny asto assign to good men poverty, wounds, and painfuldeath? " It is impossible for the moulder to altermatter ; to this law it has submitted. Certainqualities cannot be separated from certain others ;they cling together, are indivisible. Natures thatare listless, that are prone to sleep, or to a kind ofwakefulness that closely resembles sleep, are composedof sluggish elements. It takes sterner stuflF tomake a man who deserves to be mentioned >vithconsideration. His course will not be the level way ;39

SENECAoportet ac deorsum eat, fluctuetur ac navigium inturbido regat. Contra fortunam illi tenendus estcursus ;multa accident dura, aspera, sed quae molliat10 et complanet ipse. Ignis aurum probat, miseria fortesviros. Vide quam alte escendere debeat virtus ; sciesilli non per secura vadendum :Ardua prima via est et quam vix mane recentesenituntur equi ; medio est altissima caelo,unde mare et terras ipsi mihi saepe videresit timor et pavida trepidet formidine pectus,ultima prona via est et eget moderamine certo ;tunc etiam quae me subiectis excipit undis,ne ferar in praeceps, Tethys solet ima vereri.11 Haec cum audisset ille generosus adulescens :" Placet," inquit, " via ; escendo. Est tanti per istaire casuro." Non desinit acrem animum metuterritare :Utque viam teneas nulloque errore traharis,per tamen adversi gradieris cornua tauriHaemoniosque arcus violentique ora leonis.Post haec ait : " lunge datos currus ! His quibusdeterreri me putas incitor. Libet illic stare ubi ipseSol trepidat." Humilis et inertis est tuta sectari ;per alta virtus it.I 6. " Quare tamen bonis viris patitur aliquid malideus fieri ? " Ille vero non patitur. Omnia mala" Ovid, Met. ii. 63 sqq. The speaker is Phoebus, thejSun-god, who seeks to dissuade the youthful Phaethoifrom his desire to drive the chariot of the Sun.''Ovid, Met. ii. 79 sqq.40

ON PROVIDENCE, v. 9-vi. 1uphill and dowTihill must he go, be tossed about,and guide his bark through stormy waters ; he mustkeep his course in spite of fortune. Much that ishard, much that is rough will befall him, but hehimself vnW soften the one, and make the othersiuooth. Fire tests gold, misfortune brave men. Seeto what a height virtue must cHmb ! you viiW find thatit has no safe road to tread :The way is steep at first, and the coursers strainTo climb it, fresh in the early morn. They gainThe crest of heaven at noon ; from here I gazeAdown on land and sea with dread amaze,And oft my heart will beat in panic fear.The roadwaj' ends in sharp descent—keep hereA sure control ; 'twill happen even soThat Tethys, stretching out her waves below.Will often, while she welcomes, be affrightTo see me speeding downward from the height."Ha%ing heard the words, that noble youth replied,I like the road, I shall mount ; even though I fall,it ^^^ll be worth while to travel through such sights."But the other did not cease from trying to strike hisbold heart with fear :And though you may not miss the beaten track,Nor, led to wander, leave the zodiac.Yet through the Bull's fierce horns, the Centaur's bowAnd raging Lion's jaws you still must go.*In reply to this he said, " Harness the chariot youoffered ; the very things that you think affright meurge me on. I long to stand aloft where even theSun-god quakes ^vith fear." The groveller and thecoward ^^•ill follow the safe path : ^^rtue seeks theheights." But why," you ask, " does God sometimes allowevil to befall good men ? " Assuredly he does not.41

;SENECAab illis removit, seelera et flagitia et cogitationes improbaset avida consilia et libidinem caecam et alienoimminentem avaritiam ; ipsos tuetur ac vindieat :numquid hoc quoque aliquis a deo exigit, ut bonorumvirorum etiam sareinas servet ?Remittunt ipsi hanc2 deo curara : externa contemnunt. Democritus divitiasproiecit onus illas bonae mentis existimans. Quidergo miraris, si id deus bono viro accidere patiturquod vir bonus aliquando vult sibi accidere ? Filiosamittunt viri boni ;quidni, cum aliquando et occidant? In exilium mittuntur ;quidni, cum aliquandoipsi patriam non repetituri relinquant ? Occiduntur ;quidni, cum aliquando ipsi sibi manus afFerant ? Quare3 quaedam dura patiuntur ? Ut alios pati doceantnati sunt in exemplar. Puta itaque deum dicere :Quid habetis quod de me queri possitis, vos,quibus recta placuerunt ?Aliis bona falsa circumdediet animos inanes velut longo fallacique somniolusi. Auro illos et argento et ebore adornavi, intus4 boni nihil est. Isti quos pro felicibus aspicis, si nonqua occurrunt sed qua latent videris, miseri sunt,sordidi, turpes, ad similitudinem parietum suoruniextrinsecus culti ; non est ista solida et sincerafelicitas ; crusta est et quidem tenuis. Itaque dumillislicet stare et ad arbitrium suum ostendi, nitent" As, notably, did Lucius Junius Brutus and ManliusTorquatus, exalting public duty.* Cato is the favourite exemplar.42

.eyON PROVIDENCE, vi. 1^E\ il of every sort he keeps far from them—sin andcrime, evil counsel and schemes for greed, blind lustand avarice intent upon another's goods. The goodman himself he protects and delivers : does any>' t" require of God that he should also guard thed man's luggage ? Nay, the good man himselfeves God of this concern ; he despises externals. -^Dcmocritus, considering riches to be a burden to thevirtuous mind, renounced them. Why, then, do you^vonder if God suffers that to be the good man's lot\\ liich the good man himself sometimes choosessliould be his lot ? Good men lose their sons ; whyiii't, since sometimes they even slay them ? They

'SENECAmulta incidunt tristia, horrenda, dura toleratu .et imponunt ;cum aliquid incidit quod disturbet acdetegat, tunc apparet quantum altae ac verae6 foeditatis alienus splendor absconderit. Vobis dedibona certa, mansura, quanto magis versaverit aliquiset undique inspexerit, meliora maioraque : permisivobis metuenda contemnere, cupiditates fastidire ;non fulgetis extrinsecus, bona vestra introrsus obversasunt. Sic mundus exteriora contempsit spectaculosui laetus. Intus omne posui bonum ; non egerefelicitate felicitas vestra est.6'AtQuia non poteram vos istis subducere, animos vestrosadversus omnia armavi ; ferte fortiter. Hoc est quodeum antecedatis ; ille extra patientiam malorum est,vos supra patientiam, Contemnite paupertatem ;• nemo tam pauper vivit quam natus est. Contemnitedolorem ; aut solvetur aut solvet. Contemnite mortem ;quae vos aut finit aut transfert. Contemnite fortunam; nullum illi telum quo feriret animum dedi.7 Ante omnia cavi, ne quid vos teneret invitos ;patetexitus. Si pugnare non vultis, licet fugere. Ideo exomnibus rebus quas esse vobis necessarias volui nihilfeci facilius quam mori. Prono animam loco posui ;trahitur, adtendite modo et videbitis quam brevis adlibertatem et quam expedita ducat via. Non tamlongas in exitu vobis quam intrantibus moras posui ;alioqui magnum in vos regnum fortuna tenuisset,44

ON PROVIDENCE, vi. 4-7Mhen, however, something occurs to overthrow anduncover them, then you see what deep-set andgenuine ugliness their borrowed splendour hid. Butto you I have given the true and enduring goods,wliich are greater and better the more any one turnsthem over and views them from every side. I havepermitted you to scorn all that dismays and to disndesires. Outwardly you do not shine ;your. ds are directed inward. Even so the cosmos, rej;icing in the spectacle of itself, scorns ever}'1;hingoutside. Within I have bestowed upon you everygood ;your good fortune is not to need good fortune.'Yet,' you say, many ' sorrows, things dreadfuland hard to bear, do befall us.' Yes, because I couldnot ^vithdraw you from their path, I have armedyour minds to \\ithstand them all ; endiu-e with+ "titude. In this you may outstrip God ; he is•mp^from enduring evil, while you are superior.M it. Scorn poverty ; no one lives as poor as hewas boni. Scorn pain ; it will either be reheved oritrlieve you. Scorn death, which either ends you ortransfers you. Scorn Fortune ; I have given her noweapon with which she may strike your soul. Aboveall, I have taken pains that nothing should keep youhere against your \\ill ; the way out hes open. Ifyou do not choose to fight, you may run away.Therefore of all things that I have deemed necessaryfor you, I have made nothing easier than dying. Ihave set hfe on a downward slope : if it is prolonged,only observe and you will see what a short and easypath leads to liberty. ' I have not imposed upon youat your exit the weSrisome delay you had at entrance.Otherwise, if death came to a man asslowly as his birth, Fortune would have kept her45

SENECA8 si homo tarn tarde moreretur quam nascitur. Omnetempus, omnis vos locus doceat quam facile sitrenuntiare naturae ej munus illi suum impingere ;inter ipsa altaria et sollemnes sacrificantium ritus,Corpora opimadum optatur vita, mortem condiscite.taurorum exiguo concidunt vulnere et magnarumvirium animalia humanae manus ictus impellit ;tenuiferro commissura cervicis abrumpitur, et cum articulusille qui caput collumque committit incisus est, tanta9 ilia moles corruit. Non in alto latet spiritus neeutique ferro eruendus est ; non sunt vulnere penitusimpresso scrutanda praecordia : in proximo mors est.Non certum ad hos ictus destinavi locum ;quacumquevis pervium est. Ipsum illud quod vocatur mori, quoanima discedit a corpore, brevius est quam ut sentiritanta velocitas possit. Sive fauces nodus elisit, sivespiramentum aqua praeclusit, sive in caput lapsossubiacentis soli duritia comminuit, sive haustus igniscursum animae remeantis interscidit ;quicquid est,properat. Ecquid erubescitis ? Quod tam cito fit,timetis diu !"I46

ON PROVIDENCE, vi. 8-9great dominion over you. Let every season, everyplace, teach you how easy it is to renounce Nature andHing her gift back in her face. In the very presence(tf the altars and the solemn rites of sacrifice, while\(iu pray for life, learn well concerning death. Thefatted bodies of bulls fall from a paltry wound, andcreatures of mighty strength are felled by one strokeof a man's hand ; a tiny blade mil sever the sutures(if the neck, and when that joint, which binds togetherhead and neck, is cut, the body's mightymass crmnples in a heap. No deep retreat concealstlie soul, you need no knife at all to root it out, notleeply driven wound to find the vital parts ; deathlies near at hand. For these mortal strokes I haveSt t no definite spot ; anywhere you wish, the way isopen. Even that which we call dying, the momentM lien the breath forsakes the body, is so brief thatit< fleetness cannot come within the ken. Whetherthe throat is strangled by a knot, or water stops thebreathing, or the hard ground crushes in the skull ofone falling headlong to its surface, or flame inhaledcuts off the course of respiration,—be it what it may,tlie end is swift. Do you not blush for shame ?You "dread so long what comes so quickly !)\^47

LIBER IIAD SERENVMNEC INIVRIAM NEC CONTVMELIAMACCIPERE SAPIENTEM(De Constantia Sapientis)1 1. Tantum inter Stoicos, Serene, et ceteros sapientiamprofesses interesse quantum inter feminas etmares non immerito dixerim, cum utraque turba advitae societatem tantundem conferat, sed altera parsad obsequendum, altera imperio nata sit. Ceterisapientes molliter et blande, ut fere domestici etfamiliares medici aegi'is corporibus, non qua optimumet celerrimum est medentur sed qua licet; Stoicvirilem ingressi viam non ut amoena ineuntibusvideatur curae habent, sed ut quam primum noseripiat et in ilium editum verticem educat, qui adeoextra omnera teli iactum surrexit, ut supra fortunam2 emineat. " At ardua per quae vocamur et confragosasunt." Quid enim ? Piano aditur excelsum ? Sedne tam abrupta quidem sunt quam quidam putant.Prima tantum pars saxa rupesque habet et inviispeciem, sicut pleraque ex longinquo speculantibus48

BOOK IITO SERENUS ON THE FIRMNESSOF THE WISE MANThe Wise Man can receive neither Injury nor Insult.iGHT say -with good reason, Serenus, that there is_reat a difference between the Stoics and the otherlols of philosophy as there is between males andales, since while each set contributes equally tonan society, the one class is bom to obey, theither to command. Other philosophers, using gentleind persuasive measures, are hke the intimate familyphysician, who, commonly, tries to cure his patients,ot by the best and the quickest method, but as heis allowed. The Stoics, ha\ing adopted the heroiccourse, are not so much concerned in making itattractive to us who enter upon it, as in having it•escue us as soon as possible and guide us to thatiofty summit which rises so far beyond the reachof any missile as to tower high above all fortune.But," you say, " the path by which we are called'to go is steep and rugged." \Miat of it ? Can theheights be reached by a level path ? But the way isnot so sheer as some suppose. The first part onlyhas rocks and cliffs, and appears impassable, just asmany places, when \-iewed from afar, seem often toVOL. I E 49

jSENECAabscisa et conexa videri solent, cum aciem longinquitasfallat, deinde propius adeuntibus eadem ilia,quae in unum congesserat error oeulorum, paulatimadaperiuntur, turn illis quae praecipitia ex intervalloapparebant redit lene fastigium.3 Nuper cum incidisset mentio M. Catonis, indigneferebas, sicut es iniquitatis impatiens, quod Catonemaetas sua parum intellexisset, quod supra Pompeioset Caesares surgentem infra Vatinios posuisset, ettibi indignum videbatur, quod illi dissuasuro legemtoga in foro esset erepta quodque a rostris usquead arcum Fabianum per seditiosae faetionis manustraditus voces improbas et sputa et omnis aliasinsanae multitudinis contumelias pertulisset.1 2. Turn ego respondi habere te, quod rei publicaenomine movereris, quam hinc P. Clodius, hincVatinius ac pessimus quisque venundabat et caecacupiditate correpti non intellegebant se dum venduntet venire. Pro ipso quidem Catone securum te esseIiussi ; nullam enim sapientem nee iniuriam acciperenee contumeliam posse, Catonem autem certius ex- jemplar sapientis viri nobis deos immortalis dedisse|quam Ulixen et Herculem prioribus saeculis. Hosienim Stoici nostri sapientes pronuntiaverunt, invictoslaboribus et contemptores voluptatis et victores2 omnium terrorum. Cato non cum feris manus contulit,quas consectari venatoris agrestisque est, nee50

. had——ON FIRMNESS, i. 2-n. 2he an unbroken steep since the distance deceives the: then, as you draw nearer, these same places,oh by a trick of the eyes had merged into one,'! en up gradually, and what seemed from a distanceIv/ccipitous is now reduced to a gentle slope.Recently, when there happened to be someuitntion of Marcus Cato, you, \\iih. your impatience01 injustice, grew indignant because Cato's o^\-n agehad failed to understand him, because it had ratedliim lower than any \'atinius though he towered>e any Pompey and Caesar ; and it seemed to, shameful that when he was about to speakinst some law in the forum, his toga was torn from-houlders, and that, after he had been hustledI lawless mob all the way from the rostrum to theh of Fabius, he had to endure \ile language, andtie. and all the other insults of a maddenedvd.Vnd then I made answer that on behalf of the stategood reason to be stirred—the state whichlius Clodius on the one hand, Vatinius and allgreatest rascals on the other, were putting upsale, and, carried away by bhnd cupidity, didrealize that, while they were selhng, they tooe being sold. For Cato himself I bade you have•oncem, for no wise man can receive either injuryinsult. I said, too, that in Cato the immortal Lgods had given to us a truer exemplar of the wise 'man than earher ages had in Ulysses and Hercules.For we Stoics have declared that these were wisemen, because they were unconquered by struggles,were despisers of pleasure, and \ictors over allterrors. Cato did not grapple with wild beastsUie pursuit of these is for the huntsman and the51"

SENECAmonstra igne ac ferro persecutus est nee in eatempora incidit quibus credi posset caelum umerisxinius inniti. Excussa iam antiqua credulitate etsaeculo ad summam perducto soUertiam cum ambitucongressus, multiform! malo, et cum potentiae immensacupiditate, quam totus orbis in tres divisussatiare non poterat, adversus vitia civitatis degenerantiset pessum sua mole sidentis stetit solus etcadentem rem publicam, quantum modo una retrahimanu poterat, tenuit, donee abstractus comitem sediu sustentatae ruinae dedit simulque exstincta suntquae nefas erat dividi ; neque enim Cato post3 libertatem vixit nee libertas post Catonem. Huic tuputas iniuriam fieri potuisse a populo, quod autpraeturam illi detraxit aut togam ? Quod sacrumillud caput purgamentis oris adspersit ? Tutus estsapiens nee ulla affici aut iniuria aut contumeliapotest.1 3. Videor mihi intueri animum tuum incensum eteffervescentem ;paras adclamare :" Haec sunt quaeauctoritatem praeceptis vestris detrahant. Magnapromittitis et quae ne optari quidem, nedum credipossint ; deinde ingentia locuti cum pauperemnegastis esse sapientem, non negatis solera illi etservum et tectum et cibum deesse, cum sapientemnegastis insanire, non negatis et alienari et52" i.e., Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus.

ON FIRMNESS, ii. 2-ni. 1peasant ; he did not hunt down monsters with fireand sword, nor did he chance to hve in the timeswhen it was possible to beUeve that the heavensrt-ted on one man's shoulders. In an age when theold credulity had long been thro^\-n aside, and knowledgehad by time attained its highest development,he came into conflict with ambition, a monster ofmany shapes, with the boundless greed for powerw hich the division of the whole world among threemen * could not satisfy. He stood alone against the\ices of a degenerate state that was sinking todestruction beneath its very weight, and he stayedthe fall of the republic to the utmost that one man'shand could do to draw it back, until at last he washimself withdra^vn and shared the downfall which hehad so long averted, and the two whom heaven willed-^hould never part were blotted out together. ForCato did not survive freedom, nor freedom Cato.Think you that what the people did to such a manCDuld have been an injury, even if they tore fromliim either his praetorship or his toga ? even if theyt)espattered his sacred head with filth from theirn^ouths ? The wise man is safe, and no injury orinsult can touch him.I imagine that I see you flaring up in a temperand about to boil over ;you are getting ready toexclaim " : This is the sort of thing that detractsfrom the weight of the teachings of you Stoics. Youmake great promises, promises which are not even tobe desired, still less believed ; then after all yourbig words, while you deny that a wise man is poor,you do not deny that he usually possesses neitherslave nor house nor food ; while you deny that awise man is mad, you do not deny that he does lose53

SENECAparum sana verba emittere et quicquid vis morbicogit audere, cum sapientem negastis servum esse,idem non itis infitias et veniturum et imperatafacturum et domino suo servilia praestaturum ministeria.Ita sublato alte supercilio in eadem quae2 ceteri descenditis mutatis rerum nominibus. Taleitaque aliquid et in hoc esse suspicor, quod primaspecie pulchrum atque magnificum est, nee iniuriamnee contumeliam accepturum esse sapientem. Multumautem interest, utrum sapientem extra indignationeman extra iniuriam ponas. Nam si dicisilium aequo animo laturum, nullum habet privilegium,contigit illi res vulgaris et quae discitur ipsa iniuriarumassiduitate, patientia ; si negas accepturuminiuriam, id est neminem illi temptaturum facere,omnibus relictis negotiis Stoicus fio."3 Ego vero sapientem non imaginario honore verborumexornare constitui, sed eo loco ponere quonulla permittatur iniuria. " Quid ergo ? Nemo eritqui lacessat, qui temptet " ? Nihil in rerum naturatam sacrum est, quod sacrilegum non inveniat, sednon ideo divina minus in sublimi sunt, si exsistuntqui magnitudinem multum ultra se positam nontacturi appetant ; invulnerabile est non quod nonferitur, sed quod non laeditur ; ex hac tibi nota4 sapientem exhibebo. Numquid dubium est, quincertius robur sit quod non vincitur quam quod non» While the Stoics preached, and sometimes practised,the doctrine of participation in public affairs, they emphasizedthe desirability of peaceful retirement as a means to thehigher activity of intellectual research. See Seneca, DeOtio, 5. 8; 6. 4.54

ON FIRMNESS, iii. 1-4^is reason, that he babbles crazy words, that he M-ill.enture to do whatever his violent disorder impelslira to do ; while you deny that a wise man is ever a1 1\ e, you do not likewise go on to deny that he will-old, that he -will do what he is ordered to do, and.der to his master the services of a slave. So, forall your lofty assumption, you reach the same level asthe other schools—only the names of things arehanged. And so I suspect that something of this-ort lurks behind this maxim also, A wise man 'willi-eceive neither injury nor insult '—a maxim which, atfirst sight, appears noble and splendid. But it makesa great difference whether you place the wise manbeyond feehng injured or beyond being injured.lor if you say that he will bear injury calmly, he hasno peculiar advantage ; he is fortunate in possessinga common quaUty, one which is acquired from thevery repetition of injuries—namely, endurance. Ifyuu say that he Avill not receive injury, that is, thatno one will attempt to injure him, then, abandoningall other business, I am for becoming a Stoic." "I assuredly did not intend to deck up the wiseman with the fanciful honour of words, but to placehim in the position where no injury may reach him.'What then? " you say "; will there be no one toa--ail him, no one to attempt it " ? Nothing in theworld is so sacred that it will not find some one toprofane it, but holy things are none the less exalted,even if those do exist who strike at a greatness thatis set far beyond them, and which they will neverdamage. The invulnerable thing is not that which isnot struck, but that which is not hurt ; by this markI will show you the wise man. Is there any doubtjthat the strength that cannot be overcome is a truer*55

SENECAlacessitur, cum dubiae sint vires inexpertae, at meritocertissima firmitas habeatur, quae omnis incursusrespuit ? Sic tu sapientem melioris scito essenaturae, si nulla illi iniuria nocet, quam si nulla fit.Et ilium fortem virum dicam, quern bella non subiguntnee admota vis hostilis exterret, non cui pingue6 otium est inter desides populos. Hoc igitur dico,sapientem nulli esse iniuriae obnoxium ; itaque nonrefert, quam multa in ilium coiciantur tela, cum sitnulli penetrabilis. Quomodo quorundam lapiduminexpugnabilis ferro duritia est nee secari adamasaut caedi vel deteri potest sed incurrentia ultroretundit, quemadmodum quaedam non possunt igneconsumi sed flamma circumfusa rigorem suum liabitumqueconservant, quemadmodum proiecti quidamin altum scopuli mare frangunt nee ipsi ulla saevitiaevestigia tot verberati saeeulis ostentant ;ita sapientisanimus solidus est et id roboris collegit, ut tarn tutussit ab iniuria quam ilia quae rettuli.1 4. " Quid ergo ? Non erit aliquis qui sapientifacere temptet iniuriam ? " Temptabit, sed nonperventuram ad eum ; maiore enim intervallo acontactu inferiorum abductus est, quam ut ulla visnoxia usque ad ilium vires suas perferat. Etiamcum potentes et imperio editi et consensu servientiumvalidi nocere intendent, tam citra sapientiam omneseorum impetus deficient, quam quae nervo tormentis-56

ON FIRMNESS, ni. 4-iv. 1sort than that which is unassailed, seeing that un- ^tested powers are dubious, whereas the stabihty thatrepels all assaults is rightly deemed most genuine ?So you must know that the ^\^se man, if no injuryhurts him, will be of a higher tj^e than if none isoffered to him, and the brave man, I should say, is hewhom war cannot subdue, whom the onset of a hostileforce cannot terrify, not he who battens at easeamong the idle populace. Consequently I will assertthis—that the -v^ise man is not subject to any injury.It does not matter, therefore, how many darts arehurled against him, since none can pierce him. Asthe hardness of certain stones is impervious to steel,and adamant cannot be cut or hewed or ground, butin turn blunts whatever comes into contact with it ; ascertain substances cannot be consumed by fire, but,though encompassed by flame, retain their hardnessand their shape ; as certain cliffs, projecting intothe deep, break the force of the sea, and, thoughlashed for countless ages, show no traces of itswrath, just so the spirit of the wise man is impregnable,and has gathered such a measure ofstrength as to be no less safe from injury than thosethings which I have mentioned." What then " ? you say "; will there be no one"who will attempt to do the wise man injurv' ?Yes, the attempt will be made, but the injury willnot reach him. For the distance which separateshim from contact with his inferiors is so great thatno baneful force can extend its power all the way tohim. Even when the mighty, exalted by authorityand powerful in the support of their ser\itors, striveto injure him, all their assaults on wisdom will fall asshort of their mark as do the missiles shot on high by

SENECAve in altum exprimuntur, cum extra visum exsilierint.2 citra caelum tamen flectuntur. Quid ? Tu putasturn, cum stolidus ille rex multitudine telorum diemobscuraret, ullam sagittam in solem incidisse autdemissis in profundum catenis Neptunum potuissecont.ingi ? Ut caelestia humanas manus effugiuntet ab his qui templa diruunt ac simulacra conflantnihil divinitati nocetur, ita quicquid fit in sapientemproterve, petulanter, superbe, frustra temptatur." At satius erat neminem esse qui facere vellet."3 Rem difficilem optas humano generi, innocentiam ;et non fieri eorum interest qui facturi sunt, noneius qui pati ne si fiat quidem potest. Immo nescioan magis vires sapientiae ostendat tranquillitas interlacessentia, sicut maximum argumentum est imperatorisarmis virisque pollentis tuta securitas inhostium terra.1 5. Dividamus, si tibi videtur, Serene, iniuriam acontumelia. Prior ilia natura gravior est, haec levioret tantum delicatis gravis, qua non laeduntur hominessed ofFenduntur. Tanta est tamen animorum dissolutioet vanitas, ut quidam nihil acerbius putent.Sic inveniesservum qui flagellis quam colaphis caedi malitet qui mortem ac verbera tolerabiliora credat quam2 contumeliosa verba. Ad tantas ineptias perventumest, ut non dolore tantum sed doloris opinione" i.e., Xerxes. The incidents mentioned are associatedrespectively with his prowess before Thermopylae and hiswrath expended upon the Hellespont ; cf. Herodotus, vii. 226and 35.58

—ON FIRMNESS, iv. 1-v. 2b' iwstring or catapult, which though they leap beyonduur \-ision, yet curve do^^nwards this side of heaven.Tell me, do you suppose that when that stupid king "darkened the day \\1th the shower of his darts, anyarrow fell upon the sun, or that he was able to reachNeptune when he lowered his chains into the deep ?As heavenly things escape the hands of man anddivinity suffers no harm from those Avho demoUshtemples and melt down images, so every wanton,insolent, or haughty act directed against the wiseman is essayed in vain. " But it would be better,"you say, " if no one cared to do such things." Youare praying for what is a hard matter—that humanbeings should do no ^vrong.And that such acts benot done is profitable to those who are prone to dothem, not to him who cannot be affected by themeven if they are done. No, I am inclined to thinkthat the power of \^-isdom is better sho\\Ti by a displayof calmness in the midst of provocation, just as thegreatest proof that a general is mighty in his armsand men is his quiet unconcern in the country' of theenemy.Let us make a distinction, Serenus, if you Uke,between injury and insult. The former is by itsnature more serious ; the latter, a slighter matterserious only to the thin-skinned—for men are notharmed, but angered by it. Yet such is the weaknessand vanity of some men's minds, there are those whothink that nothing is more bitter. And so you willfind the slave who would rather be struck with thelash than the fist, who considers stripes and deathmore endurable than insulting words. To such apitch of absurdity have we come that we are harrowednot merely by pain but by the idea of pain, Uke59

SENECAvexemur more puerorum, quibus metum incutitumbra et personarum deformitas et depravata facies,lacrimas vero evocant nomina parum grata auribus etdigitorum motus et alia quae impetu quodam erroris3 improvidi refugiunt. Iniuria propositum hoc habetaliquem malo adficere ; male autem sapientia nonrelinquit locum, unum enim illi malum est turpitudo,quae intrare eo ubi iam virtus honestumque est nonpotest. Ergo, si iniuria sine malo nulla est, malumnisi turpe nullum est, turpe autem ad lionestisoccupatum pervenire non potest, iniuria ad sapientemnon pervenit. Nam si iniuria alicuius mali patientiaest, sapiens autem nullius mali est patiens, nulla ad4 sapientem iniuria pertinet. Omnis iniuria deminutioeius est in quern incurrit, nee potest quisquam iniuriamaccipere sine aliquo detrimento vel dignitatisvel corporis vel rerum extra nos positarum. Sapiensautem nihil perdere potest ; omnia in se reposuit,nihil fortunae credit, bona sua in solido habet contentusvirtute, quae fortuitis non indiget ideoquenee augeri nee minui potest ; nam et in summumperducta incrementi non habent locum et nihil eripitfortuna nisi quod dedit ; virtutem autem non dat,ideo nee detrahit ; libera est, inviolabilis, immota,inconcussa, siccontra casus indurat, ut ne inclinari5 quidem, nedum vinci possit ; adversus adparatusterribilium rectos oculos tenet, nihil ex vultu mutat,sive illi dura sive secunda ostentantur. Itaque nihilPerhaps the superstitious gesture described by Persius, ii.31 sqq qq., as a charm against the evil ej^e.60

ox FIRMNESS, v. 2-5children who are terror-stricken by darkness and theufrliness of masks and a distorted countenance ; whoare provoked even to tears by names that are unpleasantto their ears, by gesticulation of the fingers,**and other things which in their ignorance they shrinkfrom in a kind of blundering panic. Injury has as itsaim to \-isit e\'i\ upon a person. But -wisdom leaves noroom for e\il, for the only e\'il it knows is baseness,which cannot enter where ^-irtue and uprightnessalready abide. Consequently, if there can be noinjury -sWthout e\'il, no e\-il \vithout baseness, and if,moreover, baseness cannot reach a man alreadypossessed by uprightness, then injury does not reachthe ^vise man. For if injury is the experiencing of•^ome evil, if, moreover, the wise man can experienceno e\il, no injur}" affects a wise man. All injur}- isdamaging to him who encounters it, and no man canreceive injury ^vithout some loss either in respect tohis position or his person or things external to us.But the ^^^se man can lose nothing. He has everythinginvested in himself, he trusts nothing to fortune,his own goods are secure, since he is content withvirtue, which needs no gift from chance, and which,therefore, can neither be increased nor diminished.For that which has come to the full has no room forfurther growth, and Fortune can snatch away onlyAvhat she herself has given. But virtue she doesnot give ; therefore she cannot take it away.\'irtue is free, in\iolable, unmoved, unshaken, sosteeled against the blows of chance that she cannotbe bent, much less broken. Facing the instrumentsof torture she holds her gaze unflinching, her expressionchanges not at all, whether a hard or a happylot is sho^\'n her. Therefore the wise man will lose61

;,SENECAperdet quod perire sensurus sit ; unius enim inpossessione virtutis est, ex qua depelli numquampotest, ceteris precario utitur • quis autem iacturamovetur alieni ?Quodsi iniuria nihil laedere potestex his quae propria sapientis sunt, quia virtute salva^sua salva sunt, iniuria sapienti non potest fieri.6 Megaram Demetrius ceperat, cui cognomen Pohorcetesfuit. Ab hoc Stilbon philosophus interrogatusnum ahquid perdidisset ": Nihil," inquit, " omniamea mecum sunt." Atqui et patrimonium eius inpraedam cesserat et filias rapuerat hostis et patria inahenam dicionem pervenerat et ipsum rex circumfususvictorisexercitus armis ex superiore loco rogitabat.7 At ille victoriam illi excussit et se urbe capta noninvictum tantum sed indemnem esse testatus est.Habebat enim vera secum bona, in quae non estmanus iniectio, at quae dissipata et direpta ferebantur,non iudicabat sua sed adventicia et nutumfortunae sequentia. Ideo ut non propria dilexeratomnium enim extrinsecus adfluentium lubrica etincerta possessio est.1 6. Cogita nunc, an huic fur aut calumniator autvicinus impotens aut dives aliquis regnum orbaesenectutis exercens facere iniuriam possit, cui bellumet hostis et ille egregiam artem quassandarum urbium2 professus eripere nihil potuit. Inter micantis ubique62^salva added by Madvig.

ON FIRMNESS, v. 5-vi. 2nothing which he will be able to regard as loss ; forthe only possession he has is \-irtue, and of this hecan never be robbed. Of all else he has merely theuse on sufferance. WTio, however, is moved by theloss of that which is not his ovm ? But if injury cando no harm to anything that a %\-ise man owns, sinceif his \lrtue is safe his possessions are safe, then noinjur\- can happen to the mse man.^^Tien Demetrius, the one who had the appellationof Poliorcetes, had captured Megara, he questionedStilbo, a philosopher, to find out whether he had lostanything, and his answer was, " Nothing ; I haveall that is mine \\'ith me." Yet his estate had beengiven up to plunder, his daughters had been outragedby the enemy, his native city had passedunder foreign sway, and the man himself was beingquestioned by a king on his throne, ensconced amidthe arms of his \ictorious army. But he ^^Testedthe victory from the conqueror, and bore ^^-itnessthat, though his city had been captured, he himselfwas not only unconquered but unharmed. For hehad viith him his true possessions, upon which nohand can be laid, while the property that was beingscattered and pillaged and plundered he countednot his own, but the adventitious things that followthe beck of Fortune. Therefore he had esteemedthem as not really his o\^'n ; for all that flows to usfrom without is a slippery and insecure possession.Consider now, can any thief or traducer or N-iolentneighbour, or any rich man who \\-ields the powerconferred by a childless old age, do injury to thisman, from whom war and the enemy and thatexponent of the illustrious art of wrecking citiesIcould snatch away nothing ? Amid swords flashing63

SENECAgladios et militarem in rapina tumultum, interflammas et sanguinem stragemque impulsae civitatis,inter fragorem templorum super deos suos cadentiumuni homini pax fuit. Non est itaque, quod audaxiudices promissum, cuius tibi, si parum fidei habeo,sponsorem dabo.Vix enim credis tantum firmitatisin hominem aut tantam animi magnitudinem cadere ;3 sed is prodit in medium qui dieat :" Non est quoddubites, an attollere se homo natus supra humanapossit, an dolores, damna, ulcerationes, vulnera,magnos motus rerum circa se frementium securusaspiciat et dura placide ferat et secunda moderate, neeilliscedens nee his fretus, unus idemque inter diversasit nee quicquam suum nisi se putet, et se quoque4 ea parte qua mehor est. En adsum hoc vobis probaturus,sub isto tot civitatium eversore munimentaincussu arietis labefieri et turrium altitudinem cunicuhsac latentibus fossis repente desidere et aequaturumeditissimas arces aggerem crescere, at nulla machinamentaposse reperiri, quae bene fundatum animum5 agitent. Erepsi modo e ruinis domus et incendis undiquerelucentibus flammas per sanguinem fugi ;filiasmeas quis casus habeat, an peior publico, nescio ; soluset senior et hostilia circa me omnia videns tamen integrumincolumemque esse censum meum profiteor.» i.e., that the wise man can lose nothing, receive noinjury.64

;ON FIRMNESS, vi. 2-5on every side and the uproar of soldiers bent onpillage, amid flames and blood and the havoc of thesmitten city, amid the crash of temples falling upontheir gods, one man alone had peace. It is not foryou, therefore, to call reckless this boast of mine "and if you do not give me credence, I shall adduce avoucher for it. For you can hardly believe that somuch steadfastness, that such greatness of soul fallsto the lot of any man. But here is one * who comesinto our midst and says " : There is no reason whyyou should doubt that a mortal man can raise himselfabove his human lot, that he can \aew vrith. unconcernpains and losses, sores and wounds, and nature's greatcommotions as she rages all around him, can bearhardship calmly and prosperity soberly, neitheryielding to the one nor trusting to the other ; thathe can remain wholly unchanged amid the diversitiesof fortune and count nothing but himself his own,and of this self, even, only its better part. See, heream I to prove to you this—that, though beneath thehand of that destroyer of so many cities fortificationsshaken by the battering-ram may totter, andhigh towers undermined by tunnels and secret sapsmay sink in sudden downfall, and earthworks rise tomatch the loftiest citadel, yet no war-engines can bedevised that mil shake the firm-fixed soul. I creptjust now from the ruins of my house, and while theconflagration blazed on every side, I fled fromthe flames through blood ; what fate befalls mydaughters, whether a worse one than their country'sown, I know not. Alone and old, and seeing theenemy in possession of everything around me, I,nevertheless, declare that my holdings are all intact» i.e., Stilbo.VOL. I V 66

SENECA6 Teneo, habeo quicquid mei habui. Non est quodme victum victoremque te credas. Vicit fortuna tuafortunam meam. Caduca ilia et dominum mutantiaubi sint nescio ;quod ad res meas pertinet, mecum7 sunt, mecum erunt. Perdiderunt isti divites patrimonia,libidinosi amores suos et magno pudoris impendiodilecta scorta,ambitiosi curiam et forum etloca exercendis in publico vitiis destinata ;feneratoresperdiderunt tabellas, quibus avaritia falso laetadivitias imaginatur. Ego quidem omnia integraillibataque habeo.Proinde istos interroga qui flent,lamentantur, qui strictis gladiis nuda pro pecuniacorpora opponunt, qui hostem onerato sinu fugiunt."8 Ergo ita habe, Serene, perfectimi ilium virum,humanis divinisque virtutibus plenimi, nihil perdere.Bona eius sohdis et inexsuperabihbus munimentispraecincta sunt. Non Babylonios illis muros contuleris,quos Alexander intravit, non Carthaginis autNumantiae moenia una manu capta, non Capitoliumarcemve, habent ista hostile vestigium. Ilia, quaesapientem tuentur, et a flamma et ab incursu tutasunt, nullum introitum praebent, excelsa, inexpugnabilia, diis aequa.1 7. Non est quod dicas, ita ut soles, hunc sapientemnostrum nusquam inveniri. Non fingimus istud" Scipio Africanus the younger reduced Carthage in 116B.C., Numantia in 133 B.C.66

ON FIRMNESS, vi. 6-vii. 1and unharmed. I still possess them ; whatever I havehad as my own, I have. There is no reason for youto suppose me vanquished and yourself the \'ictor ;your fortune has vanquished my fortune. Wherethose things are that pass and change their o^^•ners,I know not ; so far as my possessions are concerned,they are Avith me, and ever will be with me. Thelosers are yonder rich men who have lost their estatesthe hbertines who have lost their loves—the prostituteswhom they cherished at a great expenditureof shame —politicians who have lost the senate-house,the forum, and the places appointed for the publicexercise of their failings ; the usurers have lost theirrecords on which their avarice, rejoicing withoutwarrant, based its dream of wealth. But I havestill my all, untouched and undiminished. Do you,accordingly, put your question to those who weepand wail, who, in defence of their money, presenttheir naked bodies to the point of the sword, who,when their pockets are loaded, flee from the enemy."Know, therefore, Serenus, that this perfect man, fullof virtues human and diAine, can lose nothing. Hisgoods are girt about by strong and insurmountabledefences. Not Babylon's walls, which an Alexanderentered, are to be compared with these, not theramparts of Carthage or Numantia, both captured byone man's hand," not the Capitol or citadel of Rome,—upon them the enemy has left his marks. Thewalls which guard the wise man are safe from bothflame and assault, they provide no means of entrance,—are lofty, impregnable, godlike.There is no reason for you to say, Serenus, as yourhabit is, that this wise man of ours is nowhere to befound. He is not a fiction of us Stoics, a sort of67

;SENECAhumani ingenii vanum decus nee ingentem imaginemfalsae rei concipimus, sed qualem conformamus,exhibuimus, exhibebimus, raro forsitan magnisqueaetatium intervallis unum ; neque enim magna etexcedentia solitum ac vulgarem modum crebro gignuntur.Ceterum hie ipse M. Cato, a cuius mentionehaec disputatio processit, vereor ne supra nostrumexemplar sit.2 Denique validius debet esse quod laedit eo quodlaeditur ; non est autem fortior nequitia virtute ;non potest ergo laedi sapiens.Iniuria in bonos nisia malis non temptatur ; bonis inter se pax est, malitam bonis perniciosi quam inter se. Quodsi laedinisi infirmior non potest, malus autem bono infirmiorest, nee iniuria bonis nisi a dispari verenda estiniuria in sapientem virum non cadit. Illud enimiam non esadmonendus neminem bonum esse nisi3 sapientem. " Si iniuste," inquit, " Socrates damnatusest, iniuriam accepit." Hoc loco intellegerenos oportet posse evenire, ut faciat aliquis iniuriammihi et ego non accipiam. Tamquam si quis rem,quam e villa mea subripuit, in domo mea ponat, ille4 furtum fecerit, ego nihil perdiderim. Potest aliquisnocens fieri, quamvis non nocuerit. Si quis cumuxore sua tamquam cum aliena concumbat, adulter68» Cf. 1. 3.

ON FIRMNESS, vii. 1-4phantom glor\' of human natvu-e, nor is he a mereconception, the mighty semblance of a thing unreal,but we have shown him in the flesh just as wedelineate him, and shall show him—though perchancenot often, and after a long lapse of years onlyone. For greatness which transcends the limit ofthe ordinary and common tA'pe is produced butrarely. But tliis self-same Marcus Cato, the mentionof whom started this discussion," I almost thinksurpasses even our exemplar.Again, that which injures must be more powerfulthan that which is injured; but ^^'ickedness is notstronger than righteousness ; therefore it is impossiblefor the ^\ise man to be injured. Only thebad attempt to injure the good ; the good are atpeace \nth each other, the bad are no less harmfulto the good than they are to each other. But ifonly the weaker man can be injured, and if the badman is weaker than the good man, and the goodhave to fear no injury except from one who is nomatch for them, then injurj^ cannot befall the wiseman. For by this time you do not need to bereminded of the fact that there is no good manexcept the wise man. " But," some one says, " ifSocrates was condemned unjustly, he received aninjur)-." At this point it is needful for us to understandthat it is possible for some one to do me aninjury and for me not to receive the injury. Forexample, if a man should steal something from mycountry-house and leave it in my to\sTi-house, hewould have committed a theft, but I should havelost nothing. It is possible for one to become aMTong-doer, although he may not have done a MTong.If a man hes with his wife as if she were another69

:SENECAerit, quamvis ilia adultera non sit. Aliquis mihivenenum dedit, sed vim suam remixtum cibo perdiditvenenum ille dando sceleri se obligavit, etiam si nonnocxiit ; non minus latro est, cuius telum obpositaveste elusum est.Omnia seelera etiam ante effectumoperis, quantxmi culpae satis est, perfecta sunt.6 Quaedam eius condicionis sunt et hac vice copulantur,ut alterum sine altero esse possit, alterum sine alteronon possit.Quod dico conabor facere manifestum.Possum pedes movere, ut non curram ;possum, ut pedes non moveam.currere nonPossum, quamvisin aqua sim, non natare ; si nato, non possum in6 aqua non esse. Ex hac sorte et hoc est de quoagitur. Si iniuriam accepi, necesse est factam esse ;si est facta, non est necesse accepisse me ; multaenim incidere possunt quae submoveant iniuriam.Ut intentatam manum deicere aliquis casus potestet emissa tela declinare, ita iniurias qualescumquepotest aliqua res repellereet in medio intercipere,ut et factae sint nee acceptae.1 8. Praeterea iustitia nihil iniustum pati potest,quia non coeunt contraria.Iniuria autem non potestfieri nisi iniuste ; ergo sapienti iniuria non potestfieri. Nee est quod mireris ;si nemo illi potestiniuriam facere, ne prodesse quidem quisquam potest.Et sapienti nihil deest quod accipere possit loco70

;ON FIRMNESS, vn. 4-vin.man's wife, he v^ill be an adulterer, though she willnot be an adulteress. Some one gave me poison, butthe poison lost its efficacy by being mixed ^^ith foodthe man, by giving the poison, became guilty of acrime, even if he did me no injurj'. A man is no lessa murderer because his blow was foiled, interceptedby the victim's dress. All crimes, so far as guilt isconcerned, are completed even before the accomplishmentof the deed. Certain acts are of such acharacter, and are linked together in such a relation,that while the first can take place without the second,the second cannot take place vvithout the first. Ishall endeavour to make clear what I mean. I canmove my feet without running, but I cannot runwithout moving my feet. It is possible for me,though being in the water, not to svvim ; but if Isvvim, it is impossible for me not to be in the water.To the same category belongs the matter under discussion.If I have received an injury, it mustnecessarily have been done. If an injury was done,I have not necessarily received it ; for many thingscan happen to avert the injury. Just as, for example,some chance may strike down the hand while it takesaim and turn the speeding missile aside, so it ispossible that some circumstance may ward off injuriesof any sort and intercept them in mid-course, vvith theresult that they may have been done, yet not received.Moreover, justice can suffer no injustice, becauseopposites do not meet. But no injury can be donevvithout injustice ; therefore no injury can be doneto the Avise man. And you need not be surprised ;if no one can do him an injury, no one can do hima service either. The v\-ise man, on the one hand,"lacks nothing that he can receive as a gift ; the evill71

muneris, et malus nihilpotest dignum tribuere sapiente;SENECAhabere enim prius debet quam dare, nihilautem habet quod ad se transferri sapiens gavisurus2 sit. Non potest ergo quisquam aut nocere sapientiaut prodesse, quoniam divina nee iuvari desiderantnee laedi possunt, sapiens autem vieinus proximusquedis consistit, excepta mortalitate similis deo.Ad ilianitens pergensque excelsa, ordinata, intrepida,aequali et concordi cursu fluentia, secura, benigna,bono publico nata, et sibi et aliis salutaria nihil3 humile concupiscet, nihil flebit. Qui rationi innixusper humanos casus divino incedit animo, non habetubi accipiat iniuriam—ab homine me tantum dicereputas ? Ne a fortuna quidem, quae quotiens cumvirtute congressa est, numquam par recessit. Simaximum illud ultra quod nihil habent iratae legesac saevissimi domini quod^ minentur, in quo imperiumsuum fortuna consumit, aequo placidoqueanimo accipimus et scimus mortem malum non esse,ob hoc ne iniuriam quidem, multo facilius aliatolerabimus, damna et dolor es, ignominias, locorumcommutationes, orbitates, discidia,quae sapientem,etiam si universa circumveniant, non mergunt,nedum ut ad singulorum impulsus maereat. Etsi fortunae iniurias moderate fert, quanto magis72^ So inferior uss. and Pincianus : Aomits.

ON FIRMNESS, viii. 1-3man, on the other, can bestow nothing good enoughfor the wise man to have. For a man must havebefore he can give ; the e\-il man, however, hasnothing that the wise man would be glad to havetransferred to himself. It is impossible, therefore,for any one either to injure or to benefit the wise man,since that which is divine does not need to be helped,and cannot be hurt ; and the wise man is next-doorneighbour to the gods and like a god in all save hismortality. As he struggles and presses on towardsthose things that are lofty, well-ordered, undaunted,that flow on with even and harmonious current, thatare untroubled, kindly, adapted to the public good,beneficial both to himself and to others, the wiseman will covet notliing low, will never repine. Theman who, relying on reason, marches through mortalvicissitudes with the spirit of a god, has no vulnerablespot where he can receive an injury. From manonly do you think I mean ? No, not even from Fortune,who, whenever she has encountered virtue, hasalways left the field outmatched. If that supremeevent, beyond which outraged laws and the mostcruel masters have nothing with which to threaten us,and in which Fortune uses up all her power, is metwith calm and unruffled mind, and if it is realizedthat death is not an evil and therefore not an injuryeither, we shall much more easily bear all otherthings—losses and pains, disgrace, changes of abode,bereavements, and separations. These things cannotoverwhelm the wise man, even though they allencompass him at once ; still less does he grievewhen they assault him singly. And if he bearscomposedly the injuries of Fortune, how much73

SENECAhominum potentium quos scit fortunae manusesse !1 9. Omnia itaque sic patitur ut hiemis rigorem etintemperantiam caeli, ut fervores morbosque etcetera forte accidentia, nee de quoquam tam beneiudicat, ut ilium quicquam putet consilio fecisse, quodin uno sapiente est.Aliorum omnium non consilia,sed fraudes et insidiae et motus animorum inconditisunt, quos casibus adnumerat ; omne autem fortuitumcirca nos saevit et in vilia.^2 lUud quoque cogita, iniuriarum latissime pateremateriam in^ illis per quae periculum nobis quaesitumest,ut accusatore submisso aut criminationefalsa aut irritatis in nos potentiorum odiis quaequealia inter togatos latrocinia sunt.Est et ilia iniuriafrequens, si lucrum alicui excussiun est aut praemiumdiu captatum, si magno labore adfectata hereditasaversa est et quaestuosae domus gratia erepta. HaecefFugit sapiens qui nescit nee in spem nee in metum3 vivere. Adice nunc quod iniuriam nemo inmotamente accipit, sed ad sensimi eius perturbatur, caretautem perturbatione vir ereptus erroribus, moderatorsui, altae quietis et placidae. Nam si tangit ilium* in villa Madvig : in vitia A.* in added by Madvig." The Stoics, exalting reason, held that virtue involvedboth right living and right thinking. Thus, only the"wise man," aiming at "virtue," achieved right thinking.74

!!ON FIRMNESS, viii. 3-ix. 3the more will he bear those of powerful men,whom he knows to be merely the instruments ofFortuneAll such things, therefore, he endures in the sameway that he submits to the rigours of winter and toinclement weather, to fevers and disease, and theother accidents of chance ; nor does he form so highan estimate of any man as to think that he has doneanything with the good judgement that is foundonly in the wise man.

SENECAiniuria, et movet et impellit,^ caret autemira sapiens,quam excitat iniuriae species, nee aliter careret iranisi et iniuria, quam scit sibi non posse fieri. Indetam erectus laetusque est, inde continue gaudioelatus ;adeo autem ad ofFensiones rerum hominumquenon contrahitur, ut ipsa illi iniuria usui sit, perquam experimentum sui capit et virtutem temptat.4 Faveamus, obsecro vos, huic proposito aequisque etanimis et auribus adsimus, dum sapiens iniuriaeexcipitur !Nee quicquam ideo petulantiae vestraeaut rapacissimis cupiditatibus aut caecae temeritatisuperbiaeque detrahitur. Salvis vitiis vestris haecsapienti libertas quaeritur. Non ut vobis facere nonliceat iniuriam, agimus, sed ut ille omnes iniurias inaltum demittat patientiaque se ac magnitudine animi5 defendat. Sic in certaminibus sacris plerique viceruntcaedentium manus obstinata patientia fatigando .Exhoc puta genere sapientem eorum, qui exercitationelonga ac fideli robur perpetiendi lassandique omneminimicam vim consecuti sunt.1 10. Quoniam priorem partem percucurrimus, adalteram transeamus, qua quibusdam propriis, plerisquevero communibus contumeliam refutabimus.^ impellit Bentley : impedit A." In the Latin the language is priestly. That the wiseman can suffer no wrong is presented as a sort of divineutterance which is to be received in solemn silence.76

ON FIRMNESS, ix. 3-x. 1injury reaches him, it does stir and incite him ; yet,if he is a \vise man, he is free from that anger which isaroused by the mere appearance of injury, and in noother way could he be free from the anger than bybeing free also from the injury, knowing that aninjury can never be done to him. For this reason heis so resolute and cheerful, for this reason he is elatewith constant joy. So far, moreover, is he fromshrinking from the buffetings of circumstances orof men. that he counts even injury profitable, forthrough it he finds a means of putting himself to theproof and makes trial of his \'irtue. Let us, I beseechyou, be silent " in the presence of this proposition, andwith impartial minds and ears give heed while thewise man is made exempt from injur}' ! Nor becauseof it is aught diminished from your wantonness, orfrom your greediest lusts, or from your blind presumptionand pride ! You may keep your vices—it isbeing sought.the wise man for whom this liberty isOur aim is not that you may be prevented from doinginjury, but that the wise man may cast all injuriesfar from him, and by his endurance and his greatnessof soul protect himself from them. Just so in thesacred games many have won the victory by wearingout the hands of their assailants through stubbornendurance. Do you, then, reckon the vnse man inthis class of men—the men who by long and faithfultraining have attained the strength to endure andtire out any assault of the enemy.Having touched upon the first part of the discussion,let us now pass to the second, in which byarguments—some of them our own, most of them,however, common to our school—we shall disprovethe possibiht}' of insult. It is a sUghter offence than77

:SENECAEst minor iniuria, quam queri magis quam exsequipossumus, quam leges quoque nulla dignam vindicta2 putaverunt. Hunc affectum movet humilitas animicontrahentis se ob dictum factumve^ inhonorificum" lUe me hodie non admisit, cum alios admitteret,"et " sermonem meum aut superbe aversatus est autpalam risit,"et " non in medio me lecto sed in imocollocavit," et alia huius notae, quae quid vocem nisiquerellas nausiantis animi ? In quae fere delicatiet felices incidunt ; non vacat enim haec notare cui3 peiora instant. Nimio otio ingenia natura infirma etmuliebria et inopia verae iniuriae lascivientia hiscommoventur, quorum pars maior constat vitio interpretantis.Itaque nee prudentiae quicquam in seesse nee fiduciae ostendit qui contumelia afficitur ;non dubie enim contemptum se iudicat, et hie morsusnon sine quadam humilitate animi evenit supprimentisse ac descendentis. Sapiens autem a nullo contemnitur,magnitudinem suam novit nullique tantumde se hcere renuntiat sibi et omnis has, quas nonmiserias animorum sed molestias dixerim, non vincitsed ne sentit quidem.4 AUa sunt quae sapientem feriunt, etiam si nonpervertunt, ut dolor corporis et debiHtas aut amicorum78^ factumve Gertz : factumque A.

ON FIRMNESS, x. 1^injury, something to be complained of rather thanavenged, something which even the laws have notdeemed worthy of punishment. This feehng isstirred by a sense of humihation as the spirit shrinksbefore an uncomplimentary word or act. " So-andsodid not give me an audience to-day, though he gaveit to others " "; he haughtily repulsed or openlylaughed at my conversation " ; "he did not giveme the seat of honour, but placed me at the foot ofthe table," These and similar reproaches—whatshall I call them but the complainings of a squeamishtemper ? And it is generally the pampered andprosperous who indulge in them ; for if a man ispressed by worse ills, he has not time to notice suchthings. By reason of too much leisure natures whichare naturally weak and effeminate and, from thedearth of real injur}-, have gro^vn spoiled, are disturbedby these sUghts, the greater number of whichare due to some fault in the one who so interpretsthem. Therefore any man who is troubled by aninsult shows himself lacking in both insight andbehef in himself ; for he decides without hesitationthat he has been sHghted, and the accompamongsting is the ine\-itable result of a certain abjectnessof spirit, a spirit which depreciates itself and bowsdown to another. But no one can shght the wiseman, for he knows his o^vn greatness and assures himselfthat no one is accorded so much power over him,and all these feelings, which I prefer to call ratherannoyances than distresses of the mind, he does nothave to overcome—nay, he does not even have them.Quite different are the things that do buffet thewise man, even though they do not overthrow him,such as bodily pain and infirmity, or the loss of friends79

;SENECAliberorumque amissio et patriae bello flagrantiscalamitas. Haec non nego sentire sapientem ; neeenim lapidis illi duritiam ferrive adserimus. Nullavirtus est, quae non sentiat se perpeti. Quid ergoest ? Quosdam ictus recipit, sed receptos evincitet sanat et comprimit, haec vero minora ne sentitquidem nee adversus ea solita ilia virtute utitur duratolerandi, sed aut non adnotat aut digna risu putat.1 11. Praeterea cum magnam partem contumeliarumsuperbi insolentesque faciantet male felieitatemferentes, habet quo istum affectum inflatumrespuat, pulcherrimam virtutem omnium,^ magnanimitatem.Ilia, quicquid eiusmodi est, transcurrit utvanas species somniorum visusque nocturnes nihil2 habentis solidi atque veri. Simul illud cogitat omnesinferiores esse, quam ut illis audacia sit tanto excelsioradespicere.Contumelia a contemptu dicta est,quia nemo nisi quem contempsit tali iniuria notatnemo autem maiorem melioremque contemnit, etiamsi facit aliquid, quod contemnentes solent. Nam etpueri OS parentium feriunt et crines matris turbavitlaceravitque infans et sputo adspersit aut nudavit inconspectu suorum tegenda et verbis obscenioribusnon pepercit, et nihil horum contumeliam dicimus.^ followed by animi in A.80

—ON FIRMNESS, x. 4-xi. 2and cluldren, and the ruin that befalls his countryamid the flames of war. I do not deny that the ^\^seman feels these things ; for we do not claim forhim the hardness of stone or of steel. There is novirtue that fails to realize that it does endure. What,then, is the case ? The wise man does receive somewounds, but those that he receives he binds up,arrests, and heals ; these lesser things he does noteven feel, nor does he employ against them his accustomedvirtue of bearing hardship, but he either fails tonotice them, or counts them worthy of a smile.Moreover, since, in large measure, insults comefrom the proud and arrogant and from those whobear prosperity ill, the ^^ise man possesses thatwliich enables him to scorn their puffed-up attitudethe noblest of all the virtues, magnanimity. Thispasses over ever^^thing of that sort as of no more consequencethan the delusive shapes of dreams and theapparitions of the night, which have nothing in themthat is substantial and real. At the same time heremembers this,—that all others are so much his owninferiors that they would not presume to despise whatis so far above them. The word " contumely " isderived from the word " contempt," for no oneoutrages another by so grave a ^\Tong unless he hascontempt for him ; but no man can be contemptuousof one who is greater and better than liimself, even ifhis action is of a kind to which the contemptuous areprone. For children will strike their parents in theface, and the infant tumbles and tears his mother'shair and slobbers upon her, or exposes to the gazeof the family parts that were better covered over, i"and a child does not shrink from foul language.Yet we do not count any of these things an insult.VOL. I G 81

SENECAQuare ? Quia qui facit contemnere non potest.3 Eadem causa est, cur nos mancipiorum nostrorumurbanitas in dominos contumeliosa delectet, quorumaudacia ita demum sibi in convivas ius facit, sia domino ;coepitet ut quisque contemptissimus et vel ludibriumestjitasolutissimae linguae est. Pueros quidamin hoc mercantur procaces et illorum impudentiamacuunt ac sub magistro habent, qui probra meditateefFundant, nee has contumelias vocamus, sed argutias.Quanta autem dementia est isdem modo delectari,mode ofFendi, et rem ab amico dictam maledictumvocare, a servulo ioculare convicium !1 12. Quem animum nos adversus pueros habemus,hunc sapiens adversus omnes, quibus etiam post iuventamcanosque puerilitas est. An quicquam istiprofecerunt, quibus puerilis^ animi mala sunt auctiquein maius errores, qui a pueris magnitudine tantumformaque corporum difFerunt, ceterum non minus vagiincertique, voluptatium sine dilectu adpetentes,2 trepidi et non ingenio sed formidine quieti ? Nonideo quicquam inter illos puerosque interesse quisdixerit, quod illis talorum nucumve et aeris minuti Iavaritia est, his auri argentique et urbium, quod illiinter ipsos magistratus gerunt et praetextam rfascesque ac tribunal imitantur, hi eadem in campoJ;82^puerilis added by Gertz,\

ON FIRMNESS, xi. 2-xii. 2And why ? because he who does them is incapableof being contemptuous. For the same reason thewaggery of slaves, insulting to their masters, amusesus, and their boldness at the expense of guests haslicence only because they begin \\-ith their masterhimself; and the more contemptible and evenridiculous any slave is, the more freedom of tonguehe has. For this purpose some people buy youngslaves because they are pert, and they whet theirimpudence and keep them under an instructor inorder that they may be practised in pouring forthstreams of abuse ; and yet we call this smartness,not insult. But what madness it is at one time tobe amused, at another to be affronted, by the samethings, and to call something, if spoken by a friend,a slander ; if spoken by a slave, a plaj^ul taunt !The same attitude that we have toward youngslaves, the wise man has toward all men whose childhoodendures even beyond middle age and theperiod of grey hairs. Or has age brought any profitat all to men of this sort, who have the faults ofa childish mind with its defects augmented, whodiffer from children only in the size and shape oftheir bodies, but are not less wayward and unsteady,who are undiscriminating in their passion for pleasure,timorous, and peaceable, not from inclination, butfrom fear ? Therefore no one may say that theydiffer in any way from children. For while childrenare greedy for knuckle-bones, nuts, and coppers,these are greedy for gold and silver, and cities ;while children play among themselves at beingmagistrates, and in make-beheve have their borderedtoga, Uctors' rods and tribunal, these play in earnestat the same things in the Campus Martius and the83

SENECAforoque et in curia serio ludunt, illi in litoribusharenae congestu simulacra domuum excitant, hi utmagnum aliquid agentes in lapidibus ac parietibus ettectis moliendis occupati tutelae corporum inventain periculum verterunt. Ergo par pueris longiusque3 progressis, sed in alia maioraque error est. Non immeritoitaque horum contumelias sapiens ut iocosaccipit, et aliquando illos tanquam pueros malopoenaque admonet, adficit, non quia accepit iniuriam,sed quia fecerunt et ut desinant facere ; sic enimet pecora verbere domantur, nee irascimur illis,cumsessorem recusaverunt, sed compescimus, ut dolorcontumaciam vincat. Ergo et illud solutum scies,quod nobis opponitur : " Quare, si non accepitiniuriam sapiens nee contumeliam, punit eos quifecerunt? " Non enim se ulciscitur, sed illos emendat.1 13. Quid est autem, quare hanc animi firmitatemnon credas in virum sapientem cadere, cum tibi inaliis idem notare sed non ex eadem causa liceat ?Quis enim phrenetico medicus irascitur ? Quisfebricitantis et a frigida prohibiti maledicta in malam2 partem accipit ? Hunc affectum adversus omnishabet sapiens, quem adversus aegros suos medicus,quorum nee obscena, si remedio egent, contrectarenee reliquias et effusa intueri dedignatur nee perfurorem saevientium excipere convicia.Scit sapiens" Horace's "celsae graviore casu decidunt turres " {Carm.ii. 10. 10 sq.) points the trend of the thought. Accordingto a Stoic commonplace wisdom lay in the observance ofthe " Golden Mean.*'84

ON FIRMNESS, xii. 2-xiii. 2forum and the senate ; while children rear their toyhouses on the sea-shore vriih. heaps of sand, these,as though engaged in a mighty enterprise, are busiedin piling up stones and walls and roofs, and convertwhat was intended as a protection to the body intoa menace." Therefore children and those who arefarther advanced in life are alike deceived, but thelatter in different and more serious things. And sothe wise man not improperly considers insult fromsuch men as a farce, and sometimes, just as if theywere children, he will admonish them and inflictsuffering and punishment, not because he has receivedan injury, but because they have committed one, andin order that they may desist from so doing. Forthus also we break in animals by using the lash, andwe do not get angry at them when they will notsubmit to a rider, but we curb them in order that bypain we may overcome their obstinacy. Now, therefore,you will know the answer to the question withwhich we are confronted ": Why, if the wise mancannot receive either injury or insult, does he punishthose who have offered them?" For he is notavenging himself, but correcting them.But why is it that you refuse to believe that thewise man is granted such firmness of mind, whenyou may observe that others have the same, althoughfor a different reason ? What physician gets angrywith a lunatic ? Who takes in ill part the abuse ofa man stricken with fever and yet denied cold water ?The wise man's feeling towards all men is that of thephysician towards his patients : he does not scornto touch their pri\'y parts if they need treatment,or to \iew the body's refuse and discharges, or toendure violent words from those who rage in delirium.85

SENECAomnis hos, qui togati purpuratique incedunt ut^valentes, coloratos male sanos esse,videt quam aegros intemperantis.quos non aliterItaque ne suceensetquidem, si quid in morbo petulantius ausi suntadversus medentem, et quo animo honores eorumnihilo aestimat, eodem parum honorifice facta.3 Quemadmodum non placebit sibi, si ilium mendicuscoluerit, nee contumeliam iudicabit, si illi homoplebis ultimae salutanti mutuam salutationem nonreddiderit, sic ne suspiciet quidem, si ilium multidivites suspexerint—scit enim illos nihil a mendicisdifFerre, immo miseriores esse, illi enim exiguo, himulto egent—et rursus non tangetur, si ilium rexMedorura Attalusve Asiae salutantem silentio acvultu arroganti transierit. Scit statum eius non magishabere quicquam invidendum quam eius, cui in magnafamilia cura optigit aegros insanosque compescere.4 Num moleste feram, si mihi non reddiderit nomenaliquis ex his, qui ad Castoris negotiantur nequammancipia ementes vendentesque, quorum tabernaepessimorum servorum turba refertae sunt ?Non, utputo ;quid enim is boni habet, sub quo nemo nisimalus est ?Ergo ut huius humanitatem inhumanitatemqueneglegit, ita et regis :" Habes sub teParthos et Medos et Bactrianos, sed quos metucontines, sed propter quos remittere arcum tibi non86^ut added by Weidner.

ON FIRMNESS, xiii. 2^e ^vise man knows that all who strut about in togasd in purple, as if they were well and strong, are, forall their bright colour, quite unsound, and in his eyesthey differ in no way from the sick who are bereft ofself-control. And so he is not even irritated if intheir sick condition they venture to be somewhatimpertinent to their physician, and in the same spiritin which he sets no value on the honours they have, hesets no value on the lack of honour they show. Justas he ^\-ill not be flattered if a beggar shows himrespect, nor count it an insult if a man from the dregsof the people, on being greeted, fails to return hisgreeting, so, too, he wiil not even look up if manyrich men look up at him. For he knows that theydiffer not a whit from beggars — yea, that they areeven more ^\Tetched ; since the beggar wants little,the rich man much. And, on the other hand, hewill not be disturbed if the King of the Medes orKing Attalus of Asia, ignoring his greeting, passeshim by in silence and with a look of disdain. Heknows that the position of such a man is no more tobe envied than that of the slave in a large householdwhose duty it is to keep under constraint the sickand the insane. The men who traffic in ^\Tetchedhuman chattels, buying and selhng near the templeof Castor, whose shops are packed \\-ith a throng ofthe meanest slaves—if some one of these does not callme by name, shall I take umbrage ? No, I think not.For of what good is a man who has under him nonebut the bad ? Therefore, just as the wise man disregardsthis one's courtesy or discourtesy, so will helike\vise disregard the king's ": You, O king, haveunder you Parthians and Medes and Bactrians, butyou hold them in check by fear ; they never allow87

SENECAcontigit, sed hostes teterrimos, sed venales, sed novum5 aucupantes dominum." Nullius ergo movebiturcontumelia. Omnes enim inter se difFerant, sapiensquidem pares illos ob aequalem stultitiam omnisputat ; nam si semel se demiserit eo, ut aut iniuriamoveatur aut contumelia, non poterit umquam essesecurus.est ;Securitas autem propriuni bonum sapientisnee committet, ut iudicando contumeliam sibifaetam honorem habeat ei qui fecit ; necesse estenim, a quo quisque contemni moleste ferat,gaudeat.suspici1 14. Tanta quosdam dementia tenet, ut sibi contumeliamfieri putent posse a muliere. Quid refertquam habeant, quot lecticarios habentem, quam oneratasaures, quam laxam sellam ? Aeque inprudensanimal est et, nisi scientia accessit ac multa eruditio,ferum, cupiditatium incontinens.Quidam se a cinerarioimpulsos moleste ferunt et contumeliam vocantostiari difficultatem, nomenculatoris superbiam, cubicularisupercilium. O quantus risus inter istatoUendus est ! quanta voluptate implendus animus exalienorum errorum tumultu contemplanti quietem2 suam "! Quid ergo ? Sapiens non accedet ad fores,quas durus ianitor obsidet ? " Ille vero, si resnecessaria vocabit, experietur et ilium, quisquis erit,tanquam canem acrem obiecto cibo leniet neeindignabitur aliquid impendere, ut limen transeat,88

—ON FIRMNESS, xiii. 4-xiv. 2u to relax your bow ; they are your bitterestv.iiemies, open to bribes, and eager for a new master."Consequently the ^^ise man \n\\ not be moved by anyman's insult. For men may all differ one fromanother, yet the wise man regards them as all aUkebecause they are all equally foohsh ; since if he shouldonce so far condescend as to be moved either byinsult or injury, he could never be unconcerned.Unconcern, however, is the peculiar blessing of thewise man, and he \\'ill never allow himself to pay tothe one who offered him an insult the compliment ofadmitting that it was offered. For, necessarily,whoever is troubled by another's scorn, is pleased byhis admiration.Some men are mad enough to suppose that evena woman can offer them an insult. What mattersit how they regard her, how many lackeys she hasfor her htter, how hea\-ily weighted her ears, howroomy her sedan ? She is just the same unthinkingcreature—wild, and unrestrained in her passionsunless she has gained knowledge and had muchinstruction. Some are affronted if a hairdresserjostles them, and some call the rudeness of a houseporter,an usher's arrogance, or a valet's loftiness aninsult. O what laughter should such things draw !With what satisfaction should a man's mind be filledwhen he contrasts his ovm repose with the unrestinto which others blunder " ! WTiat then " ? you say," will the wise man not approach a door that isguarded by a surly keeper " ? Assuredly, if somenecessar}' business summons him he will make theventure, and placate the keeper, be he what he may,as one quiets a dog by tossing him food, and he willnot deem it improper to pay something in order that89

SENECAcogitans et in pontibus quibusdam pro transitu dari.Itaque illi quoque, quisquis erit, qui hoc salutationumpublicum exerceat, donabit ; scit emi acre venalia.Ille pusilli animi est, qui sibi placet, quod ostiariolibere respondit, quod virgam eius fregit, quod addominum accessit et petit corium. Facit se adver-3 sarium qui contendit, et ut vincat, par fuit. " Atsapiens colapho percussus quid faciet ? " Quod Cato,cum illi OS percussum esset ; non excanduit, nonvindicavit iniuriam, ne remisit quidem, sed factamnegavit ; maiore animo non agnovit quam ignovisset.Non diu in hoc haerebimus ;quis enim nescit nihilex his, quae creduntur mala aut bona, ita videri4 sapienti ut omnibus ? Non respicit, quid hominesturpe iudicent aut miserum, non it qua populus, sedut sidera contrarium mundo iter intendunt, ita hieadversus opinionem omnium vadit.1 15. Desinite itaque dicere :" Non accipiet ergosapiens iniuriam, si caedetur, si oculus illi eruetur ?Non accipiet contumeliam, si obscenorum vocibusimprobis per forum agetur ? Si in convivio regisrecumbere infra mensam vescique cum servis ignominiosaofficia sortitis iubebitiur ?Si quid aliud ferrecogetur eorum quae excogitari pudori ingenuo2 molesta possunt ? " In quantumcumque ista vel" It was supposed that the sphere of heaven revolvedabout the earth from east to west, and that while the sun,moon, and planets were swept along in this revolution,they also moved in their own courses in the oppositedirection.90

ON FIRMNESS, xiv. 2-xv. 2may pass the threshold, remembering that even onae bridges one has to pay to cross. And so to the!ow, be he what he may, who phes this source ofvenue at receptions, he -will pay his fee ; he knowsthat money will buy whatever is for sale. The manhas a small mind who is pleased ^^^th himself becausehe spoke his mind to a porter, because he broke hisiff on him, made his way to his master and demandedfellow's hide. Whoever enters a contest becomesthe antagonist of another, and, for the sake of \ictor}%is on the same level. " But," you ask, " if a >viseman receives a blow, what shall he do " ? WTiatCato did when he was struck in the face. He didnot flare up, he did not avenge the >vTong, he did noteven forgive it, but he said that no ^^Tong had beendone. He showed finer spirit in not acknowledging itthan if he had pardoned it. But we shall not lingerlong upon this point. For who is not aware thatnone of the things reputed to be goods or ills appearto the wise man as they do to men at large ? He doesnot regard what men consider base or WTetched ; hedoes not walk with the crowd, but as the planetsmake their way against the whirl of heaven," so heproceeds contrary' to the opinion of the world.Therefore leave off saying " : Will the wise man,then, receive no injury if he is given a lashing, if hehas an eye gouged out ? Will he receive no insultif he is hooted through the forum by the \ile wordsof a foul-mouthed crowd ? If at a king's banquet heis ordered to take a place beneath the table and toeat with the slaves assigned to the most disreputableservice ? If he is forced to bear whatever else canbe thought of that will offend his native self-respect?"No matter how great these things may come to be,91

SENECAnumero vel magnitudine creverint, eiusdem naturaeerunt. Si non tangent ilium parva, ne maiora quidem; si non tangent pauca, ne plura quidem. Sedex imbecillitate vestra coniecturam capitis ingentisanimi, et cum cogitastis quantum putetis vos patiposse, sapientis patientiae paulo ulteriorem terminumponitis. At ilium in aliis mundi finibus sua virtus3 collocavit nihil vobiscum commune habentem. Quaereet aspera et quaecumque toleratu gravia suntaudituque et visu refugienda. Non obruetur eorumcoetu et qualis singulis, talis universis obsistet. Quidicit illud tolerabile sapienti, illud intolerabile, etanimi magnitudinem intra certos fines tenet, maleagit ;vineit nos fortuna, nisi tota vincitur.4 Ne putes istam Stoicam esse duritiam, Epicurus,quem vos patronum inertiae vestrae assumitis putatisquemollia ac desidiosa praecipere et ad voluptatesducentia, " Raro," inquit, " sapienti fortuna intervenit."Quam paene emisit viri vocem ! Vis tu5 fortius loqui et illam ex toto summovere ! Domushaec sapientis angusta, sine cultu, sine strepitu, sineapparatu, nullis adservatur ianitoribus turbam venalifastidio digerentibus, sed per hoc limen vacuum etab ostiaris liberum fortuna non transit. Scit non esseilhc sibi locum, ubi sui nihil est." Epicurus's doctrine that the highest pleasure was peaceof mind (drapa^ia) fostered naturally inaction and aloofnessfrom affairs ; \d6e ^nhaas was the watchword of hisfollowers. Cf. Seneca, De Beneficiis, iv. 4. 1 ": deus aversusa mundo aliud agit aut, quae maxima Epicuro felicitasvidetur, nihil agit."* Epicurea, p. 74, xvi (Usener).92

ON FIRMNESS, xv. 2-5lether in number or in size, their nature willmain the same. If small things do not move him,neither A^ill the greater ones ; if a few do not movehim, neither will more . But from the measure of yourown weakness you form your idea of an heroic spirit,and, ha%'ing pictured how much you think that youcan endure, you set the Hmit of the wise man's endurancea httle farther on. But his virtue has placedlum in another region of the universe ; he has nothingin common with you. Therefore search out the hardthings and whatever is grievous to bear—things fromwhich the ear and the eye must shrink. The wholemass of them will not crush him, and as he withtandsthem singly, so will he withstand themunited. He who says that one thing is tolerable forthe wise man, another intolerable, and restricts thegreatness of his soul to definite bounds, doeshim wTong ; Fortune conquers us, unless we whollyconquer her.Do not suppose that such austerity is Stoic only.Epicurus, whom you claim as the advocate of yourpohcy of inaction,** who, as you think, enjoins thecourse that is soft and indolent and conducive topleasure, has said, " Rarely does Fortune block thepath of the \\ise man."* How near he came touttering a manly sentiment ! Will you speak moreheroically and clear Fortune from his path altogether?This house of the wise man is cramped, ^^^thout adornment,without bustle, -without pomp, is guarded byno doormen who, with venal fastidiousness, discriminatebetween the \isitors ; but over its threshold,empty and devoid of keepers. Fortune doesnot pass. She knows that she has no place there,where nothing is her own.93

SENECA1 16. Quodsi Epicurus quoque, qui corpori plurimuinindulsit, adversus iniuriasexsurgit, qui id apud nosincredibile videri potest aut supra humanae naturaemensuram ? Ille ait iniurias tolerabiles esse sapienti,nos iniurias non esse. Nee enim est, quod dicas hoc2 naturae repugnare. Non negamus rem incommodamesse verberari et impelli et aliquo membro carere,sed omnia ista negamus iniurias esse ; non sensumillis doloris detrahimus, sed nomen iniuriae, quod nonpotest recipi virtute salva.Uter verius dicat videbimus; ad contemptum quidem iniuriae uterqueconsentit. Quaeris quid inter duos intersit ? Quodinter gladiatores fortissimos, quorum alter premitvulnus et stat in gradu, alter respiciens ad clamantempopulum significat nihil esse et intercedi non patitur.3 Non est, quod putes magnum, quo dissidemus ; illudquo de agitur, quod unum ad vos pertinet, utraqueexempla hortantur, contemnere iniurias et, quasiniuriarum umbras ac suspiciones dixerim, contumelias,ad quas despiciendas non sapiente opus estviro, sed tantum consipiente, qui sibi possit dicere :" Utrum merito mihi ista accidunt an inmerito ? Simerito, non est contumelia, iudicium est, si inmerito,4 illi qui iniusta facit erubescendum est." Et quid estillud quod contumelia dicitur ?In capitis mei levitatemiocatus est et in oculorum vahtudinem et incrurum gracilitatem et in staturam. Quae contumeliaest quod apparet audire ? Coram uno ali-94I

1 erference.ON FIRMNESS, xvi. 1-4But if even Epicurus, who most of all indulged thetit -h, is up in arms against injury, how can such an;Utitude on our part seem incredible or to be beyondthe bounds of human nature ? He says that injuries.lie tolerable for the ^^•ise man ; we say that injuries(1. not exist for him. Nor, indeed, is there any reason

;SENECAquid dictum ridemus, coram pluribus indignamur, eteorum aliis libertatem non relinquimus, quae ipsi innos dicere adsuevimus ; iocis temperatis delectamur,immodicis irascimur.1 17. Clirysippus ait quendam indignatum, quodilium aliquis vervecem marinum dixerat. In senatuflentem vidimus Fidum Cornelium, Nasonis Ovidiigenerum, cum ilium Corbulo struthocamelum depilatumdixisset ; adversus alia maledicta mores etvitam convulnerantia frontis illi firmitas constitit,adversus hoc tam absurdum lacrimae prociderunttanta animormn inbecillitas est, ubi ratio discessit.2 Quid, quod ofFendimur, si quis sermonem nostrumimitatur, si quis incessum, si quis vitium aliquodcorporis aut linguae exprimit ? Quasi notiora iliafiant alio imitante quam nobis facientibus ! Senectutemquidam inviti audiunt et canos et alia ad quaevoto pervenitur ;paupertatis maledictum quosdamperussit, quam sibi obiecit quisquis abscondit. Itaquemateria petulantibus et per contumeliam urbanisdetrahitur, si ultro illam et prior occupes ; nemo3 risum praebuit qui ex se cepit. Vatinium, hominemnatum et ad risum et ad odium, scurram fuisse etvenustum ac dicacem memoriae proditum est. Inpedes suos ipse plurima dicebat et in fauces concisas ;sic inimicorum, quos plures habebat quam morbos,et in primis Ciceronis urbanitatem efFugerat. Si hocpotuit ille duritia oris, qui assiduis conviciis pudere" Pliny, Nat. Hist. ix. 44, describes a sea-monster, calleda " ram " (aries), which was not a nice creature. Theshift to " wether." coarsens the insult.* According to Plutarch, Cicero, 9 and 26, his neck wascovered with wens. He suffered also from some deformityor disease of the feet : cf. Quintilian, vi. 3. 75.96

ON FIRMNESS, xvi. 4-xvii. 3nething is said in the presence of only one person1 we laugh ; if several are present, we become• igriant, and we do not allow others the liberty of-} ing the very things that we are in the habit of'-aying about ourselves. Jests, if restrained, amuseus ; if unrestrained, they make us angry.Chrysippus says that a certain man grew indignantbecause some one had called him ' ' a sea-wether . ' '" Wesaw Fidus Comehus, the son-in-law of Ovidius Naso,shed tears in the senate, when Corbulo called him aplucked ostrich. In the face of other charges, damagingto his character and standing, the composure of hiscountenance was unruffled, but at one thus absurdout burst his tears ! Such is the weakness of themind when reason flees. Why are we offended if anyone imitates our talk or walk, or mimics some defectof body or speech ? Just as if these would becomemore notorious by another's imitating them than byour doing them ! Some dislike to hear old agespoken of and grey hairs and other things whichmen pray to come to. The curse of poverty gallssome, but a man makes it a reproach to himself ifhe tries to hide it. And so sneerers and those whopoint their wit with insult are robbed of an excuseif you anticipate it with a move on your part. Noone becomes a laughing-stock who laughs at himself.'It is common knowledge that Vatinius, a man bornto be a butt for ridicule and hate, was a graceful andwitty jester. Jle uttered many a jest at the expenseof his own feet and his scarred jowls.'' So he escapedthe wit of his enemies—they outnumbered his afflictions—and,above all, Cicero's. If the man who,through constant abuse, had forgotten how to blush,was able, by reason of his brazen face, to do this, whyVOL. I H 97

SENECAdedidicerat, cur isnon possit, qui studiis liberalibuset sapientiae cultu ad aliquem profectum pervenerit ?4 Adice quod genus ultionis est eripere ei, qui fecit,factae contumeliae voluptatem ; solent dicere ": Omiserum me ! Puto, non intellexit." Adeo fructuscontumeliae in sensu et indignatione patientis est.Deinde non deerit illi aliquando par ; invenietur quite quoque vindicet.1 18. C. Caesar inter cetera vitia, quibus abundabat,contumeliosus mira libidineferebatur omnis aliquanota feriendi, ipse materia risus benignissima :tantailli palloris insaniam testantis foeditas erat, tantaoculorum sub fronte anili latentium torvitas, tantacapitis destituti et emendicaticiis capillis aspersi deformitas; adice obsessam saetis cervicem et exilitatemcrurum et enormitatem pedum. Immensumest, si velim singula referre, per quae in parentesavosque suos contumeliosus fuit, per quae in universesordines ; ea referam, quae ilium exitiodederunt.2 Asiaticum Valerium in primis amicis habebat,ferocem virum et vix aequo animo alienas contumeliaslaturum ;huic in convivio, id est in contione,voce clarissima, qualis in concubitu esset uxor eius,obiecit.Di boni, hoc virum audire, principem scire etusque eo licentiam pervenisse, ut, non dico consulari,98

ON FIRMNESS, xvii. 3-xvin. 2should any one be unable to do so, who, thanks to theliberal studies and the training of philosophy, hasattained to some growth ? Besides, it is a sort ofrevenge to rob the man who has sought to inflict aninsult of the pleasure of having done so. " Oh dearme " ! he will say, " I suppose he didn't understand."Thus the success of an insult depends upon thesensitiveness and the indignation of the \ictim. Theoffender, too, will one day meet his match ; someone will be found who will avenge you also.Gains Caesar, who amid the multitude of hisother vices had a bent for insult, was moved by thestrange desire to brand every one with some stigma,while he himself was a most fruitful source of ridicule ;such was the ugliness of his pale face bespeakinghis madness, such the wildness of his eyes lurkingbeneath the brow of an old hag, such the hideousnessof his bald head with its sprinkhng of beggarly hairs.And he had, besides, a neck overgrown with bristles,spindle shanks, and enormous feet. It would be anendless task were I to attempt to mention theseparate acts by which he cast insult upon hisparents and grandparents and upon men of everyclass ; I shall, therefore, mention only those whichbrought him to his destruction.Among his especial friends there was a certainAsiaticus \'alerius, a proud-spirited man who w^ashardly to be expected to bear with equanimityanother's insults. At a banquet, that is at a publicgathering, using his loudest voice. Gains tauntedthis man with the way his wife behaved in sexualintercourse. Ye gods ! what a tale for the ears ofa husband ! what a fact for an emperor to know ! andwhat indecency that an emperor should go so far as to99

SENECAnon dico amico, sed tantum marito princeps et3 adulterium suum narret et fastidium ! Chaereaecontra, tribune militum, sermo non pro manu erat,languidus sono et, ni facta nosses, suspectior.HuicGaius signum petenti modo Veneris, modo Priapidabat aliter atque aliter exprobrans armato mollitiam ;haec ipse perlucidus, crepidatus, auratus. Coegit itaqueilium uti ferro, ne saepius signum peteret ! Illeprimus inter coniuratos mamun sustulit, ille cervicemmediam uno ictu decidit ;plurimum deinde undiquepublicas ac privatas iniurias ulciscentium gladiorumingestum est, sed primus vir fuit, qui minime visus4 est. At idem Gaius omnia contumelias putabat, utsunt ferendarum impatientes faciendarum cupidissimi; iratus fuit Herennio Macro, quod ilium Gaiumsalutaverat, nee impune cessit primipilari, quodCaligulam dixerat ; hoc enim in castris natus etalumnus legionum vocari solebat, nullo nomine militibusfamiliarior umquam factus, sed iam Caligulam6 convicium et probrum iudicabat cothurnatus.^ Ergchoc ipsum solacio erit, etiam si nostra facilityultionem omiserit, futurum aliquem qui poemexigata procace et superbo et iniurioso, quae vitis^ cothurnatus Pincianus, cf. Suetonitis, Cal. 52 : contur-lbatus A." i.e., in Greek fashion. Gaius was given to eccentricjostentation in dress (Suet. Cal. 52).*>i.e., a commander of the first company of the third-Hne^reserves of a Roman legion." Reared in camp, he had been nicknamed "Caligula"'by the troops because he wore the soldier's low boot {caligfa).i100

ON FIRMNESS, xviii. 2-5report his adultery and his dissatisfaction in it to thewoman's very husband—to say nothing of his beinga consular, to say nothing of his being a friend ! Onthe other hand, Chaerea, a tribune of the soldiers, hada way of talking that ill-accorded with his prowess ;his voice was feeble and, unless you knew his deeds,was apt to stir distrust. When he asked for thewatchword, Gaius would give him sometimes "Venus,"sometimes " Priapus," seeking to taunt the man ofarms, in one way or another, with wantonness. Hehimself, all the while, was in shining apparel, shod withsandals," and decked with gold. And so Chaereawas driven to use the sword in order to avoid havingto ask for the watchword any more ! Among theconspirators he was the first to lift his hand ; it washe who with one blow severed the emperor's neck.After that from all sides blades showered upon him,avenging pubhc and private wrongs, but the firsthero was Chaerea, who least appeared one. Yetthis same Gaius would interpret everything as aninsult, as is the way of those who, being most eagerto offer an affront, are least able to endure one. Hebecame angry at Herennius Macer because he addressedhim as Gaius, while a centurion of the firstmaniple ^ got into trouble because he said "Cahgula."For in the camp, where he was born and had been thepet of the troops, this was the name by which he wascommonly called, nor was there ever any other bywhich he was so well kno^vn to the soldiers. Butnow, having attained to boots, he considered " LittleBoots " * a reproach and disgrace. This, then, willbe our comfort : even if by reason of tolerance we,omit revenge, some one will arise to bring the im- /pertinent, arrogant, and injurious man to punish-101

SENECAnumquam in uno homine etin una contumelia consiununtur.Respiciamus eorum exempla, quorum laudamuspatientiam, ut Socratis, qui comoediarum publicatosin se et spectatos sales in partem bonam accepitrisitque non minus quam cum ab uxore Xanthippeimmunda aqua perfunderetur. Antistheni materbarbara et Thraessa obiciebatur ; respondit et deorummatrem Idaeam esse.1 19. Non est in rixam eonluctationemque veniendum.Procul auferendi pedes sunt et quicquid horum abimprudentibus fiet (fieri autem nisi ab imprudentibusnon potest) neglegendum et honores iniuriaeque vulgiin promiscuo habendae. Nee his dolendum nee iUis2 gaudendum ; ahoqui multa timore contumeharum auttaedio necessaria omittemus pubhcisque et privatisofficiis, ahquando etiam salutaribus non occurremus,dum muUebris nos cura angit ahquid contra animumaudiendi. Ahquando etiam obirati potentibus detegemushunc affectum intemperanti hbertate. Nonest autem hbertas nihil pati, fallimur ; libertas estanimum superponere iniuriis et eum facere se, exquo solo sibi gaudenda veniant, exteriora diducere ase, ne inquieta agenda sit vita omniimi risus, omniumlinguas timenti. Quis enim est, qui non possit con-3 tumeliam facere, si quisquam potest ? Diverso autemAs notably the Clouds of Aristophanes.» Since the worship of Rhea (or Cybele), " Mother ofthe Gods," was associated with Cretan (or Trojan) Mt.Ida, the Athenian might call her irreverently a " barbarian."102

ON FIRMNESS, xvin. 5-xix. 3ment ; for his offences are never exhausted upon oneindividual or in one insult.Let us turn now to the examples of those whoseendurance we commend—for instance to that ofSocrates, who took in good part the pubhshed andacted gibes directed against him in comedies," andlaughed as heartily as when his vrife Xanthippedrenched him with foul water. Antisthenes wastaunted with ha\'ing a barbarian, a Thracian woman,for his mother ; his retort was that even the motherof the gods was from Mount Ida.**Strife and \vTanghng we must not come near. Weshould flee far from these things, and all the provocationsthereto of unthinking people—which only the unthinkingcan give—should be ignored, and the honoursand the injuries of the common herd be valued bothalike. We must neither grieve over the one, nor rejoiceover the other. Other\\-ise, from the fear of insultsor from weariness of them, we shall fall short in thedoing of many needful things, and, suffering from awomanish distaste for hearing anything not to ourmind, we shall refuse to face both pubUc and privateduties, sometimes even when they are for our wellbeing.At times, also, enraged against powerful men,we shall reveal our feelings ^^ith unrestrained liberty.But not to put up with anything is not liberty ; wedeceive ourselves. Liberty is ha\ing a mind thatrises superior to injur}', that makes itself the onlysource from which its pleasures spring, that separatesitself from all external things in order that manmay not have to hve his life in disquietude, fearingeverybody's laughter, everybody's tongue. For ifany man can offer insult, who is there who cannot ?But the truly wise man and the aspirant to msdom103

SENECAremedio utetur sapiens afFectatorque sapientiae.Imperfectis enim et adhuc ad publicum se iudiciumderigentibus hoc proponendum est inter iniurias ipsoscontumeliasque debere versari ; omnia leviora accidentexpectantibus. Quo quisque honestior genere, fama,patrimonio est, hoc se fortius gerat, memor in primaacie altos ordines stare. ContumeHas et verba probrosaet ignominias et cetera dehonestamenta velutclamorem hostium ferat et longinqua tela et saxasine vulnere circa galeas crepitantia ; iniurias vero utvulnera, aha armis, alia pectori infixa, non deiectus,ne motus quidem gradu sustineat. Etiam si premeriset infesta vi urgere, cedere tamen turpe est ; adsignatuma natura locum tuere. Quaeris quis hie4 sit locus ? Viri. Sapienti ahud auxihum est huiccontrarium ; vos enim rem geritis, ilU parta victoriaest.Ne repugnate vestro bono et hanc spem, dum adverum pervenistis, ahte in animis libentesque mehoraexcipite et opinione ac voto iuvate. Esse ahquid invictum,esse aliquem, in quem nihil fortuna possit, ere pubhca est generis humani.104.

—;ON FIRMNESS, xix. 3-4will use different remedies. For those who are notperfected and still conduct themselves in accordancewith pubUc opinion must bear in mind that theyhave to dwell in the midst of injury and insultall misfortune \N-ill fall more hghtly on those whoexpect it. The more honourable a man is by birth,reputation, and patrimony, the more heroically heshould bear himself, remembering that the tallestranks stand in the front battle-line. Let him bearinsults, shameful words, civil disgrace, and all otherdegradation as he would the enemy's war-cry, andthe darts and stones from afar that rattle arounda soldier's helmet but cause no wound. Let himendure injuries, in sooth, as he would woundsthough some blows pierce his armour, others hisbreast, never overthro\\Ti, nor even moved fromhis ground. Even if you are hard pressed and besetA\-ith fierce violence, yet it is a disgrace to retreat ;maintain the post that Nature assigned you. Doyou ask what this may be ? The post of a hero.The wise man's succour is of another sort, theopposite of this ; for while you are in the heat ofaction, he has won the victory. Do not war againstyour o\\-n good ; keep alive this hope in your breastsuntil you arrive at truth, and gladly give ear to thebetter doctrine and help it on by your belief andprayer. That there should be something unconquerable,some man against whom Fortune has no power,works for the good of the commonwealth ofmankind.105

LIBER IIIAD NOVATVMDE IRALIBER I1 1. Exegisti a me, Novate, ut scriberem quemadniodumposset ira leniri,nee immerito mihi viderishunc praecipue affectum pertimuisse maxime ex omnibustaetrum ac rabidum.Ceteris enim aliquid quietiplaeidique inest, hie totus concitatus et in impetudoloris est, armorum sanguinis suppliciorum minimahumana furens cupiditate, dum alteri noceat sui neglegens,in ipsa irruens tela et ultionis secum ultorem2 tracturae avidus. Quidam itaque e sapientibus virisiram dixerunt brevem insaniam ; aeque enim impotenssui est, decoris oblita, necessitudinum immemor, inquod coepit pertinax et intenta, rationi consiliisquepraeclusa, vanis agitata causis,ad dispectum aequiverique inhabilis, ruinis simillima, quae super id quod3 oppressere franguntur. Ut scias autem non esse sanosquos ira possedit, ipsum illorum habitum intuere ;nam ut furentium certa indicia sunt audax et minax106

BOOK IIITO NOVATUS ON ANGERBOOK IYou have importuned me, Novatus, to write on the tnn"'^subject of how anger may be allayed, and it seems »'^9«''to me that you had good reason to fear in an especialdegree this, the most hideous and frenzied of all theemotions. For the other emotions have in them someelement of peace and calm, while tliis one is whollyviolent and has its being in an onrush of resentment,raging with a most inhuman lust for weapons, blood,and punishment, giving no thought to itself if onlyit can hurt another, hurling itself upon the verypoint of the dagger, and eager for revenge though^'**"'*Certain ''''*"^*^'it may drag down the avenger along with it.wise men, therefore, have claimed that anger istemporary madness. For it is equally devoid of selfcontrol,forgetful of decency, unmindful of ties,persistent and diligent in whatever it begins, closedto reason and counsel, excited by trifling causes, unfitto discern the right and true—the very counterpartof a ruin that is shattered in pieces where it overwhelms.But you have only to behold the aspectof those possessed by anger to know that they areinsane. For as the marks of a madman are unmistakable—abold and threatening mien, a gloomy107

':SENECAvultus, tristis frons, torva facies, citatus gradus,inquietae manus, color versus, crebra et vehementiusacta suspiria, ita irascentium eadem signa sunt4 flagrant ac micant oculi, multus ore toto rubor exaestuanteab imis praecordiis sanguine, labra quatiuntur,dentes comprimuntur, horrent ac surrigunturcapilli, spiritus coactus ac stridens, articulorum seipsos torquentium sonus, gemitus mugitusque etparum explanatis vocTbus sermo praeruptus et conplosaesaepius manus et pulsata humus pedibus ettotum concitum corpus ' ' magnasque irae minas agens,'foeda visu et horrenda facies depravantium se atque6 intumescentium—nescias utrum magis detestabilevitium sit an deforme. Cetera licet abscondere etin abdito alere ; ira se profert et in faciem exit,quantoque maior, hoc eflPervescit manifestius. Nonvides ut omnium animalium, simul ad nocenduminsurrexerunt, praecurrant notae ac tota corporasolitum quietumque egrediantur habitum et feritatem6 suam exasperent ? Spumant apris ora, dentes acuunturattritu, taurorum cornua iactantur in vacuumet harena pulsu pedum spargitur, leones fremunt,inflantur irritatis colla serpentibus, rabidarum canumtristis aspectus est. Nullum est animal tam horrendumtam perniciosumque natura, ut non appareat in7 illo, simul ira invasit, novae feritatis accessio. Neeignoro ceteros quoque afFectus vix occultari, libidinemmetumque et audaciam dare sui signa et possepraenosci ; neque enim ulla vehementior intrat108" Conjecturally an iambic fragment.

ON ANGER, I. I. 3-7brow, a fierce expression, a hurried step, restlesshands, an altered colour, a quick and more violentbreathing—so likemse are the marks of the angryman ; his eyes blaze and sparkle, his whole face iscrimson Avith the blood that surges from the lowestdepths of the heart, his Ups quiver, his teeth areclenched, his hair bristles and stands on end, hisbreathing is forced and harsh, his joints crack fromwTithing, he groans and bellows, bursts out intospeech vrith. scarcely intelhgible words, strikes hishands together continually, and stamps the groundivith his feet ; his whole body is excited and " performsgreat angr}'^ threats " "; it is an ugly andhorrible picture of distorted and swollen frenzy — youcannot tell whether this \ice is more execrable ormore hideous. Other vices may be concealed andcherished in secret ; anger shows itself openly andappears in the countenance, and the greater it is,the more visibly it boils forth. Do you not see howanimals oT every sort, as soon as they bestir themselvesfor mischief, show premonitory signs, and howtheir whole body, forsaking its natural state of repose,accentuates their ferocity ? Wild boars foam at themouth and sharpen their tusks by friction, bullstoss their horns in the air and scatter the sand bypawing, lions roar, snakes puff up their necks whenthey are angn,', and mad dogs have a sullen look.No animal is so hateful and so deadly by nature asnot to show a fresh access of fierceness as soon as itis assailed by anger. And yet I am aware that theother emotions as well are not easily concealed ; thatlust and fear and boldness all show their marks andcan be recognized beforehand. For no violent agitationcan take hold of the mind without affecting in109

SENECAconcitatio, quae nihil moveat in vultu. Quid ergointerest ? Quod alii affectus apparent, hie eminet.2. lam vero si effectus eius damnaque intueri velis,nulla pestis humano generi pluris stetit. Videbiscaedes ac venena et reorum mutuas sordes et urbiumclades et totarum exitia gentium et principum subcivili hasta capita venalia et subiectas tectis faces neeintra moenia coercitos ignes sed ingentia spatia regionumhostili flamma relucentia. Aspice nobilissimarumcivitatum fundamenta vix notabilia ; has ira deiecit.Aspice solitudines per multa milia sine habitatoredesertas ; has ira exhausit. Aspice tot memoriaeproditos duces mali exempla fati ; alium ira in cubilisuo confodit, alium intra sacra mensae iura percussit,alium intra leges celebrisque spectaculum fori lancinavit,alium filii parricidio dare sanguinem iussit,alium servili manu regalem aperire iugulum, aliumin cruce membra distendere. Et adhuc singulorumsupnlicia narro ;quid, si tibi libuerit relictis in quosira viritim exarsit aspicere caesas gladio contiones etplebem immisso milite contrucidatam et in perniciempromiscuam totos populos capitis damnatos^^ damnatos restored by Madvig, after which a leaf ormore of the MS. has been lost." i.e., base defendants bring countercharges of baseness.* The proscriptions of Sulla, Marius, and the triumvirs,and the destruction of such cities as Carthage, Corinth, andNumantia give point to the rhetoric,«Cf. the fate of Clitus, De Ira, iii. 17. 1.^ Perhaps a reference to the murder of Tiberius Gracchus.« In the lost portion of the text Seneca seems to havediscussed the reason of anger, citing ancient definitions of110

.tON ANGER, I. I. 7-II. 3some way the countenance. Where, then, Ues thedifference ? In this— he other emotions show,anger *ta«ds outMoreover, if you choose to view its results and Kd«"vxftthe harm of it, ho plague has cost the human race «ff*'*'^mor^ dear^ _You will see bloodshed and poisoning,the \'ile countercharges of criminals," the downfallof cities and whole nations given to destruction,princely persons sold at public auction, houses putto the torch, and conflagration that halts not withinthe city-walls, but makes great stretches of thecountry glow with hostile flame.* Behold the mostglorious cities whose foundations can scarcely betraced—anger cast them doA\Ti. Behold solitudesstretching lonely for many miles without a singledweller—anger laid them waste. Behold all theleaders who have been handed down to posterity asinstances of an e\'il fate—anger stabbed this one inhis bed, struck do\^n this one amid the sanctities ofthe feast,'' tore this one to pieces in the very hpmeof the law and in full view of the crowded forum,**forced this one to have his blood spilled by themurderous act of his son, another to have his royalthroat cut by the hand of a slave, another to havehis limbs stretched upon the cross. And hithertoI have mentioned the sufferings of individual personsonly ; what if, lea\'ing aside these who singly feltthe force of anger's flame, you should choose to viewthe gatherings cut dovm by the sword, the populacebutchered by soldiery let loose upon them, andwhole peoples condemned to death in common ruin *» * « « «the passion and giving his own. Lactantius, De Ira Dei,17, supplies significant evidence for the context.Ill

SENECA4 tamquam aut curam nostram deserentibus autauctoritatem contemnentibus. Quid ? Gladiatoribusquare populus irascitur et tam inique, ut iniuriamputet, quod non libenter pereunt ? Contemni seiudicat et vultu, gestu, ardore a spectatore in ad-6 versarium vertitur. Quicquid est tale, non est ira,sed quasi ira, sicut puerorum, qui si ceciderunt,terram verberari volunt et saepe ne sciunt quidem,cur irascantur, sed tantum irascuntur, sine causa etsine iniuria, non tamen sine aliqua iniuriae specienee sine aliqua poenae cupiditate.Deluduntur itaqueimitation e plagarum et simulatis deprecantiumlacrimis placantur et falsa ultione falsus dolor toUitur.1 3. " Irascimur," inquit, " saepe non illis qui laeserunt,sed iis qui laesuri sunt ; ut scias iram non exiniuria nasci." Verum est irasci nos laesuris, sedipsa cogitatione nos laedunt, et iniuriam qui facturus2 est iam facit. " Ut scias," inquit, " non esse irampoenae cupiditatem, infirmissimi saepe potentissimisirascuntur nee poenam concupiscunt quam nonsperant." Primum diximus cupiditatem esse poenaeexigendae, non facultatem ; concupiscunt autemhomines et quae non possunt. Deinde nemo tamhmnilis est, qui poenam vel summi hominis sperarenon possit ; ad nocendum potentes sumus. Aristo-" The speaker here criticizes Seneca's definition of anger,drawn from Posidonius, which has been preserved byLactantius {I.e.): "ira est cupiditas ulciscendae iniuriae."112

ON ANGER, I. II. 4-ni. 2as if either forsaking our protection, or despisingour authority. Tell me, why do we see the peoplegrow angry ^\-ith gladiators, and so unjustly as todeem it an oiFence that they are not glad to die ?They consider themselves affronted, and from mere r^cck. a*spectators transform themselves into enemies, in^^'^'***'*looks, in gesture, and in %dolence. Whatever thismay be, it is not anger, but mock anger, like thatof children who, if they fall do^-n, want the earthto be thrashed, and who often do not even knowwhy they are angry—they are merely angry, withoutany reason and \\'ithout being injured, though notwithout some semblance of injury and not ^\^thoutsome desire of exacting punishment. And so they aredeceived by imaginary blows and are pacified by thepretended tears of those who beg forgiveness, andmock resentment is removed by a mock revenge." Wq^ often get angry," some one rejoins, " not 3».^

SENECA3 telis finitio non niultum a nostra abest ; ait enimiram esse cupiditatem doloris reponendi. Quid internostram et hanc finitionem intersit, exsequi longumest. Contra utramque dicitur feras irasci nee iniuriairritatas nee poenae dolorisve alieni causa ; nam4 etiam si haec efficiunt, non haec petunt. Sed dicendumest feras ira carere et omnia animalia^ praeterhominem ; nam cum sit inimica rationi, nusquamtamen nascitur, nisi ubi rationi locus est. Impetushabent ferae, rabiem, feritatem, incursum ; iramquidem non magis quam luxuriam, et in quasdam5 voluptates intemperantiores horaine sunt. Non estquod credas illi qui dicit :Non aper irasci meminit, non fidere cursucerva nee armentis incurrere fortibus ursi.Irasci dicit incitari, impingi ; irasci quidem non magis6 sciunt quam ignoscere. Muta animalia humanisaffectibus carent, habent autem similes illis quosdamimpulsus. Alioquin si amor in illis esset et odium,esset amicitia^ et simultas, dissensio et concordia ;quorum aliqua in illis quoque exstant vestigia, ceterumhumanorum pectorum propria bona malaque sunt.7 Nulli nisi homini concessa prudentia est, providentia,diligentia, cogitatio, nee tantum virtutibus humanisanimalia sed etiam \itiis prohibita sunt. Tota illorumut extra ita intra forma humanae dissimilis est ;^^ animalia added by Vahlen.Madvig inserts si before amicitia and dissensio." De A.nitna, 403 a 30 : dia

:ON ANGER, I. in. 3-7definition " differs little from mine ; for he says thatanger is f!Te~desire to fepa.y suffering. To trace thedifference between his definition and mine would taketoo long. In criticism of both it may be said thatwild beasts become angry though they are neitherstirred by injury nor bent on the punishment or thesuffering of another ; for even if they accomplishthese ends, they do not seek them. But our reply "''f" "'must be that wild beasts and all animals, except man, '" '*'**'"are not subject to anger; for while it is the foe ofreason, it is, nevertheless, born only where reasondwells. Wild beasts have impulses, madness, fierceness,aggressiveness ; but they no more have angerthan they have luxuriousness. Yet in regard tocertain pleasures they are less self-restrained thanman. You are not to believe the words of thepoetThe boar his wrath forgets, the hind her trust in flight.Nor bears will now essay the sturdy kine to fight"Their being aroused and spurred to action he callstheir " wrath " ; but they know no more how to bewToth than to pardon. Dumb animals lack theemotions of man, but they have certain impulsessimilar to these emotions. Otherwise, if they werecapable of love and hate, they would also be capableof friendship and enmity, discord and harmony ; andsome traces of these quaUties do appear in them also,but the qualities of good and bad are peculiar to thehuman breast. Wisdom, foresight, diligence, andreflection have been granted to no creature but man,and not only his wtues but also his faults have been^withheld from the animals. As their outward formis wholly different from that of man, so is their inner~115

SENECAregium est illud et principale aliter ductum.Ut voxest quidem, sed non explanabilis et perturbata etverboruin inefficax, ut lingua, sed devincta nee inmotus varios soluta, ita ipsum principale parumsubtile, parum exactum. Capit ergo visus speciesquererum quibus ad impetus evocetur, sed turbidas et8 confusas. Ex eo procursus illorum tumultusquevehementes sunt, metus autem sollicitudinesqueettristitia et ira non sunt, sed his quaedam similia.Ideo cito cadunt et mutantur in contrarium et, cumacerrime saevierunt expaveruntque, pascuntur et exfremitu discursuque vesano statim quies soporquesequitur.1 4. Quid esset ira satis explicitum est. Quo distetab iracundia apparet ;quo ebrius ab ebrioso ettimens a timido. Iratus potest non esse iracundus ;2 iracundus potest aliquando iratus non esse. Cetera,quae pluribus apud Graecos nominibus in speciesiram distinguunt, quia apud nos vocabula sua nonhabent, praeteribo, etiam si amarum nos acerbumquedicimus, nee minus stomachosum, rabiosum, clamosum,difficilem, asperum, quae omnia irarumdifferentiae sunt ; inter hos morosum ponas licet,3 delicatum iracundiae genus. Quaedam enim suntirae,quae intra clamorem considant, quaedam nonminus pertinaces quam frequentes, quaedam saevaemanu verbis parciores, quaedam in verborum male-116

;'ON ANGER, I. III. 7-iv. 3nature ; its guiding and directing principle is castin a. different mould. They have a voice, it is true,but it is unintelligible, uncontrolled, and incapableof speech ; they have a tongue, but it is shackled andnot free to make many different movements. Solikewise in them the ruling principle itself is lackingin fiijene^s and precision. Consequently, while itforms impressions and notions of the things thatarouse it to action, they are clouded and indistinct.It follows, accordingly, that while they have violentoutbreaks and mental disturbances, they do not havefear and anxiety, sorrow and anger, but certainstates_similar to them. These, therefore, quicklypass and change to the exact reverse, and animals,after showing the sharpest frenzy and fear, \\-i\\ beginto feed, and their frantic bellowing and plunging isimmediately followed by repose and sleep.What anger is has now been sufficiently explained, iThe-difference betiveeu it and irascibility is evident ;it is like the difference between a drunken man anda drunkard, between a frightened man and a coward.An angry man may not be an irascible man ; anirascible man~msLj, at times, not be an angry man.The~^other"eategories which the Greeks, using amultiphcity of terms, estabhsh for the different kindsof anger I shall pass over, since we have no distinctivewords for them ; and yet we call men bitter andharsh, and, just as often, choleric, rabid, braAvlsome,captious, and fierce—all of wliich designate differentaspects of anger. Here, too, you may place thepeevish man, whose state is a mild sort of irascibility.Now there are certain kinds of anger which subsidein noise ; some are as persistent as they are commonsome are fierce in deed but inclined to be frugal of117

;SENECAdictorumque amaritudinem efiFusae ;quaedam ultraquerellas et aversationes non exeunt, quaedam altaegravesque sunt et introrsus versae.sunt mali multiplicis.Mille aliae species1 5. Quid esset ira quaesitum est, an in ullum aliudanimal quam in hominem caderet, quo ab iracundiadistaret, quot eius species essent ; nunc quaeramusan ira secundum naturam sit et an utilis atque exaliqua parte retinenda.2 An secundum naturam sit manifestum erit, sihominem inspexerimus. Quo quid est mitius, dumin recto animi habitus est ? Quid autem ira crudeliusest ? Quid homine aliorum amantius ? Quid irainfestius ? Homo in adiutorium mutuum genitus est,ira in exitium ; hie congregari vult, ilia discederehie prodesse, illanocere ; hie etiam ignotis succurrere,ilia etiam carissimos petere ; hie ahorum commodisvel impendere se paratus est, ilia in periculum,3 dummodo deducat, descender e. Quis ergo magisnaturam rerum ignorat quam qui optimo eius operietemendatissimo hoc ferum ac perniciosum vitiumadsignat ? Ira, ut diximus, avida poenae est, cuiuscupidinem inesse pacatissimo hominis pectori minimesecundum eius naturam est. Beneficiis enim humanavita constat et concordia, nee terrore sed mutuoamore in foedus auxiliumque commune constringitur.1 6. " Quid ergo ? Non ahquando castigatio necessariaest ? " Quidni ? Sed haec sine ira, cum ratione ;118* i.e., not entirely discarded by the wise man.

ON ANGER, I. IV. 3-vi. 1•ds ; some are vented in bitterness of speech and-es ; certain kinds do not go beyond a word ofcomplaint and a show of coohiess, others are deepseatedand weighty and brood in a man. There area thousand different shapes of the multiform evil.Hitherto we have inquired what anger is, whether itbeloflgs taany other creature than man, how it differsfronijrascibility . and in how many aspects it appears ;let u&-now mquire whether anger is in accordance 5

SENECAnon enim nocet sed medetur specie nocendi.Quemadmodumquaedam hastilia detorta, ut corrigamus,adurimus et adactis cuneis, non ut frangamus sed utexplicemus, elidimus, sic ingenia vitio prava dolore2 corporis animique corrigimus. Nempe medicus primoin levibus vitiis temptat non multum ex cotidianaconsuetudine inflectere et cibis, potionibus, exercitationibusordinem imponere ac valetudinem tantummutata vitae dispositione firmare. Proximum est,ut modus proficiat ; si modus et ordo non proficit,subducit aliqua et circumcidit ; si ne adhoc quidemrespondet, interdicit cibiset abstinentia corpus exonerat; si frustra molliora cesserunt, ferit venammembrisque, si adhaerentia nocent et morbumdiffundunt, manus adfert ; nee ulla dura videtur3 curatio, cuius salutaris effectus est. Ita legum praesidemcivitatisque rectorem decet, quam diu potest,verbis et his mollioribus ingenia curare, ut faciendasuadeat cupiditatemque honesti et aequi concilietanimis faciatque vitiorum odium, pretium virtutium ;transeat deinde ad tristiorem orationem, qua moneatadhuc et exprobret ; novissime ad poenas et hasadhuc leves, revocabiles decurrat ;ultima suppUciasceleribus ultimis ponat, ut nemo pereat, nisi quern120" i.e., the poles or saplings from which spears were made.

ON ANGER, I. VI. 1-3, retion, not "with anger . For it will not hurt,L-ut wTU heal under the guise of hurting. As weapply the flame to certain spearshafts " when theyare crooked in order to straighten them, and compressthem by dri\-ing in wedges, not to crush them,but to take out their kinks, so through pain appliedto body and mind we reform the natures oT menthat are distorted by vice. ^lanifestly, a p¥ysician,in the case ot shghfSisorders, tries at first not tomake much change in his patient's daily habits ; helays down a regimen for food, drink, and exercise,and tries to improve his health only through a changein the ordering of his life. His next concern is tosee that the amount is conducive to health. If thefirst amount and regimen fail to bring rehef, heorders a reduction and lops off some things. If stillthere is no response, he prohibits food and disburdensthe body by fasting. If these milder measures areunavailing he opens a vein, and then, if the limbsby continuing to be attached to the body are doingit harm and spreading the disease, he lays violenthands on them. No treatment seems harsh if itsresult is salutar)-. Similarly, it becomes A guardian ^»-ce>of the la^v, the ruler of the state, to heal human ^ '^"^nature by the use of words, and these of the mildersort, as long as he can, to the end that he may persuadea man to do what he ought to do, and win overhis heart to a desire for the honourable and the just,and imptant in his mind hatred of vice and esteem ofvirtue. Let him pass next to harsher language, inT^which he will still aim at admonition and reproof.*^Lastly, let him resort to punishment, yet still makingit hght and not irrevocable. Extreme punishmentlet him appoint only to extreme crime, so that no121

SENECA4 perire etiam pereuntis intersit. Hoc uno medentibuserit dissimilis, quod illi quibus vitam non potueruntlargiri facilem exitum praestant, hie damnatos cumdedecore et traductione vita exigit, non quia delecteturullius poena — procul est enim a sapiente taminhumana feritas—sed ut documentum omnium sint,et quia vivi noluerunt prodesse, morte certe eorumres publica utatur. Non est ergo natura hominispoenae adpetens ; ideo ne ira quidem secundum5 naturam hominis, quia poenae adpetens est. EtPlatonis argumentum adferam — quid enim nocetalienis uti ex parte qua nostra sunt — ? " : Vir bonus,"inquit, " non laedit." Poena laedit ; bono ergopoena non convenit, ob hoc nee ira, quia poena iraeconve nit. Si vir bonus poena non gaudet, nongaudebit ne eo quidem adfectu, cui poena voluptatiest ;ergo non est naturalis ira.1 7. Numquid, quamvis non sit naturahs ira, adsumendaest, quia utilis saepe fuit ?Extollit animoset incitat, nee quicquam sine ilia magnificum in bellofortitudo gerit, nisi hinc flamma subdita est et hiestimulus peragitavit misitque in pericula audaces.Optimum itaque quidam putant temperare irain, nontoUere, eoque detracto, quod exundat, ad salutarem122" Republic, i. 335 d.

ON ANGER, I. VI. 4-vii. 1man will lose his life unless it is to the benefit evenof the loser to lose it. In only one particular willhe differ from the physician. For while the onesupphes to the patients to whom he has been unableto give the boon of Ufe an easy exit from it, the otherforcibly expels the condemned from Ufe, coveredwith disgrace and pubhc ignominy, not because hetakes pleasure in the punishment of any one—for thewise man is far from such inhuman ferocity- -but thattheyjaaay prove a warning to all, and, since they wererin\villing to be useful while aUve, that in death atany-xate. they may be of ser\-ice to the state. Plan'snature, then, does not crave vengeance ; neither,therefore, does anger accord with man's nature,because anger craves vengeance. And I may adducehere the argument of Plato—for what harm is therein using the arguments of others, so far as they areour own ? " The good man," he says, " does noinjujgt-" " Punishment injures ; therefore punishmentis not consistent with good, nor, for the samereason, is anger, since punishment is consistent withanger. If the good man rejoices not in punishment,neither will he rejoice in that mood which takespleasure in punishment ; therefore anger is contraryto nature.Although anger be contrary to nature, may it notbe right to adopt it, because it has often been useful ?It rouses and incites the spirit, and without it braveryperforms no splendid deed in war—unless it suppliesthe flame, unless it acts as a goad to spur on bravemen and send them into danger. Therefore somethink that the best course is to control anger, not tobanish it, and by removing its excesses to confine itwithia- bejoeScial bound-!-, keeping, however, that123

;SENECAmodum cogere, id vero retinere sineactio et vis ac vigor animi resolvetur.quo languebit2 Primum facilius est excludere perniciosa quamregere et non adnoittere quam admissa moderarinam cum se in possessione posuerunt, potentiora3 rectore sunt nee recidi se minuive patiuntur. Deinderatio ipsa, cui freni traduntur, tam diu potens estquam diu diducta est ab adfectibus ; si miscuit seillis et inquinavit, non potest continere quos summoverepotuisset. Commota enim semel et excussa4 mens ei servit quo impellitur. Quarundam reruminitia in nostra potestate sunt, ulteriora nos vi suarapiunt nee regressum relinquunt. Ut in praecepsdatis corporibus nullum sui arbitrium est nee resisteremorarive deiecta potuerunt, sed consilium omne etpaenitentiam irrevocabilis praecipitatio abscidit etnon licet eo non pervenire, quo non ire licuisset, itaanimus siin iram, amorem aliosque se proiecit adfectus,non permittitur reprimere impetum ;rapiatilium oportet et ad imum agat pondus suum etvitiorum natura proclivis.1 8. Optimum est primum irritamentum irae protinusspernere ipsisque repugnare seminibus et dareoperam, ne incidamus in iram. Nam si coepit ferretransversos, difficilis ad salutem recursus est, quoniamnihil rationis est, ubi semel adfectus inductus est ius-124.

ON ANGER, I. VII. 1-viii. 1part wTthout which action will be inert and the mind'sforce-aKuLeneFg^y-Woken,^^,In the first place, it is easier to exclude harmfulpassions than to rule them, and to deny them admittancethan, after they have been admitted, to controltheiQa;|:_J"or when they have established themselvesin possession, they are stronger than their ruler anddo noL^ermit themselves to be restrained or reduced.In thje^se

SENECAque illi aliquod voluntate nostra datum est ; faciet de2 cetero quantum volet, non quantum permiseris. Inprimis, inquam, finibus hostis arcendus est ;nam cumintravit et pprtis se intulit, modum a captivis non accipit.Neque enim sepositus est animus et extrinsecusspeculatur adfectus, ut illos non patiatur ultra quamoportet procedere, sod in adfectum ipse mutatur ideoquenon potest utilem illam vim et salutarem proditam3 iam infirmatamque revocare. Non enim, ut dixi, separatasista sedes suas diductasque habent, sedafFectus et ratio in melius peiusque mutatio animi est.Quomodo ergo ratio occupata et oppressa vitiisresurget, quae irae cessit ? Aut quemadmodumex confusione se liberabit, inqua peiorum mixtura4 praevaluit ? " Sed quidam," inquit, " in ira se continent."Utrum ergo ita ut nihil faciant eorum quaeira dictat an ut aliquid ? Si nihil faciunt, apparetnon esse ad actiones rerum necessariam iram, quamvos, quasi fortius aliquid ratione haberet, advocabatis.6 Denique interrogo : valentior est quam ratio aninfirmior ? Si valentior, quomodo ilh modum ratiopoterit imponere, cum parere nisi imbecilliora nonsoleant ?Si infirmior est, sine hac per se ad rerumeffectus sufficit rationee desiderat inbecilUoris auxi-6 lium. " At irati quidam constant sibi et se continent."126

ON ANGER, I. VIII. 1-6be£Qxn£S-filno_avajl after that it \\ill do, not whateveryou let it, but whatever it chooses. The enemy,;I repeat, must be stopped at the ven,' frontier ; forif he has passed it, and advanced within the citygates,he Avill not respect any bounds set by hiscaptives. For the mind is not a member apart, nof~^does it_N-ie\vJthe passions merely objectively, thus/forbidding them to advance farther than they ought, .;?/)Wics tbut it is itself transformed into the passion and \St>.tl>^**^therefore, unable to recover its former useful andsa\ing power when tliis has once been betrayed andwe^li^iied. For, as I said before, these two do notdwell separate and distinct, but passion^and reason ^are onh^ the transformatiQii of the mind toward thebetler-op^th«-w©rse. How, then, Mill the reason, afterit has surrendered to anger, rise again, assailed andcrushed as it is by ^ice ? Or how shall it free itselffrom the motley combination in which a blendingof all the worse quahties makes them supreme ?" Rut/' mp .oooL^li fhf>rf> are those who controlthemselves even in anger." You mean, then, thatthey doT^one of the things that anger dictates, oronly some of them ? If they do none, it is e\identthat anger is~nbt essential to the transactions of hfe,and yet you were advocating it on the ground thatit is something stronger than reason. I ask, in fine,is anger more powerful or weaker than reason ?If itis more powerful, how -oill reason be able to set limitationsupon it, since, ordinarily, it is only the lesspowerful thing that submits ? If it is weaker, thenreason without it is sufficient in itself for the accomplishment"~Df-DTrrta^k?, and requires no help from athingness powerful. Yet you say :" There are thosewHo^eventhough angry, remain true to themselves127

;ISENECAQuando ? Cum iam ira evanescit et sua spontedecedit, non cum in ipso fervore est ; tunc enim7 potentior est. " Quid ergo ? Non aliquando in iraquoque et dimittunt incolumes intactosque quosoderunt et a nocendo abstinent " ? Faciunt. Quando? Cum adfectus repercussit adfectum et aut metusaut cupiditas aliquid impetravit. Non rationis tuncbeneficio quievit, sed affectuum infida et mala pace.1 9, Deinde nihil habet in se utile nee acuit animiunad res bellicas. Numquam enim virtus vitio adiuvandaest se contenta. Quotiens impetu opus est,non irascitur sed exsurgit et in quantum putavit opusesse concitatur remittiturque, non aliter quam quaetormentis exprimuntur tela in potestate mittentis sunt2 in quantum torqueantur. " Ira," inquit Aristoteles,**necessaria est, nee quicquam sine ilia expugnaripotest, nisi ilia implet animum et spiritum accenditutendum autem ilia est non ut duce sed ut milite."Quod est falsum. Nam si exaudit rationem sequiturquequa ducitur, iam non est ira, cuius proprium estcontumacia ; si vero repugnat et non ubi iussa estquiescit, sed libidine ferociaque provehitur,taminutilisanimi minister est quam miles, qui signum receptui3 neglegit. Itaque si modum adhiberi sibi patitur, alionomine appellanda est, deslt ira esse, quam efFrenatam128" It is not known where.

;ON ANGER, I. vni. 6-ix. 3nnd are self-contrnllefl " But when are they so ? Onlywhen anger gradually vanishes and departs of its ovra.accord, not when it is at white heat ; then it is themore powerful of the two. " What then " ? you say " ;do not men sometimes even in the midst of angerallow those whom they hate to get off safe and soundand refrain from doing them injury " ? They do ;but when ? When passion has beaten back passion,and either fear or greed, has obtained its end. Thenthere is peace, not wrought through the good officesof reason, but through a treacherous and e\-il agree-

SENECAindomitamque intellego ; si non patitur, perniciosaest nee inter auxilia numeranda ; ita aut ira non est4 aut inutilis est. Nam si quis poenam exigit nonipsius poenae avidus sed quia oportet, non estadnumerandus iratis. Hie erit utilis miles qui scitparere consilio ;adfectus quidem tam mali ministriquam duces sunt.1 10. Ideo numquam adsumet ratio in adiutoriumimprovidos et violentos impetus, apud quos nihil ipsaauctoritatis habeat, quos numquam comprimere possit,nisi pares illissimilisque opposuerit, ut irae metum, I2 inertiae iram, timori cupiditatem.^ Absit hoc a Ivirtute malum, ut umquam ratio ad vitia confugiat !*Non potest hie animus fidele otium capere, quatiaturnecesse est fluctueturque, qui malis suis tutus est, quifortis esse nisi irascitur non potest, industrius nisicupit, quietus nisi timet : in tyrannide illi vivendumest in alicuius adfectus venienti servitutem. Nonpudet virtutes in clientelam vitiorum demittere ?3 Deinde desinit quicquam posse ratio, si nihil potestsine adfectu, et incipit par illi similisque esse. Quidenim interest, si aeque adfectus inconsulta res estsine ratione quam ratio sine adfectu inefficax ?Parutrumque est, ubi esse alterum sine altero non potest.Quis autem sustineat adfectum exaequare rationi ?130^ ut . . . cupiditatem Oertz and Hermes omit.

ON ANGER, I. IX. 3-x. 3for I understand this to be unbridled and ungovernable.If it suffers no limitation, it is a baneful thingand is not to be counted as a helpful agent. Thuseitlier anger is not anger or it is useless. For theman who exacts punishment, not because he desirespunishment for its ow-n sake, but because it is rightti 1inflict it, ought not to be counted as an angry man.The ai£eful_soldier \n\\ be one who knows how to obey(uders ; the passions are as bad subordinates as .tliL'V are leaders.C un-equently, reasim_JSKQl_ne.Y.er- call to its-helpItlind and \-iolent impulses over which it vnW itselflia\-e no control, which it can never crush save by:-etting against them equally powerful and similarimpulses, as fear against anger, anger against sloth,arced against fear. May \'irtue be spared thecalamit}'' of having reason ever flee for help to \'ice !It is impossible for the mind to find here a surerepose ; shattered and storm-tossed it must ever beif it depends upon its worst qualities to save it, if itcannot be brave Avithout being angry, if it cannothe industrious without being greedy, if it cannot betpiiet without being afraid—such is the tyrannyunder which that man must live who surrenders tothe bondage of any passion. Is it not a shame to(1- crrade the \-irtues into dependence upon the vices ?_ain, reason ceases to have power if it has no powerart from passion, and so gets to be on the same^k vel with passion and like unto it. For what differenceis there, if passion without reason is a thing asunguided as reason without passion is ineffective ?Both are on the same level, if one cannot exist withoutthe other. Yet who would maintain that passioni^ on a level with reason ? " Passion," some one131

SENECA4 " Ita," inquit, " utilis adfectus est, si modicus est."Immo si natura utilis est. Sed si impatiens imperiirationisque est, hoc dumtaxat moderatione consequetur,ut quo minor fuerit, minus noceat : ergomodicus afFectus nihil aliud quam malum modicum est.1 11. " Sed adversus hostes," inquit, " necessaria estira." Nusquam minus ; ubi non efFusos esse oportetimpetus sed temperatos et oboedientes. Quid enimest aliud quod barbaros tanto robustiores corporibus,tanto patientiores laborum comminuat nisi ira in-2 festissima sibi ? Gladiatores quoque ars tuetur, iradenudat. Deinde quid opus est ira, cum idem proficiatratio ? An tu putas venatorem irasci feris ?Atqui et venientis excipit et fugientis persequitur,et omnia ilia sine ira facit ratio. Quid CimbrorumTeutonorumque tot milia superfusa Alpibus itasustulit, ut tantae cladis notitiam ad suos non nuntiussed fama pertulerit, nisi quod erat illis ira pro virtute ?Quae ut aliquando propulit stravitque obvia, ita3 saepius sibi exitio est. Germanis quid est animosius ?Quid ad incursum acrius ? Quid armorum cupidius,quibus innascuntur innutriunturque, quorum unica.''ilhs cura est in alia neglegentibus Quid induratiusad omnem patientiam, ut quibus magna ex parte nontegimentacorporum provisa sint,non sufFugia adversus" Leading nations of a vast horde of barbarians, who,migrating from northern Germany (113-101 b.c), alarmedItaly by their repeated victories over Roman armies. Mariusdefeated the Teutons at Aquae Sextiae in 102 b.c, and in thefollowing year, with Catulus, annihilated the Cimbrians onthe Raudine Plain.132I

ON ANGER, I. X. 4-xi. 3says, " is useful, provided that it be moderate." No,only by its nature can it be useful. If, however, it willnot submit to authority and reason, the only result ofits moderation \W11 be that the less there is of it, theless harm it will do. Consequently laadgrate passion^ig nothings else-tJiaa-A-jmoderate evil. /" But_against-.the__enemyj" it is said, " anger is .^^ho^ernecessary..", ,Nowhere is it less so ; for there theattacl^_pught not to be disorderly, but regulated andunder eonfrol. What else is it, in fact, but theiranger—its own worst foe—that reduces to impotencythe barbarians, who are so much stronger of bodythan we, and so much better able to endure hardship? So, too, in the case of gladiators skill is theirprotection, anger their undoing. Q£_jidiat- .use,further, is anger,when the same end may be accomphshedby reason ? Think you the hunter has angertowar^Tv^TTd beasts ? Yet when they come, he takesthem, and when they flee, he follows, and reasondoes it all without anger. The Cimbrians and theTeutons " who poured over the Alps in countlessthousands—what wiped them out so completely thateven the news of the great disaster was carried totheir homes, notby a messenger, but only by rumour,except that they substituted anger for valour ?Anger, although it will sometimes overthrow and laylow whatever gets in its way, yet more often bringsdestruction on itself. Who are more courageousthan the Germans ? Who are bolder in a charge ?Who have more love of the arms to which they areborn and bred, which to the exclusion of all elsebecome their only care ? Who are more hardenedto endurance of every kind, since they are, in largemeasure, pro\'ided with no protection for their bodies,133

SENECA4 perpetuum caeli rigorem ? Hos tamen Hispani Galliqueet Asiae Syriaeque molles bello viri, antequamlegio visatur, caedunt ob nullam aliam rem opportunosquam iracundiam. Agedum illis corporibus, illisanimis delicias, luxum, opes ignorantibus da rationem,da disciplinam : ut nil amplius dicam, necesse erit6 certe nobis mores Romanes repetere. Quo alioFabius affectas imperii vires recreavit, quam quodcunctari et trahere et morari sciit, quae omnia iratinesciunt ? Perierat imperium, quod tunc in extremostabat, si Fabius tantum ausus esset quantum ira suadebat: habuit in consilio fortunam publicam et aestimatisviribus, ex quibus iam perire nihil sine universopoterat, dolorem ultionemque seposuit in unam utilitatemet occasiones intentus ; iram ante vieit quam6 Hannibalem. Quid Scipio ? Non relicto Hannibale etPunico exercitu omnibusque, quibus irascendum erat,bellum in Africam transtulit tam lentus, ut opinionem7 luxuriae segnitiaeque malignis daret ? Quid alterScipio ? Non circa Numantiam multum diuque seditet hunc suum publicumque dolorem aequo animotulit, diutius Numantiam quam Carthaginem vinci ?Dum circumvallat et includit hostem, eo compulit, ut" A reference to the famous tactics of Quintus FabiusMaximus, Cunctator, who, appointed dictator after the battleof Lake Trasimenus (217 b.c), harassed Hannibal by hisdilatory policy.''During the winter of 205-204 b.c. Scipio lingered inSicily, perfecting plans for his expedition into Africa." P. Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus, conqueror of Carthage(146 B.C.).•*Through the winter, spring, and summer of 134-133 b.c.134

—"ON ANGER, I. XI. 4-7with no shelter against the continual rigour of theclimate ? Yet these are they -whom the Spaniardsand the Gauls and men of Asia and Syria, uninuredto war, cut down before they could even glimpse aRoman legion, the \-ictims of nothing else than anger.But mark you,_iMUie^ give, discipline to those bodies,give reason to those minds that are strangers still topampered ways, excess, and wealthy and we Romansto mention nothmg further—shall assuredly be forcedto retWil to the ancient Roman ways. How else didFab i us restore the broken forces of the state butby knowing how to loiter, to put oiF, and to wait—things of which angry men know nothing ? Thestate, which was standing then in the utmostextremity, had surely perished if Fabius had venturedto do all that anger prompted. But he took intoconsideration the well-being of the state, and,estimating its strength, of which now nothing couldbe lost ^\•ithout the loss of all, he buried all thoughtof resentment and revenge and was concerned onlywith expediency and the fitting opportunity ; Jieconquered anger before he conquered Hannibal.And what of Scipio ? Did he not leave behind himHannibal and the Carthaginian army and all thosewith whom he had reason to be angry, and dally soin transferring the war to Africa that he gavelong ^to evil-minded people the impression that he wasa sensualist and a sluggard ? What, too, of the otherScipio ? " Did he not sit before Numantia, idlingmuch and long, and bear unmoved the reproach tohimself and to his countr}' that it took longer toconquer Numantia than to conquer Carthage ?But by blockading and investing '^ the enemy heforced them to such straits that they perished by135

jSENECA8 ferro ipsi suo caderent. Non est itaque utilis ne in tproeliis quidem aut bellis ira ; in temeritatem enimprona est et pericula, dum inferre vult, non cavet.Ilia eertissima est virtus quae se diu multumquecircumspexit et rexit et ex lento ac destinato provexit.1 12. " Quid ergo ? " inquit, " vir bonus non irascitur,si caedi patrem suum viderit, si rapi matrem ? "Non irascetur, sed vindicabit, sed tuebitur. Quidautem times, ne parum magnus illistimulus etiamsine ira pietas sit ? Aut die eodem modo : " Quidergo ? Cum videat secari patrem suum filiumve,vir bonus non flebit nee linquetur animo ? " Quaeaccidere feminis videmus, quotiens illas levis periculi2 suspicio perculit. Officia sua vir bonus exsequeturinconfusus, intrepidus ;et sic bono viro digna faeiet,ut nihil faciat viro indignum. Pater caedetur, defendam; caesus est, exsequar, quia oportet, non quia^3 dolet. " Irascuntur boni viri pro suorum iniuriis." ^Cum hoc dicis, Theophraste, quaeris invidiam praeceptisfortioribus et relicto iudice ad coronam venis.Quia unusquisque in eiusmodi suorum casu irascitur, -putas iudicaturos homines id fieri debere quodfaciunt ; fere enim iustum quisque affectum iudicat4 quem adgnoscit. Sed idem faciunt, si calda non* The words irascuntur . . . iniuriisAL they appear after adgnoscit below,Gertz places here ; in136

»ON ANGER, I. XI. 8-xn. 4r o^vn swords. Ang«r, therefore, is not expedientI in battle or in war ; for it is prone to rashness,while it seeks to bring about danger, does notd against it. The truest form of ^^-isdom is to "-^ ';- a wide and long inspection, to put self in subon,and then to move forward slowly and in alirection.What then " ? vou ask "; \\\\\ the good man not3e angrv if his father is murdered, his mother out- ,agedJjfiforeJhis eyes " ? No. he will not be angry,)ut he ^^ill_ avenge them, will protect them. Why, ^«^ "^^=•'noreover, are you afraid that fiUal affection, eventhout anger, may not prove a sufficiently strongnceEtive for him ? Or you might as well say :*What then ? if a good man should see his father orlis son under the knife, ^\•ill he not weep, Avill he not'aint " ? But this is the way we see women actrhenever they are upset by the slightest suggestionif danger. The good man will perform his dutiesdisturbed and unafraid ; and he %\-ill in such a wayio all that is worthy of a good man as to do nothing --that is unworthy of a man. My father is beingtturdered—I will defend him ; he is slain—I will.venge him, not because I grieve, but because it istty duty. " Gcod. men are made angry by theinjuries of those they love." When you say this,rheophrastus, you seek to make more heroic doctrineanpopuTar^^-you turn from the judge to the bystanders.Because each indixidual grows angry whenuch a mishap comes to those he loves, you think thatmen vriW judge that what they do is the right thingto be done; for as a mle every -man decides thatthat is a justifiable passion which he acknowledgesas JuSLDwn. But they act in the same way if they137

SENECAbene praebetur, si vitreum fractum est, si calceus lutosparsus est. Non pietas illam iram sed infirmitasmovet, sicut pueris, qui tam parentibus amissis flebuntj'5 quam nucibus. Irasci pro suis non est pii animi sedinfirmi ;illud pulehrum dignumque, pro parentibus,liberis, amicis, civibus prodire defensorem ipso officioducente, volentem, iudicantem, providentem, nonimpulsum et rabidum. Nullus enim afFectus vindicandicupidior est quam ira et ob id ipsum ad vindicanduminhabilis ;praerapida et amens, ut omnisfere cupiditas, ipsa sibi in id in quod properat opponitur.Itaque nee in pace nee in bello umquamjbono fuit ;pacem enim similem belli efficit, in armisjvero obliviscitur Martem esse communem venitque6 in alienam potestatem, dum in sua non est. Deindenon ideo vitia in usum recipienda sunt, quia aliquandoaliquid efFecerunt ; nam et febres quaedamgenera valetudinis levant, nee ideo non ex toto illiscaruisse melius est. Abominandum remedi genusest sanitatem debere morbo.Simili modo ira, etiamsi aliquando ut venenum et praecipitatio et naufragiumex inopinato profuit, non ideo salutaris iudicandaest ;saepe enim saluti fuere pestifera.1 13. Deinde quae habenda sunt, quo maiora eomeliora et optabiHora sunt. Si iustitia bonum est,"138Cf. Shakespeare, King Henrij IV, Pt. 2, Act 1, Sc. 1In poison there is physic ; and these news.Having been well, that would have made me sick,Being sick, have in some measure made me well.

ON ANGER, I. xii. 4-xm. 1are not well supplied with hot water, if a glass gobletis broken, if a shoe gets splashed ^\-ith mud. Suchanger comes, not from affection, but from a weakness—thekind we see in children, who ^^ill shed nomore tears over lost parents than over lost toys. Tofeel anger on behalf of loved ones is the mark of aweak mind, not of a loyal one. For a man to standforth as the defender of parents, children, friends,and fellow-citizens, led merely by his sense of duty,acting yoTiintarily, using judgement, using foresight,moved ireither by impulse nor by fury—this is nobleand becbmirig. Now no passion is more eager forjrevenge than anger, and for that ver}' reason istojtakg it) being unduly ardent and frenzied, as mostlusts are, it blocks its own progress to the goal towardwhich it hastens. Therefore it has never been ofadvantage either in peace or in war ; for it makespeace seem like war, and amid the clash of armsit forgets that the War-god shows no favour and,failing to control itself, it passes into the controlunfit r'of another. Again, it does not follow that the vices }are to be adopted for use from the fact that they'T"have sometimes been to some extent profitable. Fora fever may bring relief'ih certain kinds of sickness,and yet it does not follow from this that it is notbetter to be altogether free from fever. A methodof ciiTfiJthat makes good health dependent upondisease must be regarded ^\'ith detestation. Inlike manner anger, like poison, a fall, or a ship-^^Teck, even if it has sometimes proved an unexpectedgood, ought not for that reason to be adjudged wholesome; for ofttimes poisons have saved life."Again, if aiiy_quality is worth having, the more of itthere is, the better and the more desirable it becomes.139

iSENECAnemo dicet meliorem futuram, si quid detractum ex2 ea fuerit ; si fortitude bonum est, nemo illam desiderabJtex aliqua parte deminui. Ergo et ira quomaior hoc melior ;quis enim ullius boni accessionemrecusaverit ? Atqui augeri illam inutile est ; ergoet esse.Non est bonum quod incremento malum fit.3 " Utilis," inquit, " ira est, quia pugnaciores facit."Isto modo et ebrietas ; facit enim protervos et audacesmultique meliores ad ferrum fuere male sobrii ;istomodo die et phrenesin atque insaniam viribus neces-4 sariam, quia saepe validiores furor reddit. Quid ?Non aliquotiens metus ex contrario fecitaudacem,et mortis timor etiam inertissimos excitavit in proelium? Sed ira, ebrietas, metus aliaque eiusmodifoeda et caduca irritamenta sunt nee virtutem instruunt,quae nihil vitiis eget, sed segnem alioqui3 animum et ignavum paullum adlevant. Nemo irascendofit fortior, nisi qui fortis sine ira non fuisset.Ita non in adiutorium virtutis venit, sed in vicem.Quid quod, si bonum esset ira, perfectissimum quemque sequeretur ? Atqui iracundissimi infantessenesque et aegri sunt, et invalidum omne naturaquerulum est.I 14. " Non potest," inquit, " fieri " Theophrastus" ut non vir bonus irascatur malis." Isto modo quo140

ON ANGER, I. xiii. 1-xiv. 1If justice is a good, no one will say that it becomesa greater good after something has been AvithdrawTifrom it ; if bravery is a good, no one ^\•ill desire itto be in any measure reduced. Consequently, also,the greater anger is, the better it is ; for who wouldoppose the augmentation of any good ? And yet,itis -not profitable that anger should be increased ; therefnreTTBatAnger sluiuld exist either. That is not agoo4_ which _by increase becomes an evil., " Angeris profitable," it is said, " because it makes menmore warlike. " By that reasoning, so is drunkennesstoo ; for it makes men forward and bold, and manyhave been better at the sword because they werethe worse for drink. By the same reasoning youmust also say that lunacy and madness are essentialto strength, since frenzy often makes men morepowerful. But telLJILe^Jioes not fear, in the oppositewayj sometimes make a man bold, and does not theterror of death arouse even arrant cowards to fight ?But anger, drunkenness, fear, and the Hke, are baseand fleeting incitements and do not give arms tovirtue, which never needs the help of vice ; theydo, however, assist somewhat the mind that is otherwiseslack and cowardly. No man is ever madebraver through anger, except the one who wouldnever have been brave without anger. It comes,then, not as a help to virtue, but as a substitute forit. And is it not true that if anger were a good, itwould come naturally to those who are the mostperfect ? But the fact is, children, old men, and thesick are most prone to anger, and weakness of anysort is by nature captious." It is impossible," says Theophrastus, " for agood mag not to be angry with bad men." Accord-141

;'SENECAmelior quisque, hoc iracundior erit ;vide ne contraIplacidior solutusque afFectibuset cui nemo odio sit.2 Peccantis vero quid habet cur oderit, cum error illos iin eiusmodi delicta compellat ?Non est autem prudentiserrantis odisse ; alioqui ipse sibi odio erit.Cogitet quam multa contra bonum morem faciat,quam multa ex is, quae egit, veniam desiderentiam irascetur etiam sibi.Neque enim aequus iudexaliam de sua, aliam de aliena causa sententiam fert.3 Nemo, inquam, invenietur qui se possit absolvere, etinnocentem quisque se dicit respiciens testem, nonconscientiam. Quanto humanius mitem et patriumanimum praestare peccantibus et illos non persequi,sed revocare ! Errantem per agros ignorantia viaemelius est ad rectum iter admovere quam expellere.1 15. Corrigendus est itaque, qui peccat, et admonitioneet vi, et molliter et aspere, meliorque tarnsibi quam aliis faciendus non sine castigatione, sedsine ira ;quis enim cui medetur irascitur ? Atcorrigi nequeunt nihilque in illis lene aut spei bonaecapax est. Tollantur e coetu mortaHum factxiripeiora quae contingunt, et quo uno modo possunt2 desinant maH esse, sed hoc sine odio. Quid enina142

ON ANGER, 1. XIV. 1-xv. 2ing to this, the better a man is, the more irascible .he'^wiTr^ ; on the contrary, be sure that none is -/-^more peaceable, more free from passion, and lessgiven toT^te. Indeed, -what reason has he forhating ^^Tong-doers, since it is error that drives ythem to such mistakes ? But no man of sense ^^"ill^ ' f^'^hate^jhe erring ; otherwise lie ^\ill hate himselL * *-"^^^Let him rettect how many times he offends againstmorall1yriio%v many of his acts stand in need ofpardonj_theii he will be angry with himself also.For no just judge %\ill pronounce one sort of judgemenFTnThls^wncase dfrd* a different one in the caseof others. No one will be found, I say, who is ableto acquit himself, and any man who calls himselfinnocent is thinking more of ^ntnesses than conscience.How much more human to manifesttoward ^\Tong-doers a kind and fatherly spirit, nothunting them do^\•n but calhng them back ! If a manhas lost his way and is roaming across our fields, itis better to put him upon the right path than todrive him out.And so the man who does wTong ought to be set j^right both by admonition and by force, by measuresboth gentle and harsh, and we should try to make hima better man for his own sake, as well as for the sakeof others, stinting, not our reproof, but our anger.For what physician %sill show anger toward a patient ?" But," you say, " they are incapable of beingreformed, there is nothing pliable in them, nothingthat gives room for fair hope." Then let them beremoved from human society- if they are bound tomake worse all that they touch, and let them, in theonly way this is possible, cease to be e\il—but let thisbe done without hatred. For what reason have I for143

SENECAest, cur oderim eum, cui turn maxime prosum, cumilium sibi eripio ? Num quis membra sua tunc odit,cum abscidit ? Non est ilia ira, sed misera curatio.Rabidos effligimus canes et trucem atque immansuetumbovem occidimus et morbidis pecoribus, ne gregempoUuant, ferrum demittimus ;portentosos fetusexstinguimus, liberos quoque, si debiles monstrosiqueediti sunt, mergimus ; nee ira, sed ratio est a sanis3 inutilia secernere. Nil minus quam irasci punientemdecet, cum eo magis ad emendationem poena proficiat,si iudicio lata est. Inde est, quod Socratesservo ait : " Caederem te, nisi irascerer." Admonitionemservi in tempus sanius distulit, illo temporese admonuit. Cuius erit tandem temperatusaffectus, cum Socrates non sit ausus se irae committere?1 16. Ergo ad coercitionem errantium sceleratorumqueirato castigatore non opus est ; nam cum iradelictum animi sit, non oportet peccata corrigerepeccantem. " Quid ergo ? Non irascar latroni ?Quid ergo ? Non irascar venefico ? " Non ; nequeenim mihi irascor, cum sanguinem mitto. Omne2 poenae genus remedi loco admoveo. Tu adliuc inprima parte versaris errorum nee graviter laberis sedfrequenter ; obiurgatio te primum secreta deindepublicata emendare temptabit. Tu longius iam processisti,quam ut possis verbis sanari ; ignominia144

ON ANGER, I XV. 2-x\i. 2hating a man to whom I am offering the greatestser\"ice when I save him from himself ? Does a manhate the members of his own body when he uses theknife upon them ? There is no anger there, but thepitying desire to heal. Mad dogs we knock on thehead ; the fierce and savage ox we slay ; sicklysheep we put to the knife to keep them from infectingthe flock ; unnatural progeny we destroy ; wedrown even children who at birth are weakly andabnormal. Yet it_ is not anger, but ^gjison thatseparates the harmful.from the sound— For the onewho administers punisliment nothing is so unfittingas anger, since punishment is all the better able towork reform if it is bestowed with judgement. Thisis the reason Socrates says to his slave : "I wouldbeat you if I were not angry." The slave's reproofhe postponed to a more rational moment ; at thetime it was himself he reproved. Will there be anyone, pray, who has passion under control, when evenSocrates did not dare to trust himself to anger ?Consequently, there is no need that correctionbe given in anger in order to restrain the erring .and the A^icked. For since anger is a mental sin,it is not right to correct wrong-doing by doing^vrong. " What then " ? you exclaim ;" shall I notbe angry ^vith a robber ? Shall I not be angry ^vitha poisoner " ? No ; for I am not angr}' >\'ith myselfwhen I let my o^^^l blood. To every: form of punishment^\•ill I resort, but only as a remedy. If you arehngering as yet in the first stage of error and arelapsing, not seriously, but often, I shall try to correctyou by chiding, first in private, then in public. If youhave aheady advanced so far that words can nolonger bring you to your senses, then you shall beVOL. I L 145

;SENECAcontineberis.^ Tibi fortius aliqmd et quod sentiasinurendum est ; in exilium et loca ignota mitteris.In te duriora remedia iam solida nequitia desiderat3 et vincula publica et career adhibebitur. Tibi insanabilisanimus et sceleribus scelera contexens, etiam non causis, quae nvunquam malo defuturae sunt,impelleris, sed satis tibi est magna ad peccandimicausa peccare, perbibisti nequitiam et ita visceribusimmiscuisti, ut nisi cum ipsis exire non possit ; olimmiser mori quaeris ; bene de te merebimur, auferemustibi istam qua vexas, vexaris insaniam et pertua alienaque volutato supplicia id quod unum tibibonum superest repraesentabimus, mortem. Quareirascar cui cum maxime prosum ? Interim optimum4 misericordiae genus est occidere. Si intrassem valetudinariumexercitus ut sciens aut domus divitis, nonidem imperassem omnibus per diversa aegrotantibus ;varia in tot animis vitia video et civitati curandaeadhlbitus sum ;pro cuiusque morbo medicina quaeratur,hunc sanet verecundia, hunc peregrinatio,6 hunc dolor, hunc egestas, hunc ferrum. Itaque etsiperversa induenda magistratui vestis et convocandaclassico contio est, procedam in tribunal non furens^Hermes, after Pincianus, inserts non." The meaning of perversa vestis is not clear, but thephrase evidently implies some unusual manner of wearingthe toga aflfected by the magistrate presiding at a trialon a capital charge.''By an old custom, when a citizen was arraigned on acapital charge before the centuriate assembly, the trumpetwas sounded in various public places and before the houseof the accused.146

'ON ANGER, I. XVI. 2-5held in check by public disgrace. Should it benecessary to brand you in more drastic fashion, AN-ith apunishment you can feel, you shall be sent into exile,banished to an unkno^^-n region. Should your >vickednesshave become deep-rooted, demanding harsherremedies to meet your case, to chains and the stateprisonwe shall have resort. If ^vith mind incurableyou link crime to crime and are actuated no longerby the excuses -which \\i\\ never fail the evil man,but WTong-doing itself becomes to you pretextenough for doing ^\Tong ; if you have drained thecup of AWckedness and its poison has so mingledwith your \itals that it cannot issue forth withoutthem ; if, poor ^^Tetch ! you have long desired todie, then we shall do you good serWce—we shalltake from you that madness by which, while youharass others, you yourself are harassed, and to youwho have long wallowed in the suffering of yourselfand others we shall gladly give the only boon stillleft for you, death ! Why should I be angry with a -fman to \vhoin.I.am giving ^'^'^gp^-^^^****^^ Help 1 Sometimesthe truest form of. pity_ is.to -kill. If withthe training of an expert physician I had entered ahospital or a rich man's household, I should not haveprescribed the same treatment to all, though theirdiseases differed. Diverse, too, are the ills I seein countless minds, and I am called to cure the -Vbodypohtic ; for each man's malady the propertreatment should be sought ; let this one berestored by his o^\ti self-respect, this one by asojourn abroad, this one by pain, this one by poverty,this one by the sword ! Accordingly, even if asa magistrate I must put on my robe a\\Ty and

SENECAnee infestus sed vultu legis et ilia sollemnia verbaleni magis gravique quam rabida voce concipiam etagi lege^ iubebo non iratus sed severus ; et cumcervicem noxio imperabo praecidi et cum parricidasinsuam cuUeo et cum mittam in supplicium militareet cum Tarpeio proditorem hostemve publicum imponam,sine ira eo vultu animoque ero, quo serpentes6 et animalia venenata percutio. " Iracundia opus estad puniendum." Quid ? Tibi lex videtur irasci iisquos non novit, quos non vidit, quos non futurossperat ? Illius itaque sumendus est animus, quaenon irascitur, sed constituit. Nam si bono viro obmala facinora irasci convenit, et ob secundas resmalorum hominum invidere conveniet.Quid enimest indignius quam florere improbos^ quosdam et eosindulgentia fortunae abuti, quibus nulla potest satismala inveniri fortuna ?Sed tam commoda illorumsine invidia videbit quam scelera sine ira ;bonus7 iudex damnat improbanda, non odit. " Quid ergo ?Non, cum eiusmodi aliquid sapiens habebit in manibus,"tangetur animus eius eritque solito commotior ?Fateor ; sentiet levem quendam tenuemque motum ;nam, ut dicit Zenon, in sapientis quoque animo, etiamcum vulnus sanatum est, cicatrix manet. Sentiet148^lege added by Gertz, after Pincianus.^ improbos added by Gemoll.

» i.e., to be drowned.149;ON ANGER, I. XVI. 5-7advance to the high tribunal, not in rage nor inenmity, but -with the \-isage of the law, and as Ipronounce those solemn words my voice ^vill not befierce, but rather grave and gentle, and not M-ithanger, but ^vith sternness, I shall order the law tobe enforced. And when I command a criminal tobe beheaded, or sew up a parricide in the sack," orsend a soldier to his doom, or stand a traitor or apublic enemv upon the Tarpeian Rock, I shall haveno trace of anger, but shall look and feel as I mightif I were kilUng a snake or any poisonous creature." We_Jiax^__to_be_angryyl'-you-say, "in order topunisL.'l_Athat-I~ Think you the law is angry \vithmen it does not know, whom it has never seen, Avhoit hopes wiU. never be ?The spirit of the law, therefore,we should make our ovm—the laiv which showsnot "ailgef but determination. For if it is right fora good man to be angry at the crimes of ^^•ickedmen, it will also be right for him to be envious oftheir_grosperity, And what, indeed, seems moreunjust than that certain reprobates should prosperand become the pets of fertune—men for whomthere could be found no fortune bad enough ? Butthe good man \vi\\ no more \iew their blessings withen\y than he views their crimes with anger. Agood judge condemns vvTongful deeds, but he doesnot hate them. " What then ?" you say ; "when theAvise-^wsm shall have something of this sort to dealwith, will not his mind be aifected by it, will it notbe moved from its usual calm " ? I adrnit that it v^illit will experience some shght and superficial emotion.For as Zeno says ": Even the wise man's mind willkeep its scar long after the wound has healed." He will

SENECAitaque suspiciones quasdam et umbras afFectuum,ipsis quidem carebit.1 17. Aristoteles ait affectus quosdam, si quis illisbene utatur, pro armis esse. Quod verum forpt,si velut bellica instrumenta sumi deponique possentinduentis arbitrio. Haec arma, quae Aristoteles virtutidat, ipsa per se pugnant, non expectant manum,2 et habent, non habentur. Nil aliis instrumentis opusest, satis nos instruxit ratione natura. Hoc dedittelum firmum, perpetuum, obsequens, nee anceps neequod in dominum remitti posset. Non ad providendumtantum, sed ad res gerendas satis est per se ipsaratio ;etenim quid est stultius quam hanc ab iracundiapetere praesidium, rem stabilem ab incerta, fidelem3 ab infida, sanam ab aegra ? Quid, quod ad actionesquoque, in quibus solis opera iracundiae videturnecessaria, multo per se ratio fortior est ?Nam cumiudicavit aliquid faciendum, in eo perseverat ; nihilenim melius inventura est se ipsa, quo mutetur ; ideo4 stat semel constitutis. Iram saepe misericordia retroegit ; habet enim non solidum robur sed vanumtumorem violentisque principiis utitur, non aliterquam qui a terra venti surgunt et fluminibus paludibusqueconcepti sine pertinacia vehementes sunt.5 Incipit magno impetu, deinde deficit ante tempusfatigata, et, quae nihil aliud quam crudelitatem ac150" Cf. the citation in chap. ix.

'ON ANGER, I. XVI. 7-xvii. 5erience ^ ttiereforejCertainsugge'^tions and shadows: lassion, but from pas-ion itself he %nll be free.Aristotle'savs'' that certain passions, if one makes aper use of them, serve as arm^. And^ tills would be-if, Uke the impTehients of war, they could be putand laid aside at the pleasure of the user. Butthe9e-ii-a«aa9 -'which Aristotle would grant to virtuefiglit under their o%\ti orders ; they await no man'sgesture and are not possessed, but possess. Nature i^has given to us an adequate equipment in reason ; we ^need no other implements. This is the weapon shehas bestowed ; it is strong, enduring, obedient, notdouble-edged or capable of being turned against itsowner. Reason is all-sufficient in itself, ser\"tng not 'merely for counsel, but for action as well. WTiat,really, is more foohsh than that reason should seekprotection from anger—that which is steadfast fromthat ^hifh' is "wavering , that which is trustworthyfrom that which is untrustrvvorthy, that which is wellfrom thatJivhich, is sick ? Even in matters of action,in which alone the help of anger seems necessary, isit not true that reason, if left to itself, has far morepower ? For reason, ha\'ing decided upon thenecessit}- of some action, persists in her purpose,since she herself can discover no better thing to putin her place ; therefore her determinations, oncemade, stand. But anger is oftert forced back bypit}' ; for it has no enduring strength, but is adeligtve^inflation. \iolent at the outset. It is likethe \Ainds that rise from off the earth ;generatedfrom streams and marshes they have vehemence,but do nol Tast^ So anger begins Avith a mightyrush, then breaks down from untimely exhaustion,and though all its thoughts had been concerned %vith151J^'

SENECAnova genera poenarum versaverat, cum animadvertendumest, iam fracta lenisque est. Affectus cito6 cadit, aequalis est ratio. Ceterum etiam ubi perseveravitira, nonnumquam, si plures sunt qui periremeruerunt, post duorum triumve sanguinem occideredesinit. Primi eius ictus acres sunt ; sic serpentiumvenena a cubili erepentium nocent, innoxii dentes7 sunt, cum illos frequens morsus exhausit. Ergo nonparia patiuntur qui paria commiserant, et saepe quiminus commisit plus patitur, quia recentiori obiectusest. Et in totum inaequalis est ; modo ultra quamoportet excurrit, modo citerius debito resistit ; sibienim indulget et ex libidine iudicat et audire nonvult et patrocinio non relinquit locum et ea tenetquae invasit et eripi sibi iudicium suum, etiam sipravum est, non sinit.1 18. Ratio utrique parti tempus dat, deinde advqcationemet sibi petit, ut excutiendae veritati spatiumhabeat ; ira festinat. ^ Ratio id iudicare vult quodaequum est ;ira id aequum videri vult quod iudicavit.2 Ratio nil praeter ipsum de quo agitur spectat ;.ira vanis et extra causam obversantibus commovetur.Vultus illam securior, vox clarior, sermo liberior, cultusdedicatior, advocatio ambitiosior, favor popularis exasperant; saepe infesta patrono reum damnat ; etiam152

ON ANGER, I. xvii. 5-x\iii. 2cruelty aiicLiuiheiud-of forms of torture, yet whenthe time is ripe for punishment it has already becomecrippled and weak. Passion quickly falls, reason isbalanced. But even if anger persists, it ^\"ill oftenhappeii that having taken the blood of two or threevictims it ^^•ill cease to slay, although there are morewho deserve to die. Its first blows are fierce ; soserpents when they first crawl from their lair arecharged with venom, but their fangs are harmlessafter they have been drained by repeated biting.Consequently, not all who have sinned ahke arepunished alike, and often he who has committed thesmaller sin receives the greater punishment, becausehe was subjected to anger when it was fresh. Andanger is altogether ujibalanced ; it now rushesfarther than itsEould, now halts sooner than it ought.For it~m3utges its own impulses, is capricious injudgement, refuses to listen to e\'idence, grants noopportunity for defence, maintains whatever positionit has seized, and is never AWlling to surrender itsjudgement even if it is wTong. p^Keason^rants a hearing to both sides, then seeksto postpone action, even ifs o^\^\, in order that it maygain time to sift out the truth ; but anger is precipitate.Reason -wishes the decision that it givesto be just ; anger wishes to have the decision whichit has given seem the just decision. Reason considersnothing except the question at issue ; anger is movedby trifling things that lie outside the case. An overconfidentdemeanour, a voice too loud, boldness ofspeech, foppishness in dress, a pretentious show ofpatronage, popularity ^\ith the pubhc—these inflameanger. Many times it \*ill condemn the accusedbecause it hates his lawyer ; even if the truth is153

SENECAsi ingeritur oculis Veritas, amat et tuetur errorem ;coargui non vult et in male coeptis honestior illipertinacia videtur quam paenitentia.3 Cn. Piso fuit memoria nostra vir a multis vitiis integer,sed pravus et cui placebat pro constantia rigor.Is cum iratus duci iussisset eum, qui ex commeatu sinecommilitone redierat, quasi interfecisset quem nonexhibebat, roganti tempus aliquod ad conquirendumnon dedit. Damnatus extra vallum productus est etiam cervicem porrigebat, cum subito apparuit ille4 commilito qui occisus videbatur. Tunc centuriosupplicio praepositus condere gladium speculatoremiubet, damnatum ad Pisonem reducit redditurusPisoni innocentiam ;nam militi fortuna reddiderat.Ingenti concursu deducuntur complexi alter alterumcum magno gaudio castrorum commilitones.^ Conscendittribunal furens Piso ac iubet duci utrumque,et eum militem qui non occiderat et eum qui non5 perierat. Quid hoc indignius ? Quia unus innocensapparuerat, duo peribant. Piso adiecit et tertium.Nam ipsum centurionem, qui damnatum reduxerat,duci iussit.Constituti sunt in eodem illo loco perituri6 tres ob unius innocentiam. O quam sollers estiracundia ad fingendas causas furoris " ! Te," inquit," duci iubeo, quia damnatus es ; te, quia causa dam-" That grave inflexibility of sou]Which Reason can't convince, nor fear control.154Churchill, Gotham, iii. 335 f.

ON ANGER, I. xviii. 2-6piled up before its ven' eyes, it loves error and clingsto it ; it refuses to be con\-inced, and ha\-ing enteredupon wTong it counts persistence to be more honourablethan penitence.There was Gnaeus Piso, whom I can remember ; aman free from many %'ices, but misguided, in thathe mistook inflexibihty " for firmness. Once when hewas angry he ordered the execution of a soldier whohad returned from leave of absence A\ithout hiscomrade, on the ground that if the man did not producehis companion, he had killed him ; and when thesoldier asked for a httle time to institute a search, therequest was refused. The condemned man was ledoutside the rampart, and as he was in the act of presentinghis neck, there suddenly appeared the verycomrade who was supposed to have been murdered.Hereupon the centurion in charge of the executionbade the guardsman sheathe his sword, and led thecondemned man back to Piso in order to free Pisofrom blame ; for Fortune had freed the soldier. Ahuge crowd amid great rejoicing in the camp escortedthe two comrades locked in each other's arms. Pisomounted the tribunal in a rage, and ordered bothsoldiers to be led to execution, the one who had doneno murder and the one who had escaped it ! Couldanything have been more unjust than this ? Twowere dpng because one had been proved innocent.But Piso added also a third ; for he ordered thecenturion who had brought back the condemned manto be executed as well. On account of the innocenceof one man three were appointed to die in the selfsameplace. O how clever is anger in de\'isingexcuses for its madness ! ^'^"You7*"it"say^,"r orderto be executed because you were condemned ; you,155i

SENECAnationis commilitoni fuisti ; te, quia iussus occidereimperatori non paruisti." Excogitavit quemadmodumtria crimina faceret, quia nullum invenerat.1 19. Habet, inquam, iracundia hoc mali ; nonvult regi. Irascitur veritati ipsi, si contra voluntatemsuam apparuit ; cum clamore et tumultu et totiuscorporis iactatione quos destinavit insequitur adiectis2 conviciis maledictisque. Hoc non facit ratio ; sed siita opus est, silens quietaque totas domus funditustollit et familias rei publicae pestilentes cum coniugibusac liberis perdit, tecta ipsa diruit et solo exaequatet inimica libertati nomina exstirpat. Hoc nonfrendens nee caput quassans nee quicquam indecorumiudici faciens, cuius turn maxime placidus esse debet3 et in statu vultus, cum magna pronuntiat. " Quidopus est," inquit Hieronymus, " cum veHs caederealiquem, tua prius labra mordere " ? Quid, si illevidisset desilientem de tribunali proconsulem et fasceslictori auferentem et suamet vestimenta scindentem,4 quia tardius scindebantur aliena ? Quid opus estmensam evertere ? Quid pocula adfligere ? Quid sein columnas impingere ? Quid capillos avellere, femurpectusque percutere ? Quantam iram putas, quae,quia in alium non tam cito quam vult erumpit, in se156

!ON ANGER, I. x\iii. 6-xix. 4because you were the cause of your comrade's condemnation;you, because you did not obey yourcommander when you were ordered to kill." Itthought out three charges because it had groundsfor none.Angeivl say, has this great fault—it refuses to be »ruled. It is enraged against truth itself if this isshown to be contrary to its desire. With outcr\' anduproar and gestures that shake the whole body itpursues those whom it has marked out, heaping uponthem abuse and curses. Not thus does reason act.But if need should so require, it silently and quietlywipeFbut whole families root and branch, and householdsthat are baneful to the state it destroys together^nth wives and children ; it tears down their veryhouses, levelling them to the ground, and exterminatesthe very names of the foes of liberty. All this it willdo, but \^ith no gnashing of the teeth, no ^vild tossingof the head, doing nothing that would be unseemlyfor a judge, whose countenance should at no timebe more calm and unmoved than when he is dehveringa weighty sentence. " What is the need," asksHieronymus,* '• of biting your own lips before youstart to give a man a thrashing " ? What if he hadseen a proconsul leap dowTi from the tribunal, snatchthe fasces from the lictor, and tear his own clothesbecause some \'ictim's clothes were still untorn^\'hat is to be gained by overturning the table, byhurhng cups upon the floor, by dashing oneselfagainst pillars, tearing the hair, and smiting thethigh and the breast ? How mighty is the anger,think you, which turns back upon itself because it

,SENECArevertitur ? Tenentur itaque a proximis et rogantur,ut sibi ipsi placentur.5 Quorum nil facit quisquis vacuus ira meritam cuiquepoenam iniungit. Dimittit saepe eum, cuius peccatumdeprendit. Si paenitentia facti spem bonampollicetur, si intellegit non ex alto venire nequitiam,sed summo, quod aiunt, animo inhaerere, dabit impunitatemnee accipientibus nocituram nee dantibus ;6 nonnumquam magna scelera levius quam minora compescet,si ilia lapsu, non crudelitate commissa sunt,his inest latens et operta et inveterata calliditas ;idem delictum in duobus non eodem malo afficiet,si alter per neglegentiam admisit, alter curavit ut7 nocens esset. Hoc semper in omni animadversioneservabit, ut sciat alteram adhiberi, ut emendet malos,alteram, ut tollat ; in utroque non praeterita, sedfutura intuebitur—nam, ut Plato ait, nemo prudenspunit, quia peccatum est, sed ne peccetus ; revocarienim praeterita non possunt, futura prohibentur—et quos volet nequitiae male cedentis exempla fieri,palam occidet, non tantum ut pereant ipsi, sed ut8 alios pereundo deterreant. Haec cui expendendaaestimandaque sunt, vides quam debeat omni perturbationeliberaccedere ad rem summa diligentia158" Laws xi. 934. a.

ON ANGER, I. XIX. 4-8desires ! And so such men are seized by the bystandersand begged to become at peace vnththemselves.None of these things ^\•i^ he do, who, being freefrom anger, imposes upon each one the punishmentthat he merits. He ^^i^l often ,let a man go freeeven after detecting his guilt)^ if regret for the actwarrants fair hope, if he discerns that the sin doesnot issue from the inmost soul of the man, but, soto speak, is onlv skin-deep, he \\ill grant him impunit}',seeing that it ^^•ill injure neither the recipientnor the giver. Sometimes he ^^^ll ban great crimesless ruthlessly than smairdiies, if these, in the onecase, were committed not in cruelty but in a momentof weakness, and, in the other, were instinct ^^ithsecret, hidden, and long-practised cunning. To twomen guilty of the same offence he ^\i\\ mete outdifferent punishment, if one sinned through carelessness,while the other intended to be wicked. Alwaysin ever}- case of punishment he \vill keep before himthe knowledge that one form is designed to make thewcked better, the other to remove them ; in eithercase he ^^ill look to the future, not to the past. Foras Plato says " :" A sensible person does not punisha man because he has sinned, but in order to keephim from sin ; for while the past cannot be recalled,the future may be forestalled," And he will openlykill those whom he wishes to have serve as examplesof the wickedness that is slow to jield, not so muchthat they themselves may be destroyed as that theymay deter others from destruction. These are thethings a man must weigh and consider, and you seehow free he ought to be from all emotion when heproceeds to deal v^ith a matter that requires the159

: "SENECAtractandam, potestatem vitae necisque ; male iratoferrum committitur. ^20. Ne illud quidem iudicandum est, aliquid iramad magnitudinem animi conferre. Non est enim iliamagnitude ; tumor est. Nee corporibus copia vitiosiumoris intentis morbus incrementum est sed pestilensabundantia. Omnes, quos vecors animus supra cogitationesextollit humanas, altum quiddam et sublimespirare se credunt ; ceterum nil solidi subest, sed inruinam prona sunt quae sine fundamentis crevere.Non habet ira cui insistat. Non ex firmo mansuroqueoritur, sed ventosa et inanis est tantumque abest amagnitudine animi, quantum a fortitudine audacia,a fiducia insolentia, ab austeritate tristitia, a severitatecrudelitas. Multum, inquam, interest inter sublimemanimum et superbum. Iracundia nihil amplumdecorumque molitur ; contra mihi videtur veternosiet infelicis animi, imbecillitatis sibi conscii, saepeindolescere, ut exulcerata et aegra corpora, quae adtactus levissimos gemunt. Ita ira muliebre maximeac puerile vitium est. " Atincidit et in viros." Namviris quoque puerilia ac muliebria ingenia sunt.Quid ergo ? Non aliquae voces ab iratis emittunturquae magno emissae videantur animo " ? Immo^veram ignorantibus magnitudinem, qualis ilia diraet abominaq.da :" Oderint, dum metuant." Sullanoscias saeculo scriptam. Nescio utrum sibi peius160^immo added by Madvig.

ON ANGER, I. XIX. 8-xx. 4^„^^utmost caution—the use of power over life and death.•^''^trusting an angry man .^\ith a sword.Tis illAnd^.j;SiiJ[]?ust not suppose this, either—^that anger 3nijtt Jfcontributes anything to greatness of soul. That is mar^'J/inot greatness, it is a swelling ; nor when disease disten(£'theBody with a mass of watery corruption isthe result growth, hut a pestilent excess.All whomfrenzy of soul exalts to powers that are more thanhuman believe that they breathe forth somethinglofty and sublime ; but it_x£stsJ3li-O0thing sohd, andwhatever rises without a firm foundation is liableto fall. Anger has nothing on which to stand ; it -^springs from nothing that is stable and lasting, butis a pufFed-up, empty thing, as far removed fromgreatness of soul as foolhardiness is from bravery,^arrogance from confidence, sullenness from austerity,or cruelt}' from sternness. The difference betweena lofty and a haughty soul, I say, is great. Angeraims at nothing splendid or beautiful. On the otherhand, it seems to me to show a feeble and harassedspirit, one conscious of its ovm weakness and oversensitive,just as the body is when it is sick andcovered ^\ith sores and makes moan at the shghtesttouch. Thus anger is a most womanish and childishweakness. " But," you will say, " it is found inmen also." True, for even men may have childishand womanish natures. " WTiat then?" you cry;" do not the utterances of angry men sometimesseem to be the utterances of a great soul " ? Yes,to those who do not know what true greatness is.Take the famous Avords " : Let them hate if onlythey fear," " which are so dread and shocking thatyou might know that they were written in the timesof Sulla. I am not sure which wish was worse—thatVOL. I M 161

;SENECAoptaverit, ut odio esset, an ut timori. " Oderint."Occurrit illi futurum, ut exsecrentur, insidientur,opprimant. Quid adiecit ? Di illi male faciant, adeorepperit dignum odio remedium. " Oderint " — quidturn ? Dum pareant ? Non ; dum probent ? Non ;quid ergo ? " Dum timeant." Sic ne amari quiden5 vellem, Magno hoc dictum spiritu putas ? Falleris ;nee enim magnitudo ista est sed immanitas.Non est quod credas irascentium verbis, quorumstrepitus magni, minaces sunt, intra mens pavidissima.6 Nee est quod existimes verum esse, quod apuddisertissimum virum T. Livium dicitur " : Vir ingeniimagni magis quam boni." Non potest istud separariaut et bonum erit aut nee magnum, quia magnitudinemanimi inconcussam intellego et introrsussolidam et ab imo parem firmamque, qualis inesse7 malis ingeniis non potest. Terribilia enim esse ettumultuosa et exitiosa possunt ; magnitudinem quidem,cuius firmamentum roburque bonitas est, nonhabebunt. Ceterum sermone, conatu et omni extra8 paratu facient magnitudinis fidem ; eloquentur aliquid,quod tu magni animi^ putes, sicutC. Caesar,qui iratus caelo, quod obstreperetur pantomimis,quos imitabatur studiosius quam spectabat, quodquecomessatio sua fulminibus terreretur— -prorsusparum certis—ad pugnam vocavit lovem et^animi added by Gertz.Frag. 54 Hertz.i.e.y Caligula, of whose impiety Suetonius (xxii.) recordsmany ly instances.162

~ON ANGER, I. XX. 4-8he should be hated, or that he should be feared." Let them hate," quoth he ; then he bethinks himthat there will come a time when men will curse him,plot against him, overpower him—so what did he add?O may the gods curse him for devising so hateful a-cure for hate " ! Let them hate " —and then what ?If only they obey ? No ! If only they approve ?!'"No ! WTiat then ? " If only they fear On suchtenuis "T should not have wished even to be loved.You thihk this the utterance of a great soul ? Youdeceire yourself ; for there is nothing great in it—it ismoBstrous.You_need put no trust in the words of the angry,for their noise is loud and threatening, but within,their heart is very cowardly. Nor need you countas true the saying found in that most eloquent writer,Titus Li\ius " : "A man whose character was greatrather than good." In character there can be no—/—such separation ; it will either be good or else notgreat, because greatness of soul, as I conceive it, is t^'*'"-a thing unshakable, sound to the core, uniform andstrong from top to bottom—something that cannotexist in evil natures. Evil men may be terrible,turbulent, and destructive, but greatness they willnever have, for its support and stay is goodness.Yet by speech, by endeavour, and by all outwarddisplay they will give the impression of greatness ;they will make utterances which you may thinkbespeak the great soul, as in the case of Gaius Caesar.*He grew angry at heaven because its thunderinterrupted some pantomimists, whom he wasmore anxious to imitate than to watch, and whenits thunderbolts—surely they missed their mark—affrighted his own revels, he challenged Jove to163

!—SENECAquidem sine missione, Homericum ilium exclamansversum :H jx avaeip ry eyw ere.9 Quanta dementia fuit ! Putavit aut sibi noceri ne ablove quidem posse aut se nocere etiam lovi posse.Non puto parum momenti hanc eius vocem ad incitandasconiuratorum mentes addidisse ; ultimaeenim patientiae visum est eum ferre, qui lovem nonferret1 21. Nihil ergo in ira, ne cum videtur quidemvehemens et deos hominesque despiciens, magnum,nihil nobile est. Aut si videtur alicui magnumanimum ira producere, videatur et luxuria—eboresustineri vult, purpura vestiri, auro tegi, terras transferre,maria concludere, flumina praecipitare, nemora2 suspendere ; videatur et avaritia magni animiacervis auri argentique incubat et provinciarumnominibus agros colit et sub singulis vilicis latiores3 habet fines quam quos consules sortiebantur ; videaturet libido magni animi—transnat freta, puerorumgreges castrat, sub gladium mariti venit morte contempta; videatur et ambitio magni animi—non estcontenta honoribus annuis ; si fieri potest, uno nomineoccupare fastus vult, per omnem orbem titulos4 disponere. Omnia ista, non refert in quantum procedantextendantque se, angusta sunt, misera, depressa; sola sublimis et excelsa virtus est, neequicquam magnum est nisi quod simul placidum.11" Iliad, xxiii. 724. After a protracted wrestling-bout,Ajax thus challenges Odysseus to some decisive manoeuvre.*>The reference is to artificial lakes and cascades.164

ON ANGER, I. XX. 8-xxi. 4fightj even to the death, shoutiog in the words ofHomer :Or uplift me, or I will thee."What madness ! He thought that not even Jovecould harm him, or that he could harm even Jove.I suppose that these words of his had no httleweight in arousing the minds of conspirators ; forto put up Avith a man who could not put up withJove seemed the limit of endurance !There is in anger, consequently, nothing great,nothing noble, even when it seems impassioned, contemptuousalike of gods and men. Else let him whothir^s'tharXnger reveals the great soul, think thatluxur£3oes the same ; it desires to rest on ivoiy, to bearrayed in^urple, toT^e roofed with gold, to removelanck, to confine the waters of the sea, to hurl riversheadloxig,* to hang gardens in the air. Let himthink that avarice also betokens the great soul ; itbroods over heaps of gold and silver, it tills fieldsthat are pro\"inces in all but name, and holds undera single steward broader acres than were allottedonce to consuls. Let him also think that lustbetokens the great soul ; it swims across straits, it ^unsexes lads by the score, and despising deathbraves the husband's sword. And let him think thatambition also betokens the great soul ; it is not ycontent with annual office ; it would fill the calendar "^with only one name if that might be, and set up itsmemorials throughout all the world. Such quahties,it matters not to what height or length they reach,are all narrow, pitiable, grovelling. Virtue alone is —lofty and subHme, and nothing is great that is not ^at the same time tranquil.165

LIBER IVAD NOVATVMDE IRA1 1. Primus liber, Novate, benigniorem habuit materiam; facilis enim in proclivia vitiorum decursusest. Nunc ad exiliora veniendum est ;quaerimusenim ira utrum iudicio an impetu incipiat, id estutrum sua sponte moveatur an quemadmodum pleraque,quae intra nos non^ insciis nobis oriuntur.2 Debet autem in haec se demittere disputatio, ut adilia quoque altiora possit exsurgere. Nam et in corporenostro ossa nervique et articuli, firmamenta totius etvitalia, minime speciosa visu, prius ordinantur, deindehaec, ex quibus omnis in faciem adspectumque decorest ;post haec omnia, qui maxime oculos rapit, colorultimus perfecto iam corpore adfunditur.3 Iram quin species oblata iniuriae moveat non estdubium ; sed utrum speciem ipsa statim sequaturet non accedente animo excurrat, an illo adsentiente^non added by Hermes." i.e., since men are prone to vice, there has been amplematerial for the earlier discussion.166

;BOOK IVTO NOVATUSON ANGERMy first book, Novatus, had a more bountiful themefor easy is the descent into the dowTiward course ofvice." Now we must come to narrower mattersfor the question is whether anger originates fromchoice or from impulse, that is, ^vhether it is arousedof its own accord, or whether, like much else thatgoes on ^vitTun us, it does not arise ^vithout our knowledge.But tHe discussion must be lowered to theconsideration of these things in order that it mayafterwards rise to the other, loftier, themes. For inour bodies, too, there comes first the system of bones,sinews, and joints, which form the framework of thewhole and are vital parts, yet are by no means fair tolook upon ; next the parts 'on which all the comelinessof face and appearance depend, and after all these,when the body is now complete, there is added lastthat which above all else captivates the eye, the colour.Therejcan bejiodoubt that anger is aroused by thedirect impression of an mjury'; "but the questFoh is^vA.whet^F "*it fottows inunediately upon the impression u/z/A^**-/and sprmgs up without "assistance from the mind, or '^^^^%whetherTtTs aroused only \\\\h. the assent of the mind.'"- 167

SENECA4 moveatur quaerimus. Nobis placet nihil illam perse audere sed animo adprobante ; nam speciemcapere acceptae iniuriae et ultionem eius coneupiscereet utrumque coniungere, nee laedi se debuisse etvindicari debere, non est eius impetus, qui sine5 voluntate nostra concitatur. Ille simplex est, hie composituset plura continens ; intellexit aliquid, indignatusest, damnavit, ulciscitur :haec non possuntfieri, nisi animus eis quibus tangebatur adsensus est.1 2. " Quorsus," inquis, " "haec quaestio pertinet ?Ut sciamus quid sit ira.Nam si invitis nobis nascitur,numquam rationi succumbet. Omnes enim motus,qui non voluntate nostra fiunt, invicti et inevitabilessunt, ut horror frigida aspersis,ad quosdam tactusaspernatio ; ad peiores nuntios subriguntur pili etrubor ad improba verba sufFunditur sequiturquevertigo praerupta cernentis.Quorum quia nihil innostra potestate est, nulla quo minus fiant ratio2 persuadet. Ira praeceptis fugatur ; est enim voluntariumanimi vitium, non ex his, quae condicionequadam humanae sortiseveniunt ideoque etiam sapientissimisaccidunt, inter quae et primus ille ictusanimi ponendus est, qui nos post opinionem iniuriae3 movet. Hie subit etiam inter ludicra scaenae spec-168

ON ANGER, II. I. 4-n. 3Oui_OEinion is that it ventures nothing^ by itself, but -acts mHyLJiyitlL-tlie approval oi the mind. For toform the impression of ha\-ing received an injuryand to long to avenge it, and then to couple togetherthe two propositions that one ought not to have beenwronged and that one ought to be avenged—this isnot a mere impulse of the mind acting -without ourvolition. The one is a single mental process, theother a complex one composed of several elements ;the jMndhas grasped something, has become indignant,has condemned the act, and now tries toavenge Ttr~These processes are impossible unlessthe mind has given assent to the impressions thatmoved it." Butrll you askj "what is the purpose of such aninquiry ?^' I answer, in order that we may knowwhat anger is ; for if it arises against our ^\-ill, it ^^•i^lnever succumb to reason. For all sensations that donotTesviIt from our own volition are uncontrolled andunavoidable, as, for example, shivering when we aredashed ^yiih cold water and recoilment from certaincontacts ; bad news makes the hair stand on end, \i\elanguage causes a blush to spread, and when onelooks down from a precipice, dizziness follows. Becausenone of these things lies A\-ithin our control, noreasoning can keep them from happening. Butanger may be routed at our behest ; for it is a weak-

SENECAtacula et lectiones rerum vetustarum. Saepe ClodioCiceronem expellenti et Antonio occidenti videmurirasci ;quis non contra Mari arma, contra Sullaeproscriptionem concitatur ? Quis non Theodoto etAchillae et ipsi puero non puerile auso facinus in-4 festus est ? Cantus nos nonnumquam et citatamodulatio instigat Martiusque ille tubarum sonus ;movet mentes et atrox pictura et iustissimorum5 suppliciorum tristis adspectus ; inde est quod adridemusridentibus et contristat nos turba maerentiumet efFervescimus ad aliena certamina. Quae non suntirae, non magis quam tristitia est, quae ad conspectummimici naufragii contrahit frontem, non magis quamtimor, qui Hannibale post Cannas moenia eircumsidentelectorum percurrit animos, sed omnia istamotus sunt animorum moveri nolentium nee adfectus6 sedprincipiaproludentiaadfectibus. Sicenimmilitarisviri in media pace iam togati aures tuba suscitatequosque castrenses erigit crepitus armorum. Alexandrumaiunt Xenophanto canente manum ad armamisisse.1 3. Nihil ex his, quae animum fortuito impellunt,adfectus vocari debet ; ista, ut ita dicam, patiturmagis animus quam facit. Ergo adfectus est non adoblatas rerum species moveri, sed permittere se illis" The youthful king Ptolemy XII., who compassed themurder of Pompey when he sought refuge in Egypt afterthe battle of Pharsalus (48 B.C.). Achillas, commander ofthe army, and Theodotus, the king's adviser, shared theresponsibility of the crime.* Timotheus is the name of the flutist in other versions ofthe story ; cf. Dion Chrys. Or. i. 1 ; Suidas, s.v.170

not\ON ANGER, II. 11. 3-m. 1and from reading of happenings of long ago. _Hqwoften we seem to grow angry with Clodius for banishingCicero^ with Antony for kilhng him ! Who is notaroused against the arms which Marius took up,against the proscription which Sulla used ? WTio isnot incensed against Theodotus and Achillas, and thechild himself " who dared an unchildish crime ? Singingsometimes stirs us, and quickened rhythm, andthe well-known blare of the War-god's trumpets ;our minds are perturbed by a shocking picture andby the melancholy sight of punishment even when itis entirely just ; in the same way we smile whenothers smile, we are saddened by a throng ofmourners, and are thrown into a ferment by thestruggles of others. Such_sensations, however, areno more anger than that is sorrow which furrows thebrow at-Si^ght of a mimic shipwTCck, no more angerthan that is fear which thrills our minds when weread how Hannibal after Cannae beset the walls ofRome^ but_they are all emotions of a mind thatwottkL prefer -^ to be so affected ; they are noljpassions,but the beginnings that are prehminaryito passions. So, too, the warrior in the midst ofpeace, wearing now his ci\"ihan dress, will prick uphis ears at the blast of a trumpet, and army horsesare made restive by the clatter of arms. It is saidthat Alexander, when Xenophantus * played theflute, reached for his weapons.None of these things which move the mind throughthe agency of chance should be called passions ; themind suffers them, so to speak, rather than causesthem. Passion, consequently, does not consist inbeing moved by the impressions that are presentedto the mind, but in surrendering to these and follow-^'171

'SENECA2 et liunc fortuitum motum prosequi. Nam si quispallorem et lacrimas procidentis et irritationem umorisobsceni altumve suspirium et oculos subito acrioresaut quid his simile indicium adfectus animique signumputat, fallitur nee intellegit corporis hos esse pulsus.3 Itaque et fortissimus plerumque vir dum armaturexpalluit et signo pugnae dato ferocissimo militipaulum genua tremuerunt et magno imperatori antequaminter se acies arietarent cor exsiluit et oratorieloquentissimo dum ad dicendum componitur summa4 riguerunt. Ira non moveri tantum debet sed excurrere; est enim impetus ; numquam autem impetussine adsensu mentis est, neque enim fieri potest ut deultione et poena agatur animo nesciente. Putavit sealiquis laesum, voluit ulcisci, dissuadente aliqua causastatim resedit. Hanc iram non voco, motum animi'rationi parentem ; ilia est ira, quae rationem trans-5 silit, quae secum rapit. Ergo prima ilia agitatioanimi, quam species iniuriae incussit, non magis iraest quam ipsa iniuriae species ; ille sequens impetus,qui speciem iniuriae non tantum accepit sed adpro^.bavit, ira est, concitatio animi ad ultionem voluntateet iudicio pergentis. Numquam dubium est quintimor fugam habeat, ira impetum ; vide ergo an put( -aliquid sine adsensu mentis aut peti posse aut caveri.172

ON ANGER, II. III. 2-5ing—ap^ such a chance prompting. For if any onesupposes that pallor, falling tears, prurient itchingor deep-d^a^%•n sigh, a sudden brightening of theeyes, and the Hke, are an e\'idence of passion and amanifestation of the mind, he is mistaken and fails tounderstand that these_ar£ .disturbances of the body.And so very often even the bravest man turns palewhile he fits on his arms, the knees of the boldestsoldier often tremble a little when the battle-signalis given, the might}* commander has his heart in histhroat before the battle-lines clash, and while themost eloquent orator is getting ready to speak,his extremities becpme rigid. Anger must not onlybe aroused but it must rush forth, for it is an activeimpulse ; but an^ active impulse never comes withoutth^e consent of the will, for it is impossible for a manto aim at revenge and punishment ^\ithout thecognizance of his mindL_ A nian thinks himselfinjured, ^\•ishes to take vengeance, but dissuaded bysome consideration immediately calms down. ThisI do not call anger, this prompting of the mind whichis submissive to reason ; anger is that which overleapsreason and sweeps it away. Therefore thatprimarj' disturbance of the mind which is excitedby the impression of injury is no more anger thanthe impression of injury is itself anger ; the activeimpulse consequent iipon it, which has not onlyadmitted the impression of injury but also approvedit, is really anger—the tumult of a mind proceedingto revenge by choice and determination. There cannever be any doubt that as fear involves flight, angerinvolves assault ; consider, therefore, whether youbeheve that anything can either be assailed oravoided without the mind's assent.173

SENECA1 4. Et ut scias quemadmodum incipiant adfectusaut crescant aut efferantur, est primus motus nonvoluntarius, quasi praeparatio adfectus et quaedamcomminatio ; alter cum voluntate non contumaci,tamquam oporteat me vindicari, cum laesus sim, autoporteat hunc poenas dare, cum scelus fecerit ; tertiusmotus est iam impotens, qui non si oportet ulcisci vult,2 sed utique, qui rationem evicit. Primum ilium animiictum efFugere ratione non possumus, sicut ne iliaquidem quae diximus accidere corporibus, ne nososcitatio aliena sollicitet, ne oculi ad intentationemsubitam digitorum conprimantur. Ista non potestratio vincere, consuetudo fortasse et adsidua observatioextenuat. Alter ille motus, qui iudicionascitur, iudicio tollitur,1 5. lUud etiamnunc quaerendum est, ii qui vulgosaeviunt et sanguine humano gaudent an irascantur,cum eos occidunt, a quibus ne.c acceperunt iniuriamnee accepisse ipsi se existimant ;qualis fuit Apollo-2 dorus aut Phalaris. Haec non est ira, feritas est ;non enim quia accepit iniuriam nocet, sed parata est,dum noceat, vel accipere, nee illi verbera lacerationes-3 que in ultionem petuntur sed in voluptatem. Quidergo est^ ? Origo huius mali ab ira est, quae ubi^est added by Oertz." See Index.174

ON ANGER, II. IV. l-v. 3That you may know, further, how the passionsbegin, grow, and run riot, I may say that the J irstpromptings isJiLYoluntary, a preparation for passiion,as it werej_and^asort of rnenace ; the next is combinedwith an act of volition, although not an unruly one,which assumes jthat it is right for me to avengemyself because I have been injured, or that it isright for the other person to be punished becausehe has committed a crime ; the tliird prompting isnow beyond control, in that it wishes to take vengeance,not if it is right to do so, but whether or no,and has utterly vanquished reason. We can nomore avoid by the use of reason that first shockwhich the mind experiences than we can avoidthose effects mentioned before which the bodyexperiences—the temptation to yawn when anotheryawns, and \\'inking when fingers are suddenly pointedtoward the eyes. Such impulses cannot be overcomeby reason, although perchance practice and constantwatchfulness will weaken them. Different is thatprompting which is born of the judgement, isbanished by the judgement.This point also must now be considered, ^vhetherthosejffho are habitually cruel and rejoice in humanblood are angrywhen tKev kill people from whomthej[_haye_neither received injury nor think eventhemselvesjthat they have received one ; of suchsort were Apollodorus " and Phalaris." But this isnot anger, it is brutahty ; for it does not harmbecause it has received an injur}', but it is evenready to receive one provided that it can harm, andits purpose in desiring to beat and to mangle is notvengeance but pleasure. And why does it happen ?The source of this evil is anger, and when anger from- — — 175

SENECAfrequenti exercitatione et satietate in oblivionemclementiae venit et omne foedus humanum eiecitanimo, novissime in crudelitatem transit. Ridentitaque gaudentque et voluptate multa perfruunturplurimumque ab iratorum vultu absunt, per otiumsaevi.4 Hannibalem aiunt dixisse, cum fossam sanguinehumano plenam vidisset ": O formonsum speetaculum"! Quanto pulchrius illi visum esset, si flumenaliquod lacumque complesset ! Quid mirum, si hocmaxime spectaculo caperis innatus sanguini et abinfante caedibus admotus ? Sequetur te fortunacrudelitati tuae per vigintioculis tuis gratum ubique spectaculum ;annos secunda dabitquevidebis istudet circa Trasumennum et circa Cannas et novissime5 circa Carthaginem tuam, Volesus nuper sub divoAugusto proconsul Asiae, cum trecentos uno diesecuri percussisset, incedens inter cadavera vultusuperbo, quasi magnificum quiddam conspiciendumquefecisset, graece proclamavit " ": O rem regiam !Quid hie rex fecisset ? Non fuit haec ira sed maiusmalum et insanabile.1 6. " Virtus," inquit, " ut honestis rebus propitiaest, ita turpibus irata esse debet." Quid, si dicat w-tutem et humilem et magnam esse debere ? Atquihoc dicit, illam^ extolli vult et deprimi, quoniamlaetitia ob recte factum clara magnificaque est, iraob alienum peccatum sordida et angusti pectoris est.176^ illam Hermes, after Miiller : qui illam uss,

.ON ANGER, II. V. ^vi. 1nft-rpppatfH inrlnlgpnr'i^ f^p^j surfeJt has arrived at adisregard^or mercy and has expelled from tHe mindevery conception oTfheTiuman bonclT it passes at lastinto_cnj£ity. And so these men Taugh and rejoiceand experience great pleasure, and wear a countenanceutterly unlike that of anger, making a pastimeof ferocity.WTien Hannibal saw a trench flowing with humanblood, he is said to have exclaimed, " O beauteoussight "! How much more beautiful would it haveseemed to him if the blood had filled some river orlake ! WTiat wonder, O Hannibal, if you, born tobloodshed and from childhood famihar with slaughter,find especial dehght in this spectacle ? A fortune willattend you that for twenty years ^vill gratifv vourcruelty, and will everywhere supply to your eyes thewelcome sight ;you will see it at Trasumennus andat Cannae, and last of all at your own Carthage !Only recently Volesus, governor of Asia under thedeified Augustus, beheaded three hundred personsin one day, and as he strutted among the corpses\vith the proud air of one who had done some gloriousdeed worth beholding, he cried out in Greek, " Whata kingly act !" But what would he have done if hehad been a king ? No, this was not angery, but ane\TLstill greatenand -iacurAble" If/'_sorae_one arguesj.'' Airtue is well disposed a/>gf^^toward what is honourable, it is her duty to feel angertowarrd what i^ Ixi^^e." "^liat if he should say thatvirtue must be both low and great ? And yet thisis \\-Hat he does say—he would have her be bothexalted and debased, since joy on account of a rightaction is splendid and glorious, wlaile anger onaccount of another's sin is mean and narrow-minded.-——--VOL. INj^^

SENECA2 Nee umquam eommittet virtus, ut vitia, dum compescit,imitetur ;iram ipsam castigandam habet, quaenihilo melior est, saepe etiam peior is delictis quibusirascitur.Gaudere laetarique proprium et naturalevirtutis est ; irasci non est ex dignitate eius, nonmagis quam maerere. Atqui iracundiae tristitiacomes est et in hanc omnis ira vel post paenitentiam3 vel post repulsam revolvitur. Et si sapientis estpeccatis irasci, magis irascetur maioribus et saepeirascetur ;sequitur, ut non tantum iratus sit sapiens,sed iracundus. Atqui si nee magnam iram neefrequentem inanimo sapientis locum habere credimus,quid est, quare non ex toto ilium hoc adfectu4 liberemus ? Modus enim esse non potest, si pro factocuiusque irascendum est ; nam aut iniquus erit, siaequaliter irascetur delictis inaequalibus, aut iracundissimus,si totiens excanduerit quotiens iramscelera meruerint.1 7. Et quid indignius quam sapientis adfectum exaliena pendere nequitia ?Desinet ille Socrates posseeundem vultum domum referre, quem domo extulerat ?Atqui si irasci sapiens turpiter factis debetet concitari contristarique ob scelera, nihil estaerumnosius sapiente ; omnis illi per iracundiam2 maeroremque vita transibit. Quod enim momentumerit, quo non improbanda videat ? Quotiens processeritdomo, per sceleratos illi avarosque et prodigos178

,ON ANGER, II. VI. 2-vii. 2And virtue will never be guilty of simulating vice inthev^xrtDfre^es&Jng it : anger in itself she considersrepFeheasible* fox it is in no way better, often evenworse, than those shortcomings which provoke anger.The distinctive and natural property of wtue istorejoicgiand be'gTad ; it no more comports \\ith herdignit}' to be angry than to be sad. But sorrow is thecornp2nl5S~of'angler, and all anger comes round tothis as the result either of remorse or of defeat.Besides, irit is the part of a ^\ise man to be angryat-,siSiI3Ee greater this is the more angry will hebe, .aaiL he A^ill be angry often ; it follows that thewise Jiian will not only become angr}', but A^ill beprone to anger. But if we believe that neither greatanger nor frequent anger has a place in the mind ofa wise man, is there any reason why we should notfree him from this passion altogether ? No limit,surely, can be set if the degree of his anger is tobe determined by each man's deed. For either hewill be unjust if he has equal anger toward unequaldelinquencies, or he will be habitually angry if heblazes up every time crimes give him warrant.And what is more unworthy of the A^ise man than/that his passion should depend upon the wickedness \of ^hers ? Shall great Socrates lose the power tocarr}- back home the same look he had brought fromjhome ? But if the \\-ise man is to be angered by base[deeds, if he is to be perturbed and saddened bycrimes, surely nothing is more woeful than the \siseman's Tot ; his whole life >\ill be passed in angerand in grief. For what moment will there be whenhewlH-notr^ee something to disapprove of ? Everytime he leaves his house, he will have to walkamong criminals and misers and spendthrifts and179

;SENECAet impudentis et ob ista felices incedendum eritnusquam oculi eius flectentur, ut non quod indignenturinveniant. Deficiet, si totiens a se iram3 quotiens causa poscet exegerit. Haec tot milia adforum prima luce properantia quam turpes lites,quanto turpiores advocatos habent ! Alius iudiciapatris accusat, quae vereri satius fuit, alius cum matreconsistit, alius delator venit eius criminis, cuiusmanifestior reus est ; et iudex damnaturus quaefecit eligitur et corona pro mala causa stat^ bonapatroni voce corrupta.1 8. Quid singula persequor ? Cum videris forummultitudine refertum et saepta concursu omnis frquentiae plena et ilium circum, in quo maximam spartem populus ostendit, hoc scito, istic tantundera'2 esse vitiorum quantum hominum. Inter istos quostogatos vides nulla pax est ; alter in alterius exitiumlevi compendio ducitur ; nulli nisi ex alterius iniuriaquaestus est ; felicem oderunt, infelicem contemnuntmaiorem gravantur, minori graves sunt ; diversisstiraulantur cupiditatibus ; omnia perdita ob levemvoluptatem praedamque cupiunt. Non alia quamin ludo gladiatorio vita est cum isdem bibentium3 pugnantiumque. Ferarumisteconventus est, nisi quodillaeiinter se placidae sunt morsuque similium abs-180^stat added by Gertz.

;ON ANGER, II. VII. 2-^^II. 3profligates — men who are happy in being such.Nowhere will he turn his eyes without finding somethingto move them to indignation. He \n\\ give outif he forces himself to be angry ever}' time occasionrequires. All these thousands hurrj-ing to the forumat break of day—how base their cases, and howmuch baser are their advocates ! One assails hisfather's will, which it were more fitting that herespect ; another arraigns his mother at the bar ;another comes as an informer of the very crime inwhich he is more openly the culprit ; the judge,too, is chosen who will condemn the same deedsthat he himself has committed, and the crowd, misledby the fine voice of a pleader,^ shows favour toa wicked cause.But why recount all the different t}-pes ? When-,ever you^aee-jtheforum, with its thronging multitude,and the polling-places filled with all the gatheredconcourse, and the great Circus where the largestpart of the populace displays itself, you may be surethat just as many vices are gathered there as men._^Aroong those whom^ymTsee in civilian garb there isno peace ; for a slight reward any one of them canbe led to compass the destruction of another ; ngone makes gain save by another's loss 3 the prosperousthey hate, the unprosperous they despisesuperiors they loathe, and to inferiors are loathsome ;they are goaded on by opposite desires ; they desirefor the sake of some httle pleasure or plunder tosee the whole world lost. They hve as though theywere in a gladiatorial school—those with whom theyeat, they likewise fight. It is a community of wildbeasts, only~thaTbeasts are gentle toward each otherand reirion from tearing their own kind, while men181

;;SENECAtinent, hi mutua laceratione satiantur. Hoc omnino'^ab animalibus mutis difFerunt, quod ilia mansuescuntalentibus, horum rabies ipsos a quibus est nutritadepascitur.1 9. Numquam irasci desinet sapiens, si semel Icoeperit. Omnia sceleribus ac vitiis plena sunt ;pluscommittitur quam quod possit coercitione sanari.Certatur ingenti quidem nequitiae certamine. Maiorcottidie peccandi cupiditas, minor verecundia estexpulso melioris aequiorisque respectu quocumque Ivisum est libido se impingit, nee furtiva iam scelera ^sunt. Praeter oculos eunt, adeoque in publicummissa nequitia est et in omnium pectoribus evaluit, ut2 innocentia non rara sed nulla sit. Numquid enimsinguli aut pauci rupere legem ? Undique velut signodato ad fas nefasque miscendum coorti sunt :Non hospes ab hospite tutus,non socer a genero ; fratrum quoque gratia rara est.imminet exitio vir coniugis, ilia maritilurida terribiles miscent aconita novercae ;filius ante diem patrios inquirit in annos.3 Et quota ista pars scelerum est ! Non descripsitcastra ex uno partu contraria et parentium liberorumquesacramenta diversa, subiectam patriae civismanu flammam et agmina infestorum equitum ad inquirendasproscriptorum latebras circumvolitantia etviolatos fontes venenis et pestilentiam manu factam etpraeductam obsessis parentibus fossam, plenos carce-^ hoc omnino Vahlen : hoc in uno A.i182" Ovid, Met. i. 144 sqq.

ON AXGER, II. Mil. 3-LX. 3glut themselves_with_ren(iing one anothfii^ Theydi ffer from the dumb animals in this alone—thatanimals grow gentle toward those who feed them,whil£;_jnen in their madness prey upon the verypersons by whom they are nurtured.Never will the wi-e man cea^e to be ajigry- if onceihe Begins. "Every place is full of crime and \lce ;|too many crimes are committed to be cured by any'possible restraint. Men struggle in a mighty rivalryof AV ifkedii e?^. Every day the desire for wTong-doingis greater, the dread of it less ; all regard for whatis better and more just is banished, lust hurls itselfwherever it likes, and crimes are now no longer covert.They stalk before our very eyes, and wickedness hascome to such a pubUc state, has gained such powerover the hearts of all, that innocence is not rare—itis_non-existent. For is it only the casual man or thefew wlio break the law ? On ever}' hand, as if at agiven >ignal, men rise to level all the barriers ofright and WTong :No guest from host is safe, nor daughter's sireFrom daughter's spouse ; e'en brothers' love is rare.The husband doth his wife, she him, ensnare ;Ferocious stepdames brew their ghastly banes ;The son too soon his father's years arraigns."And yet how few of all the crimes are these ! Thepoet makes no mention of the battling camps thatclaim a common blood, of the parents and the childrensundered by a soldier's oath, of the flames a Romanhand applied to Rome, of the hostile bands of horsementhat scour the land to find the hiding-places ofcitizens proscribed, of springs defiled by poison, ofplague the hand of man has made, of the trench flungaround beleaguered parents, of crowded prisons, of183

SENECAresetincendiatotas urbes concremantia dominationesquefunestas et regnorum publicorumque exitiorumclandestina consilia, et pro gloria habita, quae quamdiu opprimi possunt, scelera sunt, raptus ac stupra et4 ne OS quidem libidini exceptum. Adde nunc publicaperiuria gentium et rupta foedera et in praedam^validioris quidquid non resistebat abductum, eircumscriptiones,furta, fraudes, infitiationes, quibus trinanon sufficiunt fora. Si tantum irasci vis sapientem,quantum scelerum indignitas exigit, non irascendumilli sed insaniendum est.1 10. Illud potius cogitabis, non esse irascendumerroribus. Quid enim, si quis irascatur in tenebrisparum vestigia certa ponentibus ? Quid, si quissurdis imperia non exaudientibus ? Quid, si pueris,quod neglecto dispectu officiorum ad lusus et ineptosaequalium iocos spectent ? Quid, si illis irasci velis,qui,^ quod aegrotant senescunt, fatigantur ? Intercetera mortalitatis incommoda et hoc est, caligomentium nee tantum necessitas errandi sed errorum2 amor. Ne singulis irascaris, universis ignoscendumest, generi humano venia tribuenda est.Si irascerisiuvenibus senibusque, quod peccant, irascere et^ infantibus: peccaturi sunt. Numquis irascitur pueris,Maioiquorum aetas nondum novit rerum discrimina.''^ 80 editors : praedam A : pro praeda Gertz,* qui added by Hermes,* et added by Gertz.» i.e., the Roman Forum, the Forum of Julius Caesai^and the Forum of Augustus.184

;'ON ANGER, II. IX. 3-x. 2fires that burn whole cities to the ground, of balefultyrannies and secret plots for regal power and forsubversion of the state, of acts that now are glorified,but still are crimes so long as power endures to crushthem, rape and lechery and the lust that spares noteven human mouths. Add now to these, pubhc actsof perjury between nations, broken treaties, and allthe booty seized when resistance could not save itfrom the stronger, the double-dealings, the theftsand frauds and debts disowned—for such crimes allthree forums " supply not courts enough I If youexpect the ^\ise. man to be as angry as the shameful- /negs of,crimes compels, he must not be angrj' merely,butgo mad.TIus rather is what you should tliink—that no one -sshould be angry at the mistakes of men. For tell me,should one be angry Miih those who move -withstumbling footsteps in the dark ? with those who donot heed commands because they are deaf ? \s.-iihchildren because forgetting the observance of theirduties they watch the games and foohsh sports oftheir playmates ? Would you want to be angr}' withthose who become weary because they are sick orgro\\'ing old ? Among the various ills to whichhumanity is prone there is this besides—the darknessthat fills the mind, and not so much the necessity ofgoing astray, as the love of straying. Th*L-yauxaay-Jnot Jtie^angry with individuals, you must forgive mankindat large, you must grant indulgence to thehuman race. If you are ,angry with the young andtbe^d^^cause they sin, be angry with babes as wellthey are destined to sin. But who is angry \vithchildren who are still too young to have the power ofdiscrimination ? Yet to be a himian being is an even185,"-

SENECAest excusatio et iustior hominem esse quam puerum.3 Hac condicione nati sumus, animalia obnoxia nonpaucioribus animi quam corporis morbis, non quidemobtusa nee tarda, sed acumine nostro male utentia,alter alteri vitiorum exempla.Quisquis sequitur prioresmale iter ingressos, quidni habeat excusationem,4 cum publica via erraverit ? In singulos severitasimperatoris destringitur, at necessaria venia est,ubitotus deseruit exercitus. Quid tollit iram sapientis ?Turba peccantium.Intellegit quam et iniquum sit etpericulosum irasci publico vitio.6 Heraclitus quotiens prodierat et tantum circa semale viventium, immo male pereuntium viderat,flebat, miserebatur omnium, qui sibi laeti felicesqueoccurrebant, miti animo, sed nimis irabecillo,et ipseinter deplorandos erat. Democritum contra aiuntnumquam sine risu in publico fuisse ;adeo nihil illividebatur serium eorum quae serio gerebantur. Ubiistic irae locus est ? Aut ridenda omnia aut flendasunt.6 Non irascetur sapiens peccantibus. Quare ? Quiascit neminem nasci sapientem sed fieri, scit paucissimosomni aevo sapientis evadere, quia condicionemhumanae vitae perspectam habet, nemo autemnaturae sanus irascitur. Quid enim, si mirari velit186

ON ANGER, ir. X. ^-6greater and truer excuse for error than to be a child.This isThe lot to which we are born—we are creaturessubject to as many ills of the mind as of the body,and though our power of discernment is neitherblunted nor dull, yet we make poor use of it andbecome examples of \'ice to each other. If any onefollows in the footsteps of others who have takenthe wrong road, should he not be excused becauseit was the public highway that led him astray ?Upon the individual soldier the commander mayunsheathe all his sternness, but he needs must forbearAvhen the whole army deserts. ^\^latJ then,ke^s_the wise man from anger ? The great mass ^of sinners!! TTe understands both how unjust andhow dangerous it is to grow angry at universal sin.Whenever Heraclitus went forth from his houseand saw all around him so many men who wereli\ing a wTetched life—no, rather, were dpng awretched death—he would Aveep, and all the joyousand happy people he met stirred his pity ; he wasgentle-hearted, but too weak, and was himself one ofthose who had need of pity. Democritus, on theother hand, it is said, never appeared in pubhcwithout laughing ; so little did the serious pursuitsof men seem serious to him. \yhere in all this isthere room for anger ? Everything gives cause forerEhcr laughter or tears.The wi-e man will have no anger toward sinners.Do you ask why ? Because he knows that no one isborn wise but becomes so, knows that only the fewest

!jSENECAnon in silvestribus dumis poma pendere ? Quid, simiretur spineta sentesque non utili aliqua fruge compleri? Nemo irascitur, ubi vitium natura defendit.7 Placidus itaque sapiens et aequus erroribus, nonhostis sed corrector peccantium, hoc cottidie proceditanimo " : Multi mihi occurrent vino dediti, multilibidinosi, multi ingrati, multi avari, multi furiisambitionis agitati." Omnia ista tam propitius aspiciet8 quam aegros suos medicus. Numquid ille, cuiusnavigium multam undique laxatis compagibus aquamtrahit, nautis ipsique navigio irascitur ? Occurritpotius et aliam excludit undam, aliam egerit, manifestaforamina praecludit, latentibus et ex occultosentinam ducentibus labore continuo resistit, nee ideointermittit, quia quantum exhaustum est subnascitur.Lento adiutorio opus est contra mala continua etfecunda, non ut desinant, sed ne vincant.Mi1 11. " Utilis est," inquit, " ira, quia contemptuirefFugit, quia malos terret."Primum ira, si quantumminatur valet, ob hoc ipsum quod terribilis est etinvisa est ;periculosius est autem timeri quam despici.Si vero sine viribus est, magis exposita contemptuiest et derisum non efFugit ;quid enim estiracundia in supervacuum tumultuante frigidius ?2 Deinde non ideo quaedam, quia sunt terribiliora,188

ON ANGER, II. X. 6-xi. 2the brambles of the woodland ? Would he marvelbecause thorns and briars are not covered ^\ith someuseful fruit ? No^one becomes angry Avith a fault forwhich nature stands sponsor. And so the wise maniis kindly and just toward errors, he is not the foe,-^but the reformer of sinners, and as he issues forth •each day his thought will be : "I shall meet manywho are in bondage to wine, many who are lustful,many ungrateful, many grasping, many who arelashed by the frenzy of ambition." He will view allthese things in as kindly a way as a physician \iewsthe sick. When the skipper finds that his ship hassprung her seams and in every part is letting in acopious flow of water, does he then become angrywith the seamen and with the ship herself? No,he rushes rather to the rescue and shuts out a partof the flood, a part he bales out, and he closes upthe \'isible openings, the hidden leaks that secretlylet water into the hold he tries to overcome byceaseless labour, and he does not relax his effortsimply because as much water springs up as ispumped out. The succour against continuous and

SENECApotiora sunt, nee hoc sapienti dici velim :"Quod ferae,sapientis quoque telum est, timeri." Quid ? Nontimetur febris, podagra, ulcus malum ? Numquidideo quicquam in istis boni est ? An contra omniadespecta foedaque et turpia, ipsoque eo timentur ?Sic ira per se deformis est et minime metuenda, attimetur a pluribus sicut deformis persona ab in-3 fantibus. Quid, quod semper in auctores redundattimor nee quisquam metuitur ipse securus ? Occurrathoc loco tibi Laberianus ille versus, qui medio civilibello in theatro dictus totum in se populum non aliterconvertit, quam si missa esset vox publici adfectus :Necesse est multos timeat quem multl timent.4 Ita natura constituit, ut quidquid alieno metu magnumest, a suo non vacet. Leonum quam pavidasunt ad levissimos sonos pectora ! Acerrimas ferasumbra et vox et odor insolitus exagitat. Quidquidterret et trepidat. Non est ergo quare concupiscatquisquam sapiens timeri, nee ideo iram magnumquoniam quidemquiddam putet, quia formidini est,etiam contemptissima timentur ut venena et ossa5 pestifera et morsus.^ Nee mirum est, cum maximosferarum greges linea pinnis distincta eontineat et in^ venena . . . morsus so A :mortifera for pestifera L :venenato bestiae pestiferae morsu Haupt : venenato aspisviperave morsu Gertz : venenato serpens pestifera morsuHermes." Laberius 126 (Com. Rom. Frag. Ribbeck).* By Laberius himself, impersonating a Syrian slave, inthe presence of Julius Caesar, at whom it was aimed ; cf.Macrobius, Sat. ii. 7. 4." If " contemptible," probably the trumpery of magic !**For their use in magic see Hor. Sat. i. 8. 22; Tac.jAnn. ii. 69. 5.]90

ON ANGER, II. XI. 2-5terrible, they are not for that reason preferable, andI woulcT not Tiave it said to the wise man: "Thewild bea'-t and the v. ise man have the same weapon ;they are feared." What ? Is not a fever feared,the gout, a malignant sore ? And do they for thatreason have any good in them ? Or are they, onthe contrary, all despised and loathsome and ugly,and for this and no other reason are feared ? Soanger is in itself onlj^ repulsive and is by no meansto be Hreaded, yet most people fear it just as childrenf&ar a" repulsive maslu-—Andr-wha^of the fact thatfear ahtays recoils upon those who inspire it andthat no one whois feared is himself unafraid ? Youmay recall m this connexion the famous line ofLaberius :Full many he must fear whom many fear,"which when delivered in the theatre '' in the heightof civil war caught the ear of the whole people as ifutterance had been given to the people's voice.Nature has so ordained it that wliatever is misrlitvthrough the fearthat otheTsTeel is not without itsown. Htow even" the Tioh^s heart quakes at theshghtest sound ! The boldest of wild beasts isstartled by a shadow or a voice or an unfamiliarsmell. Whatever terrifies must also tremble. Thereis no reasmi, then, why any wise man should desireto be leaFed, nor should he think that anger is anaighty^thing' simply because it arouses dread, sinceyen the most contemptible things, such as poisonous>rews " and iioxi ous bones and

:SENECAinsidias agat, ab ipso efFectu dicta formido ; vanisenim vana terrori sunt. Curriculi motus rotarumqueversata fades leones redegit in caveam, elephantos6 porcina vox terret. Sic itaque ira metuitur, quomodoumbra ab infantibus, a feris rubens pinna. Non ipsain se quicquam habet firmum aut forte, sed levesanimos movet.1 12. " Nequitia," inquit, " de rerum natura toUendaest, si velis iram tollere ; neutrum autem potestfieri." Primum potest aliquis non algere, quamvisex rerum natura hiemps sit, et non aestuare, quamvismenses aestivi sint. Aut loci beneficio adversus intemperiemanni tutus est aut patientia corporis2 sensum utriusque pervicit. Deinde verte istudnecesse est prius virtutem ex animo tollas quamiracundiam recipias, quoniam cum virtutibus vitianon coeunt, nee magis quisquam eodem tempore etiratus potest esse et vir bonus quam aeger et sanus.3 " Non potest," inquit, " omnis ex animo ira tolli,nee hoc hominis natura patitur." Atqui nihil esttam difficile et arduum quod non humana mens vincatet in familiaritatem perducat adsidua meditatio,nullique sunt tam feri et sui iuris adfectus, ut non4 disciplina perdomentur. Quodcumque sibi imperavitanimus, obtinuit. Quidam ne umquam riderent consecutisunt ; vino quidam, alii venere, quidam omiiiumore interdixere corporibus ; alius contentus brevi» Cf. Virgil, Aen. xii. 750 sq. :cervum aut puniceae saeptum formidine pennaevenator cursu canis et latratibus instat.*The implication would then be that if a man cannotbanish anger, no man can be virtuous,192

ON ANGER, II. XI. 5-xii. 4result should be called a " scare " " ; for to the foolishfooUsh things are terrible. The speeding of the racechariotand the sight of its revohing wheels will driveback lions to their cage, and elephants are terrified bythe squealing of a pig. And so we fear anger just aschildren fear the dark and -svild beasts fear a gaudy;feather. Anger in itself has nothing of the strong J"or the heroic, but shallow minds are affected by it." Wickedness," it is said, " must be eliminated ^'>'y physical endurance subdue the sensation of bothdeat and cold.jtatgment :In the second place, reverse^ thisA man must banish wtue from his heartt)efore he can admit >vrath, since vices do not consortwith virtues, and a man can no more be both angrymd good at the same time than he can be sick andB^ell. " But it is not possible," you say, " to banishmger altogether from the heart, nor does the naturejf man permit it." Yet nothing is so hard andiifficult that it cannot be conquered by the himaannteUect and be brought through persistent study intontimate acquaintance, and there are no passions soierce and self-willed that they cannot be subjugated>y^_discipline. \Vhatever command the mind gives»_ltself holds its ground. Some have reached the)oint^f never smilirigV some have cut themselves offrem Avine, others from sexual pleasure, others fromivery kind of drink ; another, satisfied by shortVOL. I o 193>__

:;SENECAsomno vigiliam indefatigabilem extendit ; didicerunttenuissimis et adversis funibus currere et ingentiavixque humanis toleranda viribus onera portare et inimmensam altitudinem mergi ac sine ulla respirandi5 vice perpeti maria. Mille sunt alia, in quibus pertinaciaimpedimentum omne transcendit ostenditquenihil esse difficile cuius sibi ipsa mens patientiam indiceret.Istis quos paulo ante rettuli aut nulla tarn pertinacisstudii aut non digna merces fuit—quid enim magnificumconsequitur ille qui meditatus est per intentosfunes ire ? qui sarcinae ingenti cervices supponere ?qui somno non summittere oculos ? qui penetrare inimum mare ?—et tamen ad finem operis non magno6 auctoramento labor pervenit. Nos non advocabimuspatientiam, quos tantum praemium expectat, felicisanimi immota tranquillitas ? Quantum est efFugeremaximum malum, iram, et cum ilia rabiem, saevitiam,crudelitatem, furorem, alios comites eius adfectus !1 13. Non est quod patrocinium nobis quaeramuset excusatam licentiam, dicentes aut utile id esse autinevitabile ; cui enim tandem vitio advocatus defuit ?Non est quod dicas excidi non posse ; sanabilibusaegrotamus malis ipsaque nos in rectum genitos natura,si emendari velimus, iuvat. Nee, ut quibusdamvisum est, arduum in virtutes et asperum iter est" The thought is a commonplace and is found as early asHesiod, Works and Bays, 289 sqq. :Tijy 5' dpeTTJs iSptDra Oeol TrpoirapoiOev iOr/KavaddvaroL' fj.aKpbs 5i Kal 6pdios oi/nos es avrijvKal Tp7)x^s rb TrpuTov.Cf. the beginning of Aristotle's Hymn to Virtue (Bergk,Poet. Lyr. Graec. ii. p. 360)194'Aperd, woKvfioxde yivei. ^porelij),d-qpajia KaWicrrov ^i

ON ANGER, II. XII. i-xiii. lsleep, prolongs his waking hours unwearied ; somehave learned to run on very small and slanting ropes,to carry huge burdens that are scarcely ^\'ithin thecompass of human strength, to dive to unmeasureddepths and to endure the sea ^^ithout any drawingof breath. There are a thousand other instances toshow that persistence giiT-rnnnntg. every obstacle andthat nothiiig-is-i:eaUy.di£ettlt which the mind enjoinsitself to endure. The men I mentioned a httlewhile ago had either no reward for their unflaggingzeal or none worthy of it—for what glory does heattain who has trained himself to walk a tight rope,to carry a huge load upon his shoulders, to Avithholdhis eyes from sleep, to penetrate to the bottom of thesea ?—and yet by effort they attained the end forwhich they worked although the remuneration wasnot great. Shall we, then, not summon ourselves toendurance when so great a reward awaits us—theunbro5?Tr~cahn of the happy soul ? How great ablessingto r?cape anger, the greatest of all ills, andalong with it madnes's, ferocity, cruelty, rage, andthe xjther passions that attend anger !It is not for us to seek a defence for ourselves andan excuse for such indulgence by saying that it iseither expedient or unavoidable ; for what \ice, prav,has ever lacked its defender ? It is. not for vou to saythat anger cannot be eradicated ; the ills from whichwe suffeTlire curable, and sirice~xrH~aTe"^6rn to doright, nature herself hetp

;SENECA2 piano adeuntur, Non vanae vobis auctor rei venio.Facilis est ad beatam vitam via ; inite modo bonisauspiciis ipsisque dis bene iuvantibus. Multo difficiliusest facere ista quae facitis. Quid est animiquiete otiosius, quid ira laboriosius ?remissius, quid crudelitate negotiosius ?Quid dementiaVacat pudicitia,libido occupatissima est. Omnium deniquevirtutum tutela facilis est, vitia magno coluntur.3 Debet ira removeri—hoc ex parte fatentur etiam quidicunt esse minuendam ;tota dimittatur, nihil profuturaest. Sine ilia facilius rectiusque sceleratollentur, mali punientur et transducentur in melius.Omnia quae debet sapiens sine ullius malae reiministerio efficiet nihilque admiscebit, cuius modumsoUicitius observet.1 14. Numquam itaque iracundia admittenda estaliquando simulanda, si segnes audientium animi concitandisunt, sicut tarde consurgentis ad cursum equosstimuhs facibusque subditis excitamus .Aliquando incutiendusest iis metus apud quos ratio non proficitirasci quidem non magis utile est quam maerere, quam2 metuere. " Quid ergo ? Non incidunt causae quaeiram lacessant ? " Sed tunc maxime ilh opponendaemanus sunt. Nee est difficile vincere animum, cumathletae quoque in vilissima sui parte occupati tamenictus doloresque patiantur, ut vires caedentis exhauriant,nee cum ira suadet, feriant, sed cum occasio.196

;ON ANGER, II. xiii. 2-xiv. 2level road^ It is-naidl^^ tale that I come to teU you, /The road to the happy life is an easy one ; do butenter on it—with good auspices and the good help/of th,e^ods themselves ! It is far harder to do whatyou are now doing. \\Tiat is more reposeful thanpeace of mind, what more toilsome than anger ?What is" more disengaged than mercy, what morebusy than cruelty? Chastity keeps holiday, while r"lust is ahvays^ occupied. IrL,short, the maintenanceof alL_the^yirtues is easy, but it iscoitly to cultivatethe vices. Anger must be dislodged—even those whosay that it ought to be reduced admit this in partlet us be rid of it altogether, it can do us no good.

'SENECA3 Pyrrhum maximum praeceptorem certaminis gymnicisolitum aiunt iis quos exercebat praecipere, neirascerentur ;ira enim perturbat artem et qua noceattantum aspicit,Saepe itaque ratio patientiam suadet,ira vindictam, et qui primis defungi malis potuimus, in4 maiora devolvimur. Quosdam unius verbi contumelianon aequo animo lata in exilium proiecit, et qui leveminiuriam silentio ferre noluerant, gravissimis malisobruti sunt, indignatique aliquid ex plenissimalibertate deminui servile in sese adtraxerunt iugum.1 15. " Ut scias," inquit, " iram habere in se generosialiquid, liberas videbis gentes, quae iracundissimaesunt, ut Germanos et Scythas." Quod evenit, quiafortia solidaque natura ingenia, antequam disciplinamolliantur, prona in iram sunt. Quaedam enim nonnisi melioribus innaseuntur ingeniis, sicut validaarbusta laeta quamvis necleeta tellus creat, et alta2 fecundi soli silva est. Itaque et ingenia natura fortiairacundiam ferunt niliilque tenue et exile capiuntignea et fervida, sed imperfectus ilBs vigor est utomnibus, quae sine arte ipsius tantum naturae bonoexsurgunt, sed nisi cito domita sunt, quae fortitudini3 apta erant, audaeiae temeritatique consuescunt. Quid?Non mitioribus animis vitia leniora coniuncta sunt, ut198

ON ANGER, II. XIV. 3-xv. 3when advantage, prompts. PjTrhus, the mostfamous trainer for gymnastic contests, made it a rule,it is said, to warn those whom he was training againstgetting angr)^ ; for anger confounds art and looksonlyjfqr a chance to injure. Often, therefore, reasoncounsels patience, but anger revenge, and when wehave" been able to escape our first misfortunes, weare plunged into greater ones. Some have beencaTt into exile because they could not bear calmlyone insulting word, and those who had refused to bearin silence a slight >\Tong have been crushed -w-ith theseverest misfortunes, and, indignant at any diminutionof the fullest liberty, have brought upon themselvesthe yoke of slavery." That you may be con\-inced," says our opponent," that anger does have in it something noble, you\vi\\ see that such nations as are free—for example,the Germans' and Scythians—are those which aremost prone t« anger." The reason of this isthat natures which are inherently brave and sturdyare prone to anger before they become softened bydisciphne. For certain qualities are innate only inbetter natures, just as rich ground, although it isneglected, produces a strong growth and a tall forestis the mark of fertile soil. And so natures^that have^innate \igoiir_like\vise produce A\Tath, and being hotand fiery they have no room for anything weak andfeeble, but their energj' is defective, as is the casewitli even'thing that springs up A^thout cultivationthrough the bounty merely of nature herself ;yes,and, unless such natures are quickly tamed, wliat wasa disposition to braverv' tends to become recklessnessand temerit}". And tell me, is it not A\-ith the moregen'Eteteniprei^-that th^ "ffilMer fatdtsrsuch as pityi199

SENECAmisericordia et amor et verecundia ? Itaque saepetibi bonam indolem malis quoque suis ostendam ; sednon ideo vitia non sunt, si naturae melioris indicia sunt.4 Deinde omnes istae feritate liberae gentes leonumluporumque ritu ut servire non possunt, ita neeimperare ; non enim humani vim ingenii, sed feriet intractabilis habent ; nemo autem regere potest6 nisi qui et regi. Fere itaque imperia penes eosfuere populos, qui mitiore caelo utuntur. In frigoraseptemtrionemque vergentibus immansueta ingeniasunt, ut ait poeta :Suoque simillima caelo.1 16. "Animalia," inquit, "generosissima habentur,quibus multum inest irae."Errat qui ea in exemplumhominis adducit, quibus pro ratione est impetus ; hominipro impetu ratio est. Sed ne illis quidem omnibusidem prodest ; iracundia leones adiuvat, pavor2 cervos, accipitrem impetus, columbam fuga. Quid,quod ne illud quidem verum est, optima animalia esseiracundissima? Feras putem, quibus ex raptu alimentasunt, meliores quo iratiores ;patientiam laudaverimboum et equorum frenos sequentium. Quid est autemcur hominem ad tam infelicia exempla revoces, cumhabeas mundum deumque, quem ex omnibus animali-200» Frag. Poet. Rom. p. 359. 23 Baehrens.

;ON ANGER, II. XV. 3-xvi. 2and love^and-Jiashfulness, are-fJound combined? jAccordinglyj I can often prove to you even by a man'sown e\'ils that his natural bent is good ; but thesee\'ils~'aTe~noneThe less \-ices even though they areindicative of a superior nature. Then, again, all thosepeoples which are, like lions and wolves, free by reasonof their very ^\ildness, even as they cannot submit to /servitude, neither can they exercise dominion ; forthe ability they possess is not that of a human beingbut of something v. ild and ungovernable ; and noman is able to rule unless he can also submit to beruled. Consequently, the peoples who have heldempire^ arelJDiOiSolily those who live in a rather mildclimate. Those who Ke toward the frozen north havesavage tempers—tempers which, as the poet says, areMost like their native skies."" Those animals," you say, " which are much givento anger are held to be the noblest." But it is -WTongfor one to hold up the creatures in whom impulsetakes the place of reason as a pattern for a humanbeing ; in roan reason takes the place of impulse. (But not even in the case of such animals is the sameimpulse equally profitable for all ; anger serves thelion, fear the stag, aggressiveness the hawk, cowardicethe dove. But what if it is not even true that itis the best animals that are most prone to anger ?Wild beasts which gain their food by rapine, I canbeheve, do so the better the angrier they arebut it is the endurance of the ox and the horse,obedient to the rein, that I would commend. Forwhat reason, however, do you direct man to suchmiserable standards when you have the universeand God, whom man of all creatures alone com-201'-•

SENECA3 bus, ut solus imitetur, solus intellegit " ? Simplicissimi,"inquit, " omnium habentur iracundi."Fraudulentis enim et versutis comparantur et simplicesvidentur, quia expositi sunt. Quos quidemnon simplices dixerim sed incautos ; stultis, luxuriosisnepotibusque hoc nomen imponimus et omnibus vitiisparum callidis.1 17. " Orator," inquit, " iratus aliquando meliofest." Immo imitatus iratum ; nam et histrionespronuntiando non irati populum movent, sed iratibene agentes ;et apud iudiees itaque et in eontione eiubicumque alieni animi ad nostrum arbitrium agencsunt, modo iram, modo metum, modo misericordiarut aliis incutiamus, ipsi simulabimus, et saepe idlquod veri adfectus non effecissent, effecit imitatioadfectuum." Languidus," inquit, " animus est qui2 ira caret." Verum est, si nihil habet ira valentius.Nee latronem oportet esse nee praedam, nee misericordemnee crudelem ; illius nimis molUs animus,huius nimis durus est.Temperatus sit sapiens et adres fortius agendas non iram sed vim adhibeat.1 18. Quoniam quae de ira quaeruntur tractavimus,accedamus ad remedia eius. Duo autem, ut opinor,sunt : ne incidamus in iram et ne in ira peccemus.Ut in corporum cura alia de tuenda valetudine, alia derestituenda praecepta sunt, ita aliter iram debemus202

ON ANGER, II. XVI. 3-xyiii. 1prebends in order that he alone naay imitate him ? •" Tho^e who are prone to anger," you say, " are ofall men considered the most ingenuous." Yes, incontrast with the tricky and the crafts' they do seemingenuous because they are undisguised. I, however,should call them, not ingenuous, but reckless; thatis the-^^wrr^ire appbr to fools, to voluptuaries andspendthrifts, and to all who ill disguise their %-ices." Tbg^orator," you say. " at times does better whenhe is angr\'. Not so, but when he pretends to be -V"angrv. For the actor likev.i^e stir^ an audience byhis declamation not when he is angry, but when he i-plavs well the role of the angiy man;consequentlybefore a jury, in the popular assembly, and whereverwe have to force our will upon the minds of otherpeople, we must pretend now anger, now fear, nowpity, in order that we may inspire others with thesame, and often the feigning of an emotion producesan effect which would not be produced by genuineemotiorn " The mind that is devoid of anger,"yoiTsay, " is inert." Very true, unless it is actuatedby something more powerful than anger. A manshould be neither a highwayman nor his victim,neither soft-hearted nor cruel ; the one is too mildin spirit, the other too harsh. Let, the—wise manshow moderation, and to situations that require strongmeasufesTeTTiim apply, not anger, but force.Ha%'ing dealt with the questions that arise con- r,cerni^^nger, let us now pass to the Considerationof its remedies'. In my opinion, however, there arebut two rules—not to fall into anger, and in anger todo no wTong. Just as in caring for the body certainruTes'~are to be obser^^ed for guarding the health,others for restoring it, so vjue_JSLyst_-Use-xuie_naeans203

:SENECArepellere, aliter compescere. Ut vitemus, quaedamad universam vitam pertinentia praecipientur ; ea ineducationem et in sequentia tempora dividentur.2 Educatio maximam diligentiam plurimumque profuturamdesiderat ; facile est enim teneros adhueanimos componere, difficulter reciduntur vitia quaenobiscum creverunt.1 19. Opportunissima ad iracundiam fervidi animinatura est. Nana cum elementa sint quattuor, ignis,aquae, aeris, terrae, potestates pares his sunt, fervida,frigida, arida atque umida. Et locorum itaque et animaliumet corporum et morum varietates mixturaelementorum facit, et proinde aliquo magis incumbuntingenia, prout alicuius elementi maior vis abundavit.Inde quasdam umidas vocamus aridasque regiones etcalidas et frigidas. Eadem animalium hominumque2 discrimina sunt ; refert quantum quisque umidi inse calidique contineat ; cuius in illo elementi portiopraevalebit, inde mores erunt. Iracundos fervidaanimi natura faciet, est enim actuosus et pertinaxignis ; frigidi mixtura timidos facit, pigrum est enim3 contractumque frigus. Volunt itaque quidam exnostris iram in pectore moveri efFervescente circa corsanguine ; causa cur hie potissimum adsignetur iraelocus non alia est, quam quod in toto corpore caUdis-4 simum pectus est. Quibus umidi plus inest, eorum" In the order of the corresponding elements these arehot, moist, cold, dry. According to the Stoic view, in theprocesses of nature the four elements were changed from oneinto the other in fixed order. Cf. Cicero, De Nat, Deor. ii.33. 84: "nam ex terra aqua, ex aqua oritur aer, ex aereaether {i.e. ignis) ; deinde retrorsum vicissim ex aethere aer,inde aqua, ex aqua terra infima."204

.ON ANGER, II. xviii. 1-xix. 4to re£el_anger,_another to restrain it. In order that; njayavoid anger, certain rules will be laid dowTiwhich appTyTo" the whole period of life ; these ^\illfall under two heads—the period of education andthe l^erjpengds of lifeThe period of education calls for the greatest, andwhat >\'ill also prove to be the most profitable,attentionT"^r it is easy to train the mind while itis stiir~"tender7nBiut it is a difiicult matter to curbthe \'ices that have gro^^Ti up with us.Th^fiery mind i^ by it- nature most hable to wrath.For as there are t!ie four elements of fire, water, air,and earth;~s() there are the corresponding properties,the hot, the cold, the dry, and the moist." Accordingly,the various diiferences of regions, of animals, of substances,and of characters are caused by the minghngof the elements ; consequently, also, dispositionsshow a greater bent in some one direction, accordingas they abound in a larger supply of some one element.Hence it is that we call some regions moist, some dry,some hot, some cold. The same distinctions applyto animals and to men ; it makes a great differencehow much of the moist and the hot each man hasin him; his character vnW be determined by thatelement in him of which he will have a dominantproportion. A fiery constitution of mind ^\i\\ produceA^Tathful men, for fire is active and stubborn ;a mixture of cold makes cowards, for cold is sluggishand shrunken. Consequently, some of our schoolhold that anger is aroused in the breast by the boilingof the blood about the heart ; the reason why thisparticular spot is assigned to anger is none other thanthe fact that the warmest part of the whole body isthe breast. In the case of those who have more of205

;SENECApaulatim crescit ira, quia non est paratus illis calorsed motu adquiritur ; itaquepuerorumfeminarumqueirae acres magis quam graves sunt levioresque dumincipiunt.Siccis aetatibus vehemens robustaque estira, sed sine incremento, non multum sibi adiciens,quia inclinaturum calorem frigus insequitur. Senesdifficiles et queruli sunt, ut aegri et convalescentes etquorum aut lassitudine aut detractione sanguinis ex-5 haustus est calor ; in eadem causa sunt siti famequetabidi et quibus exsangue corpus est malignequealitur et deficit. Vinum incendit iras, quia caloremauget ;pro cuiusque natura quidam ebrii effervescunt,quidam saucii. Neque ulla alia causa est, curiracundissimi sint flavi rubentesque, quibus talisnatura color est, qualis fieri ceteris inter iram solet ;mobilis enim illis agitatusque sanguis est.1 20. Sed quemadmodum natura quosdam proclivesin iram facit, ita multae incidunt causae, quae idempossint quod natura. Alios morbus aut iniuria corporumin hoc perduxit, alios labor aut continua pervigilianoctesque sollicitae et desideria amoresquequidquid aliud aut corpori nocuit aut animo, aegram2 mentem in querellas parat. Sed omnia ista initiacausaeque sunt ;plurimum potest consuetude, quaesi gravis est, alit vitium. Naturam quidem mutaredifllicile est, nee licet semel mixta nascentiumelementa convertere ; sed in hoc nosse profuit, ut" Apparently the dominating element, and consequentlythe natural tendency, varies according to age and condition.* Designating conditions where in the combination of thedry, the hot, and the cold, cold becomes dominant. " Cold "was the property of air, and this element was associated withcalmness and poise (Lucretius, iii. 292 sq.). We may thinkhere, probably, of the middle periods of life." i.e., of the body.206

ON ANGER, II. XIX. 4-xx. 2the moist in them, anger grows up gradually becausethey have no heat ready at hand but obtain it bymovement : and so theanger of children and women'^is more vehement than serious, and it is hghter at thestart. In the dry periods of life ^ anger is powerfulanB'strong, but is ^\ithout increase, sho^^'ing Uttlegain because cold succeeds heat,*^ which is now on thedechne. Old men are simply testy and querulous,as also are invahds and convalescents and all whoseheat has been drained either by exhaustion or byloss of blood ; the same is the condition of those whoare gaunt from thirst and hunger and of those whosebodies are anaemic and ill-nourished and weak. Winekindles anger because it increases the heat ; someboil over when thev are drunk, others when thev aresimply tipsy, each according to his nature. And theonly reason why red-haired and ruddy people areextremely hot-tempered is that they have by naturethe colour which others are wont to assume in anger ;for their blood is active and restless.But while nature makes certain persons prone toanger, tliere are hke\\'ise many accidental causeswhich are just as effective as nature. Some arebrought into this condition by sickness or injury ofthe body, others by toil or unceasing \'igils, bynights of anxiety, by yearnings and the affairs oflove ; whatever else impairs either body or mind,produces a diseased mental state prone to complaint.But these are all only beginnings and causes ; habitcounts for most, and if this is deep-seated, it fosterstheTault: As for nature, it is difficult to alter it, andwe may not change the elements that were combinedonce for all at our birth ; but though this be so, itis prQfitablejtp know that fiery temperaments should207

SENECAcalentibus ingeniis subtrahas vinum, quod puerisPlato negandum putat et ignem vetat igne incitari.Ne cibis quidem implendi sint ; distendentur enim3 corpora et animi cum corpora tumescent. Labor illoscitra lassitudinem exerceat, ut minuatur, non utconsumatur calor nimiusque ille fervor despumet.Lusus quoque proderunt ;modica enim voluptas laxat4 animos et temperat. Umidioribus siccioribusque etfrigidis non est ab ira periculum, sed ignaviora vitiametuenda sunt, pavor et difficultaset desperatio etsuspiciones. Extollenda itaque fovendaque taliaingenia et in laetitiam evocanda sunt. Et quia aliiscontra iram, aliis contra tristitiam remediis utendumest nee dissimillimis tantum ista sed contrariiscuranda sunt, semper ei occurremus quod increverit.1 21. Plurimum, inquam, proderit pueros statimsalubriter institui ; difficile autem regimen est, quiadare debemus operam, ne aut iram in illis nutriamus2 aut indolem retundamus. Diligenti observatione resindiget ; utrumque enim, et quod extollendum etquod deprimendum est, similibus alitur, facile autem3 etiam adtendentem similia decipiunt. Crescit licentiaspiritus, servitute comminuitur ; adsurgit, si laudaturet in spem sui bonam adducitur, sed eademista insolentiam et iracundiam generant ; itaque208» Laws, ii. Q6Q a.

;ON ANGER, II. XX. 2-xxi. 3be kept_awa^froDCL wine, which Plato " thinks oughtto be forbidden to children, protesting against addingfire to fire. Neither_should such men gorge ihemselveswith food ; for their bodies will be distendedand'iKeir spirits mil become swollen along with thebody. They should get exercise in toil, stoppingshort of exhaustion, to the end that their heat maybe reduced, but not used up, and that their excessivefever may subside. Games also will be beneficialfor pleasure in moderation relaxes the mind andgives it balance.- The more moist and the driernatures, and also the cold, are in no danger fromanger, but they must beware of faults that aremore base—fear, moroseness, discouragement, andsuspicion. And so such natures have need ofencouragement and indulgence and the summons tocheerfulness. And since certain remedies are to beemployed against anger, others against sullenness,and the two faults are to be cured, not merely bydifferent, but even by contrary, methods, we shallalways attack the fault that has become the stronger.It^jvill be of the utmost profit, I say, to givechildren sound training from the very beginning ;guidance, however, is difficult, because we ought totake pains neither to develop in them anger norto blunt their native spirit. The matter requirescareful" watching ; for both qualities—that whichshould be encouraged and that which should bechecked—are fed by like things, and like things easilydeceive even a close observer. By freedom thespirit growSjJjy^ servitude it isjcrushed ; if it is commendedand isled^to expect good things of itself,it mounts up, but these same measures breed insolenceand temper ; therefore we must guide theVOL. 1 p 209

SENECAsic inter utrumque regendus est, ut modo frenis4 utamur modo stimulis. Nihil humile, nihil servilepatiatur ; numquam illi necesse sit rogare suppliciternee prosit rogasse, potius causae suae etprioribus factis et bonis in futurum promissis donetur.5 In certaminibus aequalium nee vinci ilium patiamurnee irasci ; demus operam, ut familiaris sit iis cumquibus contendere solet, ut in certamine adsuescatnon nocere velle sed vincere ;quotiens superaveritet dignum aliquid laude fecerit, attolli non gestirepatiamur, gaudium enim exultatio, exultationem6 tumor et nimia aestimatio sui sequitur Dabimusaliquod laxamentum, in desidiam vero otiumquenon resolvemus et procul a contactu dehciarum retinebimus; nihil enim magis facit iracundos quameducatio mollis et blanda. Ideo unicis quo plusindulgetur, pupillisque quo plus licet, corruptioranimus est.Non resistet offensis cui nihil umquamnegatum est, cuius lacrimas sollicita semper mater7 abstersit, cui de paedagogo satisfactum est. Nonvides, ut maiorem quamque fortunam maior iracomitetur ?In divitibus et nobilibus et magistratibuspraecipue apparet, cum quidquid leve et inane inanimo erat secunda se aura sustulit. Felicitas

ON ANGER, II. XXI. 3-7child between the two extremes, using now the curb,now_the spm\ He shouM be subjected to nothingthat is humiliating, nothing that is servile ; it shouldnever be necessar}- for him to beg submissively, norshould begging ever prove profitable—rather let hisown desert and his past conduct and good promiseof it in the future be rewarded. In struggles withhis playmates we should not permit him either tobe beaten or to get angry ; we should take pains tosee that he is friendly toward those A^ith whom it ishis practice to engage in order that in the strugglehe may form the habit of wishing not to hurt hisopponent but merely to mn. \Mienever he gets theupper hand and does something praiseworthy, weshould allow him to be encouraged but not elated, forjoy leads to exultation, exultation to over-conceit anda too high opinion of oneself. We shall grant himsome relaxation, though we shall not let him lapseinto sloth and ease, and we shall keep him far fromall taint of pampering ; for there is nothing thatmakes the child hot-tempered so much as a softand coddhng bringing up. Therefore the more anonly child is indulged, and the more liberty a wardis allowed, the more will his disposition be spoiled.He will not withstand rebuffs who has never beendenied anything, whose tears have always beenwiped away by an anxious mother, who has beenallowecl^fo"'have his own way with his tutor." Doyou not observe that ^vith each advancing grade offortune there goes the greater tendency to anger ?It is especially apparent in the rich, in nobles, andin officials when all that was light and tri\ialin "their mind soars aloft upon the breeze of goodfortune. Prosperity fosters wrath when the crowd211

SENECAiracundiam nutrit, ubi aures superbas adsentatorum]turba circumstetit : " Tibi enim ille respondeat ?non pro fastigio te tuo metiris ; ipse te proicis " etalia quibus vix sanae et ab initio bene fundatae8 mentes restiterunt. Longe itaque ab adsentationepueritia removenda est ; audiat verum. Et timeatinterim, vereatur semper, maioribus adsurgat. Nihilper iracundiam exoret ;quod flenti negatum fuerit,quieto ofFeratur. Et divitias parentium in conspectu9 habeat, non in usu. Exprobrentur illi perperamfacta. Pertinebit ad rem praeceptores paedagogosquepueris placidos dari. Proximis adplicaturomne quod tenerum est et in eorum similitudinemcrescit ; nutricum et paedagogorum rettulere mox10 adulescentium mores, Apud Platonem educatuspuer cum ad parentes relatus vociferantem videretpatrem :" Numquam," inquit, " hoc apud Platonemvidi." Non dubito quin citius patrem imitatus sit11 quam Platonem. Tenuis ante omnia victus sit^et non pretiosa vestis et similis cultus cum aequalibus.Non irascetur aliquem sibi comparari quern ab initiomultis parem feceris.1 22. Sed haec ad liberos nostros pertinent ; innobis quidem sors nascendi et educatio nee vitiilocum nee iam praecepti habet ; sequentia ordinanda^sit added by Ruhkopf." i.e., of older people. The discussion here passes to thesecond topic formulated in ch. 18. 2.* In the earlier discussion the reverse was true—anger wasassociated with the fortune of birth (ch. 19), and preceptwith the corrective value of education (ch. 21).212

ON ANGER, II. XXI. 7-xxn. 1o£JjtttererSi^athered around, whispers to the proud"ear : \VTiat, should that man answer 1/011 back ?Your estimate of yourself does not correspond withyour importance ;you demean yourself " —these andother adulations, which even the sensible and originallywell-poised mind resists Mith difficult}^. Childhood,therefore, should be kept far from all contactwith flattery ; let a child, hear the truth, sometimeseven let him fear, let him be respectful always, lethim rise before his elders. Let him gain no requestby anger ; when he is quiet let him be offered whatwas refused when he wept. Let him, moreover, havethe s^Kf"15iit hot the use of his parents' wealth.Wher^he has done wrong, let him be reproved. Itwill workTo^the advantage of children to give themteachers"and tutors of a quiet disposition. Everyyoun^ thing attaches itself to what is nearest andgrows to be hke it ; the character of their nurses andtutors is presently reproduced in that of the youngmen. There was a boy who had been brought upin the house of Plato, and when he had returned tohis parents and saw his father in a blustering rage,his comment was : "I never saw this sort of thingat Plato's." I doubt not that he was quicker tocopy his father than he was to copy Plato ! Aboveall, let his food be simple, his clothing inexpensive,and his style of li\-ing like that of his companions.The boy ^vill never be angry at some one beingcounted eqnal to himself, whom you have from thefirst treated as the equal of many.But these rules apply to our children. In ourcase,** however, our lot at birth and our educationgive no excuse—the one for the \'ice, or theother, any longer, for instruction *4 jt_Js__their213

SENECA2 sunt. Contra primas itaque causas pugnare debemus.Causa autem iracundiae opinio iniuriae est,cui non facile credendum est. Ne apertis quidem Mmanifestisque statim accedendum ;quaedam enim3 falsa veri speciem ferunt. Dandum semper esttempus ; veritatem dies aperit. Ne sint aurescriminantibus faciles ;hoc humanae naturae vitiumsuspectum notumque nobis sit, quod, quae invitiaudimus, libenter credimus et, antequam iudicemus,4 Irascimur. Quid, quod non criminationibus tantum,sed suspicionibus impellimur et ex vultu risuquealieno peiora interpretati innocentibus irascimur ?Itaque agenda est contra se causa absentis et insuspenso ira retinenda ;potest enim poena dilataexigi, non potest exacta revocari.1 23. Notus est ille tyrannicida, qui imperfecto operecomprehensus et ab Hippia tortus, ut consciosindicaret, circumstantes amicos tyranni nominavitquibusque maxime caram salutem eius sciebat ;cum ille singulos, ut nominati erant, occidi iussisset,interroganti, ecquis superesset, " Tu," inquit, " solus ;neminem enim alium cui carus esses reliqui."ira,etEffecitut tyrannus tyrannicidae manus accommodaret2 et praesidia sua gladio suo caederet. Quanto ani-214" i.e., of birth and education." See Index.

ON ANGER, II. xxn. 2-xxin. 2consequences^ that we must regulate. We ought,therefore, to make our fight agamst the primarycauses. Now the cause of anger is an impressionof injury, and to this we should not easily givecredence. We ought not to be led to it quicklyeven by open and e\-ident acts ; for some thingsare false, that, have the appearance of truth. Weshould always allow some time ; a day discloses thetrutK^ EeTus not give ready ear to traducers ; thisweakness of human natm-e let us recognize and mistrust—weare glad to believe what we are loth tohear, and we become angry before we can form ajudgement about it. And what is to be said whenwe are actuated, not merely by charges, but by baresuspicions, and ha\-ing put the worse interpretationon another's look or smile, become angry at innocentmen ? Therefore we should plead the cause of theabsent person against ourselves, and anger should beheld in abeyance ; for punishment postponed can stillbe exacted, but once exacted it cannot be recalled.Every one knows the story of the tjTannicide whohaving been arrested before he had finished his taskwas put to torture by Hippias * in order that hemight be forced to reveal his accomplices ; whereuponhe named the friends of the tyrant who weregathered around him, the very ones to whom, as heknew, the safety of the tyrant was especially dear.After Hippias had ordered them to be slain one byone, as they were named, he asked whether therewas still any other. " No," said the man, " youalone remain ; for I have left no one else who caresanything about you." The result of his anger wasthat the tyrant lent his might to the tyrant-slayerand slew his owti protectors with his own sword.215

;SENECAmosius Alexander ! Qui cum legisset epistulammatris, qua admonebatur, ut a veneno Philippimedici caveret,acceptam potionem non deterritus3 bibit. Plus sibi de amico suo credidit. Dignus fuitqui innocentem haberet, dignus qui faceret ! Hoceo magis in Alexandre laudo, quia nemo tarn obnoxiusirae fuit ;quo rarior autem moderatio in regibus,4 hoc laudanda magis est. Fecit hoc et C. Caesarille qui victoria civili clementissime usus est ; cumscrinia deprendisset epistularum ad Cn. Pompeiummissarum ab iis, qui videbantur aut in diversis autin neutris fuisse partibus, combussit. Quamvismoderate soleret irasci, maluit tamen non posse ;gratissimum putavit genus veniae nescire quidquisque peccasset.1 24. Plurimum mali credulitas facit. Saepe neaudiendum quidem est, quoniam in quibusdam rebussatius est decipi quam diffidere.Tollenda ex animosuspicio et coniectura, fallacissima irritamenta." Ille me parum humane salutavit ; ille osculo meonon adhaesit ;ille inchoatum sermonem cito abrupitille ad cenam non vocavit ; ilUus vultus aversior2 visus est." Non deerit suspicioni argumentatio.Simplicitate opus est et benigna rerum aestimatione.Nihil nisi quod in oculos incurret manifestumqueerit credamus, et quotiens suspicio nostra vana216» i.e., his own judgement.

—ON ANGER, II. XXIII. 2-xxiv. 2How much more courageous was Alexander ! Afterreading a letter from Ins mother warning him tobeware of poison from his physician Philip, he tookthe draught and drank it without alarm. In thecase of his own friend he trusted himself more. He"^deserved to find him innocent, deserved to provehim so ! I applaud this all the more in Alexanderbecause no man was so prone to anger ; but therarer self-control is among kings, the more praiseworthyit becomes. The great Gains Caesar alsoshowed this, he who, \ictorious in civil war, used hisvictory most mercifully ; ha\-ing apprehended somepackets of letters wTitten to Gnaeus Pompeius by thosewho were beheved to belong either to the opposingside or to the neutral part}', he burned them. Althoughhe was in the habit, within bounds, of indulgingin anger, yet he preferred being unable to do so ;he thought that the most gracious form of pardonwas not to know what the offence of each person hadbeen.Creduhty is a source of very great mischief.Often one should not even hsten to report, sinceunder some circumstances it is better to be deceivedthaii^to be suspicious. Suspicion and surmiseprovocations that are most deceptive—ought to bebanished from the mind." That man did not giveme a civil greeting ; that one did not return mykiss ; that one broke off the conversation abruptly ;that one did not invite me to dinner ; that oneseemed to avoid seeing me." Pretext for suspicionwill jjpt be lacking. But there is need of franknessand generosity in interpreting things. We shouldbeheve only what is thrust under our eyes andbecomes unmistakable, and every time our suspicion

SENECAapparuerit, obiurgemus credulitatem ; haec enimcastigatio consuetudinem efficiet non facile credendi.1 25. Inde et illud sequitur, ut minimis sordidissimisquerebus non exacerbemur.Parum agilisest puer aut tepidior aqua poturo aut turbatus torusaut mensa neglegentius posita—ad ista concitariinsania est.Aeger* et infelieis valetudinis est quemlevis aura contraxit, adfecti oculi quos Candida vestisobturbat, dissolutus deliciis cuius latus alieno labore2 condoluit. Mindyriden aiunt fuisse ex Sybaritarumcivitate, qui cum vidisset fodientem et altius rastrumadlevantem, lassum se fieri questus vetuit ilium opusin conspectu suo facere ; idem habere se peiusquestus est, quod foliis rosae duplicatis incubuisset.3 Ubi animum simul et corpus voluptates corrupere,nihil tolerabile videtur, non quia dura, sed quiamollis patitur. Quid est enim, cur tussis alicuiusaut sternutamentum aut musca parum curiose fugatain rabiem agat aut obversatus canis aut clavis ne-4 glegentis servi manibus elapsa ? Feret iste aequoanimo civile convicium et ingesta in contione curiavemaledicta, cuius aures tracti subsellii stridor ofFendit ?Perpetietur hie famem et aestivae expeditionissitim, qui puero male diluenti nivem irascitur ?" Wine was often drunk mixed with hot water ; cf. Mart,i. 11. 3.218

ON ANGER, II. XXIV. 2-xxv. 4proves to be groundless we should chide our credulity;for this self-reproof will develop the habit of beingslow to believe.Next, too, comes this—that we should not be exasperatedby trifling and paltry incidents. A slave istoo slow, or the water for the wine" is lukewarm, orthe couch-cushion disarranged, or the table too carelesslyset—it is madness to be incensed by such things.The man is ill or in a poor state of health who shrinksfrom a slight draught ; something is WTong with aman's eyes if they are offended by white clothing ;the man is enfeebled by soft living who gets a painin his side from seeing somebody else at work ! Thestory is that there was once a citizen of Sybaris, acertain Mindyrides, who, seeing a man digging andsmnging his mattock on high, complained that itmade him weary and ordered the man not to do suchwork in his sight ; the same man complained thathe felt worse because the rose-leaves upon which hehad lain were crumpled ! When pleasures have corruptedboth mind and body, nothing seems to betolerable, not because the suffering is hard, butbecause the sufferer is soft. For why is it that weare thro^v•n into a rage by somebody's cough orsneeze, by negligence in chasing a fly away, by a dog'shanging around, or by the dropping of a key thathas slipped from the hands of a careless servant ?The poor wretch whose ears are hurt by the gratingof a bench dragged across the floor—will he be ableto bear with equanimity the strife of public life andthe abuse rained down upon him in the assembly orin the senate-house ? Will he be able to endure thehunger and the thirst of a summer campaign whogets angry at his slave for being careless in mixing219

ISENECANulla itaque res magis iracundiam alit quam luxuriaintemperans et impatiens ;est, ut ictum non sentiat nisi gravem.dure tractandus animus1 26. Irascimur aut iis, a quibus ne accipere quidempotuimus iniuriam, aut iis, a quibus accipere in-2 iuriam potuimus. Ex prioribus quaedam sine sensusunt, ut liber, quern minutioribus litteris scriptumsaepe proiecimus et mendosum laceravimus, ut vestimenta,quae, quia displicebant, scidimus. His irasciquam stultum est, quae iram nostram nee meruerunt3 nee sentiunt ! " Sed ofFendunt nos videlicet qui iliafecerunt." Primum saepe antequam hos apud nosdistinguamus irascimur. Deinde fortasse ipsi quoqueartifices excusationes iustas afferent. Alius nonpotuit melius facere quam fecit,nee ad tuam contumeliamparum didicit ; alius non in hoc ut teofFenderet fecit. Ad ultimum quid est dementiusquam bilem in homines collectam in res effundere ?4 Atqui ut his irasci dementis est, quae anima carent,sic mutis animalibus, quae nullam iniuriam nobisfaciunt, quia velle non possunt ; non est enim iniurianisi a consilio profecta.Nocere itaque nobis possuntut ferrum aut lapis, iniuriam quidem facere non6 possunt. Atqui contemni se quidam putant, ubiidem equi obsequentes alteri equiti, alteri contumacessunt, tamquam iudicio, non consuetudine220" i.e., with the wine.

ON ANGER, II. XXV. 4-xx\'i. 5the snow ° ? Nothing, therefore, is more conduciveto anger than the intemperance and intolerance thatcomes from soft Hving ; the mind ought to be schooledby hardship to feel none but a crushing blow.Our anger is stirred either by those from whomw^^could notTiave received any injur)' at all, or bythose from whom we might have received one. Tothe fbrmer class belong certain inanimate things,such as the manuscript which we often hurl from usbecause it is WTitten in too small a script or tear upbecause it is full of mistakes, or the articles of clothingwhich we pull to pieces because we do not likethem. But how foolish it is to get angr)- at thesethinga^vvhich neither desen'e our \\Tath nor feel it !" But of course," you say, " it is those who madethem^who have given us the affront." But, in thefirst place, we often get angry before we make thisdistinction clear to our minds ; in the second place,perhaps also the makers themselves -s^ill have reasonableexcuses to offer : this one could not do betterwork than he did, and it was not out of disrespect foryou that he was poor at his trade ; another did notaim to affront you by what he did. In the end whatcan be madder than to accumulate spleen against menand then vent it upon things ? But as it is the act of amadman to become angr}- aFThmgs 'without life, it isnot less mad to be a.ngry at dumb animals, which dous no~iiijury because they cannot ^\^ll to do so ; forthere~can be no injury unless it arises from design.Therefore they can harm us just as the sword or astone may do, but they cannot injure us. But somepeople think that a man is insulted when the samehorses which are submissive to one rider are rebelhoustoward another, just as if it were due to the animal's221

;SENECAet arte tractandi quaedam quibusdam subiectiora6 sint. Atqui ut his irasci stultum est, ita pueris etnon multum a puerorum prudentia distantibus ;omnia enim istapeccata apud aequum iudicem proinnocentia habent imprudentiam.1 27. Quaedam sunt quae nocere non possuntnullamque vim nisibeneficaih et salutarem habent,ut di immortales, qui nee volunt obesse nee possuntnatura enim ilhsmitis et placida est, tam longe re-2 mota ab ahena iniuria quam a sua. Dementes itaqueet ignari veritatis ilUs imputant saevitiam maris,immodicos imbres, pertinaciam hiemis, cum interimnihil horum quae nobis nocent prosuntque ad nosproprie derigatur. Non enim nos causa mundosumus hiemem aestatemque referendi ;suas istaleges habent, quibus divina exercentur.Nimis nossuspicimus, si digni nobis videmur propter quos tantamoveantur. Nihil ergo horum in nostram iniuriam3 fit, immo contra nihil non ad salutem. Quaedamesse diximus quae nocere non possint, quaedam quaenolint. In iis erunt boni magistratus parentesqueet praeceptores et iudices, quorum castigatio sicaccipienda est quomodo scalpellum et abstinentia4 et alia quae profutura torquent. AfFecti sumus222

ox ANGER, II. xx\i. 5-xx\ii. 4choice and not rather to the rider's practised skill inmanagement that certain animals prove more tractableto certain men. But it is as foolish to be angrywith these as it is to be angr}- with children and allwho are not much different from children in point ofwisdom : for in the eyes of a just judge all suchmiitake-can plead ignorance as the equivalent ofinnocence.But there are certain agents that are unable toharm us and have no power that is not beneficentand salutary, as, for example, the immortal gods,who neither \A'ish nor are able to hurt ; for theyare by nature mild and gentle, as incapable ofinjuring others as of injuring themselves. Those,therefore, are mad and ignorant of truth who lay tothe gods' charge the cruelt\- of the sea, excessive rains,and the stubbornness of ^^inter, whereas all the whilenone of the phenomena which harm or help us areplanned personally for us. For it is not because of usthat the universe brings back winter and summer ;these have their ovm laws, by which the di\'ine planoperates. We have too high a regard for ourselvesif we deem ourselves worthy to be the cause ofsuch mighty movements. Therefore none of thesephenomena takes place for the purpose of injuringus, nay, on the contrary, they all tend toward ourbenefit. I have said that there are certain agentsthat cannot, certain ones that would not, harm us. Tothe latter class Mill belong good magistrates andparents, teachers and judges, and we ought tosubmit to the chastening they give in the same spiritin which we submit to the surgeon's knife, a regimenof diet, and other things which cause suffering thatthey may bring profit. We have been visited \\ith223

SENECApoena ; succurrat non tantum quid patiamur, sedquid fecerimus, in consilium de vita nostra mittamur ;si modo verum ipsi nobis dicere voluerimus, plurislitem nostram aestimabimus.1 28. Si volumus aequi rerum omnium indices esse,hoc primum nobis persuadeamus, neminem nostrumesse sine culpa ; hinc enim maxima indignatiooritur :" Nihil peccavi " et " nihil feci." Immonihil fateris ! Indignamur aliqua admonitione autcoercitione nos castigatos, cum illo ipso temporepeccemus, quod adicimus malefactis adrogantiam2 et contumaciam. Quis est iste qui se profiteturomnibus legibus innocentem ? Ut hoc ita sit, quamangusta innocentia est ad legem bonum esse !Quanto latius officiorum patet quam iuris regula !Quam multa pietas, humanitas, liberalitas, iustitia,fides exigunt, quae omnia extra publicas tabulas3 sunt ! Sed ne ad illam quidem artissimam innocentiaeformulam praestare nos possumus.Aliafecimus, alia cogitavimus, alia optavimus, aliisfavimus ;in quibusdam innocentes sumus, quia non4 successit. Hoc cogitantes aequiores simus delinquentibus,credamus obiurgantibus ; utique bonisne irascamur (cui enim non, si bonis quoque ?),minime diis ; non enim illorum vi,^ sed lege mor-224^vi added by Hermes.

ON ANGER, II. XXVII. 4-xx\'iii. 4punishment ; then let it bring up the thought, notso much of what we suffer, as of Avhat we have done ;let us summon ourselves to give a verdict upon ourpast life ; if only we are wilUng to be frank ^vithourselves, we shall assess our fines at a still higherfigure.If , we are willing in all matters to play the justjudgfiiJet us convince ourselves first of this—thatno one of us is free from fault. For most of ourindignation arises from our saying, " I am not toblairi^" " I have done nothing wTong." Say,We chafe againstrather, you admit nothing WTong !the censure oT some reprimand or chastisementalthough at the very time we are at fault becausewe are adding to -wrong -doing arrogance andobstinacy. What man is there who can claim thatin thg eyes of every law he is innocent ? But assumingthat this may be, how limited is the innocencewhose standard of virtue is the law ! How muchmore comprehensive is the principle of duty than"/that of law ! How many are the demands laid uponus by the sense of duty, humanity, generosity, justice,integrity—all of which lie outside the statute books'^!But even under that other exceedingly narrowdefinition of innocence we cannot vouch for ourclaim. Some sins we have committed, some wehave^contemplated, some we have desired, somewe have encouraged ; in the case of some we areinnocent only because we did not succeed. Bearingthis in mind, let us be more just to transgressors,more heedful to those who rebuke us ; especially letus not be angry with the good (for who will escapeif we are to be angr}^ even with the good ?), and leastof^^afr vvillt the gods.~';For_it is not by their power,VOL. I Q 225

;SENECAtalitatis patimur quidquid incommodi accidit. " Atmorbi doloresque incurrunt." Utique aliquo defungendumest domicilium putre sortitis.Dicetur aliquis male de te locutus ; cogita an5 prior feceris, cogita de quam multis loquaris. Cogitemus,inquam, alios non facere iniuriam sed reponere,alios pro nobis facere, alios coactos facere,alios ignorantes, etiam eos, qui volentes scientesquefaciunt, ex iniuria nostra non ipsam iniuriam petere ;aut dulcedine urbanitatis prolapsus est, aut fecitaliquid, non ut nobis obesset, sed quia consequi ipsenon poterat, nisi nos repulisset ; saepe adulatio,6 dum blanditur, offendit. Quisquis ad se rettulerit,quotiens ipse in suspicionem falsam inciderit, quammultis officii ssuis fortuna speciem iniuriae induerit,quam multos post odimn amare coeperit, poteritnon statim irasci, utique si sibi tacitus ad singula^quibus offenditur dixerit ": Hoc et ipse commisi."7 Sed ubi tam aequum iudicem invenies ? Is quinulUus non uxorem concupiscit et satis iustas causasputat amandi, quod aliena est,idem uxorem suamaspici non vult ; et fidei acerrimus exactor estperfidus, et' mendacia persequitur ipse periurus, etlitem sibi inferri aegerrime calumniator patiturpudicitiam servulorum suorum adtemptari non vult226

;ON ANGER, II. XXVIII. 4-7but by the terms of our mortality, that we areforcea to suffer whatever ill befalls. " But," yousay, " sickness and pain assail us." At any ratethere must be an ending some time, seeing that wehave been given a crumbling tenement !it^wjlljbe said thjit some one spoke ill of you ;consider wheTher you spoke ill of him first, considerhow, many there are of whom you speak ill. Let usconsider, 1 say, that some are not doing us an injurybut repaying one, that others are acting for our good,that some are acting under compulsion, others inignorance, that even those who are acting intentionallyand ^vittingly do not, while injuring us, aim onlyat the injury ; one slipped into it allured by his wit,another did something, not to obstruct us, butbecause he could not reach his o^^'n goal withoutpushing us back ; often adulation, while it flatters,offends. If any one will recall how often he himselfhas fallen under undeserved suspicion, how many ofhis good services chance has clothed Avith the appearanceof injury, how many persons whom once hehated he learned to love, he -will be able to avoid allhasty anger, particularly if as each offence occurs hevnW first say to himself in silence ": I myself haveak(> hppn guilty nf thif;" But where will you finda judge so just ? The man who covets everybody'swife and considers the mere fact that she belongsto another an ample and just excuse for loving her—this same man will not have his own wife looked atthe strictest enforcer of loyalty is the traitor, thepunisher of falsehood is himself a perjurer, and thetrickster lavvj'er deeply resents an indictment beingbrought against himself ; the man who has no regardfor his own chastity \vi\\ permit no tampering with227

:SENECA8 qui non pepercit suae. Aliena vitia in oculis habemus,a tergo nostra sunt ;inde est quod tempestivafilii convivia pater deterior filio castigat, et nihilalienae luxuriae ignoscit qui nihil suae negavit, ethomieidae tyrannus irascitur, et punit furta sacrilegus.Magna pars hominum est quae non peccatis irascitursed peccantibus.Faciet nos moderatiores respectusnostri, si consuluerimus nos :" Numquid et ipsialiquid tale commisimus ? Numquid sic erravimus ?"Expeditne nobis ista damnare ?1 29. Maximum remedium irae mora est. Hoc abilia pete initio, non ut ignoscat, sed ut iudicet : graveshabet impetus primos ; desinet, si expectat. Neeuniversam illam temptaveris tollere ;tota vinceturjj2 dum partibus carpitur. Ex is, quae nos offendunt,!alia renuntiantur nobis, alia ipsi audimus aut videmus.De iis, quae narrata sunt, non debemus cito credere ;|multi mentiuntur, ut decipiant, multi, quia deceptijsunt. Alius criminatione gratiam captat et fingitiniuriam, ut videatur doluisse factam ; est aliquislmalignus et qui amicitias cohaerentis diducere veHt ;'est subdicax^ et qui spectare ludos cupiat et ex3 longinquo tutoque speculetur quos conlisit. Dejparvola summa iudicaturo tibi res sine teste norprobaretur, testis sine iureiurando non valeretJ^ subdicax Badstuhner : subprocax Lipsius : suspicax ALj:" Cf. Catullus, xxii. 20 sq. :suns ciiique attributus est errorsed non videmus manticae quod in tergo est..228

ON ANGER, II. xxvni. 8-xxix. 3that of his slaves. The vices of others we keepbefore our eyes, our own behind our back'' ; hence ithappens "that a father who is even worse than hisson rebukes his son's untimely revels, that a mandoes not pardon another's excesses who sets no boundto his ovm, that the murderer stirs a tyrant's wrath,and the temple-robber punishes theft. It is not_^^vith the sins but with the sinners that rnost menare angry. We shall become more tolerant fromself-inspection if we cause ourselves to consider :" Have we ourselves never been guilty of such anact ? Have we never made the same mistake ? Is itexpedient for us to condemn such conduct "?T^re^est corrective of anger lies in delay. Begthis concessiorTfrbrn anger at the first, not in orderthat it may pardon, but in order that it may judge.ItsTitst as'Sanlts are heavy ; it will leave off if itwaits. And do not try to destroy it all at once ;attacked piecemeal, it will be completely conquered.Of the things which offend us some arereported to us, others we ourselves hear or see. Asto what is told us, we should not be quick to beheve ;many falsify in order that they may deceive ; manyothers, because they themselves are deceived. Onecourts our favour by making an accusation andinvents an injury in order to show that he regretsthe occurrence ; then there is the man who is spitefuland wishes to break up binding friendships, andthe one who is sharp-tongued and, eager to see thesport, watches from a safe distance the friends whomhe has brought to blows. If the question of even asmall payment should come before you to be judged,you would require a ^^itness to prove the claim, thewitness Avould have no weight except on oath, you229

;SENECAutrique parti dares actionem, dares tempus, nonsemel audires ; magis enim Veritas elucet quosaepius ad manum venit. Amicum condemnas depraesentibus ? Antequam audJas, antequam interroges,antequam illi aut accusatorem suum nosseliceat aut crimen, irasceris ? lam enim, iam4 utrimque quid diceretur audisti ? Hie ipse, quiad te detulit, desinet dicere, si probare debuerit." Non est," inquit, " quod me protrahas ; ego productusnegabo ; alioqui nihil umquam tibi dicamEodem tempore et instigat et ipse se certaminipugnaeque subtrahit.Qui dicere tibi nisi clam nonvult, paene non dicit. Quid est iniquius quamsecreto credere, palam irasci ?1 30. Quorundam ipsi testes sumus ; in his naturamexcutiemus voluntatemque facientium. Puer estaetati donetur, nescit an peccet. Pater est ; auttantum profuit, ut ilU etiam iniuriae ius sit, autfortasse ipsum hoc meritum eius est quo ofFendimur.Mulier est ; errat. lussus est ; necessitati quis nisiiniquus suscenset ? Laesus est ; non est iniuria patiquod prior feceris. ludex est ;plus credas ilhussententiae quam tuae. Rex est ; si nocentem punit,230i

ON ANGER, II. XXIX. 3-xxx. 1would grant to both parties the right of process,you would allow them time, you would give morethan one hearing ; for the oftener you come toclose quarters vnih truth, the more it becomesmanifest. Do you condemn a friend on the spot ?Will you be angry >;\-ith him before you hear his side,before you question him, before he has a chance toknow either his accuser or the charge ? What, haveyou already heard what is to be said on both sides ?The man who gave you the information will of hisown accord stop talking if he is forced to prove whathe says. " No need to drag me forward," he says ; "ifI am brought forward I shall make denial ; otherwise,I shall never tell you anything." At one andthe same time he both goads you on and ^\-ithdrawshimself from the strife and the battle. The manwho is un^^ilBng to tell you anything except insecret has, we may almost say, nothing to tell. \\'hatis more unfair than to give credence secretly but tobe a.ngrj openly ?To some offences we can bear witness ourselves ;in such cases we shall search into the character andthe purpose of the offender. Does a child offend ?Excuse ^sllbuld be made for his age—he does notknow what is A\Tong. A father ? Either he hasbeeir"s?J'goad"to us that he has the right even toinjure us, or mayhap the very act which offends usis really a serAice. A woman ? It was a blunder. -^Some one under orders ? WTiat fair-minded personchafes against the ine\itable ? Some one who has beenwronged ? There is no injustice in your having tosubmit to that which you were the first to inflict.Is it a judge ? You should trust his opinion morethan your own. Is it a king ? If he punishes you

;:SENECA2 cede iustitiae, si innocentem, cede fortunae. Mutumanimal est aut simile muto ;imitaris illud, si irasceris.Morbus est aut calamitas ; levius transiliet sustinentem.Deus est ; tarn perdis operam cum illiirasceris, quam cum ilium alteri precaris iratum.Bonus vir est qui iniuriam fecit ; noli credere.Malus ; noli mirari ; dabit poenas altei-i quas debettibi, et iam sibi dedit qui peccavit.1 31. Duo sunt, ut dixi, quae iracundiam concitentprimum, si iniuriam videmur accepisse— de hoc satisdictum est; deinde, si iniqiie accepisse — de hocdicendum est. Iniqua quaedam iudicant homines,quia pati non debuerint, quaedam, quia non speraverint.Indigna putamus quae inopinata sunt2 itaque maxime commovent, quae contra spem expectationemqueevenerunt, nee aliud est quare indomesticis minima ofFendant, in amicis' iniuriam3 vocemus neglegentiam. " Quomodo ergo," inquit," inimicorum nos iniuriae movent " ? Quia non expectavimusillas aut certe non tantas. Hoc efficitamor nostri nimius. Inviolatos nos etiam inimicisiudicamus esse debere ; regis quisque intra se animum4 habet, ut hcentiam sibi dari velit, in se nolit. Itaquenos aut insolentia iracundos facit aut ignorantiarerum ;quid enim mirum est malos mala facinora232 1

ON ANGER, II. xx\. 2-xxxi. 4when you are guilt}', submit to justice, if when you —are-innncent^- submit to fortune. A dumb animalperhaps, or something just as dumb ? You becomehke it if you get angr}-. Is it a sickness or a misfortune? It will pass by more Ughtly if you bearup under it. Is it God ? You waste your painswhen you become angry ^\-ith him as much as when _-yoiTpray himrto be angry with another. Is it a goodiman~who hasdone you injury ? Do not beheve it.A bad man ? Do not be surprised ; he aWII sufferfrom another the punisliment which is due from vou, _, ^and he who has sinned has already punished himself. ''Thfere are, as I have said, two conditions underwhich anger is aroused : first, if we think that wehave received an injury—about this enough has beensaid ; second, if we think that we have received it )>ivt»ce tunjusth'=^about this something must now be said, ^•'m tMen judge some happenings to be unjust becausethey did not deserve them, some merely becausethey did not expect them. \Miat is unexpected wecount undesened. And so we are mightily stirredby all that happens contrary to hope and expectation,and fHIs^is the only reason why in domestic affairs weare vexed i>T trifles, why in the case of friends we callneglect a wTong. " Why, then," you query, " dothe ^\Tongs done by our enemies stir us " ? Becausewe did not expect them, or at any rate not MTongsso serious. This, in turn, is due to excessive selflove.We decide that we ought not to be harmedeven by our enemies ; each one in his heart hasthe king's point of view, and is -wilhng to use Ucence,but umnlling to suffer from it. And so it^is eitherarrogance or ignorance that makes us prone toanger ; for what is there surprising in A^icked men's233

;SENECAedere ? Quid novi est, si inimicus nocet, amicusoffendit, filius labitur, servus peccat ? Turpissimamaiebat Fabius imperatori excusationem esse ": Nonputavi," ego turpissimam homini puto. Omnia puta,expecta ; etiam in bonis moribus aliquid exsistet5 asperius. Fert humana natura insidiosos animos,fert ingratos, fert cupidos, fert impios. Cum deunius moribus iudicabis, de publicis cogita.Ubi maxime gaudebis, maxime metues. Ubitranquilla tibi omnia videntur, ibi nocitura nondesunt sed quiescunt. Semper futurum aliquidquod te offendat existima. Gubernator numquamita totos sinus securus explicuit, ut non expedite6 ad contrahendum armamenta disponeret. Illudante omnia cogita, foedam esse et exsecrabilem vimnocendi et alienissimam homini, cuius beneficio etiamsaeva mansuescunt. Aspice elephantorum iugocolla summissa et taurorum pueris pariter ac feminispersultantibus terga impune calcata et repentis interpocula sinusque innoxio lapsu dracones et intradomum ursorum leonumque ora placida tractantibusadulantisque dominum feras ;pudebit cum anima-7 libus permutasse mores. Nefas est nocere patriae ;ergo civi quoque, nam hie pars patriae est— sanctaepartes sunt, si universum venerabile est, — ergo ethomini, nam hie in maiore tibi urbe civis est. Quid

ON ANGER, II. XXXI. 4-7practising wicked deeds ? WTiy is it strange if anenemy injures us, a friend offends us, a son errs, ora servant blunders ? Fabius used to say that tlxeexcuse, " I did not think," was the one most shamefulfor a commander ; I think it most shameful forany man. Think of everything, expect everything ;even in good characters some unevenness will appear.Human nature begets hearts that are deceitful, thatare ungrateful, that are covetous, that are undutiful.When you are about to pass judgement on one singleman's character, reflect upon the general mass.WTien you are about to rejoice most, you will havemost to fear. When everything seems to you to bepeaceful, the forces that will harm are not nonexistent,but inactive. Alwa^:§__belieye that therewill come some blow to strike you. No skipper isever^s"o reckless as to unfurl all his canvas withouthaving his tackle in order for quickly shortening sail.AbQX£_^all, bear this in mind, that the power of hijuryis \il^an(l (kt ratable and most unnatural for man, bywhose kindness even fierce beasts are tamed. Lookhow~eIepHants " submit their necks to the yoke, howboys and women alike leap upon bulls ^ and treadtheir backs unhurt, how serpents crawl in harmlesscourse among our cups and over our laps, how gentleare the faces of bears and lions when their trainersare inside their cages, and how wild beasts fawnupon their keeper—we shall blush to have exchangedcharacters with the beasts'^! To injureone's country is a crime ; consequently, also, to injurea fellow-citizen—^for he is a part of the country, andif we reverence the whole, the parts are sacred—consequentlyto injure any man is a crime, for he is yourfellow-citizen in the greater commonwealth. \\Tiat235

SENECAsi nocere velint manus pedibus, manibus oculi ?Ut omnia inter se membra consentiunt, quia singulaservari totius interest, ita homines singulis parcent,quia ad coetum geniti sunt, salva autem esse societas8 nisi custodia et amore partium non potest. Neviperas quidem et natrices, et si qua morsu aut ictunocent, effligeremus, si in reliquum mansuefacerepossemus aut efficere, ne nobis aliisve periculo essent.Ergo ne homini quidem nocebimus, quia peccavit,sed ne peccet, nee umquam ad praeteritum, sed adfuturum poena referetur ; non enim irascitur, sedcavet. Nam si puniendus est cuicumque pravummaleficumque ingenium est, poena neminem excipiet.1 32. " At enim ira habet aliquam voluptatem etdulce est dolorem reddere." Minime ; non enim utin beneficus honestum est merita meritis repensare,ita iniurias iniuriis. IlUc vinci turpe est, hie vincere.Inhumanum verbum est et quidem pro iusto receptumultio, et talio non multum difFert^ nisi ordine ;qui dolorem regerit tantum excusatius peecat.2 M. Catonem ignorans^ in balineo quidam percussitimprudens ;quis enim illi sciens faceret iniuriam ?Postea satis facienti Cato ": Non memini," inquit,^ et quidem . . . difFert AL : ultio et deleted by mosteditors : et vitiose quidem pro iusto receptum, talio. proposedby Qertz : et quidem pro iusta receptum ultione" talio." Non multum difFert nisi ordine, qui doloremregerit : P. Thomas,ignorans most editors consider a gloss on imprudens.^" In the code of the XII. Tables talio is the Mosaic "aneye for an eje," and ultio {dolorem reg.rere), says Seneca,is merely a more excusable form of this savage law,236

ON ANGER, II. XXXI. 7-xxxii. 2if the hands should desire to harm the feet, or theeyes the hands ? As all the members of the bodyare in harmony one \\'ith another because it is to theadvantage of the whole that the indi\'idual membersbe unharmed, so mankind should spare the individualman, because all are bom for a Ufe of fellowship, andsocielEy can be kept unharmed only by the mutualprotection and love of its parts. We would noterusK~even a \'iper or a water-snake or any othercreature that harms by bite or sting if we couldmake them kindly in future, or keep them from beinga source of danger to ourselves and others. Neither,therefore, shall we injure a man because he has donewrong, but in order to keep him from doing \^Tong,and his punishment shall never look to the past, butalways to the future ; for that course is not anger,but precaution. For if every one whose nature is eviland^epraved must be punished, punishment willexempt no one." BuL-of cours e, tkere. is .some pleasure in anger,"you gay, " and it is sweet to return a smart." Not atall ; for it is not honourable, as in acts of kindness torequite benefits v\ith benefits, so to requite injurieswith injuries. In the one case it is shameful to beoutdone, in the other not to be outdone. " Revenge "is an inhuman word and yet one accepted as legitimate,and " retahation " is not much differentexcept in rank ; the man who returns a smartcommits merely the more pardonable sin." Oncewhen Marcus Cato was in the pubhc bath, a certainman, not knowing him, struck him unvvittingly ; forwho would knovvingly have done injury to thatgreat man ? Later, when the man was makingapology, Cato said, " I do not recall that I received2.S7

;SENECA" me percussum." Melius putavit non agnoscere3 quam vindicare. " Nihil," inquis, " illi post tantampetulantiam mali factum est " ? Immo multumboni ; coepit Catonem nosse. Magni animi estiniurias despieere ;ultionis contumeliosissimum genusest non esse visum dignum, ex quo peteretur ultio.Multi leves iniurias altius sibi demisere, dum vindicant.Ille magnus et nobilis, qui more magnaeferae latratus minutorum canum securus exaudit.1 33. " Minus," inquit, " contemnemur, si vindicaverimusiniuriam." Si tamquam ad remediumvenimus, sine ira veniamus, non quasi dulce sitvindicari, sed quasi utile ; saepe autem satius fuitdissimulare quam ulcisci. Potentiorum iniuriaehilari vultu, non patienter tantum ferendae suntfacient iterum, si se fecisse crediderint. Hoc habentpessimum animi magna fortuna insolentes : quos2 laeserunt et oderunt. Notissima vox est eius quiin cultu regum consenuerat. Cum ilium quidaminterrogaret, quomodo rarissimam rem inaula consecutusesset, senectutem :" Iniurias," inquit, " accipiendoet gratias agendo." Saepe adeo iniuriamvindicare non expedit, ut ne fateri quidem expediat.3 C. Caesar Pastoris splendidi equitis Romani filiumcum in custodia habuisset munditiis eius et cul-238

ON ANGER, II. XXXII. 2-xxxiii. 3a blow." It was better, he thought, to ignore theincident than to resent it. " Then the fellow," youask, "got no punishment for such an act of rudeness?"No, but much good—he began to know Cato.a great soul can be superior to injur}'^ ; the mosthurmliating kind of revenge is to have it appear thatthe man was not worth taking revenge upon. Manyhave taken slight injuries too deeply to heart in theact of revenging them. He is a great and noble manwho acts as does the lordly s\'ild beast that Ustensunconcernedly to the bajnng of tiny dogs." iTvce^avenge an injury," you say, " we shall beless ^bjecFTo-fconternpt." If we must resort to areriae3v, as if were, for contempt, let us do so ^vithoutanger—^not with the plea that revenge is sweet, butthat it is expedient ; it is often, however, better tofeigtr^gnoranee of an act than to take vengeance forit. Injuries from the more powerful must be borne,not merely with submission, but even with a cheerfulcountenance ; they will repeat the offence if they arecon\Tnced that they have succeeded once. Menwhose spirit has gro>\'n arrogant from the greatfavour of fortune have this most serious fault—thosewhom they have injured they also hate. The wordsof the man who had grown old in doing homage tokings are famihar to all. \Vlien some one askedhim how he had attained what was so rarely achievedat court; namely old age, he replied, " By acceptinginjuries and returning thanks for them." So far fromOnlv-^its being expedient to avenge injuries, it is ofteninexpedient even to acknowledge them. GaiusCaesar, offended with the son of Pastor, a distinguishedRoman knight, because of his foppishnessand his too elaborately dressed hair, sent him to239

SENECAtioribus capillis offensus, rogante patre ut saluteinsibi filii concederet, quasi de supplicio admonitusduci protinus iussit ; ne tamen omnia inhumanefaceret adversum patrem, ad cenam ilium eo die4 invitavit. Venit Pastor vultu nihil exprobrante.Propinavit ilh Caesar heminam et posuit ilH custodem;perduravit miser, non ahter quam si fih sanguinembiberet. Unguentum et coronas misit et observareiussit an sumeret ; sumpsit. Eo die, quo filiumextulerat, immo quo non extulerat, iacebat convivacentesimus et potiones vix honestas natalibus liberorumpodagricus senex hauriebat, cum interim nonlacrimam emisit, non dolorem aliquo signo erumperepassus est ; cenavit tamquam pro fiho exorasset.5 Quaeris, quare ? Habebat alterum. Quid illePriamus ? Non dissimulavit iram et regis genuacomplexus est, funestam perfusamque cruore fiHmanum ad os suum retulit, cenavit ? Sed tamensine unguento, sine coronis, et ilium hostis saevissimusmultis solaciis, ut cibum caperet, hortatus est,non ut pocula ingentia super caput posito custode6 sicearet. Contempsisses^ Romanum patrem, si sibitimuisset ; nunc iram compescuit pietas. Dignusfuit cui permitteretur a convivio ad ossa fili legenda^ contempsisses Hermes, after Gertz : contempsisset AL."Cf. Iliad, xxiv. 477-479, for the incident. Achilles hadslain Hector, and P.riam, a suppliant in the lodge of thevictor, now seeks to ransom the body of his son.240

AndON ANGER, II. XXXIII. 3-6prison ; when the father begged that his son's lifemight be spared, Caesar, just as if he had beenreminded to punish him, ordered him to be executedforth^\-ith ;yet in order not to be wholly brutal tothe father, he in\-ited him to dine with him that day.Pastor actually came and showed no reproach in hiscountenance. Caesar, taking a cup, proposed hishealth and set some one to watch him ; the poor>\Tetch went through ^\ith it, although he seemed tobe drinking the blood of his son. Caesar then senthim perfume and garlands of flowers and gave ordersto watch whether he used them : he used them.On the very day on which he had buried—no, beforehe had yet buried—his son, he took his place amonga hundred dinner-guests, and, old and gouty as hewas, drained a draught of wine that would scarce havebeen a seemly potion even on the birthday of oneof his children, all the while shedding not a singletear nor by any sign suffering his grief to be revealed ;at ihe dinner_he. acted as if he had obtained thepardonTie had sought for lii^ ^on. Do you ask why ?He^jad"a sccdncTson . what did great Priam do ?DioTie not disguise his anger and embrace the kneesof the klfig? Did he not carry to his lips the murderousliaiid all stained with the blood of his son?"Did he not dine ? True, but there was no perfumefor liim, no garlands, and his bloodthirsty enemywith many soft words pressed him to take food, anddid not force him to cbain huge beakers while someone stood over him to watch. The Roman father youwould have despised if hi- fears had been for himself ;as it was. affection curbed his anger. He deservedto be permitted to leave tl\e banquet in order thathe might gather up the bones of his son, but thatVOL I R 241

discedere ;et comis adulescens ;SENECAne hoc quidem permisit benignus interimpropinationibiis senem crebris,ut cura leniretur admonens, lacessebat ;contra illese laetum et oblitum, quid eo actum esset die,praestitit. Perierat alter filius, si carnifici convivanon placuisset.1 34. Ergo ira abstinendum est, sive par est quilacessendus est sive superior sive inferior. Cumpare contendere anceps est, cum superiore furiosum,cum inferiore sordidum. Pusilli hominis et miseriest repetere mordentem. Mures formicaeque, simanum admoveris, ora convertunt ; imbecillia se2 laedi putant, si tanguntur. Faciet nos mitiores, sicogitaverimus, quid aliquando nobis profuerit illecui irascimur, et meritis offensa redimetur. Illudquoque occurrat, quantum nobis commendationisallatura sit clementiae fama, quam multos venia3 amicos utiles fecerit. Ne irascamur inimicorum ethostium liberis, inter SuUanae crudelitatis exemplaest, quod ab re publica liberos proscriptorum submovit.Nihil est iniquius quam aliquem heredem4 paterni odii fieri. Cogitemus, quotiens ad ignoscendumdifficiles erimus, an expediat nobis omnesinexorabiles esse. Quam saepe veniam qui negavitpetit ! Quam saepe eius pedibus advolutus est,quem a suis reppulit ! Quid est gloriosius quam242

ON ANGER, II. XXXIII. fr-.xxxiv. 4stripling prince, all the while so kindly and polite,did not permit even this ;pledging the old man'shealth again and again, he tortured him by m-ginghim to lighten his sorrow, while on the other handthe father made a show of being happy and obh\iousof all that had been done that day. The other .son was doomed, had the guest displeased the -4—executioner.We must, therefore, refrain from anger, whetherhe I)e~aii equ»l—of a supn4or'-t)T an~iTifertor whoprovo^s its pow er. A contest ^^ith one's equal ishazardous, with a superior mad, with an inferiordegraHing. It is a petty and sorry person who willbile J2ack^\yhen he is bitten. Mice and ants, if youbring your hand near them, do turn at you ; feeblecreatures think they are hurt if they are only touched.It will make us more kindly if we remember thebenefit we once received from him who now provokesour anger, and let his kindnesses atone for his offence.Let us jilso bear in mind how much approval we shallgain from a reputatTon for forbearance, how manyhave been made useful friends through forgiveness.From the examples of Sulla's cruelty comes theless^i that—we^ should feel no anger toward thechilclren of pergonal and political enemies, since heremcjved from the state even the children of theproscribed. Tliere is no greater injustice than tomake a man the inheritor of hatred borne toward hisfather. Whenever we are loth to pardon, let usconsider whether we ourselves should benefit if allmen were inexorable. How often has he who refusedforgiveness sought it ! How often has he grovelledat the feet of the man whom he had repulsed fromhis o\vn ! WTxat is more splendid than to exchange243

;SENECAiram amicitia mutare ? Quos populus Romanusfideliores habet socios quam quos habuit pertinacissimoshostes ? Quod hodie esset imperium, nisisalubris providentia victos permiscuisset victoribus ?5 Irascetur aliquis ; tu contra beneficiis provoca.Cadit statim simultas ab altera parte deserta ; nisiparia non pugnant. Sed utrimque certabit ira,concurritur, ille est melior qui prior pedem rettulit ;victus est qui vicit. Percussit te, recede ;referiendoenim et occasionem saepius feriendi dabis et excusationem; non poteris revelli, cum voles.1 35. Numquid velit quisquam tarn graviter hostemferire, ut relinquat manum in vulnere et se ab icturevocare non possit ? Atqui tale ira telum estvix retrahitur. Arma nobis expedita prospicimus,gladium commodum et habilem ; non vitabimusimpetus animi istos^ graves et onerosos et irre-2 vocabiles ? Ea demum velocitas placet, quae ubiiussa est vestigium sistit nee ultra destinata procurritflectique et a cursu ad gradum reduci potest ;aegros scimus nervos esse, ubi invitis nobis moventur ;senex aut infirmi corporis est, qui cum ambularevult currit. Animi motus eos putemus sanissimosvalidissimosque, qui nostro arbitrio ibunt, non suoferentur.3 Nihil tamen aeque profuerit quam primum intuerideformitatem rei, deinde periculum. Non est ullius2441 istos Oertz : . . . hos A'^A^.

ON ANGER, II. XXXIV. 4-xxx'\-. 3anger for friendship ? What—more faithful alliesdoe&^the Roman people possess than those who wereonce its most stubborn foes ? WTiere would theempire~l5e to-day had not a sound foresight unitedtho^victors "and the vanquished into one ? Does aman get angry ? Do you on the contrary challengehina with kindness. Animosit}^ if abandoned byone side, forthwith dies ; it takes two to make afight. But if anger shall be rife on both sides, if theconflict comes, he is the better man who first withdra\tsj.the vanquished is the one who \\-ins. Ifsome one strike-^ yuu. step back ; for by striking backyou^jwtti gi^G hiiu lx>th the opportunity and theexcuse to repeat lu< blow ; when you later wish toextalcSltEryDUrself, it will be impossible.WouljJ^any one want to stab an enemy ^^ith suchforce as to~Teave hi? oa^ti hand in the wound and beunable to recover himself from the blow ? But sucha weapon is anger ; it is hard to draw back. Wetake care to have light arms, a handy and nimblesword ; shall we not avoid those mental outburststhat are clumsy, unwieldy, and beyond control ?The only desirable speed is that which ^v^ll check itspace when ordered, which will not rush past theappointed goal, and can be altered and reduced fromrunning to a walk ; when our muscles t^\•itch againstour ^^'ill, we know that they are diseased ; he whoruns when he tries to walk is either old or broken inbody. In the operations of the mind we shoulddeem those to be the sanest and the soundest whichwill start at our pleasure, not rush on at their o^vn.Nothing, however, \vill prove as profitable as to considerfirst the hideousness of the thing, and then itsdanger. No other emotion has an outward aspect2i5

;SENECAadfectus facies turbatior ;pulcherrima ora foedavit,torvos vultus ex tranquillissimis reddit ; linquitdecor omnis iratos, et sive amictus illis compositusest ad legem, trahent vestem omnemque curam suieffundent, sive capillorum natura vel arte iacentiumnon informis habitus, cum animo inhorrescunttumescunt venae ; concutietur crebro spiritu pectus,rabida vocis eruptio colla distendet ; turn artustrepidi, inquietae manus, totius corporis fluctuatio.4 Qualem intus putas esse animum, cuius extra imagotam foeda est ? Quanto illi intra pectus terribiliorvultus est, acrior spiritus, intentior impetus, rupturus6 se nisi eruperit ! Quales sunt hostium vel ferarum Icaede madentium aut ad caedem euntium aspectus,qualia poetae inferna monstra finxerunt succinctaserpentibus et igneo flatu, quales ad bella excitandadiscordiamque in populos dividendam pacemquelacerandam teterrimae inferum exeunt : talemnobis iram figuremus, flamma lumina ardentia,sibilo mugituque et gemitu et stridore et si qua hisinvisior vox est perstrepentem, tela manu utraquequatientem (neque enim ilh se tegere curae est),torvam cruentamque et cicatricosam et verberibussuis hvidam, incessus vaesani, ofFusam multa caligine,incursitantem, vastantem fugantemque et omniumodio laborantem, sui maxiine, si aliter nocere nonpossit, terras, maria, caelum ruere cupientem,246

—ON ANGER, II. XXXV. 3-5so disordered: it-jnakes^ ugly the most beautiful ^«

SENECA6 infestam pariter invisamque. Vel, si videtur, sitqualis apud vates nostros est :Sanguineum quatiens dextra Bellona flagellum,aut scissa gaudens vadit Discordia palla,aut si qua magis dira facies excogitari diri adfectuspotest.1 36. Quibusdam, ut ait Sextius, iratis profuitaspexisse speculum ;perturbavit illos tanta mutatiosui ; velut in rem praesentem adducti non agnoveruntse. Et quantulum ex vera deformitate imago ilia2 speculo repercussa reddebat ? Animus si ostendiet si in ulla materia perlucere posset, intuentis nosconfunderet ater maculosusque et aestuans etdistortus et tumidus. Nunc quoque tanta deformitaseius est per ossa carnesque et tot impedimentaeffluentis ;quid si nudus ostenderetur ?3 Speculo quidem neminem deterritum ab ira credideris: quid ergo est^ ? Qui ad speculum venerat,ut se mutaret, iam mutaverat ; iratis quidem nullaest formonsior effigies quam atrox et horrida, qualesqueesse etiam videri volunt.4 Magis illud videndum est, quam multis ira perse nocuerit. Alii nimio fervore rupere venas etsanguinem supra vires elatus clamor egessit et^est added by Gertz.248" An adaptation of Virgil, Aeneid, viii. 702 sq. :Et scissa gaudens vadit Discordia palla,quam cum sanguineo sequitur Bellona flagello,

ON ANGER, II. XXXV. &-xxx\'i. 4if it^an find no other May to harm, equally hating andhated. Or7rryou"\rill, let us take the picture fromour poets :Flaunting her bloody scourge the War-dame strides.Or Discord glorying in her tattered robe."Or make you any other picture of this dread passionthat can be devised still more dread.As Sextius remarks, it has been good for somepeople to see themselves in a mirror while they areangry ; the great change in themselves alarmedthem ; brought, as it were, face to face -sWth thereahty they did not recognize themselves. And howlittle of the real ughness did that image reflected inthe mirror disclose ! If the soul could be sho\\Ti, ifit were in some substance through which it mightshine^~Tts black^ and mottled, inflamed, distortedand swollen appearance would confound us as wegazedjjpon it. Even as it is, though it can only cometo the surface through flesh, bones, and so manyobstacles, its hideousness is thus great—what if itcould be sho\vn stark naked ? You_ may perhapsthink that no one has really been frightened out ofanger~by a min-or. Well, what then ? The manwho had gone to the mirror in order to effect a changein himself was already a changed man ; while menremain angrj' no image is more beautiful than one'which is fierce and savage, and such as they are they\\ish also to appear.This, rather, is ^^h^t "w*^ f>"ght to r^flhVf^—howmany men anger in and of itself has injured. Somethrough too much passion h4Ve "blH'St fReir veins, ashout that strains our strength has carried with itblood, and too powerful a rush of tears to the eyes249

SENECAluminum suffudit aciem in oculos vehementius umoregestus et in morbos aegri reccidere.Nulla celerior5 ad insaniam via est. Multi itaque continuaveruntirae furorem nee quam expulerant mentem umquamreceperunt. Aiacem in mortem egit furor, infurorem ira. Mortem liberis, egestatem sibi, ruinamdomui imprecantur et irasci se negant non minusquam insanire furiosi. Amicissimis hostes vitandiquecarissimis, legum nisi qua nocent immemores, adminima mobiles, non sermone, non officio adiri faciles,per vim omnia gerunt, gladiiset pugnare parati et6 incumbere. Maximum enim illos malum cepit etomnia exsuperans vitia. Alia paulatim intrant,repentina et universa vis huius est. Omnis deniquealios affeetus sibi subicit. Amorem ardentissimumvincit, transfoderunt itaque amata corpora et ineorum quos occiderant iacuere complexibus ; avaritiam,durissimum malum minimeque flexibile, iracalcavit adactam^ opes suas spargere et domuirebusque in unum conlatis inicere ignem. Quid ?Non ambitiosus magno aestimata proiecit insigniahonoremque delatum reppulit ? Nullus affeetus est,in quem non ira dominetur,^ adactam Michaelis and Gertz : adacta A.

ON ANGER, II. xxx\'i. 4-6has blurred tlie sharpness of their vision, and sicklypeoplehave fallen back into illnesses. There is noquicker road to madness. Many, therefore, havecontinued in the frenzy of anger, and have neverrecovered the reason that had been unseated. It wasfrenzy that drove Ajax to his death and anger drovehim into frenzy. These all call down death upontheir cliildren, poverty upon themselves, destructionupon their house, and they deny that they are angryjust as the frenzied deny that they are mad. Theybecorne enemies to their closest friends and have tobe shunned by those most dear ; regardless of alllaw except as a means to injure, swayed by trifles,difficult to approach by either word or kindly act,they conduct themselves always with violence and.are ready either to fight with the sword or tofall upon it.* For the fact is that the greatest of alle\"ilS74fce-^ee^that surpasses all others, has laid holdupoji, them. Other ills come gi-adually, but thepower of this is sudden and complete. In short, itbrings into subjection all other passions. It conquersthe most ardent love, and so in anger men havestabbed the bodies that they loved and have lain inthe arms of-those whom they had slain ; avarice, themost stubborn and unbending e\il, has been troddenunder foot by anger after being forced to scatter herwealth and to set fire to her home and all her collectedtreasure. Tell me, has not also the ambitiousman torn off the highly prized insignia of his officeandr rejected the honour that had been conferred?There is no passion of any kind over which angerdoes not hold mastery.251

;LIBER VAD NOVATVMDE IRALIBER III1 1. Quod maxime desiderasti, Novate, nunc faceretemptabimus, iram excidere animis aut certe refrenareet impetus eius inhibere. Id aliquandopalam aperteque faciendum est, ubi minor vis malipatitur, aliquando ex occulto, ubi nimium ardetomnique impedimento exasperatur et crescit ;refertquantas vires quamque integras habeat, utrumreverberanda et agenda retro sit an cedere ei debeamus,dum tempestas prima desaevit, ne remediaipsa secum ferat.2 Consilium pro moribus cuiusque capiendum eritquosdam enim preces vincunt ;quidam insultantinstantque summissis, quos terrendo placabimusalios obiurgatio, alios confessio, alios pudor coeptodeiecit, alios mora, lentum praecipitis mali remedium,3 ad quod novissime descendendum est. Ceteri enimadfectus dilationem recipiunt et curari tardius252

BOOK VTO NOVATUSON ANGERBOOK IIIWe shall now, Novatus, attempt to do what you haveespecially desired—we shall try to banish angerfrom the mind, or at least to bridle and restrain itsfury. This must be done sometimes plainly andopenly, whenever a slighter attack of the maladymakes this possible, sometimes secretly, when itsflame burns hot and every obstacle but intensifiesand increases its power ; it depends upon how muchstrength and \igour it has whether we ought to beatback its attack and force a retreat, or should yieldbefore it until the first storm of its fury has passed,in order to keep it from sweeping along with it thevery means of relief.Each man's character will have to determine hisplan- of action : some men yield to entreaty ; sometrample and stamp upon those who give way, and weshall quiet these by making them fear ; some areturned from their course by reproof, others by a 4"confession of guilt, others by slvame, others by procrastination—aslow remedy, this last, for a swiftdisorder, to be used only as a last resort. For whilethe other passions admit of postponement and may"253

SENECApossunt, huius incitata et se ipsa rapiens violentianon paulatim procedit sed, dum incipit, tota est ;nee aliorum more vitiorum sollicitat animos, sedabducit et impotentes sui cupidosque vel communismali exagitat, nee in ea tantum in quae destinavit,4 sed in occurrentia obiter^ furit. Cetera vitia impelluntanimos, ira praecipitat. Etiam si resisterecontra affectus suos non licet, at certe afFectibusipsis licet stare ; haec non secus quam fulminaprocellaeque et si qua alia irrevocabilia sunt, quianon eunt, sed cadunt, vim suam magis ac magis5 intendit. Alia vitia. a ratione, hoc a sanitate desciscit; alia accessus lenes habent et incrementafallentia ; in iram delectus animorum est. Nullaitaque res urget magis attonita et in vires suas pronaet, sive successit, superba, sive frustratur, insana ;ne repulsa quidem in taedium acta, ubi adversariumfortuna subduxit, in se ipsa morsus suos vertit. Neerefert quantum sit ex quo surrexerit ; ex levissimisenim in maxima evadit.i 2. NuUam transit aetatem, nullum hominum genusexcipit. Quaedam gentes beneficio egestatis nonnovere luxuriam ;quaedam, quia exercitae et vagaesunt, efFugere pigritiam ;quibus incultus mosagrestisque vita est, circumscriptio ignota est etfraus et quodcumque in foro malum nascitur.Nullagens est, quam non ira instiget, tam inter Graios2541 obiter A^ : ob iter C. F. W. Muller.

T;ON ANGER, III. I. 3-II. 1be cured more leisurely, this one in hurried and selfdriyehvTdtence does not advance by slow degrees,but becomes full-gro^^Tl the moment it begins ; and,unlikeTRe^Tijer yicjes, it does not seduce but abductsthe, mind, and it goads on those that, lacking allself-control, desire, if need be, the destruction ofall, and its fury falls not merely upon the objectsat whichTTt aims, but upon all that meet it by theway;-— ha-other ^"iees incite the mind, anger overthrowsjtr~E\'enif a man may not resist his passions,yet at least the passions themselves may haltanger intensifies its vehemence more and more, hkethe hghtning's stroke, the hurricane, and the otherthings that are incapable of control for the reasonthat they not merely move, but fall. Other \-icesare a revolt against intelligence, this against sanity ;the._o£h£rs approach gently and grow up unnoticed,but the mind plunges headlong into anger. Thereforeno more frenzied state besets the mind, nonemore reliant upon its 0"\\ti power, none more arrogantif it is successful, none more insane if it is baffled ;since it is not reduced to weariness even by defeat,if chance removes its foe it turns its teeth upon itself.And the source from which it springs need not begreat ; for rising from most trivial things it mountsto monstrous size.It _passes by no time of hfe, makes exception ofno_ class of-iaen. Some races by the blessing ofpoverty know nothing of luxury ; some because theyare restless and wandering have escaped sloth ; theuncivilized state of some and their rustic mode oflife keep them strangers to trickery and deceptionand all the evil that the forum breeds. But therelives no race that does not feel the goad of anger,255

SENECAquam inter barbaros potens,non minus perniciosaleges metuentibus quam quibus iura distinguit2 modus virium. Denique cetera singulos corripiunt,hie unus adfectus est, qui interdum publice concipitur.Numquam populus universus feminae amoreflagravit, nee in pecuniam aut lucrum tota civitasspem suam misit ; ambitio viritim singulos occupat ;3 impotentia una est malum publicum. Saepe in iramuno agmine itum est ; viri feminae, senes pueri,principes vulgusque consensere, et tota multitudepaucissimis verbis concitata ipsum concitatoremantecessit ; ad arma protinus ignesque discursumest et indicta finitimis bella aut gesta cum civibus ;4 totae cum stirpe omni crematae domus et modoeloquio favorabili habitus in multo honore iramsuae contionis excepit ; in imperatorem suumlegiones pila torserunt ; dissedit plebs tota cumpatribus ;publicum consilium senatus non expectatisdilectibus nee nominato imperatore subitos irae suaeduces legit ac per tecta urbis nobiles consectatus5 viros supplicium manu sumpsit ; violatae legationesrupto iure gentium rabiesque infanda civitatem tuht,nee datum tempus, quo resideret tumor publicus,sed deductae protinus classes et oneratae tumultuariomilite ;sine more, sine auspiciis populus ductuirae suae egressus fortuita raptaque pro armis gessit,256

ON ANGER, III. 11. 1-5which masters alike both Greeks and barbarians, andis no less ruinous to those who respect the law thanto those who make might the only measure of theirright. Lastly, though the other \'ices lay hold ofindividual men, this is the only passion that can attimes possess a whole state. No entire people hasever burned with love for a woman, no whole statehas set its hope upon money or gain ; ambition ispersonal and seizes upon the individual ; only furyis an affliction of a whole people. Often in a single rr^ •mass~tHey^rush into anger ; men and women, old menand boys, the gentrj^ and the rabble, are all in fullaccord, and the united body, inflamed by a veryfew incendiary words, outdoes the incendiary himself;they fly forthwith to fire and sword, and proclaimwar against their neighbours or wage it against theircountrymen ; whole houses are consumed, root andbranch, and the man who but lately was held in highesteem and applauded for his eloquence receives nowthe anger of his foUoA^ing ; legions hurl their javelinsupon their o>vn commanders ; all the commoners areat discord ^\•ith the nobles ; the senate, the highcouncil of the state, without waiting to levy troops,without appointing a commander, chooses impromptuagents of its vvrath, and hunting down its high-bornvictims throughout the houses of the cit}-, takespunishment in its own hand ; embassies are outraged,the law of nations is broken, and unheard of madnesssweeps the state, and no time is given for the pubhcferment to subside, but fleets are launched forthvvithand loaded with hastily gathered troops ; withouttraining, without auspices, under the leadership of itsown anger, the populace goes forth, snatching up forarms whatever chance has offered, and then atonesVOL. I s 257

SENECAdeinde magna clade temeritatem audacis irae luit.6 Hie barbaris forte ruentibus in bella exitus est ;cum mobiles animos species iniuriae perculit, agunturstatim et qua dolor traxit ruinae modo legionibusincidunt incompositi, interriti, incauti, pericula adpetentessua ;gaudent feriri et instare ferro et telacorpore urgere et per suum vulnus exire.1 3. " Non est," inquis, " dubium, quin magna istaet pestifera sit vis ; ideo quemadmodum sanaridebeat monstra."Atqui, ut in prioribus libris dixi,Stat Aristoteles defensor irae et vetat illam nobisexsecari ;animum etcalcar ait esse virtutis, hac erepta inermemad conatus magnos pigrum inertemque2 fieri. Necessarium est itaque foeditatem eius acferitatem coarguere et ante oculos ponere quantummonstri sit homo in hominem furens quantoqueimpetu ruat non sine pernicie sua perniciosus et eadeprimens, quae mergi nisi cum mergente non3 possunt. Quid ergo ? Sanum hunc aliquis vocat,qui velut tempestate correptus non it sed agitur etfurenti malo servit, nee mandat ultionem suam, sedipse eius exactor animo simul ac manu saevit carissimorumeorumque quae mox amissa fleturus est4 carnifex ? Hunc aliquis affectum virtuti adiutorem258° Cf. i. 9. 2 ; 17. 1 ; ii. 13. 1.

ON ANGER, III. n. 5-ni. 4for the rash daring of its anger by a great disaster.Such is the outcome, when barbarians rush haphazardinto war ; the moment their excitable minds areroused by the semblance of injury, they are forthwithin action, and where their resentment draws them,Uke an avalanche they fall upon our legions—allunorganized, unfearful, and unguarded, seeking theirowTi destruction ; with joy they are struck down,or press forward upon the sword, or thrust theirbodies upon the spear, or perish from a self-madewound." Ttiere can be no doubt," you say, " that such aforce is powe~rftil~and pernicious; show, therefore,how itjs to be cured." And yet, as I said in my earlierbooks,** Aristotle stands forth as the defender ofanger, and forbids us to cut it out ; it is, he claims,a spur to virtue, and if the mind is robbed of it, itbecomes defenceless and grows sluggish and indifferentto high endeavour. Therefore our firstnecessity is to prove its foulness and fierceness, andto set before the eyes what an utter monster a manis Mclien he is enraged against a fellow-man, >rithwhat furylTe rushes on working destruction—destructiveof himself as well and wTCcking what cannot besunk_ unless he sinks with it. Tell me, then, willany one calFthe man sane who, just as if seized bya hurricane, does not walk but is driven along, andis at the mercy of a raging demon, who entrusts nothis revenge to another, but himself exacts it, and thus,bloodthirst}' ahke in purpose and in deed, becomesthe murderer of those persons who are dearest andthe destroyer of those things for which, when lost, heis destined ere long to weep ? Can any one assignthis passion to \irtue as its supporter and consort259

;SENECAcomitemque dat consilia, sine quibus virtus nihilgerit, obturbantem ? Caducae sinistraeque suntvires et in malum suum validae, in quas aegrum5 morbus et accessio erexit. Non est ergo quod meputes tempus in supervacuis consumere, quod iram,quasi dubiae apud homines opinionis sit, infamem,cum sit ahquis et quidem de illustribus philosophis,qui illiindicat operas et tamquam utilem ac spiritussubministrantem in proelia, in actus rerum, adomne, quodcumque calore aliquo gerendum est?6 vocet. Ne quem fallat tamquam ahquo tempore,aliquo loco profutura, ostendenda est rabies eiusefFrenata et attonita apparatusque illi reddendusest suus, eculei et fidiculae et ergastula et cruceset circumdati defossis corporibus ignes et cadaveraquoque trahens uncus, varia vinculorum genera,varia poenarum, lacerationes membrorum, inscriptionesfrontis et bestiarum immanium caveae—interhaec instrumenta collocetur ira dirum quiddamatque horridum stridens, omnibus per quae furittaetrior.1 4. Ut de ceteris dubium sit, nulli certe adfectuipeior est vultus, quem in prioribus libris descripsimus: asperum et acrem et nunc subducto retrorsussanguine fugatoque pallentem, nunc in os» The course of the thought is : The question whetheranger is a good or an evil is not, as might be thought, soclearly settled that further discussion of it is unnecessaryfor so great a philosopher as Aristotle found anger commendablefor certain purposes.» Cf. i. 1. 3-7.260

ON ANGER, III. HI. 4-iv. lwhen it confounds the resolves without which virtueaccompUshes nothing ? Transient aiadhftneful, andpotent only for its o^\-n harm, is the strength whicha sicic man acquires" Itom the rising of Ixis fever.Therefore when I decry anger on the assumption thatmen are not agreed" in their estimate of it, you arenot to think that I am wasting time on a superfluousmatter ; for there is one, and he, too, a distinguishedphilosopher, who ascribes to it a function, and onthe ground that it is useful and conducive to energywould evoke it for the needs of battle, for thebusiness of state—for any undertaking, in fact, thatrequires some fervour for its accomplishment. Tothe end that no one may be deceived into supposingthat at any time, in any place, it will be profitable,the unbridled and frenzied madness of anger mustbe exposed, and there must be restored to it thetrappings that are its very own—the torture-horse,the cord, the jail, the cross, and fires encircling Uvingbodies implanted in the ground, the drag-hook thatseizes even corpses, and all the different kinds ofchains and the different kinds of punishment, therending of limbs, the branding of foreheads, thedens of frightful beasts—in the midst of these herimplements let anger be placed, while she hissesforth her dread and hideous sounds, a creature moreloathsome even than all the instruments throughwhich she vents her rage.Whatever doubt there may be concerning angerin other respects, there is surely no other passionwhose countenance is worse—that countenancewhich we have pictured in the earher books ''—nowharsh and fierce, now pale by reason of the backwardflow and dispersing of the blood, now flushed261

SENECAomni calore ac spiritu verso subrubicundum etsimilem cruento, venis tumentibus, oculis nunctrepidis etexsilientibus, nunc in uno obtutu defixis2 et haerentibus ; adice dentium inter se arietatorumut aliquem esse cupientium non alium sonum quamest apris tela sua adtritu acuentibus ;adice articulorumcrepitum, cum se ipsae manus frangunt, etpulsatum saepius pectus, anhelitus crebros tractosquealtius gemitus, instabile corpus, incerta verba subitisexclamationibus, trementia labra interdumque com-3 pressa et dirum quiddam exsibilantia. Ferarum,me hercules, sive illas fames agitat sive infixumvisceribus ferrum, minus taetra facies est, etiamcum venatorem suum semianimes morsu ultimopetunt, quam hominis ira flagrantis.Age, si exaudirevoces ac minas vacet, qualia excarnificati animirevocare se quisque ab ira volet,4 verba sunt ! Nonnecum intellexerit illam a suo primum malo incipere ?Non vis ergo admoneam eos, qui iram summa potentiaexercent et argumentum virium existimant et inmagnis magnae fortunae bonis ponunt paratamultionem, quam non sit potens, immo ne liber quidem5 dici possit irae suae captivus ? Non vis admoneam,quo diligentior quisque sit et ipse se circumspiciat,alia animi mala ad pessimos quosque pertinere,iracundiam etiam eruditis hominibus et in alia sanisinrepere ? Adeo ut quidam simplicitatis indicium262

ON ANGER, III. IV. 1-5and seemingly steeped in blood when all the heatand fire of the body has been turned toward the face,^\•ith swollen veins, with eyes now restless anddarting, now fastened and motionless in one fixedgaze ; mark, too, the sound of clashing teeth, as iftheir o^^'ners were bent on devouring somebody, likethe noise the wild boar makes when he sharpens histusks by rubbing ; mark the crunching of the jointsas the hands are \iolently crushed together, theconstant beating of the breast, the quick breathingand deep-drawn sighs, the unsteady body, thebroken speech and sudden outcries, the hps nowtrembhng, now tight and hissing out a curse. Wildbeasts, I swear, whether tormented by hunger or bythe steel that has pierced their vitals—even when,half dead, they rush upon their hunter for one lastbite—are less hideous in appearance than a manin^amed by anger. If you are free to listen to hiscries and threats, hear what language issues fromhis tortured soul ! Will not every one be glad tocheck any impulse to anger when he realizes that itbegins by working harm, first of all, to himself ? Ifthere are those who grant full sway to anger anddeem it a proof of power, who count the opportunityof revenge among the great blessings of great estate,would you not, then, have me remind them that a^man cannot be calle4 powerful^—no, not even free^if he is the captive of his anger ? To the end thateach one may be more careful and may set a guardupon himself, would you not have me remind himthat while other base passions affect only the worstt}'pe of men, ^\Tath steals upon those also Avho areenlightened and other^v^se sane ? So true is this,that there are some who call wTath a sign of in-263

;SENECAiracundiam dicant et vulgo credatur facillimusquisque huic obnoxius.1 5. " Quorsus," inquis, " hoc pertinet ? " Ut nemose iudicet tutum ab ilia, cum lenes quoque natura etplacidos in saevitiam ac violentiam evocet. Quemadmodumadversus pestilentiam nihil prodest firmitascorporis et diligens valetudinis cura — promiscueenim imbecilla robustaque invadit— , ita ab ira tarninquietis moribus periculum est quam compositis etremissis, quibus eo turpior ac periculosior est, quo2 plus in illis mutat. Sed cum primum sit non irasci,secundum desinere, tertium alienae quoque iraemederi, dicam primum quemadmodum in iram nonincidamus, deinde quemadmodum nos ab ilia liberemus,novissime quemadmodum irascentem retineamusplacemusque et ad sanitatem reducamus.3 Ne irascamur praestabimus, si omnia vitia iraenobis subinde proposuerimus et illam bene aestimaverimus.Accusanda est apud nos, damnandaperscrutanda eius mala et in medium protrahendasunt ; ut qualis sit appareat, comparanda cum4 pessimis est. Avaritia adquirit et contrahit, quoaliquis melior utatur ; ira impendit, paucis gratuitaest.Iracundus dominus quot in fugam servos egit,quot in mortem ! Quanto plus irascendo quam iderat, propter quod irascebatur, amisit ! Ira patriluctum, marito divortium attulit, magistratui odium,6 candidato repulsam. Peior est quam luxuria, quoniam264.

!ON ANGER, III. IV. 5-v. 5genuousness," and that it is commonly believed thatthe best-natiired people are most liable to it" Whaty" you say, "is the purpose of this?"That no man may consider himself safe from anger,since it summons even those who are naturally kindand^gentle into acts of cruelt}' and \-iolence. Assoiuidness of body and a careful regard for healthavail nothing against the plague—for it attacks indiscriminatelythe weak and the strong—so calm andlanguid natures are in no less danger from angertharT thelnore excitable sort, and the greater thechange it works in these, the greater is their disgraceand danger. But since the first requirement is not tobecOTne_angry» the second, to cease fronx anger, thethird, to cure also the anger of others, I shall speak zpo>nt*.first jaf_haiv_ we may avoid falUng into anger, next ofhow Ave may free ourselves from it, and lastly of howwejuay curb an angry man—how we may calm himand restore him to sanity.We shall forestall the possibiUty of anger if werepeatedly set before ourselves its many faults andshalljightly appraise it. Before our o^vn hearts wemust arraign it and convict it ; we must search outits e\ils and drag them into the open ; in order thatit may be shown as it really is, it should be comparedwith all that is worst. Man's avarice assemblesand gathers wealth for some one who is better touse ; but anger is a spender—few indulge in it withoutcost. How many slaves a master's anger hasdriven to flight, how many to death ! How muchmore serious was his loss from indulging in angerthan was the incident which caused it ! Angerbrings to a father grief, to a husband divorce, to amagistrate hatred, to a candidate defeat. It is worse265

SENECAilia sua voluptate fruitur, haec alieno dolore.Vincitmalignitatem et invidiam ; illae enim infelicem fierivolunt, haec facere ;illae fortuitis malis delectantur,haec non potest expectare fortunam—nocere ei6 quern odit, non noceri vult. Nihil est simultatibusgravius, has ira conciliat ; nihil est bello funestius,in hoc potentium ira prorumpit ; ceterum etiam iliaplebeia ira et privata inerme et sine viribus bellumest. Praeterea ira, ut seponamus, quae mox secuturasunt, damna, insidias, perpetuam ex certaminibusmutuis sollicitudinem, dat poenas dum exigit ;naturam hominis eiurat : ilia in amorem hortatur,haec in odium ; ilia prodesse iubet, haec nocere.7 Adice quod, cum indignatio eius a nimio sui suspectuveniat et animosa videatur, pusilla est et angusta ;nemo enim non eo, a quo se contemptum iudicat,minor est. At ille ingens animus et verus aestimator8 sui non vindicat iniuriam, quia non sentit. Ut telaa duro resiliunt et cum dolore caedentis solida feriuntur,ita nulla magnum animum iniuria ad sensumsui adducit, fragilior eo quod petit. Quanto pulchriusvelut nulli penetrabilem telo omnis iniuriascontumeliasque respuere ! Ultio doloris confessioest ;non est magnus animus, quern incurvat iniuria.266

ON ANGER, III. V. 5-8than wantonness, since that finds satisfaction in itso\\Ti enjoyment, this in another's pain. It exceedsspite and envy ; for they desire a man to be unhappy,while anger tries to make him so ; theydehght in the ills that chance may bring, whileit cannot wait for chance—to the man it hatesitnot merely A\ishes harm to come, but brings it.There is nothing more baleful than enmity, yet it isanger that breeds it ; nothing is more deadly thanwar, yet in that the anger of the powerful finds itsvent ; none the less anger in the common folk orprivate persons is also war—war without arms andwithout resources. Moreover, leaving out of accountthe~Imme3iate consequences that vdW come fromanger, such as losses of money, plots, and the neverendinganxiety of mutual strife, anger pays for thepenalty it exacts—itjenounces human nature, whichincites to love, whereas if incites to hate ; which bidsus help, whereas it bids us injure. And besides,though its chafing originates in an excess of selfesteemand seems to be a show of spirit, it is pettyand narrow-minded ; for no man can fail to beinferior to the one by whom he regards himselfdespised. But the really great mind, the mind thathas taken the true measure of itself, fails to revenge -rinjury only because it fails to perceive it. As missilesrebound from a hard surface, and the man who strikessolid objects is hurt by the impact, so no injurywhatever can cause a truly great mind to be awareof it, since the injury is more fragile than that atwhich it is aimed. How much more glorious it isfor the mind, impervious, as it were, to any missile,to repel all insults and injuries! Revenge is the^,^confession of a hurt ;- no mind- is truly great that267

;SENECAAut potentior te aut imbecillior laesit ; si imbecillior,parce illi, si potentior, tibi.1 6. Niillum est argumentum magnitudinis certiusquam nihil posse quo instigeris accidere. Parssuperior mundi et ordinatior ac propinqua sideribusnee in nubem cogitur nee in tempestatem impelliturnee versatur in turbinem ; omni tumultu caret,inferiora fulminantur. Eodem modo sublimis animus,quietus semper et in statione tranquilla conlocatus,omnia infra^ se premens, quibus ira contrahitur,modestus et venerabilis est et dispositus ;quorum2 nihil invenies in irato. Quis enim traditus dolori etfurens non primam reiecit verecundiam ? Quisimpetu turbidus et in aliquem ruens non quidquidin se venerandi habuit abiecit ? Cui officiorumnumerus aut ordo constitit incitato ? Quis linguaetemperavit ? Quis uUam partem corporis tenuit r3 Quis se regere potuit immissum ? Proderit nobisillud Democriti salutare praeceptum, quo monstraturtranquillitas, si neque privatim neque publicemulta aut maiora viribus nostris egerimus. Numquamtarn feliciter in multa discurrenti negotia diestransit, ut non aut ex homine aut ex re ofFensa4 nascatur, quae animum in iras paret. Quemadmodumper frequentia urbis loca properanti in multosincursitandum est et aliubi labi necesse est, aliubi^ infra inferior uss. : intra AL." The Stoic doctrine of apathy {dirddeia)—the exemptionfrom emotion, which was the negative aspect of virtueHorace's nil admirari (Epistles, i. 6).* Cf. Diets, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, Demokritos,3.268

ON ANGER, III. V. 8-vi. 4bends before injury. The man who has offendedyou is eitTxeffstfonger or weaker than you : if he isweaker, spare him ; if he is stronger, spare yourself.There is no surer proof of greatness than to be ina state where nothing can possibly happen to disturbyqu. The higher region of the universe, being',better ordered and near to the stars, is condensedinto no cloud, is lashed into no tempest, is churnedinto no whirhWnd ; it is free from all turmoil ; it isin the lower regions that the lightnings flash. Inthe same way the lofty mind is always calm, at rest,in a quiet haven " ; crushing dovm. all that engendersanger, it is restrained, commands respect, and isproperly ordered.^ In an angry man you will findnonejjf these things. For who that surrenders toanger and rage does not straightway cast behindhim all sense of shame ? Who that storms in ^vildfury and assails another does not cast aside whateverhe had in him that commands respect ? WTiothat is enraged maintains the full number or theorder of his duties ? \Mio restrains his tongue ?Who controls any part of his body ? Who is able torule the self that he has set loose ? We shall dowell to heed that sound doctrine of Democritus * inwhich he shows that tranquillity is possible only ifwe avoid most of the activities of both private andpubhc hfe, or at least those that are too great forour strength. The man who engages in manyaffairs is never so fortunate as to pass a day thatdoes not beget from some person orsome circumstancea vexation that fits the mind for anger. Justas a man hurrying through the crowded sections ofthe city cannot help colliding with many people, andin one place is sure to slip, in another to be held back,269

SENECAretineri, aliubi respergi, ita in hoc vitae actu dissipateet vago multa impedimenta, multae querellaeincidunt. Alius spem nostram fefellit, alius distulit,alius intercepit ; non ex destinato proposita6 fluxerunt. Nulli fortuna tam dedita est, ut multatemptanti ubique respondeat. Sequitur ergo, utis, cui contra quam proposuerat aliqua cesserunt,impatiens hominum rerumque sit, ex levissimiscausis irascatur nunc personae, nunc negotio, nunc6 loco, nunc fortunae, nunc sibi. Itaque ut quietuspossit esse animus, non est iactandus nee multarum,ut dixi, rerum actu fatigandus nee magnarumsupraque vires adpetitarum.Facile est levia aptarecervicibus et in banc aut illam partem transferresine lapsu ;at quae alienis in nos manibus impositaaegre sustinemus, victi in proximo efFundimus.Etiam dum stamus sub sarcina, impares oneri vaccillamus.1 7. Idem accidere in rebus civilibus ac domesticisscias. Negotia expedita et habilia sequuntur actorem; ingentia et supra mensuram gerentis needant se facile et, si occupata sunt, premunt atqueabducunt administrantem tenerique iam visa cumipso cadunt. Ita fit, ut frequenter irrita sit eiusvoluntas,qui non quae faciba sunt adgreditur, sed2 vult facilia esse quae adgressus est. Quotiens270

ON ANGER, III. VI. 4-vii. 2in another to be splashed, so in this diverse and restlessacti\-it)^ of life many hindrances befall us andmany occasions for complaint. Qiir^hopes one mandeceiYes,..aiiother defers, another destroys ; our projectsdo not proceed as they were planned. To no ]man is Fortune so wholly submissive that she will-I"always respond if often tried. The result is, consequently,that when a man finds that some of hisplans have turned out contrary to his expectations,he becomes impatient with men and things, and onthe slightest provocation becomes angry now >vitha person, now \nth his calling, now mth his placeof abode, now with his luck, now A\-ith himself. Inorder, therefore, that the mind may have peace, itmust not be tossed about, it must not, as I have isaid, be wearied by acti\ity in many or great affairs, "^or by attempting such as are beyond its powers.is easy to fit the shoulders to light burdens, and toshift the load from this side to that -vnthout sUpping ;but it is hard to support what others' hands havelaid upon us, and exhausted we cast the load upon aneighbour. Even while we stand beneath the burden,we stagger if we are too weak to bear its weight.In pubhcjynLdJrLprivate-aflEairs, be sure, the sameconditioiL-holds. Light and easy tasks accept thecontrol of the doer ; those that are hea\y and beyondthe capacity of the performer are not easily mastered ;and if they are undertaken, they outweigh his effortsand run away A\'ith him, and just when he thinks hehas them in his grasp, do^^Tl they crash and bring himdown with them. So it happens that the man whois unwilhng to approach easy tasks, yet \\ishes tofind easy the tasks he approaches, is often disappointedin his desire. Whenever you wouldIt271

SENECAaliquid conaberis, te simul et ea, quae paras quibusquepararis ipse, metire ; faciet enim te asperum paenitentiaoperis infecti. Hoc interest utrum quisfervidi sit ingenii an frigidi atque humilis ;generosorepulsa iram exprimet, languido inertique tristitiam.Ergo actiones nostrae nee parvae sint nee audaces etimprobae, in vicinum spes exeat, nihil conemur,quod mox adepti quoque successisse miremur.1 8. Demus operam, ne accipiamus iniuriam, quiaferre nescimus. Cum placidissimo et facillimo etnainime anxio morosoque vivendum est ;sumuntur aconversantibus mores et ut quaedam in contactos corporisvitia transiliunt, itaanimus mala sua proximis2 tradit. Ebriosus convictores in amorem meri traxit,impudicorum coetus fortem quoque et, si liceat,^virum emolBit, avaritia in proximos virus suum transtulit.Eadem ex diverso ratio virtutum est, ut omnequod secum habent mitigent ; nee tarn valetudiniprofuit utilis regio et salubrius caelum quam animis3 parum firmis in turba meliore versari. Quae resquantum possit intelleges, si videris feras quoqueconvictu nostro mansuescere nullique etiam immanibestiae vim suam permanere, si hominis contuberniumdiu passa est ;retunditur omnis asperitas paulatim-^ si liceat mss. : ingenious is siliceum Pincianus, but inusage the trans/erred meaning is " hard-hearted " : soliduraComelissen : si placet O&rtz : si lis erat Petschenig.272

;ON ANGER, III. VII. 2-viii. 3attempt anything, measure yourself and at the sametime the undertaking—both the thing you intendand the thing for which you are intended ; for theregret that springs from an unaccomphshed task -svillmake vou bitter. It makes some difference whethera man is of a fiery or of a cold and submissive natureth£, man of spirit will be driven b}' defeat to anger, adullandsluggish^-nature -to sorrow. Let our acti\'i-'ties, consequently, be neither pett^', nor yet boldand presumptuous ; let us restrict the range of hope ;Vlet us attempt nothing which later, even after we haveachieved it, will make us surprised that we havesucceeded.Since we do not know how to bear injury, let us jendeavour not fo receive one. We should hve witha very calm and good-natured person—one that isnever worried or captious ; we adopt our habits fromthose A\'ith whom we associate, and as certain diseasesof the body spread to others from contact, so the mindtransmits its faults to those near-by. The drunkardlures his boon companions into love of wine ; shamelesscompany corrupts even the strong man and, perchance,the hero ; avarice transfers its poison to itsneighbours. The same principle holds good of the\-irtues, but with the opposite result—that theyameliorate whatever comes in contact with them ;an invalid does not benefit so much from a suitablelocation or a more healthful chmate as does the mindwhich lacks strength from association wth a bettercompany. You will understand what a powerfulfactor this is if you observe that even wild animalsgrow tame from intercourse with us, and that allbeasts, no matter how savage, after enduring longcompanionship with man cease to be violent ; allVOL. I T 273

SENECAque inter placida dediscitur. Accedit hue, quodnon tantum exemplo melior fit qui cum quietishominibus vivit, sed quod causas irascendi noninvenit nee vitium suum exercet. Fugere itaquedebebit omnis quos irritaturos iracundiam sciet.4 " Qui sunt," inquis, " isti " ? Multi ex variis eausisidem facturi : offendet te superbus contemptu, dicaxcontumelia, petulans iniuria, lividus malignitate,pugnax contentione, ventosus et mendax vanitate >non feres a suspieioso timeri, a pertinaee vinci, a5 delieato fastidiri. Elige simpliees, faeiles, moderatos,qui iram tuam nee evoeent et ferant. Magis adhucproderunt summissi et humani et dulces, non tamenusque in adulationem, nam iracundos nimia assentatio6 ofFendit. Erat certe amicus noster vir bonus, sedirae paratioris, eui non magis tutum erat blandiriquam male dieere.Caelium oratorem fuisse iracundissimum constat.Cum quo, ut aiunt, cenabat in eubieulo lectaepatientiae cliens, sed difficile erat illi in copulamconiecto rixam eius cum quo cohaerebat effugere ;optimum iudicavit quidquid dixisset sequi et secundasagere. Non tulit Caelius adsentientem et exclamavit" : Die aliquid contra, ut duo simus "! Sed illequoque. quod non irasceretur, iratus cito sine adver-274

ON ANGER, III. vni. 3-6their fierceness is blunted and gradually aniid peacefulconditions is forgotten. Moreover, the man whohves ^^ith tranquil people not only becomes betterfrom their example, but finding no occasions foranger he does not indulge in his weakness. It will,therefore, be a man's dutv to avoid all those who heknows aWII provoke his anger. " Just whom do youmean " ? you ask. Tliere are many wlio fromvarious causes will produce the same result. Theproud man will offend you by his scorn, the causticman by an insult, the forward man by an affront, thespiteful man by his mahce, the contentious by his^vranghng, the windy har by his hollowness ;you^\ill not endure to be feared by a suspicious man, tobe outdone by a stubborn one, or to be despised bya coxcomb. Choose frank, good-natured, temperatepeople^^ivha will not call forth your anger and yetwilllbfiar with it. Still more helpful will be thosewho are yielding and kindly and suave—not, however,to the point of fa^^Tiing, for too much cringingincenses hot-tempered people. I, at any rate, hada friend, a good man, but too prone to anger, whomit was not less dangerous to wheedle than to curse.It is well kno>^-n that Caelius, the orator, was veryhot-tempered. A cUent of rare forbearance was,as the story goes, once dining ^\ith Caelius in hischamber, but it was difficult for him, ha\-ing got intosuch close quarters, to avoid a quarrel vriih the companionat his side ; so he decided that it was bestto agree with whatever Caelius said and to play upto him. Caelius, however^ could not endure hiscomphant attitude, and cried out, " Contradict me,'*that there may be two of us I But even he, angrybecause he was not angered, quickly subsided when275

SENECA7 sario desit. Eligamus ergo vel hos potius, si consciinobis iracundiae sumus, qui vultum nostrum acsermonem sequantur. Facient quidem nos delicatoset in malam consuetudinem inducent nihil contravoluntatem audiendi, sed proderit vitio suo intervallumet quietem dare. Difficiles quoque etindomiti natura blandientem ferent. Nihil asperum8 territumque palpanti est. Quotiens disputatio longioret pugnacior erit, in prima resistamus, antequamrobur accipiat. Alit se ipsa contentio et demissosaltius tenet. Facilius est se a certamine abstinerequani abducere.1 9. Studia quoque graviora iracundis omittendasunt aut certe citra lassitudinem exercenda, etanimus non inter plura^ versandus, sed artibusamoenis tradendus. Lectio ilium carminum obleniatet historia fabulis detineat ; mollius delicatiusque2 tractetur. Pythagoras perturbationes animi lyracomponebat ;quis autem ignorat lituos et tubasconcitamenta esse, sicut quosdam cantus blandimenta,quibus mens resolvatur ? Confusis oculisprosunt virentia et quibusdam coloribus infirmaacies adquiescit, quorundam splendore praestringitur ;3 sic mentes aegras studia laeta permulcent. Forum,advocationes, iudicia fugere debemus et omnia quaeexulcerant vitium, aeque cavere lassitudinem corpo-276^ inter plura A : inter dura Gertz.

ON ANGER, III. VIII. 7-ix. 3he had no antagonist. Consequently, if we areconscious of being hot-tempered, let us rather pickout those who ^vill be guided by our looks and byour words. Such men, it is true, will pamper us andlead us into the harmful habit of hearing nothingthat we do not hke, but there ^^ill be the advantageof gi\ing our weakness a period of respite. Eventhose who are churlish and intractable by naturewill endure caressing ; no creature is savage andfrightened if you stroke it. Whenever a discussiontends to be too long or too quarrelsome, let us checkit at the start before it gains strength. Controversygrows of itself and holds fast those that have plungedin too deeply. It is easier to refrain than to retreatfrom a struggle.Hot-tempered people should also abstain from themorejburdensome pursuits, or at least should not plythese to the point of exhaustion, and the mind shouldnot be engaged by too many interests, but shouldsurrender itself to such arts as are pleasurable. Letit be soothed by the reading of poetry and grippedby the tales of history- ; it should be much coddledand pampered. Pythagoras used to calm his troubledspirit with the l}Te ; and who does not know that theclarion and the trumpet act as incitements to themind, and that, similarly, certain songs are a soothingbalm that brings it relaxation ? Green things aregood for disordered eyes, and certain colours arerestful to weak \ision, while by the brightness ofothers it is bUnded. So pleasant pursuits soothe thetroubled mind. We should shun the courts, court-'appearances, and trials, and everything that aggravatesour weakness, and we should equally guardagainst physical exhaustion ; for this destroys what-277

is ;SENECAconsumit enim quidquid in nobis mite placidum-4 que est et acria coneitat. Ideo quibus stomachussuspectus est, processuri ad res agendas maiorisnegotii bilem cibo temperant, quam maxime movetfatigatio, sive quia calorem in media compellit etnocet sanguini eursumque eius venis laborantibussistit, sive quia corpus attenuatum et inflrmumincumbit animo ; certe ob eandem causam iracundioressunt valetudine aut aetate fessi. Famesquoque et sitis ex isdem causis vitanda est ;exasperat5 et incendit animos. Vetus dictum est a lasso rixamquaeri ; aeque autem et ab esuriente et a sitienteet ab omni homine quern aliqua res urit. Nam utulcera ad levem tactum, deinde etiam ad suspicionemtactus condolescunt, ita animus adfectus minimisofFenditur, adeo ut quosdam salutatio et epistulaet oratio et interrogatio in litem evocent.sine querella aegra tanguntur.Numquam1 10. Optimum est itaque ad primuni mali sensummederi sibi, tum verbis quoque suis minimum liber-2 tatis dare et inhibere impetum. Facile est autemadfectus suos, cum primum oriuntur, deprehendere ;morborum signa praecurrunt. Quemadmodum tempestatisac pluviae ante ipsas notae veniunt, ita irae,amoris omniumque istarum procellarum animos3 vexantium sunt quaedam praenuntia. Qui comitialivitio solent corripi, iam adventare valetudinemintellegunt, si calor summa deseruit et incertum278

ON ANGER, III. IX. 3-x. 3ever gentleness and mildness we have and engenderssharpness. Those, therefore, who distrust theirdigestion, before they proceed to the performanceof tasks of unusual difficulty, allay their bile withfood ; for fatigue especially arouses the bile, possiblybecause it drives the body's heat toward the centre,\-itiates the blood, and stops its circulation by cloggingthe veins, or because the body when it is wornand feeble weighs down the mind. For the samereason, undoubtedly, those who are broken bv illhealth.and age are more irascible than others.Hunger and thirst also, for the same reasons, mustbe avoided ; they exasperate and irritate the mind.There is an old proverb that " the tired man seeks aquarrel," but it apphes just as well to the hungry andthirsty man, and to any man who chafes under something.For just as a bodily sore hurts under theslightest touch, afterwards even at the suggestionof a touch, so the disordered mind takes offence at themerest trifles, so that even, in the case of some people,a greeting, a letter, a speech, or a question provokesa dispute. There will always be a protest if youtouch a sore spot.It is best, therefore, to treat the malady as soonas it is discovered ; then, too, to allow oneself theleast possible hberty of speech, and to check impulsiveness.It is easy, moreover, to detect one'spassion as soon as it is born ; sickness is precededby symptoms. Just as the signs of storm and rainappear before the storms themselves, so there arecertain forerunners of anger, of love, and of all thosetempests that shake the soul. Those who are subjectto fits of epilepsy know that the attack is coming onif heat leaves their extremities, if their sight wavers,279

SENECAlumen nervorumque trepidatio est, si memoriasublabitur caputque versatur ;solitis itaque remediisincipientem causam occupant, et odore gustuquequidquid est quod alienat animos repellitur, autfomentis contra frigus rigoremque pugnatur ; autsi^ parum medicina profecit, vitaverunt turbam et4 sine teste ceciderunt. Prodest morbum suum nosseet vires eius antequam spatientur opprimere. Videamusquid sit, quod nos maxime concitet. Aliumverborum, alium rerum contumeliae movent ; hievult nobilitati, hie formae suae parci ;hie elegantissimushaberi cupit, ille doctissimus ; hie superbiaeimpatiens est, hie contumaciae ;ille servos non putatdignos quibus irascatur, hie intra domum saevus est,foris mitis ; ille rogari invidiam iudicat, hie non rogaricontumeliam, Non omnes ab eadem parte feriuntur; scire itaque oportet, quid in te imbecillum sit,ut id maxime protegas.1 11. Non expedit omnia videre, omnia audire.Multae nos iniuriaetranseant, ex quibus plerasquenon accipit qui nescit. Non vis esse iracundus ?Ne fueris curiosus. Qui inquirit quid in se dictumsit, qui malignos sermones, etiam si secreto habitisunt, eruit, se ipse inquietat. Quaedam interpretatioeo perducit, ut videantur iniuriae ; itaquealia differenda sunt, alia deridenda, alia donanda.280^ aut si A : [aut] si Hermes.

ON ANGER, III. X. 3-xt. 1a t\\-itching of the muscles, or if memoryif there isforsakes them and the head swims ; therefore bycustomary remedies they try to forestall the diseasein its incipiency, and they ward off whatever it isthat causes unconsciousness by smelhng or tastingsomething, or they battle against cold and stiffnesswith hot apphcations ; or if the remedy is of noavail, they escape from the crowd and fall where noone may see. It is well to understand one's maladyand to break its power before it spreads. Let usdiscern what it is that especially irritates us. Oneman is stirred by insulting words, another by insultingactions ; this man craves respect for his rank, thisone for his person ; this one ^vishes to be considereda fine gentleman, that one a fine scholar ; this onecannot brook arrogance, this one obstinacy' ; thatone does not think his slaves worthy of his \vrath,this one is x-iolent inside his house and mild outside ;that man considers it a disgrace to be put up foroffice, this one an insult not to be put up. We arenot all wounded at the same spot ; therefore youought to know what your weak spot is in order thatyou^may^specially protect it.It is well not to see everything, not to hear everything.Many affronts may pass by us ; in mostcases the man who is unconscious of them escapesthem. Would you avoid being provoked ? Thendo not be inquisitive. He who tries to discover whathas been said against him, who unearths mahciousgossip even if it was privately indulged in, is responsiblefor his own disquietude. There are wordswhich the construction put upon them can makeappear an insult ; some, therefore, ought to be putaside, others derided, others condoned. In various281

SENECA2 Circumscribenda multis modis ira est ;pleraquein lusum iocumque vertantur. Socraten aiuntcolapho percussum nihil amplius dixisse quammolestum esse, quod nescirent homines, quando3 cum galea prodire deberent. Non quemadmodumfacta sit iniuria refert, sed quemadmodum lata ;nee video quare difficilis sit moderatio, cum sciamtyrannorum quoque tumida et fortuna et licentia4 ingenia familiarem sibi saevitiam repressisse. Pisistratumcerte, Atheniensium tyrannum, memoriaeproditur, cum multa in crudelitatem eius ebriusconviva dixissetnee deessent qui vellent manus eicommodare, et alius hinc alius illinc faces subderent,placido animo tulisse et hoc irritantibus respondisse,non magis illi se suscensere quam si quis obligatisoculis in se incurrisset.1 12. Magna pars querellas manu fecit aut falsasuspicando aut levia adgravando.Saepe ad nos iravenit, saepius nos ad illam.Quae numquam arces-2 senda est ; etiam cum incidit, reiciatur. Nemo dicitsibi :" Hoc propter quod irascor aut feci aut fecissepotui " ;nemo animum facientis, sed ipsum aestimatfactum. Atqui ille intuendus est, voluerit an inciderit,coactus sit an deceptus, odium secutus sit282

ON ANGER, III. XI. 2-xii. 2ways anger must be circumvented ; most offences >may be turned into farce and jest. Socrates, it issaid, when once he received a box on the ear, merelydeclared that it was too bad that a man could nottell when he ought to wear a helmet while takinga walk. Not how an affront is offered, but how it isborne is oiu: concern ; and I do not see why it isdifficult to practise restraint, since I know that evendesjxjtSj^ though their hearts were puffed up withsuccess and pri\'ilege, have nevertheless repressedthe cruelt}^ that was habitual to them. At any rate,there is the story handed down about Pisistratus, theAthenian despot—that once when a tipsy tableguesthad declaimed at length about his cruelty,and there was no lack of those who would gladlyplace their swords at the ser\'ice of their master, andone from this side and another from that supphedfuel to the flame, the tyrant, none the less, bore theincident calmly, and rephed to those who were goad- ^ing him on that he was no more angry at the manthan he would be if some one ran against him bUndfold.A great many manufacture grievances either bysuspecting the imtrue or by exaggerating the tri\ial.Anger often comes to us, but more often we go to it.It should never be united ; even when it falls uponus, it should be repulsed. No man ever says tohimself, " I myself have done, or at least might havedone, this very thing that now makes me angry " ;nQ_ one considers the intention of the doer, butmerely the deed. Yet it is to the doer that we 1.should give thought—whether he did it intentionally »^or by accident, whether under compulsion or bymistake, whether he was led on by hatred or by the•283

SENECAan praemium, sibi morem gesserit an manum altericommodaverit.Aliquid aetas peccantis facit, aliquidfortuna, ut ferre aut pati^ aut humanum sit aut3 humile.2 Eo nos loco constituamus, quo ille est cuiirascimur ; nunc facit nos iracundos iniqua nostriaestimatio et quae facere vellemus pati nolumus.4 Nemo se differt ; atqui maximum remedium iraedilatio est, ut primus eius fervor relanguescat etcaligo quae premit mentem aut residat aut minusdensa sit. Quaedam ex his, quae te praecipitemferebant, hora, non tantum dies molliet, quaedamex toto evanescent ; si nihil egerit petita advocatio,apparebit iam indicium esse, non iram. Quidquidvoles quale sit scire, tempori trade ; nihil diligenter6 in fluctu cernitur, Non potuit impetrare a se Platotempus, cum servo suo irasceretur, sed ponere iliumstatim tunicam et praebere scapulas verberibusiussit sua manu ipse caesurus ;postquam intellexitirasci se, sicut sustulerat manum suspensam detinebatet stabat percussuro similis ; interrogatus deindeab amico, qui forte intervenerat, quid ageret :" Exigo," inquit, " poenas ab homine iracundo."6 Velut stupens gestum ilium saevituri deformemsapienti viro servabat, oblitus iam servi, quia aliumquem potius castigaret invenerat. Itaque abstulit284^ aut pati A : ac pati Hermes, after Lipsius.^ humile A : non humile Hermes, after Madvig.

ON ANGER, III. XII. 2-6hope of reward, whether he was pleasing himself orlending aid to another. The age of the offendercounts for something, his station for something, sothat to tolerate or to submit becomes merely indulgenceor deference. Let_us put ourselves in theplace of the man with whom we^re~angrT ; as it is,an~ unwarranted opinion of self makes us prone toanger, and we are unwilling to bear what we ourselveswould have been willing to inflict. No one makeshimself wait : yet the best cure for anger is waiting,to allow the first ardour to abate and to let the darknessthat clouds the reason either subside or be lessdense. Of the offences which were dri\ing you headlong,some an hour will abate, to say nothing of aday, some will vanish altogether ; though the postponementsought shall accomphsh nothing else, yetit will be e\ident that judgement now rules instead ofanger. If ever you want to find out what a thingreally^ is, entrust it to time ;you can see nothingclearly in the midst of the billows. Plato once,when he was angry with his slave, was unable toimpose delay upon himself, and, bent upon flogginghim with his own hand, ordered him forthwith totake off his shirt and bare his shoulders for the blows ;but afterwards reahzing that he was angr}^ he stayedhis uphfted hand, and just as he was stood with hishand in the air hke one in the act of striking. Later,when a friend who happened to come in asked himwhat he was doing, he said, " I am exacting punishmentfrom an angrj- man." As if sturmed he maintainedthat attitude, unbecoming to a philosopher,of a man in the act of venting his passion, forgetfulnow of the slave since he had found another whomhe was more anxious to punish. He therefore denied285

.SENECAsibi in suos potestatem et ob peccatum quoddamcommotior : " Tu," inquit, " Speusippe, servulum7 istum verberibus obiurga ; nam ego irascor." Obhoc non cecidit, propter quod alius cecidisset," Irascor," inquit ;" plus faciam quam oportet,libentius faciam ; non sit iste servus in eius potestatequi in sua non est." Aliquis vult irato committiultionem, cum Plato sibi ipse imperium abrogaverit ?Nihil tibi liceat, dum irasceris. Quare ? Quia visomnia hcere.1 13. Pugna tecum ipse ! Si vis-"^ vincere iram,non potest te ilia. Incipis vincere, si absconditur,si illi exitus non datur. Signa eius obruamus et illamquantum fieri potest occultam secretamque teneamus2 Cum magna id nostra molestia fiet, cupit enim exilireet incendere oculos et mutare faciem ; sed si eminereilH extra nos hcuit, supra nos est. In imo pectorissecessu recondatur feraturque, non ferat ; immo incontrarium omnia eius indicia flectamus. Vultusremittatur, vox lenior sit, gradus lentior ;paulatim3 cum exterioribus interiora formantur. In SocrateIrae signum erat vocem summittere, loqui parcius.Apparebat tunc ilium sibi obstare. Deprendebaturitaque a familiaribus et coarguebatur, nee erat illiexprobratio latitantis irae ingrata. Quidni gauderet,286^vis added by Hermes, after Madvig.

ON ANGER, III. XII. 6-xiii. 3himself all power over his own household, and once,when he was deeply provoked at some fault, he said," Do you, Speusippus, punish this dog of a slaveA\-ith a whip, for I am angry." His reason for notstriking was the very reason that would have causedanother to strike. " I am angry," said he ;" Ishould do more than I ought, and with too muchsatisfaction ; this slave ^ould not be in the powerof a master who is not master of himself." Can anyone wish Jto entrust punishment to an angry manw^hen even Plato denied himself this authority ?Let nothing be lawful to you while you are angry.Do you ask why ? Because then you wish everythingto be lawful.^ight^against__yauxS£l£-J- If you will to conquerangerj it cannot conquer you. If it is kept out ofsight, if it is given~no' outlet, you begin to conquer.Let us conceal its signs, and so far as it is possiblelet us keep it hidden and secret. We shall havegreat trouble in doing this, for it is eager to leapforth and fire the eyes and transform the countenance;but if we allow it to show itself outside of us, at onceit is on top of us. It should be kept hidden in thedeepest depths of the heart and it should not drive,but be driven ; and more, all symptoms of it let uschange into just the opposite. Let the countenancebe unruffled, let the voice be very gentle, tlie stepvery slow ;gradually the inner man conforms itselfto the outer. In the case of SocrafesVit was a sign ofanger if he lowered his voice and became sparing ofspeech. It was e\ident then that he was strugglingagainst liimself. And so his intimate friends Mouldfind him out and accuse him, yet he was not displeasedby the charge of concealing his anger. Why287

SENECAquod iram suam multi intellegerent, nemo sentiret ?Sensissent autem, nisi ius amicis obiurgandi se4 dedisset, sicut ipse sibi in amicos sumpserat. Quantomagis hoc nobis faciendum est ! Rogemus amicissimumquemque, ut tunc maxime libertate adversusnos utatur, cum minime illam pati poterimus, neeadsentiatur irae nostrae ; contra potens malum etapud nos gratiosum, dum consipimus, dum nostri5 sumus, advocemus. Qui vinum male ferunt etebrietatis suae temeritatem ac petulantiam metuunt,mandant suis, ut e convivio auferantur ; intemperantiamin morbo suam experti parere ipsis in6 adversa valetudine vetant. Optimum est notisvitiis impedimenta prospicere et ante omnia itacomponere animum, ut etiam gravissimis rebussubitisque concussus iram aut non sentiat aut magnitudineinopinatae iniuriae exortam in altum retrahat7 nee dolorem suum profiteatur. Id fieri posseapparebit, si pauca ex turba ingenti exempla protulero,ex quibus utrumque discere licet, quantummali habeat ira, ubi hominum praepotentium potestatetota utitur, quantum sibi imperare possit,ubi metu maiore compressa est.1 14. Cambysen regem nimis deditum vino Praexaspesunus ex carissimis monebat, ut parciusbiberet, turpem esse dicens ebrietatem in rege,quern omnium oculi auresque sequerentur. Ad haec288

—ON ANGER, III. xin. 3-xiv. lshould he not have been happy that many perceivedhis anger, yet no man felt it ? But they would havefelt it, had his friends not been granted the same rightto criticize him which he himself claimed over them.How much more ought we to do this ! Let us beg allour best friends to use to the utmost such libertytoward us, especially when we are least able to bearit, and let there be no approval of our anger. Whilewe are sane, -while we are ourselves, let us ask helpagainst an e\-il that is powerful and oft indulged byus. Those who cannot carry their ^^^ne discreetlyand fear that they ^^•ill be rash and insolent in theircups, instruct their friends to remove them fromthe feast ; those who have learned that they areunreasonable when they are sick, give orders that intimes of illness they are not to be obeyed. It isbest to pro\'ide obstacles for recognized weaknesses,and above all so to order the mind that even whenshaken by most serious and sudden happenings iteither shall not feel anger, or shall bury deep anyanger that may arise from the magnitude of theunexpected affront and shall not acknowledge itshurt. That this can be done will become clear iffrom a great an-ay of instances I shall cite a fewexamples ; from these you may learn two thingshow great e\il there is in anger when it wields thecomplete power of supremely powerful men, andhow great control it can impose upon itself whenrestrained by the stronger influence of fear. x/Since Cambyses was too much addicted to ^^•ine,^K.Praexaspes, one of his dearest friends, urged him to ^drink more sparingly, declaring that drunkenness isdisgraceful for a king, towards whom all eyes andears are turned. To this Cambyses repHed : "ToVOL. I u 289

ille :SENECA" Ut scias," inquit, " quemadmodum numquamexcidam mihi, adprobabo iam et oculos post vinuxn2 in officio esse et manus." Bibit deinde liberaliusquam alias capacioribus scyphis et iam gravis acvinolentus obiurgatoris sui filium procedere ultralimen iubet adlevataque super caput sinistra manustare. Tunc intendit arcum et ipsum cor adulescentis,id enim petere se dixerat, figit rescissoquepectore haerens in ipso corde spiculum ostendit acrespiciens patrem interrogavit, satisne certam haberetmanum. At ille negavit Apollinem potuisse certius3 mittere. Dii ilium male perdant animo magis quamcondicione mancipium ! Eius rei laudator fuit,cuius nimis erat spectatorem fuisse. Occasionemblanditiarum putavit pectus filii in duas partesdiductum et cor sub vulnere palpitans. Controversiamilli facere de gloria debuit et revocare iactum,ut regi liberet in ipso patre certiorem manu]4 ostendere ! O regem cruentum ! O dignum in'quem omnium suorum arcus verterentur ! Cumexsecrati fuerimus ilium convivia suppliciis funeribusquesolventem, tamen sceleratius telum illudlaudatum est quam missum. Videbimus quomodose pater gerere debuerit stans super cadaver fili suicaedemque illam, cuius et testis fuerat et causa.Id de quo nunc agitur apparet, iram supprimi posse.290

convince you that ION ANGER, III. XIV. 1-4 rnever lose command of myself,I shall proceed to prove to you that my eyes andmy hands perform their duty in spite of wine."Thereupon taking larger cups he drank more recklesslythan ever, and when at length he was heavyand besotted \\-ith ^\•ine, he ordered the son of hiscritic to proceed beyond the threshold and standthere with his left hand lifted above his head. Thenhe drew his bow and shot the youth through the veryheart—he had mentioned this as his mark—andcutting open the breast of the victim he showedthe arrow-head sticking in the heart itself, and thenturning toward the father he inquired whether hehad a sufficiently steady hand. But he replied thatApollo himself could not have made a more unerringshot. Heaven curse such a man, a bondslave inspirit even more than in station I He praised a deed,which it were too much even to have mtnessed.The breast of his son that had been torn asunder, hisheart quivering from its wound, he counted a fittingpretext for flattery. He ought to have provoked adispute -v^ith him about his boast and called foranother shot, that the king might have the pleasureof displaying upon the person of the father himselfan even steadier hand I What a bloodthirsty king !What a worthy mark for the bows of all his followers ! >^Though we may execrate him for terminating abanquet "vvith punishment and death, yet it was moreaccursed to praise that shot than to make it. Weshall see later how the father should have bornehimself as he stood over the corpse of his son, vie^vingthat murder of which he was both the witness andthe cause. The point now under discussion is clear, n^namely, that it is possible to suppress anger. He^291

SENECA5 Non male dixit regi, nullum emisit ne calamitosiquidem verbum, cum aeque cor suum quam fili transfixumvideret. Potest dici merito devorasse verba ;quid tamquam iratus dixisset, nihil tamquamnam si6 pater facere potuisset. Potest, inquam, viderisapientius se in illo casu gessisse, quam cum depotandi modo praeciperet ei, quem satius erat vinumquam sanguinem bibere, cuius manus poculis occuparipax erat.Accessit itaque ad numerum eorum,qui magnis cladibus ostenderunt, quanti constarentregum amicis bona consiUa.1 15. Non dubito quin Harpagus quoque tale aliquidregi suo Persarumque suaserit, quo offensus liberosilli epulandos adposuit et subinde quaesiit, anplaceret conditura ; deinde ut satis ilium plenummalis suis vidit, adferri capita illorum iussit et quomodoesset acceptus interrogavit. Non defueruntmisero verba, non os concurrit ": Apud regem,"2 inquit," omnis cena iucunda est." Quid hacadulatione profecit ? Ne ad reliquias invitaretur.Non veto patrem damnare regis sui factum, non vetoquaerere dignam tam truci portento poenam, sedhoc interim colligo, posse etiam ex ingentibus malisnascentem iram abscondi et ad verba contraria sibi3 cogi. Necessaria ista est doloris refrenatio, utique292

ON ANGER, III. XIV. 5-xv. 3did not curse the king, he let shp no word even ofanguish, though he saw his o\^ti heart pierced aswell as his son's. It may be said that he was rightto choke back words ; for even if he had spoken asan angry man, he could have accomplished nothingas a father. He may, I say, be thought to haveacted^more_wisely in that raisfortune than he haddone in recommending moderation in drinking to aman who would have much better drunk wine thanblood, viith whom peace meant that his hands werebilSy with the wine-cup. He, therefore, added onemore to the number of those who have sho%\'n bybitter misfortune the price a king's friends pay forgiving good ad\ice.I~donbt not that Harpagus also gave some suchad\ice to his king, the king of the Persians, who,taking offence thereat, caused the flesh of Harpagus'soym children to be set before him as a course in thebanquet, and kept inquiring whether he hked thecooking ; then when he saw him sated >^ith his ovmills, he ordered the heads of the children to be broughtin, and inquired what he thought of his entertainment.The poor ^^Tetch did not lack words, his hpswere not sealed. " At the king's board," he said," any kiruLof food is delightful." And what did hegain by this flattery ? He escaped an invitation toeat what was left. I do not say that a father mustnot condemn an act of his king, I do not say that heshould not seek to give so atrocious a monster thepunishment he deserves, but for the moment I amdrawing this conclusion—that it is possible for a manto conceal the anger that arises even from a monstrousoutrage and to force himself to words that belie it.Such restraint of distress is necessary, particularly for293

SENECAhoc sortitis vitae genus et ad regiam adhibitis mensam.Sic estur apud illos, sic bibitur, sic respondetur,funeribus suis adridendum est. An tanti sit vitavidebimus ; alia ista quaestio est. Non consolabimurtarn triste ergastulum, non adhortabimur ferreimperia carnificum ; ostendemus in omni servituteapertam libertati viam. Si aeger animus et suo vitio4 miser est, huic miserias finire secum licet. Dicamet illi,qui in regem incidit sagittis pectora amicorumpetentem, et illi, cuius dominus liberorum visceribuspatres saturat : "Quid gemis, demens ? Quidexpectas, ut te aut hostis aliquis per exitium gentistuae vindicet aut rex a longinquo potens advolet ?Quocumque respexeris, ibi malorum finis est. Videsilium praecipitem locum ? Iliac ad libertatemdescenditur. Vides illud mare, illud flumen, iliumputeum ? Libertas illic in imo sedet. Vides illamarborem brevem, retorridam, infelicem ? Pendetinde libertas. Vides iugulum tuum, guttur tuum,cor tuum ? EfFugia servitutis sunt. Nimis tibioperosos exitus monstro et multum animi ac roborisexigentes ? Quaeris quod sit ad libertatem iter ?"Quaelibet in corpore tuo vena !1 16. Quam diu quidem nihil tarn intolerabile nobisvidetur, ut nos expellat e vita, iram, in quocumque294

ON ANGER, III. x\'. 3-xvi. ithose whose lot is cast in this sort of life and who areinvited to the board of kings. So must they eat inthat company, so must they drink, so must theyanswer, so must they mock at the death of theirdear ones. Whether the hfe is worth the price weshall see ; that is another question. We shall notcondole with such a chain-gang of prisoners sowretched, we shall not urge them to submit to thecommands of their butchers ; we shall show that inany kind of ser\'itude the way lies open to libert}'.If the soul is sick and because of its o\\ti imperfectionunhappy, a man may end its sorrows and at the sametime himself. To him to whom chance has given aking that aims his shafts at the breasts of his friends,to him who has a master that gorges fathers withthe flesh of their cliildren, I would say :" Madman,why do you moan ? Why do you wait for someenemy to avenge you by the destruction of yournation, or for a mighty king from afar to fly to yourrescue ? In whatever direction you may turn youreyes, there lies the means to end your woes. See youthat precipice ? Down that is the way to liberty.See you that sea, that river, that well ? There sitsliberty—at the bottom. See you that tree, stunted,bUghted, and barren ? Yet from its branches hangsliberty. See you that throat of yours, your gullet,your heart ? They are ways of escape from servitude.Are the ways of egress I show you too toilsome, dothey require too much courage and strength ? Doyou ask what is the highway to libertv' ? Any veiiT"in your body !So long indeed as there shall be no hardship sointolerable in our opinion as to force us to abandonlife, let us, no matter what our station in hfe may295

SENECAerimus statu, removeamus. Perniciosa est servientibus.Omnis enim indignatio in tormentumsuum proficit et imperia graviora sentit quo contumaciuspatitur. Sic laqueos fera, dum iactat,adstringit ; sic aves viscum, dum trepidantes excutiunt,plumis omnibus inlinunt. Nullum tamartum est iugum, quod non minus laedat ducentemquam repugnantem. Unum est levamentum malorumingentium, pati et necessitatibus suis obsequi.2 Sed cum utilis sit servientibus adfectuum suorumet huius praecipue rabidi atque efFreni continentia,utilior est regibus. Perierunt omnia, ubi quantumira suadet fortuna permittit, nee diu potest quaemultorum malo exercetur potentia stare ;periclitaturenim, ubi eos, qui separatim gemunt, communismetus iunxit. Plerosque itaque modo singulimactaverunt, modo universi, cum illos conferre in3 unum iras publicus dolor coegisset. Atqui pleriquesic iram quasi insigne regium exercuerunt, sicutDareus, qui primus post ablatum Mago imperiumPersas et magnam partem orientis obtinuit. Namcum bellum Scythis indixisset orientem cingentibus,rogatus ab Oeobazo nobili sene, ut ex tribus liberisunum in solacium patri relinqueret, duorum operauteretur, plus quam rogabatur pollicitus omnis seilli dixit remissurum et occisos in conspectu parentis4 abiecit, crudelis futurus, si omnis abduxisset. Atiii." The false Smerdis, dethroned 521 b.c. Cf. Herodotus,70 if.* The true founder of the Persian empire, Darius extendedhis supremacy as far as the Indus.296

ON ANGER, III. XVI. 1-4be, keep ourselves from anger. It is harmful for allwho serve. For any sort of chafing grows to selftorture,and the more rebelhous we are underauthority, the more oppressive we feel it to be. So awild beast by struggling but tightens its noose ; sobirds by trying in their alarm to get free from birdlime,smear all their plumage with it. No yoke isso tight but that it hurts less to carry it than tostruggle against it. The only rehef for great misfortunesis to bear them and submit to their coercion.But though it is expedient for subjects to controltheir passions, especially this mad and unbridled one,it is even more expedient for kings. When hisposition permits a man to do all that anger prompts,general destruction is let loose, nor can any powerlong endure which is %\'ielded for the injurj' of many ;for it becomes imperilled when those who separatelymoan in anguish are united by a conmaon fear. Consequently,many kings have been the \ictims now ofindividual, now of concerted, violence, at times whena general animosity had forced men to gather togethertheir separate angers into one. Yet many kingshave employed anger as if it were the badge of regalpower ; for example Darius, who after the dethronementof the Magian " became the first ruler of thePersians and of a great part of the East.^ For afterhe had declared war on the Scythians who were on hiseastern border, Oeobazus, an aged noble, besoughthim to use the ser\ices of two of his sons, but toleave one out of the three as a comfort to his father.Promising more than was asked, and saying thathe would exempt all three, Darius flung their deadbodies before their father's eyes—for it would havebeen cruelty if he had taken them all with him !297

SENECAquanto Xerses facilior !Qui Pythio quinque filiorumpatri unius vacationem petenti, quem vellet eligerepermisit, deinde quem elegerat in partes duasdistractum ab utroque viae latere posuit et hacvictima lustravit exercitum. Habuit itaque quemdebuit exitum ; victus et late longeque fusus acstratam ubique ruinam suam cernens medius intersuorum cadavera incessit.1 17. Haec barbaris regibus feritas in ira fuit, quosnulla eruditio, nullus litterarum cultus imbuerat.Dabo tibi ex Aristotelis sinu regem Alexandrum. quiClitum carissimum sibi et una educatum inter epulastransfodit manu quidem sua, parum adulantem etpigre ex Macedone ac libero in Persicam servitutem2 transeuntem. Nam Lysimachum aeque familiarem lisibi leoni obiecit. Numquid ergo hie Lysimaehusfelicitate quadam dentibus leonis elapsus ob hoc,fj cum ipse regnaret, mitior fuit ? Nam TelesphorumRhodium amicum suum undique decurtatum, cumaures illi nasumque abscidisset, in cavea velut novumaliquod animal et invisitatum diu pavit, cum orisdetruncati mutilatique deformitas humanam faciemperdidisset ; accedebat fames et squalor et inluvies4 corporis in stercore suo destituti ; callosis super298

—ON ANGER, III. xvi. 4-xvii. 4^But how much kinder was Xerxes I For he, whenPythius, the father of five sons, begged for theexemption of one, permitted him to choose the onehe ^^ished ; then he tore into halves the son whohad been chosen, and placing a half on each side of theroad offered the body as an expiatory- sacrifice for thesuccess of the army. And so the army met the fateit deser\-ed. Defeated, routed far and wide, andseeing its o^vn destruction spread on every side,between two lines of the dead bodies of its comradesit trudged along.Such was the ferocity of barbarian kings whenin anger—men who had had no contact with learningor the culture of letters. But I shall now show youa king from the very bosom of Aristotle, evenAlexander, who in the midst of a feast with hisown hand stabbed Clitus, his dearest friend, ^\"ithwhom he had gro\\'n up, because he ^\^thheld hisflattery and was reluctant to transform himself froma Macedonian and a free man into a Persian slave.Lysimachus, likewise a familiar friend, he threw to alion. Though Lysimachus escaped by some goodluck from the lion's teeth, was he therefore, in viewof this experience, a whit more kind when he himselfbecame king ? Not so, for Telesphorus the Rhodian,his own friend, he completely mutilated, and whenhe had cut off his ears and nose, he shut him up in acage as if he were some strange and unknown animaland for a long time Hved in terror of him, since thehideousness of his hacked and mutilated face haddestroyed every appearance of a human being ; tothis were added starvation and squalor and the filthof a body left to wallow in its ovvti dung ; furthermore, his hands and knees becoming all calloused299

. i SENECAhaec'genibus manibusque, quas in usum pedumangustiae loci cogebant, lateribus vero adtritu exulceratisnon minus foeda quam terribilis erat formaeius visentibus, factusque poena sua monstrummisericordiam quoque amiserat. Tamen, cum dissimillimusesset homini qui illi patiebatur, dissimiliorerat qui faciebat.1 18. Utinam ista saevitia intra peregrina exemplamansisset nee in Romanos mores cum aliis adventiciisvitiis etiam suppliciorum irarumque barbariatransisset ! M. Mario, cui vicatim populus statuasposuerat, cui ture ac vino supplicabat, L. Sulla praefringicrura, erui oculos, amputari linguam, manusiussit et, quasi totiens occideret quotiens vulnerabat,2paulatim et per singulos artus laceravit. Quis erathuius imperii minister ? Quis nisi Catilina iam inomne facinus manus exercens ? Is ilium antebustum Quinti Catuli carpebat gravissimus mitissimiviri cineribus, supra quos vir mali exempli, popularistamen et non tam immerito quam nimis amatus perstillicidia sanguinem dabat. Dignus erat Mariusqui ilia pateretur, Sulla qui iuberet, Catilina quifaceret, sed indigna res publica quae in corpus suumpariter et hostium et vindicum gladios reciperet.3 Quid antiqua perscrutor ? Modo C. Caesar Sex.300

—ON ANGER, III. XVII. 4-xvin. 3for by the narrowness of his quarters he was forcedto use these instead of feet—his sides, too, a mass ofsores from rubbing, to those who beheld him hisappearance was no less disgusting than terrible, andha%ing been turned by his punishment into a monsterhe had forfeited even pity. Yet, while he whosuffered these things was utterly unlike a humanbeing, he who inflicted them was still less like one.Would to heaven that the examples of such crueltyhad been confined to foreigners, and that along withother vices from abroad the barbarity of torture andsuch venting of anger had not been imported into thepractices of Romans ! Marcus Marius, to whom thepeople erected statues in every street, whom theyworshipped \Wth offerings of frankincense and ^^'inethis man by the command of Lucius Sulla had hisankles broken, his eyes gouged out, his tongue andhis hands cut off, and little by little and limb by limbSulla tore him to pieces, just as if he could makehim die as many times as he could maim him. Andwho was it who executed tliis command ? Who butCatiline, abeady training his hands to every sort ofcrime ? He hacked him to pieces before the tombof Quintus Catulus, doing violence to the ashes ofthat gentlest of men, above which a hero—of evilinfluence, no doubt, yet popular and loved not somuch undeservedly as to excess—shed his blood3brop by drop. It was meet that a Marius shouldmffer these things, that a Sulla should give theorders, and that a Catihne should execute them, butwas not meet that the state should receive in herbreast the swords of her enemies and her protectorsilike. But why do I search out ancient crimes ?Duly recently Gains Caesar slashed with the scourge301

SENECAPapinium, cui pater erat consularis, BetilienumBassum quaestorem suum, procuratoris sui filium,aliosque et senatores et equites Romanos uno dieflagellis cecidit, torsit, non quaestionis sed animi4 causa ; deinde adeo impatiens fuit difFerendaevoluptatis, quam ingentem crudelitas eius sinedilatione poscebat, ut in xysto maternorum hortorum,qui porticum a ripa separat, inambulans quosdamex illis cum matronis atque aliis senatoribus adlucernam decollaret. Quid instabat ? Quod periculumaut privatum aut publicum una nox minabatur ?Quantulum fuit lucem expectare denique, nesenatores populi Romani soleatus occideret !1 19. Quam superba fuerit crudelitas eius ad rempertinet scire, quamquam aberrare alicui possimusvideri et in devium exire ; sed hoc ipsum parserit irae super solita saevientis. Ceciderat flagellissenatores ; ipse efFecit, ut dici posset " solet fieri."Torserat per omnia, quae in rerum natura tristissimasunt, fidiculis, talaribus, eculeo, igne, vultu suo.2 Et hoc loco respondebitur ": Magnam rem ! si tressenatores quasi nequam mancipia inter verbera etflammas divisit homo, qui de toto senatu trucidandocogitabat, qui optabat, ut populus Romanus unamcervicem haberet, ut scelera sua tot locis ac temporibusdiducta in unum ictum et unum diemcogeret." Quid tam inauditum quam nocturnum« Literally "sandals," a conventional detail of Romandinner-dress.302

!ON ANGER, III. x\in. 3-xix. 2and tortured Sextus Papinius, whose father had beenconsul, and Betihenus Bassus, his own quaestor andthe son of his procurator, and others, both Romansenators and knights, all in one day—and not toextract information but for amusement. Then soimpatient was he of postponing his pleasure—pleasure so great that his cruelty demanded it >\ithoutdelay—that he decapitated some of his victimsby lamplight, as he was strolling \viih some ladiesand senators on the terrace of his mother's gardens,which runs between the colonnade and the bank ofthe river. But what was the pressing need ? Whatpublic or private danger was threatened by a singlenight's delay ? How small a matter it would havebeen if he had waited just till davvTi, so as not tokill the senators of the Roman people in his pumps

SENECAsupplicium ? Cum latrocinia tenebris abscond!soleant, animadversiones, quo notiores sunt, plus3 in exemplum emendationemque proficiant. Et hocloco respondebitur mihi :" Quod tanto opere admiraris,isti beluae cotidianum est ; ad hoc vivit,ad hoc vigilat, ad hoc lucubrat." Nemo certeinvenietur alius, qui imperaverit omnibus iis, in quosanimadverti iubebat, os inserta spongea includi, nevocis emittendae haberent facultatem.Cui umquammorituro non est relictum qua gemeret ? Timuit,ne quam liberiorem vocem extremus dolor mitteret,ne quid quod noUet audiret ; sciebat autem innumerabiliaesse, quae obicere illi nemo nisi periturus4 auderet. Cum spongeae non invenirentur, scindijvestiraenta miserorum et in os farciri pannos imperavit.Quae ista saevitia est ? Liceat ultimumspiritum trahere, da exiturae animae locum, liceat5 illam non per vulnus emittere ! Adicere his longumest, quod patres quoque occisorum eadem noctedimissis per domos centurionibus confecit, id est,homo misericors luctu liberavit ! Non enim Gaisaevitiam, sed irae, propositum est describere, quaenon tantum viritim furit sed gentes totas lancinat,sed urbes et flumina et tuta ab omni sensu doloris:converberat.1 20. Sic rex Persarum totius populi nares recidit" See the story of Cyrus and the river Gyndes, De Ira, ill.21; of Xerxes' rage against the Hellespont, Herodotus, vii.35.304

ON ANGER, III. XIX. 2-xx. lexecution by night ? Though robberies are generallycurtained by darkness, the more publicity' punishmentshave, the more may they avail as an admonitionand warning. But here also I shall hear the answer :" That which surprises you so much is the daily habit ofthat beast ; for this he lives, for this he loses sleep, forthis he burns the midnight oil." But surely you ^^^llfind no other man who has bidden that the mouths ofall those who were to be executed by his orders shouldbe gagged by inserting a sponge, in order that theymight not even have the power to utter a cry. WTiatdoomed man was ever before deprived of the breath>vith which to moan ? Caesar feared lest the man'slast agony should give utterance to some speech toofrank, lest he might hear something that he wouldrather not. He was well aware, too, that there werecountless crimes, ^vith which none but a dpng manwould dare reproach him. If no sponges were to befound, he ordered the garments of the poor \vretchesto be torn up, and their mouths to be stuffed withthe strips. \Miat savagery is this ? Let a mandraw his last breath, leave a passage for his departingsoul, let it have some other course of exit thana wound ! It would be tedious to add more—how hesent officers to the homes of his ^"ictims, and on thatsame night made away with their fathers too—thatis, out of human pity he freed the fathers from theirsorrow ! And, indeed, tny purpose is not to picturethe cruelty of Gaius, but the erueltj^of anger, whichnot only vents its fury on a man here and there, butrends in pieces whole nations, which lashes cities andrivers and ** lifeless things that are immune to allfeeling of pain.Thus, the king of the Persians cut off the noses ofVOL. I X 305

;SENECAin Syria, unde Rhinocolura loco nomen est.Pepercisseilium iudicas, quod non tota capita praecidit ?2 Novo genere poenae delectatus est. Tale aliquidpassi forent et Aethiopes, qui ob longissimum vitaespatium Macrobioe appellantur ;in hos enim, quianon supinis manibus exceperant servitutem missisquelegatis libera responsa dederant, quae contumeliosareges vocant, Cambyses fremebat et non provisiscommeatibus, non exploratis itineribus, per invia,per arentia trahebat omnem bello utilem turbam.Cui intra primum iter deerant necessaria, nee quicquamsubministrabat sterilis et inculta humanoque3 ignota vestigio regio. Sustinebant famem primotenerrima frondium et cacumina arborum, turn coriaigne mollita et quidquid necessitas cibum feceratpostquam inter harenas radices quoque et herbaedefecerant apparuitque inops etiam animaliumsolitudo, decimum quemque sortiti alimentum ha-4 buerunt fame saevius. Agebat adhue regem irapraecipitem, cum partem exercitus amisisset, partemcomedisset, donee timuit, ne et ipse vocaretur adsortem. Turn demum signum receptui dedit. Servabanturinterim generosae illi aves et instrumentaepularum camelis vehebantur, cum sortirenturmilites eius, quis male periret, quis peius viveret.306

ON ANGER, III. XX. 1-4a whole population in Syria, whence it gets its nameof " Land-of-the-stump-nosed." Think you he wasmerciful because he did not cut off their entire heads ?No, he got some pleasure from a new kind of punishment.And the Ethiopians, who on account of theprodigiously long time they live are kno\vn as the" Longevals," might also have suffered some such fate.For Cambyses became enraged against them because,instead of embracing servitude with outstretchedarms, they sent envoys and made reply in the independentwords which kings call insults ; wherefore,without pro\dding supphes, Avithout investigatingthe roads, through a trackless and desert region hehurried against them his whole host of fighting men.During the first day's march his food supplies beganto fail, and the country itself, barren and uncultivatedand untrodden by the foot of man, furnished themnothing. At first the tenderest parts of leaves andshoots of trees satisfied their hunger, then skinssoftened by fire and whatever necessity forced themto use as food. After, amid the desert sands, evenroots and herbage failed them, and they viewed awilderness destitute also of animal life, choosingvery tenth man by lot, they secured the nutrimenthat was more cruel than hunger. And still thewas driven headlong onwards by his anger,til having lost one part of his army and having.evoured another part, he began to fear that he tooght be summoned to the choice by lot. Only thenid he give the signal for retreat. And all the whileowls of choice breed were being kept for him, and;amels carried supplies for his feasts, while hisoldiers drew^lots to discover who should miserably>erish, who should more miserably^ve^^307

SENECA1 21. Hie iratus fuit genti et ignotae et immeritae,sensurae tamen ; Cyrus flumini. Nam cum Babylonaoppugnaturus festinaret ad bellum, cuiusmaxima momenta in occasionibus sunt, Gynden latefusum amnem vado transire temptavit, quod vixtutum est, etiam cum sensit aestatem et ad minimum2 deductus est. Ibi unus ex iis equis, qui trahereregium currum albi solebant, abreptus vehementercommovit regem ; iuravit itaque se amnem iliumregis comitatus auferentem eo redacturum, ut^3 transiri calcarique etiam a feminis posset. Hocdeinde omnem transtulit belli apparatum et tarndiu adsedit operi,donee centum et octoginta cuniculisdivisum alveum in trecentos et sexaginta rivosdispergeret, siccum relinqueret in diversum fluentibus4 aquis. Periit itaque et tempus, magna in magnisrebus iactura,et militum ardor, quem inutilis laborfregit, et occasio adgrediendi imparatos, dum ille6 bellum indictum hosti cum flumine gerit. Hie furor—quid enim aliud voces ?—Romanos quoque contigit.C. enim Caesar villam in Herculanensi pulcherrimam,quia mater sua aliquando in ilia custoditaerat, diruit fecitque eius per hoc notabilem fortunam; stantem enim praenavigabamus, nunccausa dirutae quaeritur.308

ON ANGER, III. XXI. 1-5This man raged against a people unknown andinoffensive, yet able to feel his anger : Cyrus, however,raged against a river. For when, with thepurpose of taking Babylon, he was hastening to war—in which the favourable opportunity is of theutmost importance—he attempted to ford the riverGyndes, then in full flood, though such an undertakingis scarcely safe even after the river has feltthe heat of siunmer and is reduced to its smallestvolume. There, when one of the white horseswhich regularly drew the royal chariot was sweptaway, the king became mightily stirred. And sohe swore that he would reduce that river, which wascarrying away the retinue of the king, to such proportionsthat even women could cross it and trampleit under foot. To this task, then, he transferred allhis preparations for war, and ha\ang lingered thereatlong enough to cut one hundred and eighty runwaysacross the channel of the river, he distributed itswater into three hundred and sixty runnels, whichflowing in different directions left the channel dr^'.And so he sacrificed time, a serious loss in importantoperations, the enthusiasm of his soldiers, whichwas crushed by the useless toil, and the opportunityof attacking the enemy unprepared, while he wagedagainst a river the war he had declared againsta foe. Such madness—for what else can you callit ?—has befallen Romans also. For Gaius Caesardestroyed a very beautiful villa near Herculaneumbecause his mother had once been imprisoned in it,and by his very act gave publicity to her misfortune; for while the villa stood, we used to sailby unconcerned, but now people ask why it wasdestroyed.309

;SENECA1 22. Et haec cogitanda sunt exempla, quae vites,et ilia ex contrario, quae sequaris, moderata, lenia,quibus nee ad irascendum causa defuit nee ad ulci-2 scendum potestas. Quid enim facilius fuit Antigonoquam duos manipulares duci iubere, qui incumbentesregis tabernaculo faciebant, quod homines et perieulosissimeet libentissime faciunt, de rege suo maleexistimabant ? Audierat omnia Antigonus, utpotecum inter dicentes et audientem palla interessetquam ille leviter commovit et :" Longius," inquit,3 " discedite, ne vos rex audiat." Idem quadam nocte,cum quosdam ex militibus suis exaudisset omniamala imprecantis regi, qui ipsos in illud iter et inextricabilelutum deduxisset, accessit ad eos, quimaxime laborabant, et cum ignorantis a quo adiuvarenturexplicuisset " : Nunc," inquit, " male diciteAntigono, cuius vitio in has miserias incidistis ; eiautem bene optate, qui vos ex hac voragine eduxit."4 Idem tarn miti animo hostium suorum male dictaquam civium tulit. Itaque cum in parvulo quodamcastello Graeci obsiderentur et fiducia loci contemnenteshostem multa in deformitatem Antigoniiocarentur et nunc staturam humilem, nunc collisumnasum deriderent :" Gaudeo," inquit, " et aliquid5 boni spero, si in castris meis Silenum habeo." Cumhos dicaces fame domuisset, captis sic usus est, uteos qui militiae utiles erant in cohortes discriberet,ceteros praeconi subiceret, idque se negavit facturum310

ON ANGER, III. XXII. 1-5These should be regarded as examples to beavoided ; the following, on the other hand, are tobe imitated, being instances of restrained and gentlemen, who lacked neither the provocation to angernor the power of requital. What indeed would havebeen easier than for Antigonus to order the executionof the two common soldiers, who, while they leanedagainst the royal tent, expressed—as men will dowith equally great danger and delight—their illopinion of their king ? Antigonus heard ever\'thing,only a canvas intervening between the speakers andthe listener ; this he gently shook and said, " Movea little farther off, for the king might hear you."Again, one night, when he overheard some of hissoldiers invoking all kinds of curses upon the kingfor having led them into such a road and inextricablemud, he went up to those w^ho were struggling most,and when he had got them out, without revealingwho their helper was, he said, " Now curseAntigonus, by whose fault you have fallen upon thismishap, but bless him who has led you out of thisswamp." He also bore the abuse of his enemiesas calmly as that of his countrymen. And so, whenhe was besieging some Greeks in a small fort, andthey, confident in their position, showed opencontempt for the enemy, and cracking many jokesupon the ugliness of Antigonus scoffed now at hisdiminutive stature, now at his flattened nose, hemerely said, " If I have a Silenus in my camp, I amfortunate and hope for good luck." When he hadsubdued these wags by hunger, he disposed of hiscaptives as follows : those who were fit for militaryser\-ice he assigned to regiments ; the rest he putup at auction, saying that he would not have done311

SENECAfuisse, nisi expediret iis dominum habere, qui tammalam haberent linguam.1 23. Huius nepos fuit Alexander, qui lanceam inconvivas suos torquebat, qui ex duobus amicis, quospaulo ante rettuli, alterum ferae obiecit, alterumsibi. Ex his duobus tamen qui leoni obiectus est2 vixit. Non habuit hoc avitum ille vitium, ne paternumquidem ; nam si qua aha in Phihppo virtus, fuitet contumeliarum patientia, ingens instrumentumad tutelam regni. Demoehares ad ilium Parrhesiastesob nimiam et procacem linguam appellatusinter alios Atheniensium legatos venerat. Auditabenigne legatione Philippus ": Dicite," inquit," niihi, facere quid possim, quod sit Atheniensibusgratum." Excepit Demoehares et :" Te," inquit,3 " suspender e." Indignatio circumstantium ad tam^ inhumanum responsum exorta erat ;quos Philippusconticiscere iussit et Thersitam ilium salvum incolumemquedimittere. " At vos," inquit, " ceterilegati, nuntiate Atheniensibus multo superbioresesse, qui ista dicunt, quam qui impune dicta audiunt."4 Multa et divus Augustus digna memoria fecitdixitque, ex quibus appareat iram illi non imperasse.Timagenes historiarum scriptor quaedam in ipsum,quaedam in uxorem eius et in totam domum dixeratnee perdiderat dicta ; magis enim circumfertur et5 in ore hominum est temeraria urbanitas. Saepeilium Caesar monuit, moderatius lingua uteretur ;" A mistake. Alexander was the grandson of Amyntas ;Antigonus (Movi^^aX/ios) was one of Alexander's generals.' i.e., "the Outspoken " (Uapprja-LaffTTjs)." A Greek in the camp before Troy, noted for his boldand impudent tongue.312

ON ANGER, III. XXII. 5-.xxiii. 5so had it not seemed good for men who had such ane\il tongue to find a master.The grandson of this man was Alexander," whoused to hurl his spear at his dinner-guests, who, of thetwo friends mentioned above, exposed one to thefury of a wild beast, the other to his own. Of thesetwo, however, the one who was thro%^"n to a Hon hved,Alexander did not get this weakness from his grandfather,nor from his father either ; for if PhiUppossessed any \'irtues at all, among them was theabiUty to endure insults—a great help in the maintenanceof a throne. Demochares, sumamed Parrhesiastes^on account of his bold and impudenttongue, came to him once in company with otherenvoys from the Athenians. Having granted thedelegation a friendly hearing, Pliihp said, " Tellme what I can do that ^\i\\ please the Athenians."Demochares took him at his word and replied," Hang yovu-self." All the bystanders flared up inindignation at such brutal words, but Philip badethem keep quiet and let that Thersites*^ \sithdrawsafe and unharmed. " But you," he said, " youother envoys, go tell the Athenians that those whospeak such words show far more arrogance thanthose who listen to them \\ithout retaliation."The deified Augustus also did and said manythings that are memorable, which prove that hewas not ruled by anger. Timagenes, a writer ofhistory, made some unfriendly remarks about theemperor himself, his wife, and all his family, andthey had not been lost ; for reckless wit gets bandiedabout more freely and is on everybody's bps. Oftendid Caesar warn him that he must have a moreprudent tongue ; when he persisted, he forbade313

SENECAperseveranti domo sua interdixit.Postea Timagenesin contubernio Pollionis Asinii consenuit ac totacivitate direptus est. Nullum illi limen praeclusa6 Caesaris domus abstulit. Historias, quas posteascripserat, recitavit et libros acta Caesaris Augusticontinentis in igne posuit et combussit ; inimicitiasgessit cum Caesare ; nemo amicitiam eius extimuit,nemo quasi fulguritum refugit, fuit qui praeberet7 tam alte cadenti sinum. Tulit hoc, ut dixi, Caesarpatienter, ne eo quidem motus, quod laudibus suisrebusque gestis manus attulerat ; numquam cum8 hospite inimici sui questus est. Hoc dumtaxatPollioni Asinio dixit : drjpLOTpoffteis ;paranti deindeexcusationem obstitit et " Fruere," inquit, " miPollio, fruere !" et cum PoUio diceret :" Si iubes,Caesar, statim illi domo mea interdicam," " Hocme," inquit, " putas facturum, cum ego vos ingratiam reduxerim ? " Fuerat enim aliquando TimageniPollio iratus nee ullam aliam habuerat causamdesinendi, quam quod Caesar coeperat.1 24. Dicat itaque sibi quisque, quotiens lacessitur :" Numquid potentior sum Philippo ? Illi tamenimpune male dictum est. Numquid in domo meaplus possum quam toto orbe terrarum divus Augustuspotuit ? Ille tamen contentus fuit a conviciatore2 suo secedere." Quid est quare ego servi mei clariusresponsum et contumaciorem voltum et non per-" There is greater wit in the Greek, which permits alsothe interpretation " You keep a menagerie " —a commonamusement of rich men.314

ON ANGER, III. xxiii. 5-xxiv. 2him the palace. After this, Timagenes Hved to oldage in the house of Asinius Pollio, and was honizedby the whole city. Though Caesar had excludedlum from the palace, he was debarred from noother door. He gave readings of the history' whichhe had written after the incident, and the bookswhich contained the doings of Augustus Caesar heput in the fire and burned. He maintained hostilityagainst Caesar, yet no one feared to be his friend,no one shrank from him as a blasted man ; thoughfrom such a height, he found some one readyhe fellto take him to his bosom. As I have said, Caesarbore all of this patiently, not even moved by thefact that his renown and his achievements had beenassailed ; he made no complaint against the hostof his enemy. To Asinius PolUo he merely said," You're keeping a wld beast." " Then, when theother was trj-ing to offer some excuse, he stoppedliim and said, " Enjoy yourself, my dear Polho, enjoyyourself ! " and when Pollio declared, " If you bidme, Caesar, I shall forth>\'ith deny him the house,"he replied, " Do you think that I would do this,when it was I who restored the friendship betweenyou ? " For the fact is, Polho had once had aquarrel ^^ith Timagenes, and his only reason forending it was that Caesar had now begun one.Whenever a man is provoked, therefore, let himsay to himself, " Am I more mighty than PhiUp ?Yet he was cursed and did not retaliate. Have Imore authority over my house than the deifiedAugustus had over all the world ? Yet he wascontent merely to keep away from his maligner."What right have I to make my slave atone by stripesand manacles for too loud a reply, too rebelhous a315

;SENECAvenientem usque ad me murmurationem flagelliset compedibus expiem ? Quis sum, cuius aureslaedi nefas sit ? Ignoverunt multi hostibus ; egonon ignoscam pigris, neglegentibus, garrulis ?3 Puerum aetas excuset, feminam sexus, extraneumlibertas, domesticum familiaritas. Nunc primumoffendit, cogitemus quam diu placuerit ; saepe etalias offendit, feramus quod diu tulimus. Amicusest, fecit quod noluit ; inimicus, fecit quod debuit.4 Prudentiori credamus, stultiori remittamus. Proquocumque illud nobis respondeamus, sapientissimosquoque viros multa delinquere, neminem essetam circumspectum, cuius non diligentia aliquandosibi ipsa excidat, neminem tam maturum, cuius nongravitatem in aliquod fervidius factum casus impingat,neminem tam timidum offensarum, qui non in illas,dum vitat, incidat.1 25. Quomodo homini pusillo solacium in malisfuit etiam magnorum virorum titubare fortunam,et aequiore animo filium in angulo flevit, qui viditacerba funera etiam ex regia duci, sic animo aequiorefert ab aliquo laedi, ab aliquo contemni, cuicumquevenit in mentem nullam esse tantam potentiam,2 in quam non occurrat iniuria. Quod si etiam prudentissimipeccant, cuius non error bonam causamhabet ? Respiciamus quotiens adulescentia nostrain officio parum diligens fuerit, in sermone parummodesta, in vino parum temperans. Si iratus est,demus illi spatium, quo dispicere quid fecerit possit316

ON ANGER, III. XXIV. 2-xxv. 2look, a muttering of something that I do not quitehear ? \\Tio am I that it should be a crime tooffend my ears ? Many have pardoned their enemies ;shall I not pardon the lazy, the careless, and thebabbler ? Let -a.-_^hild be excused by his age, awoman by her sex, a stranger by his independence,a servant by the bond of intercourse. Does some oneoffend for the first time ? Let us reflect how longhe has pleased us. At other times and often hashe given offence ? Let us bear longer what we havelong borne. Is he a friend ? He has done whathe did not mean to do. Is he an enemy ? He didwhat he had a right to do. One that is sensiblelet us believe, one that is foolish let us forgive, \yhoeveritmay be, let us say to ourselves on his behalfthat even the wisest men have many faults, that noman is so guarded that he does not sometimes let hisdihgence lapse, none so seasoned that accident doesnot drive his composure into some hot-headed action,none so fearful of giving offence that he does notstumble into it while seeking to avoid it.As to the humble man, it brings comfort in troublethat great men's fortune also totters, and as hewho weeps for his son in a hovel is more content ifhe has seen the piteous procession move from thepalace also, so a man is more content to be injuredby one, to be scorned by another, if he takes thoughtthat no power is so great as to be beyond the reachof harm. But if even the wisest do wTong, whosesiri"^ll not have good excuse ? Let us look backupon our youth and recall how often we were toocareless about duty, too indiscreet in speech, toointemperate in wine. If a man gets angry, let usgive him enough time to discover what he has done ;317

SENECAipse se castigabit. Denique debeat poenas ; non3 est quod cum illo paria faciamus. Illud non venietin dubium, quin se exemerit turbae et altius steteritquisquis despexit lacessentis.Proprium est magnitudinisverae non sentire percussum. Sic immanisfera ad latratum canum lenta respexit, sic irritusingenti scopulo fluctus adsultat.Qui non irascitur,inconcussus iniuria perstitit, qui irascitur, motus4 est. At ille, queni modo altiorem omni incommodo 1posui, tenet amplexu quodam summurn bonum, neehomini tantum, sed ipsi fortunae respondet ": Omnialicet facias, minor es, quam ut serenitatem meamobducas.Vetat hoc ratio, cui vitam regendam dedi.Plus mihi nocitura est ira quam iniuria. Quidniplus ? Illius modus certus est, ista quo usque melatura sit dubium est."1 26. " Non possum," inquis, " pati ;grave est iniuriamsustinere." Mentiris ;quis enim iniuriamnon potest ferre, qui potest iram ?id agis, ut et iram feras et iniuriam.Adice nunc quodQuare fers aegrirabiem et phrenetici verba, puerorum protervasmanus ?Nempe quia videntur nescire quid faciant.Quid interest, quo quisque vitio fiat imprudens ?2 Imprudentia par in omnibus patrocinium est. " Quidergo ? " inquis, " impune illi erit ? " Puta velle te,318

ON ANGER, III. XXV. 2-xxvi. 2he, will chastise himself. Suppose in the end hedeserves punishment ; then there is no reason whywe should match his misdeeds. There will be nodoubt about this—that whoever scorns his tormentorsremoves himself from the common herd and towersabove them. The mark of true greatness is not tonotice that you have received a blow. So does thehuge wild beast calmly turn and gaze at barkingdogs, so does the wave dash in vain against a mightycliff. The man who does not get angrj' standsfirm, unshaken by injur}- ; he who gets angrj- is overthrown.But he whom I have just set above thereach of all harm holds, as it were, in his arms thehighest good, and not only to a man, but to Fortuneherself, he will say ": Do what you \vill, you are toopuny to disturb my serenit}'. Reason, to whom Ihave committed the guidance of my life, forbids it. .My anger is Ukely to do me more harm than youi-l—wTong. And why not more ? The hmit of theinjury is fixed, but how far the anger \\-ill sweep meno man knows."" I cannot," you say, " be forbearing ; it isdifficult to submit to a vrrong." That is not true ;for who that can tolerate anger will yet be unableto tolerate ^\Tong ? Besides, what you now proposeis to tolerate both anger and ^^Tong. Why do youtolerate the delirium of a sick man, the ra\'ings of alunatic, or the wanton blows of children ? Because,of course, they seem not to know what they are doing.What difference does it make what weakness it isthat makes a person irresponsible ? The plea ofirresponsibility holds equally good for all. " ^^^latthen ? " you say ;" shall the man go unpunished ? "Grant that you wish it so, nevertheless it will not be319

ISENECAtamen non erit ; maxima est enim factae iniuriaepoena fecisse, nee quisquam gravius adficitur quam3 qui ad supplicium paenitentiae traditur. Deindead condicionem rerum humanarum respiciendumest, ut omnium accidentium aequi indices simus :iniquus autem est, qui commune vitium singulisobiecit. Non est Aethiopis inter suos insignituscolor, nee rufus crinis et coactus in nodum apudGermanos virum dedecet. Nihil in uno iudicabisnotabile aut foedum, quod genti suae publicum est ;et ista, quae rettuli, unius regionis atque anguliconsuetude defendit. Vide nunc, quanto in iisiustior venia sit, quae per totum genus humanum4 vulgata sunt. Omnes inconsulti et improvidi sumus,omnes incerti, queruli, ambitiosi, — quid lenioribusverbis ulcus publicum abscondo ?—omnes mailsumus. Quidquid itaque in alio reprenditur, idunusquisque in sinu suo inveniet. Quid illiuspallorem, illius maciem notas ? Pestilentia est.Placidiores itaque invicem simus ; mali inter malevivimus.Una nos res facere quietos potest, mutuaj5 facilitatis conventio, " lUe lam mihi nocuit, egoilli nondum." Sed iam aliquem fortasse laesisti,sed laedes. Noli aestumare banc horam aut huncdiem, totum inspice mentis tuae habitum ;nihil mali fecisti, potes facere.etiam si1 27. Quanto satius est sanare iniuriam quam '320

ON ANGER, III. XXVI. 2-xxvii. lso,; for the greatest punishment of wTong-doing is -

;ISENECAulcisci ! Multum temporis ultio absumit, multisse iniuriis obicit, dum una dolet ; diutius irascimuromnes quam laedimur. Quanto melius est abirein diversum nee vitia vitiis opponere ! Numquissatis constare sibi videatur, si mulam calcibus repetat2 et canem morsu ?" Ista," inquis, " peccare senesciunt." Primum quam iniquus est, apud quemhominem esse ad impetrandam veniam nocet !Deinde, si cetera animalia hoe irae tuae subducit,quod consilio carent, eodem loco tibi sit quisquisconsilio caret ;quid enim refert an alia mutis dissimiliahabeat, si hoc, quod in omni peccato muta3 defendit, simile habet, caliginem mentis ? Peccavithoc enim primum ? Hoc enim extremum ? Nonest quod illi credas, etiam si dixerit " : Iterum nonfaciam." Et iste peccabit et in istum ahus et totavita inter errores volutabitur. Mansuete imman-4 sueta tractanda sunt. Quod in luctu dici soletefficacissime, et in ira dicetur : utrum aliquandodesines an numquam ?Si aliquando, quanto satiusest iram relinquere quam ab ira relinqui ! Ansemper haec concitatio permanebit ? Vides quamimpacatam tibi denunties vitam ? Quahs enim erit6 semper tumentis ? Adice nunc quod, cum bene teipse succenderis et subinde causas, quibus stimuleris,322

ON ANGER, III. xxvii. 1-5injury ! Vengeance consumes much time, and it -iexposesthe doer to many injuries while he smarts ifrom one ; our anger always lasts longer than thehurt. How much better it is to take the oppositecourse and not to match fault with fault. Wouldany one think that he was well balanced if he repaida mule with kicks and a dog with biting ? But yousay, " Those creatures do not know that they aredoing wrong." In the first place, how unjust is hein whose eyes being a man is fatal to obtainingpardon ! In the second place, if other creaturesescape your anger for the verj' reason that theyare lacking in understanding, every man who lacksunderstanding should hold in your eyes a likeposition. For what difference does it make that hisother qualities are unlike those of dumb animals if heresembles them in the one quality that excuses dumbanimals for every misdeed—a mind that is aU darkness"? He did wrong," you say. Well, was thisthe first time ? Will it be the last time ? You neednot beUeve him even if he should say, " I will neverdo it again." He will go on sinning and some oneelse will sin against him, and the whole of life willbe a tossing about amid errors. Unkindness mustL*-be treated with kindness. The words so often 'addressed to one in grief will prove most effectivealso for a man in anger ": Will you ever desist—ornever " ? If ever, how much better it is to forsakeanger than to wait for anger to forsake you ! Orshall this turmoil continue for ever ? Do you see towhat life-long unrest you are dooming yourself ? Forwhat will be the life of one who is always swollenwith rage ? Besides, when you have successfullyinflamed yourself with passion, and have repeatedly323

SENECArenovaveris, sua sponte ira discedet et vires illi diessubtrahet. Quanto satius est a te illam vinci quama se !1 28. Huic irasceris, deinde illi ; servis, deindelibertis ;parentibus, deinde liberis ; notis, deinde!ignotis ; ubique enim causae supersunt, nisi deprecatoranimus accessit. Hinc te illo furor rapiet,illinc alio, et novis subinde irritamentis orientibuscontinuabitur rabies. Age, infelix, ecquando amabis? O quam bonum tempus in re mala perdis !2 Quanto nunc erat satius amicos parare, inimicosmitigare, rem publicam administrare, transferre inres domesticas operam, quam circumspicere, quidalicui facere possis mali, quod aut dignitati eius autpatrimonio aut corpori vulnus infligas, cum id tibicontingere sine certamine ac periculo non possit,3 etiam si cum inferiore concurses ! Vinctum licetaccipias et ad arbitrium tuum omni patientiaeexpositum ; saepe nimia vis caedentis aut articulumloco movit aut nervum in his quos fregerat dentibusfixit. Multos iracundia mancos, multos debilesfecit, etiam ubi patientem est^ nancta materiam.Adice nunc quod nihil tam imbecille natum est, utsine elidentis periculo pereat ; imbecillos valentis-4 simis alias dolor, alias casus exaequat. Quid, quodpleraque eorum, propter quae irascimur, offenduntnos magis quam laedunt ? Multum autem interest,324^est added by Petschenig.

ON ANGER, III. XXVII. 5-xxvin. 4renewed the causes that spur you on, yowF- angerwill leave you of its own accord, and lapse of timewill reduce its power. How much better it is thatit should be vanquished by you than by itself IYou will be angr}- first >vith this man, then withthat one ; first with slaves, then with freedmen ;first with parents, then ^^ith children ; first withacquaintances, then with strangers ; for there arecauses enough everywhere unless the mind entersto intercede. Rage Avill sweep you hither and yon,this way and that, and your madness will be prolongedby new provocations that constantly arise.Tell me, unhappy man, will you ever find time tolove ? ^Vhat precious time you are wasting uponan evil thing ! How much better would it be at thispresent moment to be gaining friends,jreconciling!enemies, ser\'ing the state, devoting effort to privateaffairs, than to be casting about to see what evil youcan do to some man, what wound you may deal tohis position, his estate, or his person, although youcannot attain this mthout struggle and danger evenif your adversary be an inferior ! You may takehim in chains and at your pleasure expose him toevery test of endurance ; but too great violence inthe striker has often dislocated a joint, or left a sinewfastened in the very teeth it had broken. Anger hasleft many a man crippled, many disabled, even whenit has found its victim submissive. Besides, therelives no creature so weak that it will die withouttrying to harm its destroyer ; sometimes pain, sometimesa mishap, makes the weak a match for thestrongest. And is it not true that most of the thingsthat make us angry offend us more than they harm,ns ? But it makes a great difference whether a man325

SENECAutrum aliquis voluntati meae obstet an desit, eripiatan non det.Atqui in aequo ponimus, utrum aliquisauferat an neget, utrum spem nostram praecidatan difFerat, utrum contra nos faciat an pro se, amore5 alterius an odio nostri. Quidam vero non tantumiustas causas standi contra nos, sed etiam honestashabent. Alius patrem tuetur, alius fratrem, aliuspatriam, alius amicum ; his tamen non ignoscimusid facientibus, quod nisi facerent improbaremus,immo, quod est incredibile, saepe de facto bene6 existimamus, de faciente male. At me herculesvir magnus ac iustus fortissimum quemque eihostibus suiset pro libertate ac salute patriae pertinacissimumsuspicit et talem sibi civem, talemtmilitem contingere optat.1 29. Turpe est odisse quem laudes ;quanto veroturpius ob id aliquem odisse, propter quod misericordiadignus est.Si captivus in servitutem subitodepressus reliquias libertatis tenet nee ad sordidaac laboriosa ministeria agilis occurrit, si ex otio pigerequum vehiculumque domini cursu non exaequat,si inter cottidiana pervigiBa fessum somnus oppressit,si rusticum laborem recusat aut non fortiterobiit a servitute urbana et feriata translatus ad2 durum opus, distinguamus, utrum aliquis non possitan nolit. Multos absolvemus, si coeperimus anteiudicare quam irasci. Nunc autem primum impetum326

ON ANGER, III. xxviii. 4-xxix. 2thwarts my msh or fails to further it, whether he robsme or merely fails to give. And yet we attach thesame value to both—whether a man deprives us ofsomething or merely withholds it, whether he shattersour hope or defers it, whether he acts against us orin his o^^n interest, whether from love of another orfrom hatred of us. Some men, indeed, have not onlyjust, but even honourable, reasons for opposing us.One is protecting his father, another his brother,another his country, another his friend. Nevertheless,we do not excuse these for doing the very thingwhich we should blame them for not doing ; nav,more, though it is quite unbeUevable, we often thinkw6tt-of an act, but ill of its doer. But, in very truth,a great and just man honours those of his foes whoare bravest and are most stubborn in the defenceof the hberty and the safet}- of their country; andprays that fortune may grant him such men as fellowcitizens,such as fellow-soldiers.It is base to hate a man who commands your praise,but how much baser to hate any one for the veryreason that he deserv'^es your pity. If a captive,suddenly reduced to servitude, still retains sometraces of his freedom and does not run nimbly tomean and toilsome tasks, if sluggish from inactionhe does not keep pace with the speed of his master'shorse and carriage, if worn out by his daily vigils heyields to sleep, if when transferred to hard labour fromservice in the city with its many holidays he eitherrefuses the toil of the farm or does not enter into itwith energy—in such cases let us discriminate, askingwhether he cannot or will not serve. We shallacquit many if we begin Avith discernment instead ofMithanger. But as it is,we obey our first impulse; then,327

SENECAsequimur, deinde, quamvis vana nos concitaverint,perseveramus, ne videamur coepisse sine causa, et,quod iniquissimum est, pertinaciores nos facitiniquitas irae ; retinemus enim illam et augemus,quasi argumentum sit iuste irascentis graviterirasci.1 30. Quanto melius est initia ipsa perspicere quamlevia sint, quam innoxia ! Quod accidere videsanimalibus mutis, idem in homine deprendes ;frivolis turbamur et inanibus. Taurum color rubicundusexcitat, ad umbram aspis exsurgit, ursosleonesque mappa proritat ;omnia, quae natura fera2 ac rabida sunt, consternantur ad vana. Idem inquietiset stolidis ingeniis evenit. Rerum suspicioneferiuntur, adeo quidem, ut interdum iniurias vocentmodica beneficia, in quibus frequentissima, certeacerbissima iracundiae materia est. Carissimis enimirascimur, quod minora nobis praestiterint quammente conceperimus quamque alii tulerint, cum3 utriusque rei paratum remedium sit. Magis alteriindulsit ; nostra nos sine comparatione delectent.Numquam erit felix, quem torquebit felicior.Minushabeo quam speravi ; sed fortasse plus speravi quardebui. Haec pars maxime metuenda est, hinc per-Jniciosissimae irae nascuntur et sanctissima quaequeinvasurae.4 Divum lulium plures amici confecerunt quarinimici, quorum non expleverat spes inexplebiles^328

ON ANGER, III. XXIX. 2-xxx, 4although we have been aroused by mere trifleSj we continueto be angry for fear that we may seem to havehad no reason to be so from the first, and—what ismost unjust—the verj- injustice of our anger makes usthe more obstinate. P'or we hold on to it and nurse it,as if the \'iolence of our anger were proof of its j ustice.How much better it is to perceive its first beginnings—howshght, how harmless they are ! YouMill find that the same thing happens with a manwhich you observe in dumb animals ; we are ruffledby silly and petty things. The bull is aroused by a-red colour, the asp strikes at a shadow, bears andlions are irritated by a handkerchief ; all creatures bynature wild and savage are alarmed by trifles. Thesame is true of men, whether they are by naturerestless or inert. They are smitten with suspicions,so powerfully, even, that they sometimes call moderatebenefits injuries ; these are the most common,certainly the most bitter, source of anger. For webecome angry at oiu" dearest friends because theyhave bestowed less than we anticipated, and lessthan they conferred upon another ; and yet for bothtroubles there is a ready remedy. More favour hasbeen shown another ; then let us without makingcomparison be pleased ^^•ith what we have. Thatman wll never be happy whom the sight of a happierman tortures. I may have less than I hoped for ; butperhaps I hoped for more than I ought. It is fromthis direction that we have most to fear ; from thissprings the anger that is most destructive, that willassail all that is most holy.Among those who dispatched the di\ine Juliusthere were more fiiends than enemies—friends whoseinsatiate hopes he had failed to satisfy. He wished329;t

;"SENECAVoluit quidem ille—^neque enim quisquam liberaliusvictoria usus est, ex qua nihil sibi vindicavit nisidispensandi potestatem, — sed quemadmodum sufficeretam improbis desideriis posset, cum tantumomnes concupiscerent, quantum unus poterat ?6 Vidit itaque strictis circa sellam suam gladiis commilitonessuos, Cimbrum Tillium, acerrimum pauloante partium defensorem, aliosque post Pompeiumdemum Pompeianos. Haec res sua in reges armaconvertit fidissimosque eo compulit, ut de morteeorum cogitarent, pro quibus et ante quos morivotum habuerant.1 31. Nulli ad aliena respicienti sua placent. Indediis quoque irascimur, quod aliquis nos antecedat,obliti quantum hominum retro sit, et paucis invidentemquantum sequatur a tergo ingentis invidiae.Tanta tamen importunitas hominum est, ut, quamvismultum acceperint, iniuriae loco sit plus accipere2 potuisse. " Dedit mihi praeturam, sed consulatumsperaveram ; dedit duodecim fasces, sed non fecitordinarium consulem ; a me numerari voluit annum,sed deest mihi ad sacerdotium ; cooptatus in collegiumsum, sed cur in unum ? Consummavitdignitatem meam, sed patrimonio nihil contulitea dedit mihi, quae debebat alicui dare, de suo nihil3 protuht." Age potius gratias pro his, quae accepistireliqua expecta et nondum plenum esse te gaude ;" i.e., ironically, open enemies of Caesar.* Under the empire the term of the consular office was]shortened, and several pairs of consuls were nominated forione year ; those who entered upon office at the beginning of]the year gave their names to the year {consules ordinarii),iand thus gained more prestige than the others {consules !suffecti).330

;ON ANGER, III. XXX. 4-xxxi. 3indeed to do so—for no man ever made a more generoususe of \'ictory, from which he claimed nothing forhimself except the right to give away—but how couldhe gratify such unconscionable desires, since every oneof them coveted as much as any one could possiblycovet ? And so he saw his fellow-soldiers aroundhis chair with their swords drawn—Tillius Cimber, ahttle while before the boldest defender of his cause,and others who, after Pompey was no more, had atlength become Pompeians." It is this that turnsagainst kings their o^vn weapons, and drives theirmost trusted followers to the point of planning forthe death of those for whom and before whom theyhad vowed to die.No man when he views the lot of others is contentwith his own! This is why we grow angry even at thegod§rbecause some person is ahead of us, forgettinghow many men there are behind us, and how huge amass of envy follows at the back of him who envies buta few. Nevertheless such is the presumptuousnessof men that, although they may have received much,they count it an injury that they might have receivedmore. " He gave me the praetorship, but I hadhoped for the consulship ; he gave me the twelvefasces, but he did not make me a regular consulhe was ^^illing that my name should be attached tothe year,* but he disappointed me A\"ith respect tothe priesthood ; I was elected a member of thecollege, but why of one only ? he crowned me withpublic honour, but he added nothing to my patrimonywhat he gave me he had to give to somebody—hetook nothing out of his own pocket." Express thanksrather for what you have received ; wait for the rest,and be glad that you are not yet surfeited. There is a331

SENECAinter voluptates est superesse quod speres.Omnesvicisti, primum esse te in animo amici tui laetare ;multi te vincunt, considera, quanto antecedas pluresquam sequaris. Quod sit in te vitium maximumquaeris ? Falsas rationes conficis ; data magnoaestumas, accepta parvo,1 32. Aliud in alio nos deterreat. Quibusdamtimeamus irasci, quibusdam vereamur, quibusdamfastidiamus. Magnam rem sine dubio fecerimus,si servulum infelieem in ergastulum miserimus !Quid properamus verberare statim, crura protinus2 frangere ? Non peribit potestas ista, si difFeretur.Sine id tempus veniat, quo ipsi iubeamus ;nunc eximperio irae loquemur ; cum ilia abierit, tunc videbimus,quanto ista lis aestumanda sit. In hoc enimpraecipue fallimur ; ad ferrum venimus, ad capitaliasupplicia, et vinculis, carcere, fame vindicamus rem3 castigandam flagris levioribus. " Quomodo," inquis," nos iubes intueri, quam omnia, per quae laedivideamur, exigua, misera, puerilia sint ? " Egovero nihil magis suaserim quam sumere ingentemanimum et haec, propter quae litigamus, discurrimus,anhelamus, videre quam humilia et abiecta sint,nulli qui altum quiddam aut magnificum cogitatrespicienda.1 33. Circa pecuniam plurimum vociferationis est.Haec fora defetigat, patres liberosque committit,venena miscet, gladios tam percussoribus quam legio-332

ON ANGER, III. XXXI. 3-xxxin. 1pleasure in having something left to hope for. Haveyou outstripped all others ? Rejoice that you are firstin the regard of your friend. Are there many who outstripyou ? Consider how many more you are aheadof than behind. Do you ask me what is your greatestfault ? Your book-keeping is WTong ; what you havepaid out you rate high ; what you have received, low.Different considerations should in different casesrestrain us. From some let fear stay our anger, fromothers respect, from others pride. A fine thing weshall have done, no doubt, if we send a wTetched slaveto prison ! Why are we in such a hurry to flog him atonce, to break his legs forthwith ? Such power, thoughdeferred, \W11 not perish. Wait for the time whenthe order will be our own ; at the moment weshall speak under the dictation of anger ; when thathas passed, then we shall be able to see at whatvalue we should appraise the damage. For it is inthis that we are most liable to be wrong. We resortto the sword and to capital punishment, and an actthat deserves the censure of a very light floggingwe punish by chains, the prison, and starvation." In what way," you ask, " do you bid us discoverhow paltry, how pitiful, how childish are all thosethings by which we think we are injured " ? I,assuredly, could suggest nothing better than that youacquire a truly great .spirit, and that you realize howsordid and worthless are all these things for the sakeof which we wTangle, rush to and fro, and pant ; thesedo not deserve a thought from the man who has anyhigh and noble purposeMost of the outcry is about money. It is this whichwearies the coiurts, pits father against son, brewspoisons, and gives swords ahke to the legions and to333

!;SENECAnibus tradit ; haec est sanguine nostro delibutapropter hanc uxorum maritorumque noctes strepuntlitibus et tribunalia magistratuum premit turba,reges saeviunt rapiuntque et civitates longo saeculorumlabore constructas evertunt, ut aurum argen-2 tumque in cinere urbium scrutentur, Libet intuerifiscos in angulo iacentis. Hi sunt propter quos oculiclamore exprimantur, fremitu iudiciorum basilicaeresonent, evocati ex longinquis regionibus iudices3 sedeant iudicaturi, utrius iustior avaritia sit. Quidsine propter fiscum quidem, sed pugnum aeris autimputatum a servo denarium senex sine heredemoriturus stomacho dirumpitur ? Quid si propterusuram vel milensimam valetudinarius faeneratordistortis pedibus et manibus ad computandum nonrelictis clamat ac per vadimonia asses suos in ipsis4 morbi accessionibus vindicat ? Si totam mihi exomnibus metallis, quae cum maxime deprimimus,pecuniam proferas, si in medium proicias quidquidthensauri tegunt, avaritia iterum sub terras referente,quae male egesserat, omnem istam congeriem nonputem dignam quae frontem viri boni contrahat.Quanto risu prosequenda sunt quae nobis lacrimaseducunt1 34. Cedo nunc, persequere cetera, cibos, potioneshorumque causa paratas in ambitionem munditias.verba contumeliosa, motus corporum parum honorificos,contumacia iumenta et pigra mancipia, et" Literally, "interest of one thousandth," reckoned as amonthly payment. This rate of one and one-fifth per centper annum was absurdly low; the usual rate was twelveper cent.334

ON ANGER, III. -xxxiii. i-xxxiv. 1cut-throats ; it is daubed Mith our blood ; because ofit husbands and \Wves make night hideous with theirquarrels, crowds swarm to the tribunals of the magistrates,kings rage and plunder and overthrow statesthat have been built by the long labour of centuries,in order that they may search for gold and silverin the very ashes of cities. It is a pleasure, you say,to see money-bags lying in the corner. But theseare what men shout for until their eyeballs t>tart ; forthe sake of these the law-courts resound ^^ith thedin of trials, and jurors summoned from distant partssit in judgement to decide which man's greed has thejuster claim. But what if it is not even a bag ofmoney, but only a handful of copper or a silver piece,reckoned by a slave, which causes an heirless oldman on the verge of the grave to spUt with rage ?And what if it is only a paltry one per cent ofinterest " that causes the money-lender, sick thoughhe be, with crippled feet and with gnarled handsthat no longer serve for counting money, to shoutaloud, and in the very throes of his malady torequire securities for his pennies ? If you were tooffer me all the money from all the mines, whichwe are now so busy in digging, if you were to castbefore my eyes all the money that buried treasureshold—for greed restores to earth what it once inwickedness drew forth—I should not count thatwhole assembled hoard worth even a good man'sfro^vn. With what laughter should we attend thethings that now draw tears from our eyes !Come, now, run through the other causes of anger—foods, driiiks, and the refinements in regard to themdevised to gratify pride, insulting words, disrespectfulgestures, stubborn beasts of burden and lazy slaves,335

ISENECAsuspiciones et interpretationes malignas vocis alienae,quibus efficitur,sermo homini datus.ut inter iniurias naturae numereturCrede mihi, levia sunt propterquae non leviter excandescimus, qualia quae pueros2 in rixam et iurgium concitant. Nihil ex is, quaetarn tristes agimus, serium est, nihil magnum.Inde, inquam, vobis ira et insania est, quod exiguamagno aestimatis. Auferre hie mihi hereditatemvoluit ; hie me diu in spem supremam captatiscriminatus est ; hie scortum meum concupivit.3 Quod vinculum amoris esse debebat, seditionis atqueodi causa est, idem velle. Iter angustum rixastranseuntium concitat, diffusaet late patens via nepopulos quidem collidit. Ista quae appetitis, quiaexigua sunt nee possunt ad alterum nisi alteri ereptatransferri, eadem afFectantibus pugnas et iurgia,excitant.1 35. Respondisse tibi servum indignaris libertuique et uxorem et chentem ; deinde idem de rlpublica libertatem sublatam quereris, quam dorsustulisti. Rursus, si tacuit interrogatus, conti2 maciam vocas. Et loquatur et taceat et rideatj" Coram domino ? " inquis. Immo coram patfamiliae. Quid clamas ? Quid vociferaris ? Quicflagella media cena petis, quod servi loquuntur, quodnon eodem loco turba contionis est, silentium soli-" Cf. Sallust, Catiline, 20. 4: "nam idem velle atqueidem nolle, ea demum firma amicitia est."

ON ANGER, III. XXXIV. l-xxxv. 2suspicion and the malicious misconstruction ofanother's words, the result of which is that the verygift of human speech is counted among the injusticesof nature. Believe me, these things which incenseus not a little are little things, like the trifles thatdrive children to quarrels and blows. Not one ofthem, though we take them so tragically, is a seriousmatter, not one is important. From this, I say, fromthe fact that you attach great v^alue to petty things,come your anger and your madness. This manwanted to rob me of my inheritance ; this oneslandered me to people whom I had long courtedin the expectation of a legacy ; this one covetedmy mistress. The desire for the same thing, whichought to have been a bond of love,** becomes thesource of discord and of hatred. A narrow path drivespassers-by to blows ; on a wide and open road evena multitude \^ill not jostle. Because the things youstrive for are trifles, and yet cannot be given to onewithout robbing another, they provoke those desiringthe same things to struggle and strife.You are indignant because your slave, your freedman,your ^dfe, or your client answered you back ; andthen you complain that the state has been deprivedof that liberty- of which you have deprived your o^vnhousehold. Again, you call it obstinacy if a man'ES'ep's silent when he is questioned. But let himspeak and let him keep silent and let him laugh !" In the presence of his master " ? you ask. Yes,even in the presence of the head of the family. WTiydo you shout ? Why do you rant ? Why do you callfor the whip in the midst of dinner, all because theslaves are talking, because there is not the silenceof the desert in a room that holds a crowd big as aVOL. I z 337

SENECA3 tudinis ? In hoc habes aures, ut non modulatatantum et mollia et ex dulci tracta compositaqueaccipiant ; et risum audias oportet et fletum, etblanditias et lites, et prospera et tristia, et hominumvoces et fremitus animalium latratusque. Quidmiser expavescis ad clamorem servi, ad tinnitumaeris aut ianuae impulsumi ? Cum tam delicatus4 fueris, tonitrua audienda sunt. Hoc, quod deauribus dictum est, transfer ad oculos, qui non minusfastidio laborant, si male instituti sunt. MaculaofFenduntur et sordibus et argento parum splendido5 et stagno non ad solum perlucente. Hi nempe oculi,qui non ferunt nisi varium ac recenti cura nitensmarmor, qui mensam nisi crebris distinctam venis,qui nolunt domi nisi auro pretiosiora calcari, aequissimoanimo foris et scabras lutosasque semitasspectant et maiorem partem occurrentium squalidam,parietes insularum exesos, rimosos, inaequales.Quid ergo aliud est, quod illos in publico non offendat,domi moveat, quam opinio illic aequa et patiens,domi morosa et querula ?1 36, Omnes sensus perducendi sunt ad firmitatem; natura patientes sunt, si animus illos desitcorrumpere, qui cotidie ad rationem reddendamvocandus est. Faciebat hoc Sextius, ut consummatodie, cum se ad nocturnam quietem recepisset,338

ON ANGER, III. XXXV. 3-xxxvi. 1mass-meeting ? You do not have ears only for thepurpose of listening to melodious sounds, soft andsweetly drawn and all in harmony ;you should alsolend ear to laughter and weeping, to soft words andbitter, to happiness and sorrow, to the voices of menand the roars and barking of animals. Poor fellow !why do you shudder at the shouting of a slave, atthe rattling of bronze, or the banging of a door ?Although you are so sensitive, you have to hsten tothunder. And all this which I have said about theears you may apply as well to the eyes, which if theyare not well schooled suffer not less from squeamishness.They are offended by a spot, by dirt, bytarnished silver, and by a pool that is not transparentto the bottom. These same eyes, forsooth, thatcannot tolerate marble unless it is mottled andpohshed ^vith recent rubbing, that cannot tolerate atable unless it is marked by many a vein, that athome would see under foot only pavements morecostly than gold—these eyes when outside willbehold, all unmoved, rough and muddy paths anddirty peoplej as are most of those they meet, andtenement walls crumbled and cracked and out ofline. Why is it, then, that we are not offended onthe street, yet are annoyed at home, except that inthe one case we are in an unruffled and tolerant stateof mind, and in the other are peevish and faultfinding?All our senses ought to be trained to endurance.They are naturally long-suffering, if only the minddesists from weakening them. This should besummoned to give an account of itself every day.Sextius had this habit, and when the day was overand he had retired to his nightly rest, he would put339

,SENECAinterrogaret animum suum : " Quefd hodie malumtuum sanasti ? Cui vitio obstitisti ? Qua parte2 melior es ? " Desinet ira et moderatior erit, quaesciet sibi cotidie ad iudieem esse veniendum. Quicquamergo pulchrius hac consuetudine excutienditotum diem ? Qualis ille somnus post recognitionemsui sequitur, quam tranquillus, quam altus ac liber,cum aut laudatus est animus aut admonitus etspeculator sui censorque secretus cognovit de mori-3 bus suis ! Utor hac potestate et cotidie apud mecausam dico. Cum sublatum e conspectu lumenest et conticuit uxor moris iam mei conscia, totumdiem meum scrutor factaque ac dicta mea remetiornihil mihi ipse abscondo, nihil transeo.Quare enimquicquam ex erroribus meis timeam, cum possimdicere :4 " Vide ne istud amplius facias, nunc tibi ignosco.In ilia disputatione pugnacius locutus es ; nolipostea congredi cum imperitis ; nolunt discere, quinumquam didicerunt. Ilium liberius admonuistiquam debebas, itaque non emendasti, sed offendisti.De cetero vide, non tantum an verum sit quod dicis,sed an ille cui dicitur veri patiens sit. Admoneribonus gaudet, pessimus quisque rectorem asperrimepatitur."1 37. In convivio quorundam te sales et in doloremtuum iacta verba tetigerunt. Vitare volgares con-340

ON ANGER, III. XXXVI. l-xxxvii. lthese questions to his soul :" What bad habit haveyou cured to-day ? What fault have you resisted ?In what respect are you better " ? Anger willcease and^become more controllable if it finds thatit fnust appear before a judge every day. Can anythingbe more excellent than this practice of thoroughlysifting the whole day ? And how deUghtful thesleep that follows this self-examination—how tranquilit is, how deep and untroubled, when the soul haseither praised or admonished itself, and when thissecret examiner and critic of self has given report ofits own character ! I avail myself of this pri\ilege,and every day I plead my cause before the bar ofself. When the light has been removed from sight,and my ^v-ife, long aware of my habit, has becomesilent, I scan the whole of my day and retrace allmy deeds and words. I conceal nothing from myself,I omit nothing. For why should I shrink from any ofmy mistakes, when I may commune thus mth myself?" See that you never do that again ; I will pardonyou this time. In that dispute, you spoke toooffensively ; after this don't have encounters ^v'ithignorant people ; those who have never learned donot want to learn. You reproved that man morefrankly than you ought, and consequently you havenot so much mended him as offended him. In thefuture, consider not only the truth of what you say,but also whether the man to whom you are speakingcan endure the truth. A good man accepts reproofgladly ; the worse a man is the more bitterly heresents it."At a banquet the mt of certain people and somewords aimed to sting you reached their mark. Butremember to avoid the entertainments of the vulgar ;341

SENECAvictus memento ; solutior est post vinum licentia,2 quia ne sobris quidem pudor est. Iratum vidistiamicum tuum ostiario causidici alieuius aut divitis,quod intrantem summoverat, et ipse pro illoiratusextremo mancipio fuisti. Irasceris ergo catenariocani ? Et hie, cum multum latravit, obiecto cibo3 mansuescit. Recede longius et ride ! Nuncistese aliquem putat, quod custodit litigatorum turbalimen obsessum ; nunc ille, qui intra iacet, felixfortunatusque est et beati hominis iudieat ac potentisindicium difficilem ianuam.Nescit durissimum esseostium carceris. Praesume animo multa tibi essepatienda, Numquis se hieme algere miratur ?Numquis in mari nausiare, in via concuti ? Fortis4 est animus ad quae praeparatus venit. Minushonorato loco positus irasci coepisti convivatori,vocatori, ipsi qui tibi praeferebatur. Demens, quidinterest, quam lecti premas partem ? Honestiorem5 te aut turpiorem potest facere pulvinus ? Nonacquis quendam oculis vidisti, quia de ingenio tuomale locutus est. Recipis hanc legem ? Ergo teEnnius, quo non delectaris, odisset, et Hortensius,si orationes eius improbares,^ simultates tibi indiceret,et Cicero, si derideres carmina eius,342^ si . . . improbares added by Haupt.

ON ANGER, III. xxxvii. 1-5after drinking their licence becomes too lax, becausethey want any sense of propriety even when they aresober. You saw one of your friends in a rage becausethe porter had thrust liim out when he was tryingto enter the house of some pettifogger or rich man,and you yourself on your friend's account becameangry with that lowest kind of a slave. Will youthen become angry wath a chained watchdog ? He,too, after all his barking, \\ill become gentle if youtoss him food. Retire a httle way and laugh ! Asit is, the fellow thinks himself a somebody because heguards a threshold beset by a throng of litigants ; asit is, the gentleman who reclines within is bhssful andblest and considers it the mark of a successful andpowerful man to make it difficult to darken his door.He forgets that the hardest door of all to open is theprison's. Make up your mind that there are manythings which you must bear. Is any one surprisedthat he is cold in ^vinter ? That he is sick at sea ?That he is jolted about on the highroad ? The mindwill meet bravely everytliing for which it has beenprepared. Because you were given a less honourableplace at the table, you began to get angry atyour host, at the A\Titer of the in\itation, at the manhimself who was preferred above you. Madman !what difference does it make on what part of thecouch you recline ? Can a cushion add to eitheryour honour or your disgrace ? You did not lookwith fair eyes upon a certain man because he spokeill of your talent. Do you accept this as a principle ?Then Ennius, whose poetry you do not like, wouldhate you, and Hortensius, if you disapproved of hisspeeches, would proclaim animosity to you, andCicero, if you made fun of his poetrj', would be your343

SENECAinimicus esset.Vis tu aequo animo pati candidatussufFragia !1 38. Contumeliam tibi fecit aliquis. Numquidmaiorera quam Diogeni philosopho Stoico, cui deira cum maxime disserenti adulescens protervusinspuit ? Tulit hoc ille leniter et sapienter :" Nonquidem," inquit, " irascor, sed dubito tamen an2 oporteat irasci," Quanto Cato^ noster melius !Qui, cum agenti causam in frontem mediam quantumpoterat attracta pingui saliva inspuisset Lentulusille patrum nostrorum memoria factiosus et impotens,abstersit faciem et : " Adfirmabo," inquit, " omnibus,Lentule, falli eos qui te negant (^ habere."1 39. Contigit iam nobis. Novate, bene componereanimum ; aut non sentit iracundiam aut superiorest. Videamus quomodo ahenam leniamus ; neeenim sard esse tantum volumus, sed sanare.2 Primam iram non audebimus oratione mulcere.Svu-da est et amens ; dabimus illi spatium. Remediain remissionibus prosunt. Nee oculos tumentistemptamus vim rigentem movendo incitaturi, neecetera vitia, dum fervent. Initia morborum quies3 curat. " Quantulum," inquis, " prodest remediumtuum, si sua sponte desinentem iram placat !Primum, ut citius desinat, efficit ; deinde custodit,^ Cato added by Fickert : quanto noster A.

—ON ANGER, III. XXXVII. 5-xxxix. 3enemy. But when you are a candidate, you are^\•illing to put up calmly—with the votes !Some one, perhaps, has offered you an insult ; wasit any greater than the one Diogenes, the Stoicphilosopher, suffered, who at the very time he was|discoursing upon anger was spat upon by a shamelessyouth ? Yet he bore this calmly and wisely." Really, I am not angrj," he said, " but neverthelessI am not sure but that I ought to be angry." Yethow much better the course of our own Cato ! Forwhen he was pleading a case, Lentulus, that factiousand unruly man who lingers in the memorj' of ourfathers, gathering as much thick sahva as he could,spat it full upon the middle of Cato's forehead. Buthe wiped it off his face and said, " To all who affirmthat you have no cheek," Lentulus, I'll swear thatthey are mistaken."We_haY£-now succeeded, Novatus, in bringing composureto the mind ; it either does not feel anger,or is siiperior to it. Let us now see how we mayallay the anger of others. For we wish not merelyto be-healed ourselves, but also to heal.We shall not venture to soothe the first burst ofanger with words. It is both deaf and mad ; wemust give it room. Remedies are effective whenthe malady subsides. We do not tamper with theeyes when they are swollen—for in their stiff conditionwe are hkely to irritate them by mo'ving themnor with other affected parts while they are inflamed.Rest is the cure in the first stages of illness. " Howhttle," you say, " is yom- remedy worth, if it quietsanger when it is subsiding of its own accord "! Inthe first place, it makes it subside all the morequickly ; in the second, it prevents its recurrence ;345

SENECAne recidat ; ipsum quoque impetum, quern nonaudet lenire, fallet ; removebit omnia ultionisinstrumenta, simulabit iram, ut tamquam adiutoret doloris comes plus auctoritatis in consiliis habeat,moras nectet et, dum maiorem poenam quaerit,4 praesentem differet. Omni arte requiem furoridabit. Si vehementior erit, aut pudorem illi cui nonresistat incutiet aut metum ; si infirmior, sermonesinferet vel gratos vel novos et cupiditate cognoscendiavocabit. Medicum aiunt, cum regis filiam curaredeberet nee sine ferro posset, dum tumentemmammam leniter fovet, scalpellum spongea tectuminduxisse.Repugnasset puella remedio palam admoto,eadem, quia non expectavit, dolorem tulit.Quaedam non nisi decepta sanantur.1 40. Alteri dices : " Vide ne inimicis iracundia tuavoluptati sit," alteri : " Vide ne magnitudo animitui creditumque apud plerosque robur eadat. Indignorme hercules et non invenio dolendi modum,sed tempus expectandum est ; dabit poenas ; servaistud in animo tuo ; cum potueris, et pro morareddes."Castigare vero irascentem et ultro obirasci2 incitare est ; varie adgredieris blandeque, nisi fortetanta persona eris, ut possis iram comminuere,346

;ox ANGER, III. xxxix. 3-xl 2it ^\'ill baffle, also, even the first outburst which itmakes no effort to soothe, for it "will remove all theweapons of revenge ; it ^\-i\\ feign anger in order that, /posing thus as a helper and comrade of our resent---(—ment, it may have more influence in counsel ; itwill contrive delays, and ynW postpone immediatepunishment by looking about for a hea%-ier one. Itwill employ every artifice to give respite to the madnes§.If the victim grows \iolent, it will enforce onhim a^ sense of shame or fear that he cannot resistif calmer, it will introduce conversation that is eitherinteresting or novel, and will divert him by stirringhis desire for knowledge. There is a story that oncea physician had to cure the daughter of a king, andyet could not without using the knife. And so, Avhilehe was gently dressing her swollen breast, he inserteda lance concealed in a sponge. The girl would havefought against the remedy openly applied, butbecause she did not expect it, she endured the pain.Some matters are ,cured jonly by deception.^To .one man you will say, " See to it that you donot by your anger give pleasure to your foes " ; toanother, " See to it that you do not lose your greatnessof mind and the reputation you have in the eyesof many for strength. By heavens, I myself amindignant and I am sorr\- beyond measure, but wemust await our time. He shall pay the penalty ;i_keep that well in mind. WTicn you can, you ^^iHT'make liim pay for the delay as well." To reprovea man when he is angry and in turn to become angryat him serve only to increase his anger. You willapproach him with various appeals and persuasively,unless you happen to be an important enough personto be able to quell his anger by the same tactics the347

SENECAquemadmodum fecit divus Augustus, cum cenaretapud Vedium Pollionem. Fregerat unus ex serviseius crustallinum ;rapi eum Vedius iussit ne vulgariquidem more periturum ; murenis obici iubebatur,quas ingentis in piscina continebat.Quis non hocilium putaret luxuriae causa facere ?Saevitia erat.3 Evasit e manibus puer et confugit ad Caesaris pedesnihilaliud petiturus, quam ut aliter periret, ne escafieret. Motus est novitate crudelitatis Caesar etilium quidem mitti,crustallina autem omnia coram4 se frangi iussit complerique piscinam. Fuit Caesarisic castigandus amicus ; bene usus est viribus suis :" E convivio rapi homines imperas et novi generispoenis lancinari ? Si calix tuus fractus est, viscerahominis distrahentur ? Tantum tibi placebis, ut6 ibi aliquem duci iubeas, ubi Caesar est " ? Sic cuitantum potentiae est, ut iram ex superiore locoadgredi possit, male tractet, at talem dumtaxat,qualem modo rettuli, feram, immanem, sanguinariam,quae iam insanabilis est, nisi maius aliquid extimuit.1 41. Pacem demus animo, quam dabit praeceptorumsalutarium adsidua meditatio actusque rerumboni et intenta mens ad unius honesti cupiditatem.Conscientiae satis fiat, nil in famam laboremus.2 Sequatur vel mala, dum bene merentis. " At348

—ON ANGER, III. XL. 2-xli. 2deified Augustus used when he was dining withVedius Ponio.vith it harshly, but only such anger as thatI have illustrated—fierce, inhuman, and bloodthirsty,and now quite incurable unless it is made to fearsomething more powerful.Let_us^ve-to the soul that peace which is affordedby constant meditation on wholesome instruction,by noble deeds, and a mind intent upon the desirefor (5Trly what is honourable. Let us satisfy ourconscience ; for reputation let us strive not at all.Let even a bad name attend us, provided that weare really well-deserving. " But the populace," you34-9

SENECAvolgus animosa miratur et audaces inhonore sunt,placidi pro inertibus habentur." Primo forsitanaspectu ;sed simul aequalitas vitae fidem fecit nonsegnitiem illam animi esse sed pacem, veneratur illos3 populus idem colitque. Nihil ergo habet in se utiletaeter iste et hostilis adfectus, at omnia ex contrariomala, ferrum et ignes. Pudore calcato caedibusinquinavit manus, membra liberorum dispersit, nihilvacuum reliquit a scelere, non gloriae memor, noninfamiae metuens, inemendabiUs, cum ex ira inodium obcalluit.1 42. Careamus hoc malo purgemusque mentem etexstirpemus radicitus, quae quam\'is tenuia undecumquehaeserint renascentur, et iram non temperemus,sed ex toto removeamus — quod enim malae reitemperamentum est ? Poterimus autem, adnitamur2 modo. Nee ulla res magis proderit quam cogitatiomortahtatis. Sibi quisque atque alteri dicat :" Quidiuvat tamquam in aeternum genitos iras indicere etbrevissimam aetatem dissipare ? Quid iuvat dies,quos in volup^ateiQ-honestam impendere licet, indolorem alicuius tormentumque transferre ? Noncapiunt res istae iacturam nee tempus vacat perdere.3 Quid ruimus in pugnam ? Quid certamina nobisarcessimus ? Quid imbecillitatis obliti ingentia odiasuscipimus et ad frangendum fragiles consurgimus ?lam istas inimicitias, quas implacabili gerimus animo,350

ON ANGER, III. xLi. 2-xlii. 3say, " admires spirited action, and the bold are heldin horibur while quiet people are considered ineffective."Perhaps so, at first sight. But whenthese have proved by the even tenor of their hvesthat they seek, not inaction, but peace of mind, thatsame pubhc "will reverence and respect them. Conseq^uentlsLJliis Jiideous and ruinous passion serv'esnot a single useful end, but, on the contrary, evil ofevery sort, the sword, and flame. Tramphng underfoot every scruple, it stains the hands with murder, itscatters abroad the limbs of children, it suffers noplace fo be free from crime, \\'ith no thought ofglorj', with no fear of disgrace, it is incurable whenonce, from anger, it has hardened into hate.Let us be freed from this evil, let us clear it fromour minds and tear it up by the roots, for if thereshould Unger the smallest traces, it Mill grow again ;and let us not tr}^ to regulate our anger, but be ridof it altogether—ior what regulation can there beoflmye\il thing ? Moreover, we can do it, if onlywe^^all make the effort. And nothing \nl\ helpus so much as pondering our mortality. Let each/man say to himself and to his fellow-mortal ": Why^do we,_as if born to live for ever, take dehght in proclaimingour wTath and in wasting the little span oflife ? \\ hy do we delight to employ for somebody'sdistress and torture the days that we might devote to Ivirtuous pleasure ? Your fortunes admit no squander-~ring, and you have no spare time to waste. Whydo we rush into the fray ? Why do we in\ite troublefor ourselves ? WTiy do we, forgetting our weakness,take up the huge burden of hate, and, easily brokenas we are, rise up to break ? Soon a fever or someother bodily ill will stay that war of hatred, which351

SENECAfebris aut aliquod aliud malum corporis vetabit4 geri ; iam par acerrimum media mors dirimet.Quid tumultuamur et vitam seditiosi conturbamus ?Stat supra caput fatum et pereuntis dies imputatpropiusque ac propius accedit ; istud tempus,quod alienae destinas morti, fortasse circa tuamest."1 43. Quin potius vitam brevem colligis placidamqueet tibi et ceteris praestas ? Quin potius amabilemte, dum vivis, omnibus, desiderabilem, cum excesseris,reddis ? Quid ilium nimis ex alto tecumagentem detrahere cupis ? Quid ilium oblatrantemtibi, humilem quidem et contemptum, sed superioribusacidum ac molestum exterere viribus tuistemptas ? Quid servo, quid domino, quid regi, quidclienti tuo irasceris ? Sustine paulum ; venit ecce2 mors quae vos pares faciat. Videre solemus intermatutina harenae spectacula tauri et ursi pugnaminter se colligatorum, quos, cum alter alterumvexarunt, suus confector expectat. Idem facimus,aliquem nobiscum adligatum lacessimus, cum victovictorique finis et quidem maturus immineat.Quietipotius pacatique quantulumcumque superest exigamus! Nulli cadaver nostrum iaceat invisum !3 Saepe rixam conclamatum in vicinia incendium solvitet interventus ferae latronem viatoremque diducit.Colluctari cum minoribus malis non vacat, ubi metusmaior apparuit. Quid nobis cum dimicatione etinsidiis ? Numquid amplius isti cui irasceris quam352

ON ANGER, III. xLii. 3-xliii. 3we now wage 'vWth such unrelenting purpose. Soondeath will step in and part the fiercest pair of fighters.Why do we run riot and perturb life with our uproar ?Fate looms above our heads, and scores up to ouraccount the days as they go by, and draws ever nearerand nearer. That hour which you appoint for thedeathpf another is perchance near your own."Why do you not rather gather up your brief lifeand render it a peaceful one to yourself and all others ?Why do you not rather make yourself beloved by allwhile you live, and regretted by all when you die ?Why do you long to drag down the man who dealswith you from too lofty a height ? Why do you trywith all your might to crush the man who rails againstyou, a low and contemptible fellow, but sharp-tongued \^and troublesome to his betters ? Why are you angrywith your slave, you ^\^th your master, you with yourpatron, you with your client ? Wait a little. Behold,death comes, who will make you equals. At themorning performances in the arena we often see abattle between a bull and a bear tied together, andwhen they have harried each other, an appointedslayer awaits them. Their fate is ours ; we harasssome one bound closely to us, and yet the end, alltoo soon, threatens the victor and the vanquished.Rather let us spend the little time that is left inrepose and peace ! Let no man loathe us when welie a corpse ! A cry of fire in the neighbourhoodoften ends a fight, and the arrival of a wild beastrescues a traveller from the brigand. We have notime to struggle with lesser ills when a more threateningfear appears. Why do we concern ourselves A\ithcombat and with snares ? Can you wish for the _].victim of your \^Tath a greater ill than death ? EvenVOL. I 2 a 353

;SENECAmortem optas ? Etiam te quiescente morietur.Perdis operam, si facere vis quod futurum est.4 " Nolo," inquis, " utique occidere, sed exilio, sedignominia, sed damno adficere."Magis ignosco ei,qui vulnus inimici quam qui pusulam eoncupiscithie enim non tantum mali animi est, sed pusilli.Sive de ultimis suppliciis cogitas sive de levioribus,quantulum est temporis, quo aut ille poena suatorqueatur aut tu malum gaudium ex aliena per-6 cipias ! lam istum spiritum exspuemus. Interim,dum trahimus, dum inter homines sumus, colamushumanitatem. Non timori cuiquam, non periculosimus, detrimenta, iniurias, convicia, vellicationescontemnamus et magno animo brevia feramus incommoda.Dum respicimus, quod aiunt, versamusquenos, iam mortalitas aderit.3o4

ON ANGER, III, xLiii. 3-5though you do not move a, finger, he \\-ill die. Youwaste your pains if you -wish to do what needs must" I do not wish," you say, " to kill him at all,U£.but to punish him with exile, with pubhc disgrace,with material loss." But I am more indulgent to theman who would give his enemy a wound than to theone who would give him a bUster ; for the latter hasnot only an e\il mind, but a petty mind as well.WTiether your thoughts '•un on tortures severe orshght, how short is the time in which either your\ictim can w*rithe under your torments, or you derivea wicked joy from another's pain ! Soon shall wespew forth this frail spirit. Meanwhile, so long aswe draw breath, so long as we Uve among men, letus cherish humanity. Let us not cause fear to anyman, nor danger ; let us scorn losses, wTongs, abuse,and taunts, and let us endure with heroic mind ourshort-Uved ills. While we are looking back, as theysay, and turning around, straightway death will beupon us.355

;AD NERONEM CAESAREMDE CLEMENTIALIBER I1 1. Scribere de dementia, Nero Caesar, institui, utquodam modo speculi vice fungerer et te tibi ostenderemperventurum ad voluptatem maximam omnium.Quamvis enim recte factorum verus fructussit fecisse nee ullum virtutum pretium dignum illisextra ipsas sit, iuvat inspicere et circumire bonamconscientiam, turn immittere oculos in hanc immensammultitudinem discordem, seditiosam, impotentem,in perniciem alienam suamque pariterexultaturam si hoc iugum fregerit, et ita loqui2 secum : " Egone ex omnibus mortalibus placuielectusque sum, qui in terris deorum vice fungerer ?Ego vitae necisque gentibus arbiter ;qualemquisque sortem statumque habeat, in mea manupositum est ;quid cuique mortalium fortuna datumvelit, meo ore pronuntiat ; ex nostro responselaetitiae causas populi urbesque concipiunt ; nullapars usquam nisi volente propitioque me florethaec tot milia gladiorum, quae pax mea comprimit,356

;TO THE EMPEROR NEROON I

SENECAad nutum meum stringentur ;quas nationes funditusexcidi, quas transportari, quibus libertatem dari,quibus eripi, quos reges mancipia fieri quorumquecapiti regium circumdari decus oporteat, quae ruant3 urbes, quae oriantur, mea iuris dictio est. In hactanta facultate rerum non ira me ad iniqua suppliciacompulit, non iuvenilis impetus, non temeritas hominumet contumacia, quae saepe tranquillissimisquoque pectoribus patientiam extor§it, non ipsaostentandae per terrores potentiae dira, sed frequensmagnis imperiis gloria. Conditum, immo constrictumapud me ferrum est, summa parsimom'aetiam vilissimi sanguinis ;nemo non, cui alia desunt,4 hominis nomine apud me gratiosus est. Severitatemabditam, at clementiam in procinctu habeo ; sic mecustodio, tamquam legibus, quas ex situ ac tenebrisin lucem evocavi, rationem redditurus sim.Alteriusaetate prima motus sum, alterius ultima ; aliumdignitati donavi, alium humilitati ;quotiens nullaminveneram misericordiae causam, mihi peperci.Hodie dis inmortalibus, si a me rationem repetant,adnltmerare genus humanum paratus sum."5 Potes hoc, Caesar, audacter praedicare omnia,quae in fidem tutelamque tuam venerunt, tutahaberi,^ nihil per te neque vi neque clam adimi reipublicae. Rarissimam laudem et nulli adhuc princi-^ -que tuam . . . tuta ha- supplied by Gertz." Literally, " I have spared myself " i.e., by sparinganother, according to the reasoning set forth in i. 5. 1.358

—ON MERCY, I. I. 2-5which my peace restrains will be drawn at my nod ;what nations shall be utterly destroyed, whichbanished, which shall receive the gift of liberty, whichhave it taken from them, what kings shall becomeslaves and whose heads shall be crowned with royalhonour, what cities shall fall and which shall risethis it is mine to decree. With all things thus at mydisposal, I have been moved neither by anger noryouthful impulse to unjjst punishment, nor by thefoolhardiness and obstinacy of men which have oftenwrung patience from even the serenest souls, noryet by that vainglory which employs terror for thedisplay of might—a dread but all too common useof great and lordly power. With me the sword ishidden, nay, is sheathed ; I am sparing to the utmostof even the meanest blood ; no man fails to findfavour at my hands though he lack all else butthe name of man. Sternness I keep hidden, butmercy ever ready at hand. I so hold guard overmyself as though I were about to render an accountto those laws which I have summoned from decayand darkness into the light of day. I have beenmoved to pity by the fresh youth of one, by theextreme old age of another ; one I have pardonedfor his high position, another for his humble state ;whenever I found no excuse for pity, for my own sakeI have spared." To-day, if the immortal gods shouldrequire a reckoning from me, I am ready to give fulltale of the human race."This pronouncement, Caesar, you may boldlymake, that whatever has passed into your trust andguardianship is still kept safe, that through you thestate suffers no loss, either from violence or fromfraud. It is the rarest praise, hitherto denied to all359

;SENECApum concessam concupisti innocentiam. Non perditoperam nee bonitas ista tua singularis ingratos autmalignos aestimatores nancta est. Refertur tibigratia ; nemo unus homo uni homini tam carusumquam fuit, quam tu populo Romano, magnum6 longumque eius bonum. Sed ingens tibi onus imposuisti; nemo iam divum Augustum nee Ti.Caesaris prima tempora loquitur nee, quod te imitarivelit, exemplar extra te quaerit ;principatus tuusad gustum^ exigitur. Difficile hoc fuisset, si nonnaturalis tibi ista bonitas esset, sed ad tempussumpta. Nemo enim potest personam diu ferre,ficta cito in naturam suam recidunt ;quibus Veritassubest quaeque, ut ita dicam, ex sohdo enascuntur,tempore ipso in maius meliusque procedunt.7 Magnam adibat aleam populus Romanus, cumincertum esset, quo se ista tua nobilis indoles daret ;iam vota publica in tuto sunt ; nee enim periculumest, ne te subita tui capiat obhvio. Facit quidemavidos nimia felicitas, nee tam temperatae cupiditatessunt umquam, ut in eo, quod contigit, desinantgradus a magnis ad maiora fit, et spes improbissimascomplectuntur insperata adsecuti ; omnibus tamennunc civibus tuis et haec confessio exprimitur essefelices et ilia nihil iam his accedere bonis posse, nisi8 ut perpetua sint. Multa illos cogunt ad hanc con-360^ So N : augustum most uss. : obrussam Haase,

—ON MERCY, I. I. 5-8other princes, that you have coveted for yourselfinnocence of WTong. Nor has the effort been invain, and that unparalleled goodness of yours has notfound men ungrateful or grudging in their appraisement.Thanks are rendered to you ; no humanbeing has ever been so dear to another as you areto the people of Rome—its great and lasting blessing.But it is a mighty burden that you have taken uponyourself ; no one to-day talks of the deified Augustusor the early years of Tiberius Caesar, or seeks forany model he would have you copy other than yourself; the standard for your prineipate is the foretasteyou have given. This would have indeed bfeen difficultif that goodness of yoiu-s were not innate butonly assimied for the moment. For no one canwear a mask long ; the false quickly lapses back intoits own nature ; but whatever has truth for itsfoundation, and whatever springs, so to speak, fromout the solid earth, grows by the mere passing oftime into something larger and better.Great was the hazard that the Roman peoplefaced so long as it was uncertain what course thosenoble talents of yours would take ; to-day theprayers of the state are assured, for there is no dangerthat you \n\l be seized by sudden forgetfulness ofyourself. Over-much prosperity, it is true, makesmen greedy, and desires are never so well controlledas to cease at the point of attainment ; the ascentis from great to greater, and men embrace thewidest hopes when once they have gained what theydid not hope for ; and yet to-day your subjects oneand all are constrained to confess that they arehappy, and, too, that nothing further can be addedto their blessings, except that these may last. Many361

SENECAfessionem, qua nulla in homine tardior est :securitasalta, adfluens, ius supra omnem iniuriam positum ;obversatur oculis laetissima forma rei publicae, cuiad summam libertatem nihil deest nisi pereundi9 licentia. Praecipue tamen aequalis ad maximosimosque pervenit clementiae tuae admiratio ; ceteraenim bona pro portione fortunae suae quisque sentitaut expectat maiora niinoraque, ex dementia omnesidem sperant ; nee est quisquam, cui tam valdeinnocentia sua placeat, ut non stare in conspectuclementiam paratam humanis erroribus gaudeat.1 2. Esse autem aliquos scio, qui dementia pessimumquemque putent sustineri, quoniam nisi post crimensupervacua est et sola haec v-irtus inter innocentescessat. Sed primum omnium, sicut medicinae apudaegros usus, etiam apud sanos honor est, ita clementiam,quamvis poena digni invocent, etiam innocentescolunt. Deinde habet haec in persona quoqueinnocentium locum, quia interim fortuna pro culpaest ; nee innocentiae tantum dementia succurrit,sed saepe virtuti, quoniam quidem condicione temporumincidunt quaedam, quae possint laudatapuniri. Adice, quod magna pars hominum est, quaereverti ad innocentiam possit, si .^ Non tamen vulgo ignoscere decet ; namubi discrimen inter malos bonosque sublatum est,confusio sequitur et vitiorum eruptio ; itaque ad-^ si best Mss. with a lacuna : sed AT." Stoicism produced many " conscientious objectors "who were high-minded, yet futile, opponents of imperial rule.362

ON MERCY, I. I. 8-II. 2facts force them to this confession, which more thanany other a man is loath to make : a security deep "^and abounding, and justice enthroned above allinjustice ; before their eyes hovers the fairest visionof a state which lacks no element of complete libertyexcept the hcence of self-destruction. Above all,however, aUke to the highest and the lowest, extendsthe same admiration for your quahty of mercy ; foralthough of other blessings each one experiences orexpects a larger or smaller measure in proportion tohis lot, yet from mercy men all hope to have thesame ; nor is there any man so wholly satisfied withhis own innocence as not to rejoice that mercy standsin sight, waiting for himian errors.I know, however, that there are some who thinkthat mercy upholds the worst class of men, since it issuperfluous unless there has been some crime, andsince it alone of all the virtues finds no exercise amongthe guiltless. But, first of all, just as medicine isused by the sick, yet is held in honour by the healthy,so >\'ith mercy—though it is those who deserve punishmentthat invoke it, yet even the guiltless cherish it.Again, this xirtue has scope even in the person of ithe guiltless, because at times fortune takes the ''place of guilt ; and not only does mercy come to therescue of innocence, but often of righteousness also,inasmuch as, from the state of the times," there arisecertain acts which, while praised, may yet bepunished. Then, too, there are a great many peoplewho might be turned back to the path of \artue if[they are released from punishment]. Nevertheless,pardoning ought not to be too common ; for whenthe distinction between the bad and the good isremoved, the result is confusion and an epidemic of363

;SENECAhibenda moderatio est, quae sanabilia ingenia distinguerea deploratis sciat. Nee promiscuam habereae vulgarem clementiam oportet nee abscisam ; namtam omnibus ignoscere crudelitas quam nulli.Modum tenere debemus ; sed quia difficile esttemperamentum, quidquid aequo plus futurum est,in partem humaniorem praeponderet.3. Sed haec sue melius loco dicentur. Nunc in trespartes omnem hanc materiam dividam. Prima eritmanumissionis ; secunda, quae naturam clementiaehabitumque demonstret : nam cum sint vitiaquaedam virtutes imitantia, non possunt secerni,nisi signa, quibus dinoscantur, impresseris ; tertioloco quaeremus, quomodo ad hanc virtutem perducaturanimus, quomodo confirmet eam et ususuam faciat.Nullam ex omnibus virtutibus homini magis convenire,cum sit nulla humanior, constet necesse estnon solum inter nos, qui hominem sociale animalcommuni bono genitum videri volumus, sed etiaminter illos, qui hominem voluptati donant, quorumomnia dicta factaque ad utilitates suas spectantnam si quietem petit et otium, hanc virtutem naturaesuae nanctus est, quae pacem amat et manus retinet.Nullum tamen dementia ex omnibus magis quamregem aut principem decet. Ita enim magnae viresdecori gloriaeque sunt, si illis salutaris potentia est ;nam pestifera vis est valere ad nocendum. Illiusdemum magnitudo stabilis fundataque est, quem" A reference to the Stoic emphasis upon the responsibilityof the individual to the community.* i.e., the Epicureans.364

ON MERCY, I. n. 2-in. 3vice. Therefore a wise moderation should be exercisedwhich will be capable of distinguishing betweencurable and hopeless characters. Neither shouldwe have indiscriminate and general mercy, nor yetpreclude it ; for it is as much a cruelty to pardonall as to pardon none. We should maintain themean ; but since a perfect balance is difficult, ifanything is to disturb the equipoise it should turnthe scale toward the kindlier side.But these matters will be more fitly discussed intheir proper place. Here I shall divide this subjectas a whole into three parts. The first will treat ofthe remission of punishment ; the second will aimto show the nature and aspect of mercy ; for sincethere are certain vices which counterfeit virtues,they cannot be separated unless you stamp themAvith marks by which they may be kno^vn apart.In the third place I shall inquire how the mind is ledto adopt this virtue, and how it establishes it andby practice makes it its owTi.That no one of all the virtues is more seemly fora man, since none is more human, is a necessary -conviction not only for those of us who maintain thatman is a social creature, begotten for the commongood," but also for those who give man over topleasure,** whose words and deeds all look to their ownadvantage.For if a man seeks calm and quiet, hefinds this \irtue, which loves peace and stays thehand, forthwith suited to his bent. Yet of all mennone is better graced by mercy than a king or aprince. For great power confers grace and gloryonly when it is potent for benefit ; it is surely abaneful might that is strong only for harm. Healone has firm and well-grounded greatness whom365

SENECAomnes tarn supra se esse quam pro se sciunt, cuiuscuram excubare pro salute singulorum atque universorumcottidie experiuntur, quo procedente non,tamquam malum aliquod aut noxium animal e cubiliprosilierit, difFugiunt, sed tamquam ad clarum acbeneficum sidus certatim advolant. Obicere sepro illo mucronibus insidiantium paratissimi et substernerecorpora sua, si per stragem illi humanamiter ad salutem struendum sit, somnum eius nocturnisexcubiis muniunt, latera obiecti circumfusiquedefendunt, incurrentibus periculis se opponunt,4 Non est hie sine ratione populis urbibusque consensussic protegendi amandique reges et se suaqueiactandi, quocumque desidera\'it imperantis salus ;nee haec vilitas sui est aut dementia pro uno capitetot milia excipere ferrum ac multis mortibus unamanimam redimere nonnumquam senis et invalidi.5 Quemadmodum totum corpus animo deservit et,cum hoc tanto maius tantoque speciosius sit, ille inocculto maneat tenuis et in qua sede latitet incertus,tamen manus, pedes, oculi negotium illi gerunt,ilium haec cutis munit, illius iussu iacemus aut inquietidiscurrimus, cum ille imperavit, sive avarusdominus est, mare lucri causa scrutamur, siveambitiosus, lam dudum dextram flammis obiecimusaut voluntarii terram subsiluimus, sic haec immensamultitudo unius animae circumdata illius spiritu366

ON MERCY, I in. S-5all men know to be as much their friend as he istheir superior ; whose concern they daily find to bevigilant for the safety of each and all ; upon whoseapproach they do not flee as if some monster ordeadly beast had leaped from his lair, but rusheagerly forward as toward a bright and beneficentstar. In his defence they are ready on the instantto throw themselves before the swords of assassins,and to lay their bodies beneath his feet if his pathto safety must be paved with slaughtered men ; hissleep they guard by nightly \igils, his person theydefend with an encirchng barrier, against assailingdangers they make themselves a rampart.Not A\"ithout reason do cities and peoples showthis accord in giWng such protection and loveto their kings, and in flinging themselves and allthey have into the breach whenever the safetyof their ruler craves it. Nor is it self-depreciationor madness when many thousands meet thesteel for the sake of one man, and with manydeaths ransom the single life, it may be, of a feebledotard.The whole body is the servant of the mind, andthough the former is so much larger and so muchmore showy, while the unsubstantial soul remainsin\isible not knowing where its secret habitationlies, yet the hands, the feet, and the eyes are in itsemploy ; the outer skin is its defence ; at its biddingwe he idle, or restlessly run to and fro ; when itcommands, if it is a grasping tyrant, we search the seafor gain ; if covetous of fame, ere now we have thrusta right hand into the flame, or plunged willingly intoa chasm. In the same way this vast throng, encirchngthe life of one man, is ruled by his spirit, guided by his367

:SENECAregitur, illius ratione flectitur pressura se ac fracturaviribus suis, nisi consilio sustineretur.1 4. Suam itaque incolumitatem amant, cum pro unohomine denas legiones in aciem deducunt, cum inprimam frontem procurrunt et adversa vulneribuspectora ferunt, ne imperatoris sui signa vertantur,Ille est enim vinculum, per quod res publica cohaeret,ille spiritus vitalis, quem haec tot milia trahunt nihilipsa per se futura nisi onus et praeda, si mens iliaimperii subtrahatur.Rege incolumi mens omnibus unaamisso rupere fidem.2 Hie casus Romanae pacis exitium erit, hie tantifortunam populi in ruinas aget ; tam diu ab istopericulo aberit hie populus, quam diu sciet ferrefrenos, quos si quando abruperit vel aliquo casudiscussos reponi sibi passus non erit, haec unitaset hie maximi imperii contextus in partes multasdissiliet, idemque huic urbi finis dominandi erit,3 qui parendi fuerit. Ideo principes regesque etquocumque aho nomine sunt tutores status publicinon est mirum amari ultra privatas etiam necessitudines; nam si sanis hominibus publica privatispotiora sunt, sequitur, ut is quoque carior sit, in quemse res publica convertit. Olim enim ita se induitrei publicae Caesar, ut seduci alterum non possetsine utriusque pernicie ; nam et illi viribus opusest et huic capite.""Virgil, Oeorgics, iv. 212, where he is speaking of beesand their devotion to their " king."

;ON MERCY, I. III. 5-iv. 3reason, and would crush and cripple itself with itsown power if it were not upheld by >visdom.It is, therefore, their ovra safety that men love, "when for one man they lead ten legions at a time intobattle, when they rush to the forefront and exposetheir breasts to wounds that they may save thestandards of their emperor from defeat. For he isthe bond by which the commonwealth is united, thebreath of life which these many thousands draw, whoin their own strength would be only a burden tothemselves and the prey of others if the great mindof the empire should be withdrawn.If safe their king, one mind to allBereft of him, they troth recall."Such a calamity would be the destruction of theRoman peace, such a calamity will force the fortuneof a mighty people to its downfall. Just so long willthis people be free from that danger as it shall knowhow to submit to the rein ; but if ever it shall tearaway the rein, or shall not suffer it to be replaced ifshaken loose by some mishap, then this unity andthis fabric of mightiest empire will fly into manyparts, and the end of this city's rule will be one withthe end of her obedience. Therefore it is not strangethat kings and princes and guardians of the publicorder, whatever different name they bear, are heldmore dear even than those bound to us by privateties ; for if men of sense put public interests above-lprivate,it follows that he too is dearer upon whomthe whole state centres. At an earlier day, in fact,Caesar so clothed himself with the powers of statethat neither one could be withdrawn without thedestruction of both. For while a Caesar needs power,the state also needs a head.VOL. I 2 B 369

SENECA1 5. Longius videtur recessisse a proposito oratiomea, at mehercules rem ipsam premit. Nam si, quodadhuc colligit, tu animus rei publicae tuae es, iliacorpus tuum, vides, ut puto, quam necessaria sitdementia ; tibi enim parcis, cum videris alteriparcere. Parcendum itaque est etiam improbandiscivibus non aliter quam membris languentibus, et,si quando misso sanguine opus est, sustinenda est2 manus,^ ne ultra, quam necesse sit, incidat. Estergo, ut dicebam, dementia omnibus quidem hominibussecundum naturam, maxime tamen decoraimperatoribus, quanto plus habet apud illos, quodservet, quantoque in maiore materia apparet. Quantulumenim nocet privata crudelitas ! Principum3 saevitia bellum est. Cum autem virtutibus interse sit Concordia nee ulla altera melior aut honestiorquaedam tamen quibusdam personis aptior est.sit,Decet magnanimitas quemlibet mortalem, etiamilium, infra quem nihil est ;quid enim mains autfortius quam malam fortunam retundere ? Haectamen magnanimitas in bona fortuna laxiorem locumhabet meliusque in tribunali quam in piano conspicitur.4 dementia, in quamcumque domum pervenerit,eam felicem tranquillamque praestabit, sed in regia,quo rarior, eo mirabilior. Quid enim est memorabiliusquam eum, cuius irae nihil obstat, cuiusgraviori sententiae ipsi, qui pereunt, adsentiuntur,quem nemo interpellaturus est, immo, si vehementius370^manus added by Haase.

—ON MERCY, I. V. 1-4My discourse seems to have withdra\vTi somewhatfar from its purpose, but, in very truth, it bearsclosely upon the real issue. For if—and this is whatthus far it is estabhshing—^j'ou are the soul of thestate and the state your body, you see, I think, howrequisite is mercy ; for you are merciful to yourselfwhen you are seemingly merciful to another. Andso even reprobate citizens should have mercy as beingthe weak members of the body, and if there shouldever be need to let blood, the hand must be heldunder control to keep it from cutting deeper thanmay be necessary. The quality of mercy, then, as Iwas saying, is indeed for all men in accordance withnature, but in rulers it has an especial comehnessinasmuch as with them it finds more to save, andexhibits itself amid ampler opportunities. For howsmall the harm the cruelty of a private citizen cando ! But when princes rage there is war. Though,moreover, the virtues are at harmony with eachother, and no one of them is better or more noblethan another, yet to certain people a certain \Trtue^]Avill be more suited. Greatness of soul is a virtueseemly for every human being, even for himthat iswho is the lowliest of the lowly. For what is greateror braver than to beat do^\Ti misfortune ? Yet thisgreatness of soul has freer play under circumstancesof good fortune, and is shown to better advantageupon the judge's bench than on the floor.Every house that mercy enters she ^\i\\ renderpeaceful and happy, but in the palace she is morewonderful, in that she is rarer. For what is moreremarkable than that he whose anger nothing canwithstand, to whose sentence, too heavy though it be,even the \ictims bow the head, whom, if he is very371

SENECAexcanduit, ne deprecaturus est quidem, ipsum sibimanum inicere et potestate sua in melius placidiusqueuti hoc ipsum cogitantem ": Occidere contra legemnemo non potest, servare nemo praeter me " ?6 Magnam fortunam magnus animus decet, qui, nisise ad illam extulit et altior stetit, illam quoque infraad^ terram deducit ;magni autem animi propriumest placidum esse tranquillumque et iniurias atqueofFensiones superne despicere.in ira,Muliebre est furereferarum vero nee generosarum quidem praemordereet urguere proiectos.Elephanti leonesquetranseunt, quae impulerunt ; ignobilis bestiae per-6 tinacia est. Non decet regem saeva nee inexorabilisira, non multum enim supra eum eminet, cui seirascendo exaequat ; at si dat vitam, si dat dignitatempericlitantibus et meritis amittere, facit,quod nulli nisi rerum potenti licet ;vita enim etiamsuperiori eripitur, numquam nisi inferiori datur.7 Servare proprium est excellentis fortunae, quaenumquam magis suspici debet, quam cum illi contigitidem posse quod dis, quorum beneficio in lucemedimur tam boni quam mali. Deorum itaque sibianimum adserens princeps alios ex civibus suis, quiautiles bonique sunt, libens videat, alios in numerumrelinquat ;quosdam esse gaudeat, quosdam patiatur.1 6. Cogitato, in hac civitate, in qua turba per372^ad added by Lipsius.

ON MERCY, I. V. 4-vi. 1greatly incensed, no one will venture to gainsay,nay, even to entreat—that this man should lay arestraining hand upon himself, and use his power tobetter and more peaceful ends when he reflects," Any one can ^iolate the law to kill, none but I,to save " ? A lofty spirit befits a lofty station, andif it does not rise to the level of its station and evenstand above it, the other, too, is dragged downwardto the ground. Moreover, the pecuUar marks of alofty spirit are mildness and composure, and the loftydisregard of injustice and wTongs.rage in anger, for wild beasts doubtless—and yet noteven the noble sort of these—to bite and worry theirprostrate victims. Elephants and hons pass by whatthey have stricken do>vn ; it is the ignoble beast thatis relentless. Cruel and inexorable anger is notIt is for woman to^seemly for a king, for thus he does not rise muchabove the other man, toward whose own level hedescends by being angry at him. But if he grants hfe,if he grants position to those who have imperilledand deserve to lose them, he does what none but asovereign may ; for one may take the life even of asuperior, but not give it ever except to an inferior.To save life is the peculiar pri\ilege of exalted station,which never has a right to greater admiration thanwhen it has the good fortune to have the same poweras the gods, by whose kindness we all, the e\il as welhasthe good, are brought forth into the Ught. Let aprince, therefore, appropriating to himself the spiritof the gods, look with pleasure upon one class of hiscitizens because they are useful and good ; otherslet him leave to make up the count ; let him be gladthat some of them hve, some let him merely endure.Consider this city, in which the throng that streams373

SENECAlatissima itinera sine intermissione defluens eliditiir,quotiens aliquid obstitit, quod cursum eius veluttorrentis rapidi moraretur, in qua tribus eodemtempore theatris caveae^ postulantur, in qua consumitur,quidquid terris omnibus aratur, quantasolitudo ac vastitas futura sit, si nihil relinquitur,2 nisi quod iudex severus absolverit. Quotus quisqueex quaesitoribus est, qui non ex ipsa ea lege teneatur,qua quaerit ? quotus quisque accusator vacat culpa ?Et nescio, an nemo ad dandam veniam difficilior sit,3 quam qui illam petere saepius meruit. Peecavimusomnes, alii gravia, alii leviora, alii ex destinato, aliiforte impulsi aut aliena nequitia ablati ; alii in bonisconsiliis parum fortiter stetimus et innocentiaminviti ac retinentes perdidimus ; nee deliquimustantum, sed usque ad extremum aevi delinquemus.4 Etiam si quis tam bene iam purgavit animum, utnihil obturbare eum amplius possit ac fallere, adinnocentiam tamen peccando pervenit.1 7. Quoniam deorum feci mentionem, optime hocexemplum principi constituam, ad quod formetur,ut se talem esse civibus, quales sibi deos velit.Expedit ergo habere inexorabilia peccatis atqueerroribus numina, expedit usque ad ultimam infesta^ caveae Hosius : viae mss.j" Those of Pompey, Marcelhis, and Balbus, each ofwhich, it must be remembered, seated many thousands.""i.e., of the ideal wise man of the Stoics, so rarely produced,Their doctrine that virtue is not merely the greatest but theonly good allowed no gradation of goodness or badness, andfrankly recognized the almost universal depravity of mankind.Seneca with his humane tendencies gives passionateIemphasis to this belief, making it the basis of a plea formercy and kindness.374

—ON MERCY, I. VI. 1-vii. 1ceaselessly through its widest streets is crushedto pieces whenever anything gets in the way tocheck its course as it streams like a rushing torrent,this city in which the seating space of three theatres °is required at one time, in which is consumed all theproduce of the plough from every land ; consider howgreat would be the loneliness and the desolation of itif none should be left but those whom a strict judgewould acquit. How fe\.- prosecutors there are whowould escape conviction under the very law whichthey cite for the prosecution ; how few accusers arefree from blame. And, I am inclined to think, noone is more reluctant to grant pardon than he whoagain and again has had reason to seek it. We haveall sinned—some in serious, some in tri\ial things ;some from deliberate intention, some by chanceimpulse, or because we were led away by the wickednessof others ; some of us have not stood stronglyenough by good resolutions, and have lost ourinnocence against our ^^ill and though still chngingto it ; and not only have we done WTong, but weshall go on doing wTong to the very end of life. Evenif there is any one who has so thoroughly cleansed hismind that nothing can any more confound him andbetray him, yet it is by siiming that he has reachedthe sinless state.*Since I have made mention of the gods, I shall dovery well to estabhsh this as the standard after whicha prince should model himself—that he should wishso to be to his subjects, as he would \\ish the gods to beto himself. Is it, then, desirable to have deities thatcannot be moved to show mercy to our sins andmistakes ? Is it desirable to have them our enemieseven to the point of our complete destruction ? And375

;SENECA•perniciem ? Et quis regum erit tutus, cuius non2 membra haruspices colligant ? Quod si di placabileset aequi delicta potentium non statim fulminibuspersequuntur, quanto aequius est hominem hominibuspraepositum mitianimo exercereimperium et cogitare,uter mundi status gratior oculis pulchriorque sit,sereno et puro die, an cum fragoribus crebris omniaquatiuntur et ignes hinc atque illinc micant ! Atquinon alia facies est quieti moratique imperii quam3 sereni caeli et nitentis. Crudele regnum turbidumtenebrisque obscurum est, inter trementes et adrepentinum sonitum expavescentes ne eo quidem,qui omnia perturbat, inconcusso. Facilius privatisignoscitur pertinaciter se vindicantibus ;possuntenim laedi, dolorque eorum ab iniuria venit ; timentpraeterea contemptum, et non rettulisse laedentibusgratiam infirmitas videtur, non dementia ; at cuiultio in facili est, is omissa ea certam laudem man4 suetudinis consequitur. Humili loco positis exerceremanum, litigare, in rixam procurrere ac morem iraesuae gerere liberius est ;leves inter paria ictus suntregi vociferatio quoque verborumque intemperantianon ex maiestate est.1 8. Grave putas eripi loquendi arbitrium regibus,quod humillimi habent. " Ista," inquis, " servitusest, non imperium." Quid ? tu non experiris istudnobis esse, tibi servitutem ? Alia condicio est

ON MERCY, I. VII. i-viii l•what king will escape the danger of ha\-ing the soothsayersgather up his riven h'mbs ? But

SENECAeorum, qui in turba, quam non excedunt, latent,quorum et virtutes, ut appareant, diu luctantur etvitia tenebras habent ; vestra facta dictaque rumorexcipit, et ideo nullis magis curandum est, qualemfamam habeant, quam qui, qualemcumque meruerint,2 magnam habituri sunt. Quam multa tibi non licent,quae nobis beneficio tuo licent ! Possum in qualibetparte urbis solus incedere sine timore, quamvisnullus sequatur comes, nullus sit domi, nullus adlatus gladius ; tibi in tua pace armato vivendum est.Aberrare a fortuna tua non potes ; obsidet te et,quocumque descendis, magno apparatu sequitur.3 Est haec summae magnitudinis servitus non possefieri minorem ; sed cum dis tibi communis ipsanecessitas est. Nam illos quoque caelum alligatostenet, nee magis illis descendere datum est quam4 tibi tutum ; fastigio tuo adfixus es. Nostros motuspauci sentiunt, prodire nobis ac recedere et mutarehabitum sine sensu publico licet ; tibi non magisquam soli latere contingit. Multa circa te lux est,omnium in istam conversi oculi sunt. Prodire te6 putas ? Oriris. Loqui non potes, nisi ut vocemtuam, quae ubique sunt gentes, excipiant ; irascinon potes, nisi ut omnia tremant, quia^ neminemadfligere, nisi ut, quidquid circa fuerit, quatiatur.Ut fulmina paucorum periculo cadunt, omnium metu,sic animadversiones magnarum potestatum terrent^ quin Baehrens : quia MSS." Prodeo is the ordinary word for "going out of doors,"orior is used of the sun.378

ON MERCY, I. Mil. 1-5different is the position of those who escape notice ina crowd that they do not overtop, whose \Trtuesmust struggle long in order to be seen, whose Mceskeep under the cover of obscurity ; but the wordsand deeds of such as you are caught up by rumour,and, consequently, none should be more concernedabout the character of tneir reputation than thosewho, no matter what reputation they may deserve,are sure to have a great one. How many things thereare which you may not do, which we, thanks to you,may do ! It is possible for me to walk alone withoutfear in any part of the city I please, though no companionattends me, though I have no sword at myhouse, none at my side ;you, amid the peace youcreate, must live armed. You cannot escape fromyour lot ; it besets you, and, whenever you leave theheights, it pursues you AWth its magnificence. Inthis lies the ser^tude of supreme greatness—that itcannot become less great ; but you share with thegods that incMtable condition. For even they areheld in bondage by heaven, and it is no more lawfulfor them to leave the heights than it is safe for you ;you are nailed to your pinnacle. Our movementsare noticed by few ; we may come forth and retire andchange our dress without the world being aware ;you can no more hide yourself than the sun. A floodof Ught surrounds you ; towards it ever)- one turns hiseyes. Think you to " come forth " ? Nay, you rise."You cannot speak but that all the nations of theearth hear your voice ;you cannot be angrv' withoutcausing everj-thing to tremble, because you cannotstrike any one down without shaking all that is aroundhim. As the hghtning's stroke is dangerous for thefew, though feared by all, so the punishment bom of379

SENECAlatius quam nocent, non sine causa ; non enim, quantumfecerit, sed quantum facturus sit, cogitatur in6 eo, qui omnia potest. Adice nunc, quod privateshomines ad accipiendas iniurias opportuniores acceptarumpatientia facit, regibus certior est ex mansuetudinesecuritas, quia frequens vindicta paucorum7 odium opprimit, omnium irritat. Voluntas oportetante saeviendi quam causa deficiat ; alioqui, quemadmodumpraecisae arbores plurimis ramis repullulantet multa satorum genera, ut densiora surgant,reciduntur, ita regia crudelitas auget inimicorumnumerum tollendo ;parentes enim liberique eorum,qui interfecti sunt, et propinqui et amici in locumsingulorum succedunt.1 9. Hoc quam verum sit, admonere te exemplodomestico volo. Divus Augustus fuit mitis princeps,si quis ilium a principatu suo aestimare incipiat ; incommuni quidem rei publicae gladium movit. Cumhoc aetatis esset, quod tu nunc es, duodevicensimumegressus annum, iam pugiones in sinum amicorumabsconderat, iam insidiis M. Antonii consulis latus2 petierat, iam fuerat collega proscriptionis. Sedcum annum quadragensimum transisset et in Galhamoraretur, delatum est ad eum indicium L. Cinnam,stolidi ingenii virum, insidias ei struere ; dictum

ON MERCY, I. VIII. 5-ix. 2great power causes wider terror than harm, and notwithout reason ; for when the doer is omnipotent, menconsider not how much he has done, but how much heis Ukely to do. Consider, too, that whereas privatecitizens, by enduring the \\Tongs aheady received,he more open to recei\'ing others, yet kings byclemency gain a security more assured, becauserepeated punishment, while it crushes the hatred ofa few, stirs the hatred of all. The inchnation to ventone's rage should be less strong than the provocationfor it ; otherwise, just as trees that have beentrimmed throw out again countless branches, and asmany kinds of plants are cut back to make them growthicker, so the cruelty of a king by removing hisenemies increases their number ; for the parents andchildren of those who have been killed, their relativestoo and their friends, step into the place of eachsingle \ictim.By an example from your own family I wish toremind you how true this is. The deified Augustuswas a mild prince if one should undertake to judgehim from the time of his principate ; but when heshared the state with others," he A^-ielded the sword.When he was at your present age, having just passedhis eighteenth year," he had already buried hisdagger in the bosom of friends ; he had already instealth aimed a blow at the side of the consul, MarkAntony ; he had already been a partner in proscription.But when he had passed his fortieth yearand was staying in Gaul,'^ the information was broughtto him that Lucius Cinna,"* a dull-witted man, wasconcocting a plot against him. He was told whereCornelius Cinna, son-in-law of Pompey, was the father of theconspirator.381

SENECAest, et ubi et quando et quemadmodum adgredi3 vellet ; unus ex consciis deferebat. Constituit seab eo vindicare et consilium amicorum advocariiussit. Nox illi inquieta erat, cum cogitaret adulescentemnobilem, hoc detracto integrum, Cn. Pompeinepotem, damnandum ; iam unum hominem occiderenon poterat, cui M. Antonius proscriptionis edictum4 inter cenam dictarat. Gemens subinde voces variasemittebat et inter se contrarias : " Quid ergo ?Ego percussorem meum securum ambulare patiarme sollicito ? Ergo non dabit poenas, qui totcivilibus bellis frustra petitum caput, tot navalibus,tot pedestribus proeliis incolume, postquam terramarique pax parata est, non occidere constituat,sed immolare ? " (nam sacrificantem placuerat adoriri).5 Rursus silentio interposito maiore multo voce sibiquam Cinnae irascebatur : " Quid vivis, si perirete tam multorum interest ? Quis finis erit suppliciorum? Quis sanguinis ? Ego sum nobilibus adulescentulisexpositum caput, in quod mucronesacuant ; non est tanti vita, si, ut ego non peream,6 tam multa perdenda sunt." Interpellavit tandemilium Livia uxor et " : Admittis," inquit, " muliebreconsilium ? Fac, quod medici solent, qui, ubi usitataremedia non procedunt, temptant contraria, Severitatenihil adhuc profecisti ; Salvidienum Lepidussecutus est, Lepidum Murena, Murenam Caepio,Caepionem Egnatius, ut alios taceam, quos tantum" Cf. Cassius Dio, xlviii. 33 ; Suetonius, Augustus, 66.^ Suetonius, Aug. 19, mentions these, in the same order,and others.382

ON MERCY, I. IX. 2-6and when and how he meant to attack him ; one ofthe accomplices gave the information. Augustusresolved to revenge himself upon the fellow, andordered a council of his friends to be called. Hespent a restless night, reflecting that it was a youngman of noble birth, blameless but for this act, thegrandson of Gnaeus Pompeius, who was to be condemned.He could not now bear to kill one man,he to whom Mark Antony had dictated the edict ofproscription while they dined. He moaned, and nowand then would burst forth into fitful and inconsistentspeech ": What then ? shall I let my murderer walkabout in unconcern while I am filled with fear ?What ! Shall he not pay the penalty who, soughtin vain as my life has been in so many civil wars,saved unhurt in so many battles of fleets and armies,now that peace prevails on land and sea, is determiningnot to murder but to immolate me ? " (for the planwas to attack him while off"ering sacrifice). Again,after an interval of silence, in louder tone he wouldexpress much greater indignation at himself thanat Cinna ": Why do you live on if so many areconcerned to have you die ? What end vriW there beof punishments, and of bloodshed ? I am the ob\iousvictim for whom young men of noble birth shouldwhet their swords. If so many must perish in orderthat I may not, my life is not worth the price." Atlength Livia, his wife, broke in and said :" Will youtake a woman's advice ? Follow the practice ofphysicians, who when the usual remedies do notwork try just the opposite. So far you have accompUshednothing by severity. SaMdienus " was followedby Lepidus, Lepidus by Murena, Murena byCaepio, Caepio by Egnatius,** to say nothing of the383

SENECAausos pudet. Nunc tempta, quomodo tibi cedatdementia ; ignosce L. Cinnae. Deprensus est ;iam nocere tibi non potest, prodesse famae tuae7 potest." Gavisus, sibi quod advocatum invenerat,uxori quidem gratias egit, renuntiari autem extemploamicis, quos in consilium rogaverat, imperavit etCinnam unum ad se accersit dimissisque omnibuse cubiculo, cum alteram Cinnae poni cathedramiussisset : " Hoc," inquit, " primum a te peto, neme loquentem interpelles, ne medio sermone meoproclames ; dabitur tibi loquendi liberum tempus.8 Ego te, Cinna, cum in hostium castris invenissem,non factum tantum mihi inimicum sed natum,servavi, patrimonium tibi omne concessi. Hodietam felix et tam dives es, ut victo victores invideant.Sacerdotium tibi petenti praeteritis compluribus,quorum parentes mecum militaverant, dedi ; cum9 sic de te meruerim, occidere me constituisti." Cumad banc vocem exclamasset procul hanc ab se abessedementiam :" Non praestas," inquit, " fidem,Cinna ; convenerat, ne interloquereris. Occidere,inquam, me paras " ; adiecit locum, socios, diem,ordinem insidiarum, cui commissum esset ferrum.10 Et cum defixum videret nee ex conventione iam,sed ex conscientia tacentem " : Quo," inquit, " hocanimo facis ? Ut ipse sis princeps ? Male meherculescum populo Romano agitur, si tibi ad im-384

ON MERCY, I. IX. 6-10others whose monstrous daring makes one ashamed.Try now how mercy will work : pardon Lucius Cinna.He has been arrested ; now he cannot do you harm,but he can help your reputation." Happy to havefound a supporter, he thanked his A\1fe, then orderedthat the request to the friends who had been askedto the conference be at once countermanded, andsunmioned only Cinna to his presence. Ha\ing sentevery one else from the room, he ordered a secondchair to be'•placed for Cinna and said :My firstrequest of you is, that you will not interrupt mewhile I am talking, that you will not in the courseof my words utter a protest ;you will be given freeopportunity to speak. Cinna, though I found youin the camp of the enemy, not made, but born, mydeadly foe, I saved you, I allowed you to keep thewhole of your father's estate. To-day you are soprosperous, so rich, that your conquerors en\y you,the conquered. When you sought holy office, Igave it to you, passing over many whose fathers hadfought under me. Though such is the service thatI have done you, you have determined to kill me."When at these words Cinna cried out that he wasfar from such madness, he said :" You are not keepingfaith, Cinna ; it was agreed that you were not tointerrupt. You are making ready, I say, to kill me."He mentioned, further, the place, his confederates,the plan of the plot, the one who had been entrustedwith the dagger. And when he saw that Cinna haddropped his eyes, silent now, not because of hiscompact, but because of his conscience, he said :" What is your purpose in this ? Is it that you yourselfmaybecome the prince ? On my word, the Romanpeople are hard put to it if nothing stands in theVOL. I 2 c 385

SENECAperandum nihil praeter me obstat .Domum tueri tuamnon potes, nuper libertini hominis gratia in privateiudicio superatus es ; adeo nihil facilius potes quamcontra Caesarem advocare. Cedo, si spes tuas solusimpedio, Paulusne te at Fabius Maximus et Cossiet Servilii ferent tantumque agmen nobilium noninania nomina praeferentium, sed eorum, qui imaginibussuis decori sint"?11 Ne totam eius orationem repetendo magnampartem voluminis oceupem (diutius enim quamduabus horis loeutum esse constat, cum hanc poenam,qua sola erat contentus futurus, extenderet) :" Vitam," inquit, " tibi, Cinna, iterum do, priushosti, nunc insidiatori ac parricidae. Ex hodiernodie inter nos amicitia incipiat ;contendamus, utrumego meliore fide tibi vitam dederim an tu debeas."12 Post hoc detulit ultro consulatum questus, quod nonauderet petere.Amicissimum fidelissimumque habuit,heres solus illi fuit. Nulhs amplius insidiisab ullo petitus est.1 10. Ignovit abavus tuus victis ; nam si non igno-^dsset, quibus imperasset ? Sallustium et Cocceioset DeilHos et totam cohortem primae admissionisex adversariorum castris conscripsit ;iam Domitios,Messalas, Asinios, Cicerones, quidquid floris eratin civitate, clementiae suae debebat. Ipsum Lepidumquam diu mori passus est ! Per multos annos386

ON MERCY, I. IX. lo-x. lway of your ruling except me. You cannot guardyour ovm house ;just lately the influence of a merefreedman defeated you in a private suit ;plainly,nothing can be easier for you than to take actionagainst Caesar ! Tell me, if I alone block yourhopes, >nll Paulus and Fabius Maximus and theCossi and the Servilii and the great hne of nobles,who are not the representatives of empty names,but add distinction to their pedigree— will theseput up ^\ith you ?Not to fill up a great part of my book in repeatingall his words—for he is known to have talked morethan two hours, lengthening out this ordeal withwhich alone he intended to be content—at last hesaid ": Cinna, a second time I grant you yom- Ufe ;the first time you were an open enemy, now, a plotterand a parricide. From this day let there be abeginning of friendship between us ; let us put tothe test which one of us acts in better faith—I ingranting you your life, or you in ONving it to me."Later he, unsolicited, bestowed upon him the consulship,chiding him because he did not boldly standfor the office. He found Cinna most friendly andloyal, and became his sole heir. No one plottedagainst him further.Your great-great-grandfather spared the vanquished; for if he had not spared them, whomwould he have had to rule ? Sallustius and aCocceius and a Deillius and the whole inner circleof his court he recruited from the camp of hisopponents ; and now it was his own mercifulnessthat gave him a Domitius, a Messala, an Asinius, aCicero, and all the flower of the state. What a longtime was granted even Lepidus to die ! For many387

SENECAtulit ornamenta principis retinentem et pontificatummaximum non nisi mortuo illotransferri in se passusest ; maluit enim ilium honorem vocari quam2 spolium. Haec eum dementia ad salutem securitatemqueperduxit ; haec gratum ac favorabilemreddidit, quamvis nondum subactis populi Romanicervicibus manum imposuisset ; haec hodiequepraestat illi famam, quae vix vivis principibus servit.3 Deum esse non tamquam iussi credimus ; bonumfuisse principem Augustum, bene illi parentis nomenconvenisse fatemur ob nullam aliam causam, quamquod contumelias quoque suas, quae acerbioresprincipibus solent esse quam iniuriae, nulla crudelitateexsequebatur, quod probrosis in se dictis adrisit,quod dare ilium poenas apparebat, cum exigeret,quod, quoscumque ob adulterium filiae suae damnaverat,adeo non occidit, ut dimissis quo tutiores essent,4 diplomata daret. Hoc est ignoscere, cum sciasmultos futuros, qui pro te irascantur et tibi sanguinealieno gratificentur, non dare tantum salutem, sedpraestare.1 11. Haec Augustus senex aut iam in senectutemannis vergentibus ; in adulescentia caluit, arsit ira,multa fecit, ad quae invitus oculos retorquebat.Comparare nemo mansuetudini tuae audebit divumAugustum, etiam si in certamen iuveniUum annorum" The notorious Julia, banished by Augustus on accountof her infidelity to Tiberius.388

ON xMERCY, I. X. 1-xi. 1years he suffered liipi to retain the insignia of aruler, and only after the other's death did he permitthe office of chief pontiff to be transferred to himself; for he preferred to have it called an honourrather than a spoil. This mercifulness led him onto safety and security, this made him popular andbeloved, although the necks of the Roman peoplehad not yet been humbled when he laid hand uponthem ; and to-day this preserves for him a reputationwhich is scarcely -within the power of rulers evenwhile they live. A god we beUeve him to be, butnot because we are bidden ; that Augustus was agood prince, that he well deserved the name offather, this we confess for no other reason thanbecaiise he did not avenge with cruelty even thepersonal insults which usually sting a prince more thanwrongs, because when he was the victim of lampoonshe smiled, because he seemed to suffer punishmentwhen he was exacting it, because he was so far fromkilling the various men whom he had convicted ofintriguing with his daughter

SENECAdeduxerit senectutem plus quam maturam : fueritmoderatus et clemens, nempe post mare ActiacumRomano cruore infectum, nempe post fractas inSicilia classes et suas et alienas, nempe post Peru-2 sinas aras et proscriptiones. Ego vero clementiamnon voco lassam crudelitatem ; haec est, Caesar,dementia vera, quam tu praestas, quae non saevitiaepaenitentia coepit, nullam habere maculam, numquamcivilem sanguinem fudisse ; haec est inmaxima potestate verissima animi temperantia ethumani generis comprendens ut sui amor non cupiditatealiqua, non temeritate ingenii, non priorumprincipum exemplis corruptum, quantum sibi incives suos liceat, experiendo temptare, sed hebetare3 aciem imperii sui. Praestitisti, Caesar, civitatemincruentam, et hoc, quod magno animo gloriatus esnullam te toto orbe stillam cruoris humani misisse,eo maius est mirabiliusque, quod nulli umquamcitius gladius commissus est.4 dementia ergo non tantum honestiores sedtutiores praestat ornamentumque imperiorum estsimul et certissima salus. Quid enim est, cur regesconsenuerint liberisque ac nepotibus tradiderintregna, tyrannorum exsecrabilis ac brevis potestassit } Quid interest inter tyrannum ac regem (speciesenim ipsa fortunae ac licentia par est), nisi quodtyranni in voluptatem saeviunt, reges non nisi excausa ac necessitate ?1 12. " Quid ergo ? Non reges quoque occidere" In the battle with Antony and Cleopatra (31 b.c).^ When Sextus Pompey was defeated in 36 b.c.* A rumour was current that Octavius after the siege ofPerusia (41-40 b.c.) sacrificed many of the captives at analtar erected to Julius Caesar ; c/. Suetonius, Augustus, 15 ;Cassius Dio, xlviii. 14.390

ON MERCY, I. XI. 1-xii. 1that was more than ripe. Granted that he wasrestrained and merciful — yes, to be sure, but itwas after Actium's waters had been stained" withRoman blood, after his o\vn and an enemy's fleethad been wrecked off Sicily,* after the holocaustof Perusia

SENECASolent ? " Sed quotiens id fieri publica utilitaspersuadet ; tyrannis saevitia cordi est. Tyrannusautem a rege factis distat, non nomine ; nam etDionysius maior iure meritoque praeferri multisregibus potest, et L. Sullam tyrannum appellari quidprohibet, cui occidendi finem fecit inopia hostium ?2 Descenderit licet e dictatura sua et se togae reddiderit,quis tamen umquam tyrannus tam a\'idehumanum sanguinem bibit quam ille, qui septemmilia civium Romanorum contrucidari iussitet, cumin vicino ad aedem Bellonae sedens exaudissetconclamationem tot milium sub gladio gementium,exterrito senatu ": Hoc agamus," inquit, " patresconscripti ; seditiosi pauculi meo iussu occiduntur " ?3 Hoc non est mentitus ;pauci SuUae videbantur. Sedmox de Sulla, cum quaeremus, quomodo hostibusirascendum sit, utique si in hostile nomen cives etex eodem corpore abrupti transierint ;interim, hocquod dicebam, dementia efficit, ut magnum interregem tyrannumque discrimen sit, uterque licetnon minus armis valletur ; sed alter arma habet,quibus in munimentum pacis utitur, alter, ut magnotimore magna odia compescat, nee illas ipsas manus,4 quibus se commisit, securus adspicit. Contrariis incontraria agitur ; nam cum invisus sit, quia timetur,392

kill ? "ON MERCY, I. XII. 1-4Yes, but only when they are induced to doso for the good of the state. Tyrants take delightin cruelty. But the difference between a tyrantand a king is one of deeds, not of name ; for whilethe elder Dionysius "may justly and deservedly becounted better than many kjngs, what keeps LuciusSulla from being styled a tyrant, whose killing wasstopped only by a dearth of foes ? Though heabdicated the dictatorship and returned to privatelife, yet what tyrant ever drank so greedily of humanblood as he, who ordered seven thousand Romancitizens to be butchered at one time, and who, as hesat nearby at the temple of Bellona and heard themingled cry of the many thousands moaning beneaththe sword, said to the terror-stricken senate, " Letus attend to business, Gentlemen of the Senate ;only a few seditious persons are being killed by myorder " ? This was no he ; to Sulla they seemed afew. But more about Sulla by and by, when we shalltake up the question of the sort of anger we shouldhave for enemies, particularly if fellow-countrymenhave broken away from the body politic and passedover into the category of enemies. Meanwhile, as Iwas saying, it is mercy that makes the distinctionbetween a king and a tyrant as great as it is, thoughboth are equally fenced about vrith arms ; but theone uses the arms which he has to fortify good-will,the other to curb great hatred by great fear, andyet the very hands to which he has entrusted himselfhe cannot view ^^ithout concern. Conflicting causesforce him to conflicting courses : for since he ishated because he is feared, he \\ishes to be feared" See Index.393

SENECAtimeri vult, quia invisus est, et illo exsecrabili versu,qui multos praecipites dedit, utitur :Oderint, dum metuant,ignarus, quanta rabies oriatur, ubi supra modumodia creverunt.Temperatus enim timor cohibet animos, adsiduusvero et acer et extrema admovens in audaciam5 iacentes excitat et omnia experiri suadet. Sic feraslinea et pinnae clusas contineant ; easdem a tergoeques telis incessat, temptabunt fugam per ipsa,quae fugerant, proculcabuntque formidinem, Acerrimavirtus est, quam ultima necessitas extundit.Relinquat oportet securi aliquid metus multoqueplus spei quam periculorum ostentet ; alioqui, ubiquiescenti paria metuuntur, incurrere in periculaiuvat et^ aliena anima abuti.1 13. Placido tranquilloque regi fida sunt auxiliasua, ut quibus ad communem salutem utatur,gloriosusque miles (publicae enim securitati se dareoperam videt) omnem laborem libens patitur utparentis custos ; at ilium acerbum et sanguinarium2 neeesse est graventur stipatores sui. Non potesthabere quisquam bonae ac fidae voluntatis ministros,quibus in tormentis ut eeuleo et ferramentis admortem paratis utitur, quibus non aliter quam bestiishomines obiectat, omnibus reis aerumnosior acsolhcitior, ut qui homines deosque testes facinorumac vindices timeat, eo perductus, ut non liceat illi* Hosius, after Haase, inserts ut after et." A favourite quotation ; cf, De Ira, i. 20. 4 ; De Clem.ii. 2. 2.

:ON MERCY, I. XII. 4-xiii. 2because he is hated, and not kno^ving what frenzyis engendered when hatred grows too great, he takesas a motto that accursed verse which has driven manyto their fallLet them hate, if only they fear."Now fear inmoderation restrains men's passions,but the fear that is constant and sharp and bringsdesperation arouses the sluggish to boldness, andurges them to stop at nothing. In the same way, astring of feathers may keep ^\^ld beasts hemmed in,but let a horseman come upon them from behind withjavelins, and they ^vill try to escape through the veryobjects that had made them run, and aWII trampledo^^^l their fear. No courage is so bold as thatforced by utter desperation. Fear should leave somesense of security, and hold out much more of hope thanof peril; otherwise, if an inoffensive man is made to fearthe same peril as others, he takes pleasure in rushinginto peril and making an end of a hfe that is forfeit.A king that is peaceable and gentle finds his guardstrusty, since he employs them for the common safety,and the soldier, seeing that he is gi\ing liis servicefor the security of the state, is proud and wilhng toundergo any hardship as a protector of the father ofhis countr)' ; but he that is harsh and bloodthirstyinevitably gets the ill-will of his own henchmen. Itis impossible for any one to hold the good-will andloyalty of servitors whom he uses, like the rack andthe axe, as instruments of torture and death, to whomhe flings men as he would to wild beasts ; no prisonerat the bar is so troubled and anxious as he, seeingthat he is in fear of men and gods, the witnesses andthe avengers of crimes, yet has reached a point where395*"

mutare mores.SENECAHoc enim inter cetera vel pessimumhabet crudelitas, perseverandum est nee ad meliorapatet regressus ; scelera enim sceleribus tuendasunt. Quid autem eo infelicius, cui iam esse malo3 necesse est ? O miserabilem ilium, sibi certe !Nam ceteris misereri eius nefas sit, qui caedibus acrapinis potentiam exercuit, qui suspecta sibi cunctareddidit tarn externa quam domestica, cum armametuat, ad arma confugiens, non amicorum fideicredens, non pietati liberorum ;qui, ubi circumspexit,quaeque fecit quaeque facturus est, etconscientiam suam plenam sceleribus ac tormentisadaperuit, saepe mortem timet, saepius optat,4 invisior sibi quam servientibus. E contrario is, cuicurae sunt universa, qui alia magis, alia minus tuetur,nullam non rei publicae partem tamquam sui nutrit,inclinatus ad mitiora, etiam si ex usu est animadvertere,ostendens quam invitus aspero rpmediomanus admoveat, in cuius animo nihil hostile, nihilefFerum est, qui potentiam suam placide ac salutariterexercet approbare imperia sua civibus cupiens,felix abunde sibi visas, si fortunam suam publicarit,sermone adfabilis, aditu accessuque facilis, vultu,qui maxime populos demeretur, amabilis, acquisdesideriis propensus, etiam iniquis non^ acerbus, a5 tota civitate amatur, defenditur, colitur, Eadem de^non added by Haase.396

ON MERCY, I. XIII. 2-5he has not the power to change his conduct. Foradded to all the rest, this is still cruelty- 's greatestcurse—that one must persist in it, and no return tobetter things is open ; for crime must be safeguardedby crime. But what creature is more unhappy thanthe man who now cannot help being ^vicked ? AwTctch to be pitied, at least by himself ! for thatothers should pity him would be a crime—a man whohas utilized his power for murder and pillage, whohas caused mistrust of all his deahngs whether athome or abroad, who resorts to the sword because hefears the sword, who trusts neither the loyalty offriends nor the affection of his children ; who, whenhe has surveyed what he has done and what heintends to do, and has laid bare his conscienceburdened ^^ith crimes and torturings, often fears todie but more often prays for death, more hateful ashe is to himself than to his servitors. On the otherhand, he whose care embraces all, who, while guardinghere with greater vigilance, there with less, yetfosters each and ever\' part of the state as a portionof himself ; who is inclined to the milder course evenif it would profit him to punish, showing thus howloath he is to turn his hand to harsh correction ; whosemind is free from all hostiUty, from all brutality ;who so covets the approbation of his countrj-menupon his acts as ruler that he wields his power withmildness and for their good ; who thinks himselfaboundingly happy if he can make the public sharersin his own good fortune ; w-ho is affable in speech,easy of approach and access, lovable in countenance,which most of all ^vins the affection of the masses,well-disposed to just petitions and even to the unjustnot harsh—such a one the whole state loves, defends,397

SENECAillo homines secreto loquuntur quae palam.Tollerefilios cupiunt et publicis malis sterilitas indietarecluditur ; bene se meriturum de liberis suisquisque non dubitat, quibus tale saeculum ostenderit.Hie princeps suo beneficio tutus nihil praesidiis eget.arma ornamenti causa habet.1 14. Quod ergo officium eius est ? Quod bonorumparentium, qui obiurgare liberos non numquamblande, non numquam minaeiter solent, aliquandoadmonere etiam verberibus. Numquid aliquis sanusfiUum a prima offensa exheredat ? Nisi magnaeet multae iniuriae patientiam evicerunt, nisi plusest, quod timet, quam quod damnat, non accedit addeeretorium stilum ; multa ante temptat, quibusdubiam indolem et peiore iam loco positam revocet ;simul deploratum est, ultima experitur. Nemo adsupplicia exigenda pervenit, nisi qui remedia con-2 sumpsit. Hoc, quod parenti, etiam principi faciendumest, quem appellavimus Patrem Patriae nonadulatione vana adducti. Cetera enim cognominahonori data sunt ; Magnos et Felices et Augustosdiximus et ambitiosae maiestati quidquid potuimustitulorum congessimus illis hoc tribuentes ; Patremquidem Patriae appellavimus, ut sciret datam sibipotestatem patriam, quae est temperantissima3 liberis consulens suaque post illos reponens. Tardesibi pater membra sua abscidat, etiam, cum abscii" i.e., to disinheritance in his will.

ON MERCY, I. XIII. 5-xiv. 3and reveres. ^Vhat people say of such a man is thesame in secret as in public. They are eager to rearup sons, and the childlessness once imposed by pubUcills is now relaxed ; no one doubts that his childrenwill have cause to thank him for permitting them tosee so happy an age. Such a prince, protected by hisown good deeds, needs no bodyguard ; the arms hewears are for adornment only.What, then, is his duty ? It is that of the goodparent who is wont to reprove his children sometimesgently, sometimes vrith threats, who at times admonishesthem even by stripes. Does any father inhis senses disinherit a son for his first offence ? Onlywhen great and repeated >\Tong-doing has overcomehis patience, only when what he fears outweighs whathe reprimands, does he resort to the decisive pen ";but first he makes many an effort to reclaim a characterthat is still unformed, though inclined now to themore e^il side ; when the case is hopeless, he triesextreme measures. No one resorts to the exactionof punishment until he has exhausted all the meansof correction. This is the dut^' of a father, and it isalso the duty of a prince, whom not in empty flatterv'we have been led to call " the Father of his Country."For other designations have been granted merely byway of honour ; some we have styled " the Great,"" the Fortunate," and " the August," and we haveheaped upon pretentious greatness all possible titlesas a tribute to such men ; but to " the Father of hisCountry " we have given the name in order that hemay know that he has been entrusted with a father'spower, which is most forbearing in its care for theinterests of his children and subordinates his own totheirs.Slow would a father be to sever his own flesh399

SENECAderit, reponere cupiat, et in abscidendo gematcunctatus multum diuque ;prope est enim, utlibenter damnet, qui cito ;prope est, ut iniquepuniat, qui nimis.1 15. Trichonem equitem Romanum memoria nostra,quia filium suum flagellis occiderat, populus graphiisin foro confodit ;vix ilium Augusti Caesaris auctoritasinfestis tarn patrum quam filiorum manibus eripuit,2 Tarium, qui filium deprensum in parricidii consiliodamnavit causa cognita, nemo non suspexit, quodcontentus exilio et exilio delicato Massiliae parricidamcontinuit et annua illi praestitit, quantapraestare integro solebat ; haec liberalitas efFecit,ut, in qua civitate numquam deest patronus peioribus,nemo dubitaret, quin reus merito damnatus esset,quem is pater damnare potuisset, qui odisse nonpoterat.3 Hoe ipso exemplo dabo, quem compares bono patri.bonum principem. Cogniturus de filio Tarius advocavitin consilium Caesarem Augustum ; venit inprivatos penates, adsedit, pars alieni consilii fuit,non dixit :" Immo in meam domum veniat " ;quodsi factum esset, Caesaris futura erat cognitio, non4 patris. Audita causa excussisque omnibus, et his,quae adulescens pro se dixerat, et his, quibus argue-" Cf. the story of Milo's enjoying in exile the mulletsof Marseilles in Cassius Dio, xl. 54.400

ON MERCY, I. XIV. 3-xv. 4and blood ; aye, after severing he would yearn torestore them, and while severing he would groanaloud, hesitating often and long ; for he comes nearto condemning gladly who condemns swiftly, and topunishing unjustly who punishes unduly.Within my memorv^ the people in the forum stabbedTricho, a Roman knight, \\ith their -wTiting-stylesbecause he had flogged his son to death ; AugustusCaesar's authorit\" barely rescued him from the indignanthands of fathers no less than of sons. Tarius,on the other hand, having detected his son in a plotagainst his hfe, when after investigating the case hefound him guilty, won the admiration of ever}" onebecause, satisfying himself ^\^th exile—and a luxuriousexile—he detained the parricide at Marseilles,"furnishing him with the same liberal allowance that hehad been in the habit of giving him before his guilt ;the effect of this generosity was that, in a communitywhere a \-illain never lacks a defender, no one doubtedthat the accused man had been justly condemned,since the father who could not hate him had found itpossible to condemn him.I will now use tins ver}^ case to show you an exampleof a good prince v\ithwhom you may compare thegood father. When Tarius was ready to open theinquir}^ on his son, he invited Augustus Caesar toattend the council ; Augustus came to the hearthof a private citizen, sat beside him, and took partin the dehberation of another household. He didnot say, " Rather, let the man come to my house " ;for, if he had, the inquiry would have been conductedby Caesar and not by the father. When the casehad been heard and all the evidence had been sifted—what the young fellow said in his defence, andVOL. I 2 p 401

atur, petit,SENECAut sententiam suam quisque scriberet,ne ea omnium fieret, quae Caesaris fuisset ;deinde,priusquam aperirentur codicilli, iuravit se Tarii,5 liominis locupletis, hereditatem non aditurum. Dicetaliquis ": Pusillo animo timuit, ne videretur locumspei suae aperire velle filii damnatione." Ego contrasentio ;quilibet nostrum debuisset adversus opinionesmalignas satis fiduciae habere in bona conscientia,principes multa debent etiam famae dare. Iuravit6 se non aditurum hereditatem. Tarius quidem eodemdie et alterum heredem perdidit, sed Caesar libertatemsententiae suae redemit ; et postquam approbavitgratuitam esse severitatem suam, quodprincipi semper curandum est, dixit relegandum, quo7 patri videretur. Non culleum, non serpentes, noncarcerem decrevit memor, non de quo censeret, sedcui in consilio esset ; molhssimo genere poenaecontentum esse debere patrem dixit in fiho adulescentuloimpulso in id scelus, in quo se, quodproximumerat ab innocentia, timide gessisset ; debere ilium1 ab urbe et a parentis oculis submoveri. 16. O dignum,quem in consilium patres advocarent ! O dignum,quern coheredem innocentibus liberis scriberent !Haec dementia principem decet ;quocumquevenerit, mansuetiora omnia faciat." i.e., Caesar as well as his son.* In early times the parricide was sewn into a sack witha dog, a cock, a snake, and a monkey, and drowned.402

—ON MERCY, I. x^^ 4-.v^i. 1what was brought up in accusation against himCaesar requested each man to give his verdict in^\Titing, lest all should vote according to his lead.Then, before the tablets were opened, he solemnlydeclaredthat he would accept no bequest fromTarius, who was a rich man. Some will say, " Heshowed weakness in fearing that he might seem tobe trying to clear the field for his ovm prospects bysentencing the son." I think differently ; any oneof us might well have had enough faith in his owngood conscience to \\ithstand hostile criticism, butprinces are bound to give much heed even to report.He solemnly declared that he would not accept abequest. Tarius did indeed on one and the same daylose a second heir " also, but Caesar saved the integrityof his vote ; and after he had proved that his severitywas disinterested—for a prince should always haveregard for this—he said that the son ought to bebanished to whatever place the father should decide.His sentence was not the sack,^ nor serpents, norprison, since his thought was not of the man on whomhe was passing sentence, but of him for whom heMas acting as counsellor. He said that the mildestsort of punishment ought to satisfy a father in thecase of a son who was verj- youthful and had beenmoved to commit this crime, but in committing ithad shown himself faint-hearted—which was nextdoor to being innocent ; therefore the son should bebanished from the city and from his father's sight.How worthy he was of being asked by parents toshare their counsels ! how worthy of being recordeda co-heir with the children who were innocent ! Thisis the spirit of mercy that graces the prince ; whereverhe goes he should make everything more peaceable.403

SENECANemo regi tarn vilis sit, ut ilium perire non2 sentiat, qualiscumque pars imperii est. In magnaimperia ex minoribus petamus exemplum. Nonunum est imperandi genus ; imperat princeps civibussuis, pater liberis, praeceptor discentibus, tribunus3 vel centurio militibus. Nonne pessimus pater videbitur,qui adsiduis plagis liberos etiam ex levissimiscausis compescet ?Uter autem praeceptor liberalibusstudiis dignior, qui excarnificabit discipulos, simemoria illis non constiterit aut si parum agilis inlegendo oculus haeserit, an qui monitionibus etverecundia emendare ac docere malit ? Tribunumcenturionemque da saevum : desertores faciet,4 quibus tamen ignoscitur. Numquidnam aequum estgravius homini et durius imperari, quam imperaturanimalibus mutis ? Atqui equum non crebris verberibusexterret domandi peritus magister ; fietenim formidolosus et contumax, nisi eum blandiente5 tactu permulseris. Idem facit ille venator, quiqueinstituit catulos vestigia sequi quique iam exercitatisutitur ad excitandas vel persequendas feras : neecrebro illis minatur (contundet enim animos et, quidquidest indolis, comminuetur trepidatione degeneri)nee licentiam vagandi errandique passim concedit.Adicias liis licet tardiora agentes iumenta, quae,cum ad contumeliam et miserias nata sint, nimiasaevitia cogantur iugum detractare.404

ON MERCY, I. XVI. 1-5In the eyes of a ruler let no man count for so littlethat his destruction is not noted ; be he what hemay, he is part of the realm. From the forms oflesser power let us draw a parallel for great power.There is more than one kind of power : a prince haspower over his subjects, a father over liis children,a teacher over his pupils, a tribune or a centurionover his soldiers. Will he not seem the worst sortof father who controls his children by constantwhippings for even the most trifling offences ? Andof teachers, which ^«ll reflect more credit upon theUberal studies—the one who will draw the blood ofhis pupils if their memory is weak, or if the eye isnot quick and lags in reading, or the one who choosesrather by kind admonition and a sense of shame tocorrect, and so to teach, his pupils ? Show me atribune or centurion that is harsh ; he will causedeserters, who all the same " are pardonable. Is itjust, I ask, that man should be subjected to severerand harsher rule than dumb beasts ? And yet thehorse is not plied with the lash and terrified by thehorse-breaker who is an expert ; for it wll growfearful and obstinate unless it is soothed with caressinghand. The same is true of the hunter, whetherhe is teaching young dogs to follow the trail, or makesuse of those already trained for routing out the gameor running it down : he neither employs constantthreats (for that \n\] break their spirit, and all theirnative qualities Nnll be gradually lost in a timidityunworthy of their breed), nor does he allow them torange and roam around without restraint. This appliesagain to drivers of the more sluggish beasts of burden,which, though they are born to abuse and misery, maybe driven to refuse the yoke by too much cruelty.405

SENECA1 17. Nullum animal morosius est, nullum maiorearte tractandum quam homo, nulli magis parcendum.Quid enim est stultius quam in iumentis quidem etcanibus erubescere iras exercere, pessima autemcondicione sub homine^ hominem esse ? Morbismedemur nee irascimur ; atqui et hie morbus estanimi ; mollem medicinam desiderat ipsumque2 medentem minime infestum aegro. Mali mediciest desperare, ne curet : idem in iis, quorum animusadfectus est, facere debebit is, cui tradita salusomnium est, non cito spem proicere nee mortiferasigna pronuntiare ; luctetur cum vitiis, resistat,aliis morbum suum exprobret, quosdam mollicuratione decipiat citius meliusque sanaturus remediisfallentibus ; agat princeps curam non tantum3 salutis, sed etiam honestae cicatricis. Nulla regigloria est ex saeva animadversione (quis enimdubitat posse ?), at contra^ ma^dma, si vim suamcontinet, si multos irae alienae eripuit, neminemsuae impendit.1 18. Servis imperare moderate laus est. Et inmancipio cogitandum est, non quantum illud impunepossit pati, sed quantum tibi permittat aequi boniquenatura, quae parcere etiam captivis et pretio paratis406^homine added by Lipsius.

ON MERCY, I. XVII. 1-xviii. 1No creature is more difficult of temper, none needsto be handled with greater skill, than man, and tonone should more mercy be shown. For what is moresenseless than to subject man to the foulest treatmentat the hands of man, while one will blush to vent hisanger on beasts of burden and dogs ? Diseases donot make us angry—we try to cure them ;yet heretoo is a disease, but of the mind ; it requires gentletreatment, and one to treat it who is anything buthostile to his patient. It is a poor physician thatlacks faith in his ability to cure ; and he who hasbeen entrusted with the life of all the people oughtto act upon the same principle in dealing ^ath thosewhose mind is diseased ; he ought not to be tooquick to give up hope or to pronounce the symptomsfatal ; he should ^\Testle with their troubles andstay them ; some he should reproach with theirmalady, some he should dupe by a sugared dose inorder to make a quicker and a better cure by usingdeceptive remedies ; the aim of the prince should benot merely to restore the health, but also to leaveno shameful scar. No glory redounds to a ruler fromcruel punishment—for who doubts his ability to giveit ?—but, on the other hand, the greatest glory is hisif he holds his power in check, if he rescues manyfrom the WTath of others, if he sacrifices none to hisown.It is praiseworthy to use authority over slaveswith moderation. Even in the case of a humanchattel you should consider not how much he can bemade to suffer without retaliating, but how muchyou are permitted to inflict by the principles ofequity and right, which require that mercy shouldbe shown even to captives and purchased slaves.407

SENECAiubet. Quanto iustius iubet hominibus liberis,ingenuis, honestis non ut mancipiis abuti sed ut his,quos gradu antecedas quorumque tibinon servitus2 tradita sit, sed tutela. Servis ad statuam licet confugere; cum in servum omnia liceant, est aliquid,quod in hominem licere commune ius animantiumvetet. Quis non Vedium Pollionem peius oderatquam servi sui, quod muraenas sanguine humanosaginabat et eos, qui se aliquid offenderant, invivarium, quid aliud quam serpentium, abici iubebat ?O hominem mille mortibus dignum, sive devorandosservos obiciebat muraenis, quas esurus erat, sive inhoc tantum illas alebat, ut sic aleret.3 Quemadmodum domini crudeles tota civitatecommonstrantur invisique et detestabiles sunt, itaregum et iniuria latius patet et infamia atque odiumsaeculis traditur ;quanto autem non nasci meliusfuit, quam numerari inter publico malo natos !1 19. Excogitare nemo quicquam poterit, quodmagis decorum regenti sit quam dementia, quocumquemodo is et quocumque iure praepositusceteris erit. Eo scilicet formosius id esse magnificentiusquefatebinmr, quo in maiore praestabiturpotestate, quam non oportet noxiam esse, si ad2 naturae legem componitur. Natura enim commenta408

ON MERCY, I. XVIII. 1-xix. 2With how much more justice do they require thatfree, free-born, and reputable men should not betreated as mere chattels, but as those who, outstrippedby you in rank, have been committed toyour charge to be, not your slaves, but your wards.Even slaves have the right of refrige at the statueof a god ; and although the law allows anythingin deahng with a slave, yet in deahng ^ith a humanbeing there is an extreme which the right common toall li\-ing creatures refuses to allow. Who did nothate Vedius Polho even more than his o^\"n slavesdid, because he would fatten liis lampreys on humanblood, and order those who had for some reasonincurred his displeasm-e to be thrown into his fishpond—orwhy not say his snake-preserve ? Themonster ! He deserved to die a thousand deaths,whether he threw his slaves as food to lampreyshe meant to eat, or whether he kept lampreys onlyto feed them on such food !Even as cruel masters are pointed at mth scornthroughout the whole city, and are hated and loathed,so with kings ; while the WTong they do extends moreN^-idely, the infamy and hatred which they incur ishanded down to the ages. But how much better notto have been born than to be counted among thoseborn to the public harm !It Avill be impossible for one to imagine anythingmore seemly for a ruler than the quality of mercy,no matter in what manner or with what justice hehas been set over other men. We shall admit, ofcourse, that this quality is the more beautiful andwonderful, the greater the power under wliich it isdisplayed ; and this power need not be harmful ifit is adjusted to Nature's law. For Nature herself409

SENECAest regem, quod et ex aliis animalibus licet cognoscereet ex apibus ;quarum regi amplissimum cubile estmedioque ac tutissimo loco ;praeterea opere vacatexactor alienorum operum, et amisso rege totumdilabitur, nee umquam plus unum patiuntur melioremquepugna quaerunt ;praeterea insignis regi formaest dissimilisque ceteris cum magnitudine turn3 nitore. Hoc tamen maxime distinguitur : iracundissimaeac pro corporis captu pugnacissimaesunt apes et aculeos in volnere relinquunt, rex ipsesine aculeo est ; noluit ilium natura nee saevum essenee ultionem magno constaturam petere telumquedetraxit et iram eius inermem reliquit.Exemplar hoc magnis regibus ingens ; est enimilli mos exercere se in parvis et ingentium rerum4 documenta minima largiri.^ Pudeat ab exiguisanimalibus non trahere mores, cum tanto hominummoderatior esse animus debeat, quanto vehementiusnocet. Utinam quidem eadem homini lex essetet ira cum telo suo frangeretur nee saepius liceretnocere quam semel nee alienis viribus exercereodia ! Facile enim lassaretur furor, si per se sibisatis faceret et si mortis periculo vim suam effunderet.5 Sed ne nunc quidem illi cursus tutus est ; tantumenim necesse est timeat, quantum timeri voluit, etmanus omnium observet et eo quoque tempore,^ minima argere (agere) : urgere Haupt : spargereMadvig : largiri ego scripsi : in minima {sc. re) parereHosius : arguere Ball." Really the queen-bee.""Cf. Virgil's mock-heroic description of the battle of thebees in Georgics, iv. 67-87." i.e., from the tiniest things.410

;ox MERCY, I. XIX. 2-5conceived the idea of king, as we may recognizefrom the case of bees and other creatures ; the king "of the bees has the roomiest cell, placed in the centraland safest spot ; besides, he does no work, but superintendsthe work of the others, and if they lose theirking, they all scatter ; they never tolerate more thanone at a time, and they discover the best one bymeans of a fight* ; moreover the appearance of theking is striking and different from that of the othersboth in size and beauty. His greatest mark of distinction,however, lies in this : bees are most easilyprovoked, and, for the size of their bodies, excellentfighters, and where they wound they leave theirstings ; but the king himself has no sting. Naturedid not wish him to be cruel or to seek a revenge thatwould be so costly, and so she removed his weapon,and left his anger unarmed.Great kings will find herein a mighty precedentfor it is Nature's way to exercise herself in smallmatters, and to bestow the tiniest " proofs of greatprinciples. Shameful, were it not to draw a lessonfrom the ways of the tiny creatures, since, as themind of man has so much more power to do harm,it ought to show the greater self-control. Wouldat least that a man were subject to the samelaw, and that his anger broke off along with hisweapon, and that he could not injure more thanonce or use the strength of others to wreak his hatred ;for he would soon grow weary of his rage if he had noinstrument to satisfy it but liimself, and if by giWngrein to his violence he ran the risk of death. Buteven as it is, such a man has no safe course ; for hemust fear as much as he wishes to be feared, mustwatch the hands of every person, and count himself411

SENECAquo non captatur, peti se iudicet nullumque momentumimmune a metu habeat. Hanc aliquis agerevitam sustinet, cum liceat innoxium aliis, ob hocsecurum, salutare potentiae ius laetis omnibustractare ? Errat enim, si quis existimat tutum esseibi regem, ubi nihil a rege tutum est ; securitas6 securitate mutua paciscenda est. Non opus estinstruere in altum editas arces nee in adscensumarduos colles emunire nee latera montium abscidere,multiplicibus se muris turribusque saepire : salvumregem dementia in aperto praestabit. Unum estinexpugnabile munimentum amor civium.7 Quid pulchrius est quam vivere optantibus cunctiset vota non sub custode nuncupantibus ? si paulumvaletudo titubavit, non spem hominum excitari,sed metum ? nihil esse cuiquam tam pretiosum,quod non pro salute praesidis sui commutatum velit ?8 O ne ille, cui contingit, sibi quoque vivere debeat ;in hoc adsiduis bonitatis argumentis probavit nonrem publicam suam esse, sed se rei publicae. Quishuic audeat struere aliquod periculum ?Quis ab hocnon, si possit, fortunam quoque avertere velit, subquo iustitia, pax, pudicitia, securitas, dignitas florent,sub quo opulenta civitas copia bonorum omniumabundat ? Nee alio animo rectorem suum intuetur,quam, si di immortales potestatem visendi sui faciant," i.e., the pleasure derived from so much solicitudebecomes in itself a motive for living.412

—ON MERCY, I. XIX. 5-8assailed even when no one is for laying hold on him,and not a moment must he have that is free fromdread. Would any one endure to live such a hfewhen, doing no harm to others and consequentlyfearless, he might exercise beneficently his pri\-ilegeof power to the happiness of all ? For if any onethinks that a king can abide in safety where notliingis safe from the king, he is AATong ; for the price ofsecurity is an interchange of security. He has noneed to rear on high his towering castles, or to wallabout steep hills against ascent, or to cut away thesides of mountains, or to encircle himself A\ith rowsof walls and turrets ; through mercy a king vriW beassured of safety on an open plain. His one impregnabledefence is the love of his countrjTnen.And what is more glorious than to live a life whichall men hope may last, and for which all voice theirprayers when there is none to watch them ? toexcite men's fears, not their hopes, if one's healthgives way a little ? to have no one hold anything soprecious that he would not gladly give it in exchangefor his chieftain's safety ? Oh, surely a man sofortunate would owe it also to himself to hve " ; tothat end he has shown by constant evidences of hisgoodness, not that the state is his, but that he isthe state's. Who would dare to de\ise any dangerfor such a man ? Who would not ^vish to shield himif he could, even from the chance of ill—him beneathwhose sway justice, peace, chastity, secxirity, andhonour flourish, under whom the state abounds inwealth and a store of all good things ? Nor does itgaze upon its ruler ^\ith other emotion than, didthey vouchsafe us the power of beholding them,we should gaze upon the immortal gods vnth413

;SENECAintueamur venerantes colentesque. Quid autem ?9 non proximum illis locum tenet is, qui se ex deorumnatura gerit, beneficus ac largus et in melius potens ?Hoc adfectare, hoc imitari decet, maximum italiaberi, ut optimus simul habeare.1 20. A duabus causis punire princeps solet, si autse vindicat aut alium. Prius de ea parte disseram,quae ipsum contingit ; difficilius est enim moderari,2 ubi dolori debetur ultio, quam ubi exemplo. Supervacuumest hoc loco admonere, ne facilecredat, utverum excutiat, ut innocentiae faveat et, ut appareat,non minorem agi rem periclitantis quam iudicis sciathoc enim ad iustitiam, non ad clementiam pertinet ;1nunc ilium hortamur, ut manifeste laesus animumin potestate habeat et poenam, si tuto poterit, donet,si minus, temperet longeque sit in suis quam in3 alienis iniuriis exorabilior. Nam quemadmodumnon est magni animi, qui de alieno liberalis est, sedille,qui, quod alteri donat, sibi detrahit, ita clementemvocabo non in alieno dolore facilem, sed eum,qui, cum suis stimulis exagitetur, non prosilit, quiintellegit magni animi esse iniurias in summa potentiapati nee quicquam esse gloriosius principeimpune laeso.1 21. Ultio duas praestare res solet : aut solacium414

:ON MERCY, I. xix. 8-xxi. 1veneration and with worship. But tell me : he whobears himself in a godlike manner, who is beneficentand generous and uses his power for the better end—does he not hold a place second only to the gods ?It is well that this should be your aim, this your idealto be considered the greatest man, only if at thesame time you are considered the best.A prince usually inflicts punishment for one oftwo reasons, to avenge either himself or another. Ishall first discuss the situation in which he is personallyconcerned ; for moderation is more difficult whenvengeance serves the end of anger rather than ofdiscipline. At this point it is needless to caution himto be slow in behe\"ing, to ferret out the truth, to befriendinnocence, and to remember that to provethis is as much the business of the judge as of the manunder trial ;WTiat I now urge is that, although he has beenclearly injured, he should keep his feehngs undercontrol, and, if he can in safety, should remit thefor all this concerns justice, not mercy,punishment ; if not, that he should modify it, and befar more ^villing to forgive wTongs done to himselfthan to others. For just as the magnanimous manis not he who makes free ^vith what is another's,but he who deprives himself of what he gives tosome one else, so I shall not call him mercifulwho is peaceable when the smart is another's, buthim who, though the spur galls himself, does notbecome restive, who understands that it is magnanimousto brook injuries even where authority issupreme, and that there is nothing more gloriousthan a prince who, though "WTonged, remains unavenged.^'engeance accomplishes usually one of two pur-415

SENECAadfert ei, qui accepit iniuriam, aut in reliquum securitatem.Principis maior est fortuna, quam ut solacio 5egeat, manifestiorque vis, quam ut alieno malo 'opinionem sibi virium quaerat. Hoc dico, cum abinferioribus petitus violatusque est ; nam si, quospares aliquando habuit, infra se videt, satis vindicatusest. Regem et servus occidit et serpens et sagitta ;servavit quidem nemo nisi maior eo, quern servabat.2 Uti itaque animose debet tanto munere deorumdandi auferendique vitam potens. In iis praesertim,quos scit aliquando sibi par fastigium^ obtinuisse,hoc arbitrium adeptus ultionem implevit perfecitque,quantum verae poenae satis erat ;perdidit enimvitam, qui debet, et, quisquis ex alto ad inimici pedesabiectus alienam de capite regnoque sententiamexpectavit, in servatoris sui gloriam vivit plusqueeius nomini confert incolumis, quam si ex oculisablatus esset. Adsiduum enim spectaculum alienae3 virtutis est ; in triurapho cito transisset. Si veroregnum quoque suum tuto relinqui apud eum potuitreponique eo, unde deciderat, ingenti incrementosurgit laus eius, qui contentus fuit ex rege victonihil praeter gloriam sumere. Hoc est etiam exvictoria sua triumphare testarique nihil se, quod416^ fastigium Pincianus : fastigio ifss.

ON MERCY, I. XXI. 1-3poses : if a person has been injured, it gives himeither a compensation or immunity for the future.But a prince's fortune is too exalted for him to feelthe need of compensation, and his power is tooevident to lead him to seek a reputation for powerby injury to another.That, I say, is so, when he hasbeen assailed and outraged by his inferiors ; forin the case of foes whom he once counted his equals,he has vengeance enough if he sees them beneathhis heel. A slave, a snake, or an arrow may slayeven a king ; but no one has saved a hfe who wasnot greater than the one whom he saved. Consequentlyhe who has the power to give and to takeaway life ought to use this great gift of the gods ina noble spirit. If he attains this mastery over thosewho, as he knows, once occupied a pinnacle thatmatched his own, upon such especially he has abeadysated his revenge and accomplished all that genuinepunislunent required ; for that man has lost his hfewho owes it to another, and whosoever, ha\ing beencast down from high estate at his enemy's feet, hasawaited the verdict of another upon his hfe andthrone, lives on to the glory of his preserver, andby being saved confers more upon the other's namethan if he had been removed from the eyes of men.For he is a lasting spectacle of another's prowess ;in a triumph he would have passed quickly out ofsight. If, however, it has been possible in safetyto leave also his throne in his possession, and torestore him to the height from which he fell, thepraise of him who was content to take from a conqueredking nothing but his glory will rise in increasinggreatness. This is to triumph even over hisown victory, and to attest that he found amongVOL. I 2e 417

;SENECA4 dignum esset victore, apud victos invenisse. Cumcivibus et ignotis atque humilibus eo moderatiusagendum est, quo minoris est adflixisse eos. Quibusdamlibenter parcas, a quibusdam te vindicarefastidias et non aliter quam ab animalibus parvis sedobterentem inquinantibus reducenda manus estat in iis,qui in ore civitatis servati punitique erunt,occasione notae clementiae utendum est.] 22. Transeamus ad alienas iniurias, in quibusvindicandis haec tria lex s^cuta est, quae princepsquoque sequi debet : aut ut eum, quem punit,emendet, aut ut poena eius ceteros meliores reddat,aut ut sublatis malis securiores ceteri vivant.Ipsosfacilius emendabis minore poena ; diligentius enimvivit, cui aliquid integri superest. Nemo dignitatiperditae parcit ; impunitatis genus est iam non2 habere poenae locum. Civitatis autem mores magiscorrigit parcitas animadversionum ; facit enimconsuetudinem peccandi multitudo peceantium, etminus gravis nota est, quam turba damnationumlevat, et severitas, quod maximum remedium habet,3 adsiduitate amittit auctoritatem. Constituit bonosmores civitati princeps et vitia eluit, si patienseorum est, non tamquam probet, sed tamquaminvitus et cum magno tormento ad castigandumveniat.418Verecundiam peccandi facit ipsa dementia

ON MERCY, I. XXI. 4-xxii. 3the vanquished nothing that was worthy of thevictor. To his fellow-countrymen, to the obscure,and to the lowly he should show the greater moderation,as he has the less to gain by crushing them.Some men we should be glad to spare, on some weshould scorn to be avenged, and we should recoilfrom them as from the tiny insects which defile thehand that crushes them ; but in the case of thosewhose names ^\ill be upon *he hps of the community,whether they are spared or punished, the opportunityfor a notable clemency should be made use of.Let us pass now to the injuries done to others, inthe punishment of which these three aims, which thelaw has had in \iew, should be kept in \iew also bythe prince : either to reform the man that is punished,or by punishing him to make the rest better, or byremo\ing bad men to let the rest live in greatersecurity. You Avill more easily reform the culpritsthemselves by the hghter form of punishment ; forhe will hve more guardedly who has something leftto lose. No one is sparing of a ruined reputation ;it brings a sort of exemption from punishment tohave no room left for punishment. The morals ofthe state, moreover, are better mended by thesparing use of punitive measures ; for sin becomesfamiliar from the multitude of those who sin, andthe official stigma is less weighty if its force isweakened by the very number that it condemns, andseverity, which provides the best corrective, loses itspotency by repeated application. Good morals areestabUshed in the state and vice is wiped out if aprince is patient v\ith vice, not as if he approved ofit, but as if unvvilhngly and vvith great pain hehad resort to chastisement. The very mercifulness419

;regentis ;viro constituitur.SENECAgravior multo poena videtur, quae a miti1 23. Praeterea videbis ea saepe committi, quaesaepe vindicantur. Pater tuus plures intra quinquenniumculleo insuit, quam omnibus saeculisinsutos accepimus. Multo minus audebant liberinefas ultimum admittere, quam diu sine lege crimenfuit. Summa enim prudentia altissimi viri et rerumnaturae peritissimi maluerunt velut incredibile sceluset ultra audaciam positum praeterire quam, dumvindicant, ostendere posse fieri ; itaque parricidaecum lege coeperunt, et illis facinus poena monstravitpessimo vero loco pietas fuit, postquam saepius2 culleos vidimus quam cruces. In qua civitate rarohomines puniuntur, in ea consensus fit innocentiaeet indulgetur velut publico bono. Putet se innocentemesse civitas, erit ; magis irascetur a communifrugalitate desciscentibus, si paucos esse eos viderit.Periculosum est, mihi crede, ostendere civitati,quanto plures mall sint.1 24. Dicta est aliquando a senatu sententia, utservos a liberis cultus distingueret ; deinde apparuit,quantum periculum immineret, si servi nostri numerarenos coepissent. Idem scito metuendum esse,si nulli ignoscitur ; cito apparebit, pars civitatisdeterior quanto praegravet. Non minus principi" i.e., Claudius, Nero's adoptive father ; not a cruel, butan antiquarian, emperor." i.e., punished more parricides ; cf. i. 15. 7.420

ON MERCY, I. xxii. 3-xxiv. 1of the ruler makes men shrink from doing wrong ;the punishment which a kindly man decrees seemsall the more severe.You will notice, besides, that the sins repeatedlypunishedare the sins repeatedly committed. Yourfather" ^nthin five years had more men sewed up in thesack ^ than, by all accounts, there had been \-ictimsof the sack throughout al' time. Children venturedmuch less often to incur the supreme sin so long asthe crime lay outside the pale of the law. For bysupreme wisdom the men of the highest distinctionand of the deepest insight into the ways of naturechose rather to ignore the outrage as one incredibleand passing the bounds of boldness, than by punishingit to point out the possibility of its being done ; andso the crime of parricide began with the law againstit, and punishment showed children the way to thedeed ; filial piety was truly at its lowest ebb afterthe sack became a more common sight than thecross. In that state in which men are rarely punisheda sympathy for uprightness is formed, and encouragementis given to this virtue as to a common good.Let a state think itself blameless, and it ^^^ll be so ;its anger against those who depart from the generalsobriety \\'ill be greater if it sees that they are few.Believe me, it is dangerous to show a state in howgreat a majority evil men are.A proposal was once made in the senate to distinguishslaves from free men by their dress ; it thenbecame apparent how great would be the impendingdanger if our slaves should begin to count our number.Be sure that we have a like danger to fear if no man'sguilt is pardoned ; it will soon become apparent howgreatly the worse element of the state preponderates.421

SENECAturpia sunt multa supplicia quam medico multa2 funera ; remissius imperanti melius paretur. Naturacontumax est humanus animus et in contrariumatque arduum nitens sequiturque facilius quamducitur ;et ut generosi ac nobiles equi melius facilifreno reguntur, ita clementiam voluntaria innocentiaimpetu suo sequitur, et dignam putat civitas, quamservet sibi.Plus itaque hac via proficitur.1 25. Crudelitas minime humanum malum est indignumquetarn miti animo ; ferina ista rabies estsanguine gaudere ac vulneribus et abiecto hominein silvestre animal transire. Quid enim interest,oro te, Alexander, leoni Lysimachum obicias an ipselaceres dentibus tuis ? Tuum illud os est, tua iliaferitas. O quam cuperes tibi potius ungues esse,tibi rictum ilium edendorum hominum capacem !Non exigimus a te, ut manus ista, exitium familiariumcertissimum, ulli salutaris sit, ut iste animus ferox,insatiabile gentium malum, citra sanguinem caedemquesatietur ; dementia iam vocatur, ad occidendumamicum cum^ carnifex inter homines2 eligitur. Hoc est, quare vel maxime abominanda sitsaevitia, quod excedit fines primum solitos, deindehumanos, nova supplicia conquirit, ingenium advocatut^instrumenta excogitet per quae varietur atque^cum added by Baehrens.* ut added by Gertz.422" i.e., " mercy."* One of Alexander's generals ; cf. T>e Ira, iii. 17. 2.

ON MERCY, I. XXIV. 1-xxv. 2Numerous executions are not less discreditable to aprince than are numerous funerals to a physician ;the more indulgent the ruler, the better he is obeyed.Man's spirit is by nature refractorj-, it strugglesagainst opposition and difficulty, and is more readyto follow than to be led ; and as well-bred and highspiritedhorses are better managed by a loose rein,so a voluntary uprightress follows upon mercy underits own impulse, and the state accounts it" worthyto be maintained for the state's own sake. By thiscourse, therefore, more good is accompHshed.Cruelty is an e\i\ thing befitting least of all a man,and is unworthy of his spirit that is so kindly ; forone to take dehght in blood and wounds and, throwingoff the man. to change into a creature of thewoods, is the madness of a ^^^ld beast. For whatdifference does it make, I beg of you, Alexander,whether you throw Lysimachus * to a hon, or yourselftear him to pieces with your teeth ? That hon's mawis yours, and yours its savager}". How pleased youwould have been had its claws been yom^ instead,and yours those gaping jaws, big enough to swallowmen I We do not require of you that that hand ofyours, the surest destruction of familiar friends,should save the life of any man, that yoiu* savagespirit, the insatiate curse of nations, should sateitself with anything short of blood and slaughter ;we call it now a mercy if to kill a friend the butcher ischosen among niankind. The reason why brutalityis most of all abhorred is this : because it transt^ressesfirst all ordinary, and then all human,liounds, searches out new kinds of torture, callsingenuity into play to invent de\ices by whichsuffering may be varied and prolonged, and takes423

;SENECAextendatur dolor, delectatur malis hominum ; tuncilli dirus animi morbus ad insaniam pervenit ultimam,cum crudelitas versa est in voluptatem et iam3 occidere hominem iuvat. Matura talem virum atergo sequitur aversio, odia, venena, gladii ; tarnmultis periculis petitur, quam multorum ipse periculumest, privatisque non numquam consiliis,aliasvero consternatione publica circumvenitur. Levisenim et privata pernicies non totas urbes movetquod late furere coepit et omnes appetit, undique4 configitur. Serpentes parvulae fallunt nee publiceconquiruntur ;ubi aliqua solitam mensuram transitet in monstrum excrevit, ubi fontes sputu inficitet,si adflavit, deurit obteritque, quacumque incessit,ballistis petitur. Possunt verba dare et evadere6 pusilla mala, ingentibus obviam itur. Sic unus aegerne domum quidem perturbat ;at ubi crebris mortibuspestilentiam esse apparuit, conclamatio civitatis acfuga est, et dis ipsis manus intentantur. Sub unoaliquo tecto flamma apparuit : familia viciniqueaquam ingerunt ; at incendium vastum et multasiam domos depastum parte urbis obruitur.1 26. Crudelitatem privatorum quoque servilesmanus sub certo crucis periculo ultae sunt ;tyrannorumgentes populique et, quorum erat malum," With probably allusion to Caligula, the stock example.424

ON xMERCY, I. xxv. 2-xxvi 1delight in the afflictions of mankind ; then indeedthe dread disease of that man's " mind has reachedthe farthest limit of insanity, when cruelty haschanged into pleasure and to kill a human beingnow becomes a joy. Hot upon the heels of such aman follow loathing, hatred, poison, and the sword ;he is assailed by as many perils as there are many mento whom he is himself a peril, and he is beset sometimesby the plots of individuals, at times, indeed,by an uprising of the community. For whole citiesare not roused by the trivial destruction of singleindividuals ; but that which begins to rage widespreadand aims at all becomes the mark of everyweapon. Tiny snakes pass unnoticed and noorganized hunt is made for them ; but when oneexceeds the usual size and grows into a monster,when it poisons springs with its venom, with itsbreath scorches and destroys, then, wherever itadvances, it is attacked \\ith engines of war. Pettyevils may elude us and escape, but we go out againstthe great ones. So, too, one sick person causes noconfusion even in his own household ; but whenrepeated deaths show that a plague prevails, thereis a general outcry and flight of the community,and threatening hands are hfted toward the godsthemselves. If a fire is discovered beneath somesingle roof, the family and the neighbours pour onwater ; but a widespread conflagration that has nowconsumed many homes is put down only by thedestruction of half the city.The cruelty even of men in private station hasbeen avenged by the hands of slaves despite theircertain risk of crucifixion ; nations and peoples haveset to work to extirpate the cruelty of tyrants, when425

SENECAet ei, quibus inminebat, exscindere adgressi sunt.Aliquando sua praesidia in ipsos consurrexeruntperfidiamque et impietatem et feritatem et, quidquidab illis didicerant, in ipsos exercuerunt. Quid enimpotest quisquam ab eo sperare, quern malum essedoeuit ? Non diu nequitia apparet nee, quantum2 iubetur, peccat. Sed puta esse tutam crudelitatem,quale eius regnum est ?Non aliud quam captarumurbium forma et terribiles facies publici metus.Omnia maesta, trepida, confusa ; voluptates ipsaetimentur ; non convivia securi ineunt, in quibuslingua sollicite etiam ebriis custodienda est, nonspeetacula, ex quibus materia criminis ac periculiquaeritur. Apparentur licet magna impensa etregiis opibus et artificum exquisitis nominibus, quemtamen ludi in carcere iuvent ?3 Quod istud, di boni, malum est occidere, saevire,delectari sono catenarum et civium capita decidere,quocumque ventum est,multum sanguinis fundere,aspectu suo terrere ac fugare ? Quae alia vitaesset, si leones ursique regnarent, si serpentibusin nos ac noxiosissimo cuique animali daretur po-4 testas ? Ilia rationis expertia et a nobis immanitatiscrimine damnata abstinent suis, et tuta est etiaminter feras similitudo ; horum ne a necessariis quidemsibi rabies temperat, sed externa suaque in aequo426

ON MERCY, I. XXVI. 1-4some were suffering from it and others felt itsmenace. At times the tyrants' own guards haverisen up against them, and have practised upon theirpersons the treachery and disloyalty and brutalityand all else that they themselves had taught them.For what can any one expect from him whom hehimself has taught to be bad ? Wickedness is notobsequious long, nor guil;:y of crime only to the extentthat it is bid. But suppose that cruel rule is safe,what sort of a kingdom has it ? Nothing but thebare outUnes of captured cities and the terrorstrickencountenances of widespread fear. Everywhereis sorrow, panic, and disorder ; even pleasuresgive rise to fear ; men are not safe when they go tothe festal board, for there the tongue even of thedrunkard must guard itself with care, nor to thepubUc shows where the material is sought for accusationand ruin. Provided though they are at hugeexpense, in regal opulence, and with artists of thechoicest reputation, yet whom would games dehghtin prison ?Ye gods ! what curse is this—to kill, to rage, totake dehght in the clank of chains and in cutting offthe heads of fellow-countrymen, to spill streams ofblood wherever one may go, and by one's appearanceto terrify and repel ? What else would living be iflions and bears held sway, if serpents and all thecreatures that are most destructive were givensupremacy over us ? These, devoid of reason anddoomed to death by us on the plea of their ferocity,yet spare their kind, and even among wild beastslikeness forms a safeguard ; but t}Tants do notwithhold their fury even from their kin, strangersand friends are treated just alike, and the more they427

SENECAhabet, quo plus se exercitat, eo incitatior.^ Asingulorum deinde caedibus in exitia gentium serpit,et inicere tectis ignem, aratrum vetustis urbibusinducere potentiam putat ; et unum occidi iubere autalterum parum imperatorium credit ; nisi eodemtempore grex miserorum sub ictu stetit, erudelitatemsuam in ordinem coactam putat.Felicitas ilia multis salutem dare et ad vitam abipsa morte revocare et mereri dementia civicam.Nullum ornamentum principis fastigio dignius pulchriusqueest quam ilia corona ob cives servatos, nonhostilia arma detracta victis, non currus barbarorumsanguine cruenti, non parta bello spolia. Haecdivina potentia est gregatim ac publice servare ;multos quidem occidere et indiscretos incendii acruinae potentia est.^ior supplied by Gertz.» A chaplet of oak leaves, with which the soldier whohad saved the life of a fellow-Roman in battle washonoured. The distinction was bestowed on Augustusas the saviour of citizens and was frequently assumed bylater emperors.428

ON MERCY, I. XXVI. 4-5indulge their fury, the more \iolent it becomes.Then from the murder of one and again another itcreeps on to the wiping out of nations, and to hurlthe firebrand on the roofs of houses and to drivethe plough over ancient cities are considered a signof power, and to order the kilhng of one or two isbelieved to be too small a show of royal might ;unless at one time a herd of poor wretches standsbeneath the blade, rage counts its cruelty forcedunder control.True happiness consists in giving safety to many,in calling back to life from the very verge of death,and in earning the ci\ic crown" by showing mercy.No decoration is more worthy of the eminence of aprince or more beautiful than that crown bestowedfor saving the hves of fellow-citizens ; not trophiestorn from a vanquished enemy, nor chariots stained•with barbarian blood, nor spoils acquired in war.To save life by crowds and universally, this is agodlike use of power; but to kill in multitudesand without distinction is the power of conflagrationand of ruin.429

AD NERONEM CAESAREMDE CLEMENTIALIBERII1 1. Ut de dementia scriberem, Nero Caesar, uname vox tua maxime compulit, quam ego non sineadmiratione et, cum diceretur, audisse memini etdeinde aliis narrasse, vocem generosam, magnianimi, magnae lenitatis, quae non composita neealienis auribus data subito erupit et bonitatem tuamcum fortuna tua litigantem in medium adduxit.2 Animadversurus in latrones duos Burrus praefectustuus, vir egregius et tibi principi natus, exigebata te, scriberes, in quos et ex qua causa animadvertivelles ; hoc saepe dilatum ut aliquando fieret,instabat. Invitus invito cum chartam protulissettraderetque, exclamasti : " Vellem litteras ne-3 scirem !" O dignam vocem, quam audirent omnesgentes, quae Romanum imperium incolunt quaequeiuxta iacent dubiae libertatis quaeque se contraviribus aut animis attollunt ! O vocem in con-430

aTO THE EMPEROR NEROON MERCYI HAVE been especially induced to write on mercyby a single utterance of yours, Nero Caesar, whichI remember, when it was made, I heard not withoutadmiration and afterwards repeated to others—noble, high-minded utterance, showing great gentleness,which unpremeditated and not intended forothers' ears suddenly burst from you, and broughtinto the open your kind-heartedness chafing againstyour lot. Burrus, your prefect, a rare man, born toserve a prince like you, was about to execute twobrigands, and was bringing pressure upon you torecord their names and the reasons why you wishedtheir execution ; this, often deferred, he was insistingshould at last be done. He was reluctant, youwere reluctant, and, when he had produced the paperand was handing it to you, you exclaimed, " Wouldthat I had not learned to ^^Tite." \Miat an utterance !All nations should have heard it—those who dwell^^ithin the Roman empire, and those on its borderswho are scarcely assured of their liberty, and thosewho through strength or courage rise up against itWTiat an utterance ! It should have been spoken431

SENECAtionem omnium mortalium mittendam, in cuiusverba principes regesque iurarent ! O vocem publicageneris humani innocentia dignam, cui redderetur4 antiquum illud saeculum ! Nunc profecto consentiredecebat ad aequum bonumque expulsa alienicupidine, ex qua omne animi malum oritur, pietatemintegritatemque cum fide ac modestia resurgere etvitia diuturno abusa regno dare tandem felici acpuro saeculo locum.1 2. Futurum hoc, Caesar, ex magna parte sperareet confidere libet. Tradetur ista animi tui mansuetudodifFundeturque paulatim per omne imperiicorpus, et cuncta in similitudinem tuam formabuntur.A capite bona valetudo : inde omnia vegeta suntatque erecta aut languore demissa, prout animuseorum vivit aut marcet. Erunt cives, erunt sociidigni hac bonitate, et in totum orbem recti mores2 revertentur ;parcetur ubique manibus tuis. Diutiusme morari hie pater e, non ut blandum auribus tuis(nee enim hie mihi mos est ; maluerim veris oflfenderequam placere adulando) ;quid ergo est ? Praeterid, quod bene factis dictisque tuis quam famiharissimumesse te cupio, ut, quod nunc natura et impetusest, fiat indicium, illud mecum considero multasvoces magnas, sed detestabiles, in vitam humanampervenisse celebresque vulgo ferri, ut illam :" Oderint, dum metuant," cui Graecus versus similis« The Golden Age—Shelly'sThe world's golden dawnEarliest and most benign.* Cf. i. 12. 4.' 'E/ioC davdvTOS yaia fux^W'^ irvpi'432oi'dep fxiXei fioi' rd/jLa yap koXQs ^xei.(Nauck. Traff. Graec. Fragm., Adesp., 513.)

—ON MERCY, II. I. 3-n. 2before a gathering of all mankind, that unto it princesand kings might pledge allegiance. What an utterance! Worthy of the universal innocence of mankind,in favour whereof that long past age " should berenewed. Now assuredly it were fitting that men,thrusting out covetousness from which springs everyevil of the heart, should conspire for righteousnessand goodness, that piety and uprightness along ^\-ithhonour and temperance should rise again, and thatvice, ha\"ing misused its long reign, should at lengthgive place to an age of happiness and purity.We are pleased to hope and trust, Caesar, that inlarge measure this ^\ill happen. That kindness ofyour heart will be recounted, ^\^ll be diffused httleby httle throughout the whole body of the empire,and all tilings ^^•ill be moulded into your hkeness.It is from the head that comes the health of thebody ; it is through it that all the parts are livelyand alert or languid and drooping according astheir animating spirit has life or withers. There^\^ll be citizens, there will be alhes worthy of thisgoodness, and uprightness will return to the wholeworld ;your hands will every^vhere be spared.Permit me to linger longer on this point, but notmerely to please your ears ; for that is not my wayI would rather offend with the truth than please byflattery. What then is my reason ? Besides wishingyou to be as familiar as possible with your own gooddeeds and words in order that what is now a naturalimpulse may become a principle, I reflect upon this,that many striking but odious sayings have madetheir entry into human life and are bandied aboutas famous ; as for example, " Let them hate if onlythey fear," * and the Greek verse''similar to it, inVOL. I 2 F 433

SENECAest, qui se mortuo terrain misceri ignibus iubet, et3 alia huius notae. Ac nescio quomodo ingenia in^immani et in\isa materia secundiore ore expresseruntsensus vehementes et concitatos ; nullam adhucvocem audii ex bono lenique animosam. Quid ergoest ? Ut raro, invitus et cum magna cunctatione,ita aliquando scribas necesse est istud, quod tibi inodium litteras adduxit, sed, sicut facis, cum magnacunctatione, cum multis dilationibus.1 3. Et ne forte decipiat nos speciosum clementiaenomen aliquando et in contrarium abducat, videamus.quid sit dementia qualisque sit et quos fines habeat.Clementia est temperantia animi in potestateulciscendi vel lenitas superioris adversus inferioremin constituendis poenis. Plura proponere tutiusest, ne una finitio parum rem comprehendat et, utita dicam, formula excidat ; itaque dici potest etinclinatio animi ad lenitatem in poena exigenda.2 Ilia finitio contradictiones inveniet, quamvis maximead verum accedat, si dixerimus clementiam essemoderationem aliquid ex merita ac debita poenaremittentem : reclamabitur nullam \irtutem cuiquamminus debito facere. Atqui hoc omnesintellegunt clementiam esse, quae se flectit citra id,quod merito constitui posset.1 4. Huic contrariam imperiti putant severitatem ;^ in added by Madvig : ingenia inmania et invisa materiasecundiori expresserunt OT corrected by Lipsius." Here, apparently "pity," which is shown below to be;a fault, not a virtue.''A praetor's statement of the issue between contestantin a suit was called a formula. This was transmitted inthe iudex, who after hearing the evidence decided whetherthe statement was true or false. Hence to loseja suit wasformula cadere or excidere.4S4I

ON MERCY, II. II. 2-iv. 1which a man would have the earth convulsed withflame when once he is dead, and others of this type.And somehow or other gifted men when dealing ^ntha cruel and hateful theme have moulded violent andpassionate thoughts into more felicitous phrase ; neverbefore have I heard from good and gentle lips anutterance that was full of spirit. What then is theconclusion ? Though it oe seldom, against your ^^^ll,and after great reluctance, yet there are times whenyou must wTite the sort of thing that made you hateall WTiting, but you must do it, as you now do, aftergreat reluctance, after much procrastination.And in order that we may not perchance bedeceived at times by the plausible name of mercyand led into an opposite quality," let us see whatmercy is, what is its nature, and what its hmitations.Mercy means restraining the mind from vengeancewhen it has the power to take it, or the leniency ofa superior towards an inferior in fixing punishment.In the fear that one definition may not be comprehensiveenough, and, so to speak, the case* belost, it is safer to offer several ; and so mercy mayalso be termed the inclination of the mind towardsleniency in exacting punishment. The follo^ving(definition -will encounter objections, however closelyiit approaches the truth ; if we shall say that merc}^lis the moderation which remits something from thepunishment that is deserved and due, it will beobjected that no \-irtue gives to any man less thanTiis due. Everybody, however, understands thatthe fact of the case is that mercy consists instopping short of what might have been deservedlyimposed.The ill-informed think that its opposite is strict-435

SENECAsed nulla virtus virtuti contraria est. Quid ergoopponitur clementiae ? Crudelitas, quae nihil aliudest quam atrocitas animi in exigendis poenis. " Sedquidam non exigunt poenas, crudeles tamen sunt,tamquam qui ignotos homines et obvios non incompendium, sed occidendi causa occidunt nee interficerecontenti saeviunt, ut Busiris ille et Procrusteset piratae, qui captos verberant et in ignem vivos2 imponunt." Ha6c crudelitas quidem ; sed quia neeultionem sequitur (non enim laesa est) nee peccatoalicui irascitur (nullum enim antecessit crimen),extra finitionem nostram cadit ; finitio enim continebatin poenis exigendis intemperantiam animi.Possumus dicere non esse hanc crudelitatem, sedferitatem, cui voluptati saevitia est ;possumusinsaniam vocare : nam varia sunt genera eius etnullum certius, quam quod in caedes hominum et3 lancinationes pervenit. Illos ergo crudeles vocabo,qui puniendi causam habent, modum non habent,sicut in Phalari, quem aiunt non quidem in hominesinnocentes, sed super humanum ac probabilemmodum saevisse. Possumus efFugere cavillationemet ita finire, ut sit crudelitas inclinatio animi adasperiora. Hanc dementia repellit longe iussamstare a se ; cum severitate illi convenit.4 Ad rem pertinet quaerere hoc loco, quid sitmisericordia ;plerique enim ut virtutem earnlaudant et bonum hominem vocant misericordem.Et haec vitium animi est. Utraque circa severitatemcircaque clementiam posita sunt, quae vitare debemus;per speciem enim severitatis in crudelitatem436

—ON MERCY, II. IV. 1-4ness ; but no \-irtue is the opposite of a virtue. Whatthen is set over against mercy ? It is cruelty, whichis nothing else than harshness of mind in exactingpunishment. " But," you say, " there are some whodo not exact punishment, and yet are cruel, such asthose who kill the strangers they meet, not for thesake of gain, but for the sake of kilhng, and, notcontent ^^"ith killing, they torture, as the notoriousBusiris and Procrustes, and the pirates who lash theircaptives and commit them to the flames alive."This indeed is cruelty ; but because it does notresult from vengeance—for no injur}' was sufferedand no sin stirs its wTath—^for no crime preceded itit falls outside of our definition ;for by the definitionthe mental excess was limited to the exaction ofpunishment. That which finds pleasure in torturewe may say is not cruelty, but savager}-—we mayeven call it madness ; for there are various kinds ofmadness, and none is more unmistakable than thatwhich reaches the point of murdering and mutilatingmen. Those, then, that I shall call cruel are thosewho have a reason for punishing, but do not havemoderation in it, like Phalaris, who, they say,tortured men, even though they were not innocent,in a manner that was inhuman and incredible.Avoiding sophistry we may define cruelty* to be theinchnation of the mind toward the side of harshness.This quality' mercy repels and bids it stand afar fromher ; with strictness she is in harmony.At this point it is pertinent to ask what pity is.For many commend it as a virtue, and call a pitifulman good. But this too is a mental defect. Weought to avoid both, closely related as they are tostrictness and to mercy. For under the guise of437

SENECAincidimus,^ per speciem clementiae in misei'icordiam.In hoc leviore periculo erratur, sed par error est a1 vero recedentium. 5. Ergo quemadmodum religiodeos colit, superstitio violat, ita clementiam mansuetudinemqueomnes boni viri praestabunt, misericordiamautem vitabunt ; est enim vitium pusillianimi ad speciem alienorum malorum succidentis.Itaque pessimo cuique familiarissima est ; anus etmulierculae sunt, quae lacrimis nocentissimorummoventur, quae, si liceret, carcerem efFringerent.Misericordia non causam, sed fortunam spectat ;dementia rationi accedit.2 Scio male audire apud imperitos sectam Stoicorumtamquam duram nimis et minime principibus regibusquebonum daturam consilium ; obicitur illi,quod sapientem negat misereri, negat ignoscere.Haec, si per se ponantur, invisa sunt ; videnturenim nullam relinquere spem humanis erroribus,3 sed omnia delicta ad poenam deducere. Quod siest, quidnam haec scientia, quae dediscere humanitatemiubet portumque adversus fortunam certissimummutuo auxilio cludit ? Sed nulla sectabenignior leniorque est, nulla amantior hominumet communis boni attentior, ut propositum sit usuiesse et auxilio nee sibi tantum, sed universis sin-4 gulisque consulere. Misericordia est aegritudo animiob alienarum miseriarum speciem aut tristitia exalienis malis contracta, quae accidere immerentibus438^ per . . . incidimus supplied by Gertz.

ON MERCY, II. IV. 4-v. 4strictness we fall into cruelty, under the guise ofmercy into pity. In the latter case a Ughter risk isinvolved, it is true, but the error is equal in both,since in both we fall slxort of what is right. Consequently,just as religion does honour to the gods,while superstition >\Tongs them, so good men will alldisplay mercy and gentleness, but pity they ^villavoid ; for it is the failing of a weak nature thatsuccumbs to the sight of others' ills. And so it ismost often seen in the poorest tjpes of persons ;there are old women and wretched females who aremoved by the tears of the worst criminals, who, ifthey could, would break open their prison. Pityregards the plight, not the cause of it ; mercy iscombined with reason.Iam aware that among the ill-informed the Stoicschool is unpopular on the ground that it is excessivelyharsh and not at all likely to give good counselto princes and kings ; the criticism is made that itdoes not permit a ^nse man to be pitiful, does notpermit him to pardon. Such doctrine, if stated inthe abstract, is hateful ; for, seemingly, no hope isleft to human error, but all failures are brought topunishment. And if this is so, what kind of a theoryis it that bids us unlearn the lesson of humanity, andcloses the surest refuge against ill-fortune, the havenof mutual help ? But the fact is, no school is morekindly and gentle, none more full of love to nianand more concerned for the common good, so thatit is its avowed object to be of service and assistance,and to regard not merely self-interest, but theinterest of each and all. Pity is the sorrow of themind brought about by the sight of the distress ofothers, t)r sadness caused by the ills of others which439

;SENECAcredit ; aegritudo autem in sapientem virum noncadit ;serena eius mens est, nee quicquam inciderepotest, quod illam obducat. Nihilque aeque hominemquam magnus animus decet ; non potest5 autem magnus esse idem ac maestus. Maeror contunditmentes, abicit, contrahit ; hoc sapienti nein suis quidem accidet calamitatibus, sed omnemfortunae iram reverberabit et ante se frangeteandem semper faciem servabit, placidam, inconcussam,quod facere non posset, si tristitiam reciperet.1 6. Adice, quod sapiens et providet et in expeditoconsilium habet ; numquam autem liquidum sincerumqueex turbido venit. Tristitia inhabilis estad dispiciendas res, utilia excogitanda, periculosavitanda, aequa aestimanda ; ergo non miseretur,2 quia id sine miseria animi non fit. Cetera omnia,quae, qui miserentur, volo facere, libens et altusanimo faciet ; succurret alienis lacrimis, non accedet ;dabit manum naufrago, exuli hospitium, egentistipem, non hanc contumeliosam, quam pars maiorhorum, qui misericordes videri volunt, abicit etfastidit, quos adiuvat, contingique ab iis timet, sedut homo homini ex communi dabit ;donabit lacrimismaternis filium et catenas solvi iubebit et ludoeximet et cadaver etiam noxium sepeliet, sed faciet3 ista tranquilla mente, vultu suo. Ergo non miserebitursapiens, sed succurret, sed proderit, in com-4i0

ON MERCY, II. V. 4-^^. 3it believes come undeservedly. But no sorrow befallsthe wise man ; his mind is serene, and nothing canhappen to becloud it. Nothing, too, so much befitsa man as superiority* of mind ; but the mind cannotat the same time be superior and sad. Sorrow bluntsits powers, dissipates and hampers them ; this Anilnot happen to a \vise man even in the case of personalcalamit}', but he \\i\\ beat back all the rage of fortuneand crush it first ; he A\ill maintain always the samecalm, unshaken appearance, and he could not do thisif he were accessible to sadness.Consider, further, that the wise man uses foresight,and keeps in readiness a plan of action ; but whatcomes from a troubled source is never clear and pure.Sorrow is not adapted to the discernment of fact, tothe discovery of expedients, to the avoidance ofdangers, or the weighing ofjustice ; he, consequently,Avill not suffer pity, because there cannot be pitywithout mental suffering. All else which I wouldhave those who feel pity do, he \vi\\ do gladly and witha lofty spirit ; he vriW bring relief to another's tears,but A^ill not add his oaati ;to the shipwTecked man hewill give a hand, to the exile shelter, to the needyalms ; he ^\i\\ not do as most of those who wish tobe thought pitiful do—fling insultingly their alms,and scorn those whom they help, and shrink fromcontact Avith them—but he will give as a man to hisfellow-man out of the common store ; he aWII grantto a mother's tears the life of her son, the captive'schains he will order to be broken, he will release thegladiator from his training, he will bury the carcasseven of a criminal, but he will do these things with unruffledmind, and a countenance under control. Thewise man, therefore, will not pity, but will succour,441

SENECAmune auxilium natus ac bonum publicum, ex quodabit cuique partem. Etiam ad calamitosos proportioneimprobandosque et emendandos bonitatemsuam permittet ;adflictis vero et forte laborantibusmulto libentius subveniet. Quotiens poterit, fortunaeintercedet ; ubi enim opibus potius uteturaut viribus, quam ad restituenda, quae casus impulit ?Vultum quidem non deiciet nee animum ob crusalicuius aridum aut pannosam maciem et innixambaculo senectutem ;ceterum omnibus dignis proderitet deorum more calamitosos propitius respiciet.4 Misericordia vicina est miseriae ; habet enimaliquid trahitque ex ea.Imbecillos oculos esse scias,qui ad alienam lippitudinem et ipsi subfunduntur,tarn mehercules quam morbum esse, non hilaritatem,semper adridere ridentibus et ad omnium oscitationemipsum quoque os diducere ; misericordiavitium est animorum nimis miseria paventium, quamsi quis a sapiente exigit, prope est, ut lamentationemexigat et in alienis funeribus gemitus.1 7. " At quare non ignoscet ? " Agedum constituamusnunc quoque, quid sit venia, et sciemusdari illam a sapiente non debere.Venia est poenaemeritae remissio. Hanc sapiens quare non debeatdare, reddunt rationem diutius, quibus hoc propositumest ; ego ut breviter tamquam in alieno442

ON MERCY, II. VI. 3-vii. 1will benefit, and since he is born to be of help to alland to serve the common good, he will give to each hisshare thereof. He will extend a due measure of hisgoodness even to the unfortunates who deserve to becensured and disciphned ; but much more gladlywill he come to the rescue of the distressed and thosestrugghng with mishap. Whenever he can, he willparry Fortune's stroke : for in what way will hemake better use of his resources or his strengththan in restoring what chance has overthrown ?And, too, he will not avert his countenance or hissympathy from any one because he has a witheredleg, or is emaciated and in rags, and is old andleans upon a staff ; but all the worthy he will aid,and will, like a god, look graciously upon the unfortunate.Pity is akin to wretchedness ; for it is partly composedof it and partly derived from it. One knowsthat his eyes are weak if they too are suffused at thesight of another's blear eyes, just as always to laughwhen other people laugh is, in faith, not merriment,but a disease, and for one to stretch his jaws too wheneverybody else yawns is a disease. Pity is a weaknessof the mind that is over-much perturbed by suffering,and if any one requires it from a wise man, that isvery much like requiring him to wail and moan atthe funerals of strangers." But," you ask, " why Avill he not pardon "?Come then, let us now also decide what pardon is,and we shall perceive that the wise man ought notto grant it. Pardon is the remission of a deservedpunishment. Why a wise man ought not to givethis is explained more at length by those who make apoint of the doctrine ; I, to speak briefly as if giving443

;SENECAiudicio dicam " : Ei ignoscitur, qui puniri debuitsapiens autem nihil facit, quod non debet, nihilpraetermittit, quod debet ; itaque poenam, quam2 exigere debet, non donat. Sed illud, quod ex veniaconsequi vis, honestiore tibi via tribuet ;parcetenim sapiens, consulet et corriget ; idem faciet,quod, si ignosceret, nee ignoscet, quoniam, quiignoscit, fatetur aliquid se, quod fieri debuit, omisisse.Aliquem verbis tantum admonebit, poena nonadficiet aetatem eius emendabilem intuens ; aliqueminvidia criminis manifeste laborantem iubebitincolumem esse, quia deceptus est, quia per vinumlapsus ; hostes dimittet salvos, aliquando etiamlaudatos, si honestis causis pro fide, pro foedere,3 pro libertate in bellum acciti sunt. Haec omnianon veniae, sed clementiae opera sunt, dementialiberum arbitrium habet ; non sub formula, sed exaequo et bono iudicat ; et absolvere illi licet et,quanti vult, taxare litem. Nihil ex his facit, tamquamiusto minus fecerit, sed tamquam id, quodconstituit, iustissimum sit. Ignoscere autem est,quem indices puniendum, non punire ;venia debitaepoenae remissio est. dementia hoc primum praestat,ut, quos dimittit, nihil aliud illospati debuissepronuntiet ;plenior est quam venia, honestior est.444

ON MERCY, II. ^^I. 1-3another's opinion, explain it thus ": Pardon is givento a man who ought to be punished ; but a A\-ise mandoes nothing which he ought not to do, omits to donothing which he ought to do ; therefore he does notremit a punishment which he ought to exact. Butin a more honourable way he will bestow upon youthat which vou A\-ish to obtain by pardon ; for thewise man will show mercy, be considerate, and rectify;he will do the same that he would do if he pardoned,and yet he will not pardon, since he who pardonsadmits that he has omitted to do something whichhe ought to have done. To one man he will givemerely a reproof in words, and he \n\\ not inflictpunishment if he sees that the other's age \\i]\ permitreformation ; another who is clearly suffering fromthe odium of crime he ^\^ll order to go free, becausehe was misled, because ^nne made him fall ; hewill let his enemies go unharmed, sometimes evenwith praise if they were stirred to fight by honourablemotives—to maintain their loyalty, a treaty, ortheir Uberty. These are all the operations of mercy,not of forgiveness. Mercy has freedom in decision ;it sentences not by the letter of the law, but inaccordance with what is fair and good ; it may acquitand it may assess the damages at any value it pleases.It does none of these things as if it were doing lessthan is just, but as if the just est thing were thatwhich it has resolved upon. But to pardon is to failto punish one whom you judge worthy of punishment;pardon is the remission of punishment thatis due. Mercy is superior primarily in this, that itdeclares that those who are let off did not deserveany different treatment ; it is more complete thanpardon, more creditable. In my opinion the dispute445

;SENECA4 De verbo, ut mea fert opinio, controversia est, dere quidem convenit. Sapiens multa remittet, multosparum sani, sed sanabilis ingenii servabit. Agricolasbonos imitabitur, qui non tantum rectas procerasquearbores colunt ; illis quoque, quas aliqua depravavitcausa, adminicula, quibus derigantur, applicantalias circumcidunt, ne proceritatem rami premant,quasdam infirmas vitio loci nutriunt, quibusdam5 aliena umbra laborantibus caelum aperiunt. Videbit,quod ingenium qua ratione tractandum sit, quo modoin rectum prava flectantur." . . ." The rest of the essay is lost. It had apparently threebooks corresponding to the three divisions of the subjectindicated in i. 3. 1.446

ON MERCY, II. VII. 4-5is about words, but concerning the fact there isagreement. The wise man will remit many punishments,he will save many whose character thoughunsound can yet be freed from unsoundness. He>vill be like the good husbandman who tends, notmerely the trees that are straight and tall, but alsoapphes props to those that for some reason havegrown crooked in order that they may be straightened;others he will trim, in order that their branchingmay not hamper their height ; some that are weakbecause set in poor soil he will fertilize ; to somesuffering from the shade of the others he will openup the sky. So the ^vise man will see what methodof treatment a given character should have, howthe crooked may be made straight.".

SENECAHildehertus Cenomanensis ep. i.3 (cLXxi. 145 Mign.) :De dementia quoque compendiosa principibus capitulaSeneca evigilavit, i?i quibus ideo hrevitatem dilexit nonobscuram, ut magnis occupatos legere non taederet. Eaigitur pro ie et ad te suscepta suscipe atque recordare,quae dudum didiceris ex te et per ie. Pauca ea sunt :Clementiae est aliquid ultrici detrahere sententiae.Quisquis nihil reatus impunitum relinquit, delinquit.Culpa est totam persequi culpam. Immisericordemprofitetur, cui quiequid licet, libet.Item : Gloriosa virtus est in principe citra punirequam liceat. Virtus est ad vindictam necessitatetrahi, non voluntate venire. Magnum quid etdivinum sapit offensus clemens.Item : Bonus princeps neminem sine poena punit,neminem sine dolore proscribit. Bonus princeps itacrimen insequitur, ut quem punit, hominem reminiscatur.Item : Bonus princeps sibi dominatur, populoservit, nullius sanguinem contemnit : inimici est,sed eius, qui amicus fieri potest ; nocentis est, sedhominis. Cuiuscumque sit, quia non potuit dare,crimen putat auferre. Ideo quotiens funditur,confunditur.448

ON MERCY :FRAGMENTSExtracts from the treatise " On Mercy "preservedin a letter by Hildebert of ToursIt is the part of mercy to cause some abatement ofa sentence that aims at revenge. He who does notremit the punishment of wTong-doing is a -wTong-doer.It is a fault to punish a fault in full. He shows himselfmerciless whose might is his deHght.It is a shining \'irtue for a prince to punish lessthan he might. It is a virtue to be forced by necessityto take vengeance, not to vTsit it voluntarily.The merciful man when injured savours of somethinggreat and godUke.A good prince punishes no one without beingpunished, proscribes no one "without suffering. Agood prince follows up crime, yet keeps in mind theman whom he is punishing.A good prince masters himself, serves his people,esteems lightly the hfe-blood of no man ; if it is anenemy's, yet it is of one who may become a friend ; ifit is a criminal's, yet it is a human being's ; whoseeverit may be, because he could not give it, heconsiders it a crime to take it away.effusion is ever his confusion.Therefore its2g 449

;INDEX OF NAMES{The references are to the pages of the English translation.)Achillas (assassin of Poinpey), 171Actium (promontory in Acarnaniaotf wliich Octa^ian defeatedAntony and Cleopatra, 31 b.c.)>391Africa, 135Ajax (legendary liero of Greecedefeated by Odysseus in a contestfor the arms of Achilles, hewent mad and killed himself), 251Alexander (the Great, king ofMacedon, 336-323 b.c.)i enteredBabylon, 07 ; stirred by the flute,171; courage of, 217; proneto anger, 217 ; murdered Clitus,299; cruelty of, 313; threwLysimachus to the lions, 423Alps, crossed by Cimbrians andTeutons, 133Antigonus (one of the generals ofAlexander the Great), mildnessof his temper, 311Antisthenes (disciple of Socrates,founder of the Cynic School),self-restraint of, 103Antony, Mark (triumvir withOctavian and Lepidus), Cicerovictim of, 171 ; Octavian seekshis life, 381 ; his proscriptions,383Apollo, the archer-god, 291Apollodorus (tyrant of Cassandreaabout 280 B.C.), type of cruelty,175Appius (Claudius Caecus, a famousRoman, censor 312 b.c. ; beganthe Via Appia and built thegreat Appian aqueduct), blindnessof, 35450Aristotle (384-322 b.c, founder ofthe Peripatetic School), his definitionof anger, 115 ; commendsanger, 129, 151, 259; Alexandera follower of, 299Asia, 87, 135, 177Asinius Pollio, C. (celebratedRoman politician, author, andpatron of letters), befriendsTimagenes, 315 ; follower ofOctavian, 387Atlienian despot (Pisistratus), 283Athenians, their envoys to Philip,313Attalus (name of several kings ofPergamon, famous for theirpatronage of literature and theirmunificence; in 133 B.C. the la.stof the line bequeathed his kingdomto the Roman i)eople), typeof a rich man, 87August, the (honorary title), 399Augustus (Cae.sar, first emperor ofRome, 27 B.C.-14 a. p.), 177, 313,315, 349, 3G1, 381, 389, 401Babylon, walls of, 67 ; Cyrus warsagainst, 309Baclrians (inhabitants of Bactria,a province of the former Persianempire, conquered by the Parthiansabout 130 b.c), 87Bellona (Roman goddess of war),temple of, 393Betilienus Bassus, quaestor underCaligula, 303.Burrus, Sextus Afranius (prefectLofnthe praetorian guard, who

;INDEX OF NAMEShelped Seneca to guide the earlyyears of Xero's reign), 431Busiris (reputed king of Egypt,who cruelly sacrificed strangersto Zeus), 437Caelius (Rufus, M., politician andorator of the Ciceronian age,noted for his sarcasm and hispower in invective), 275Oaepio, Fannius, conspired againstAugustus, 383Caesar, C. lulius (the dictator),power of, 13 ; type of power, 23 ;Cato greater than, 51 ; mercifulin victory, 217 ; assassins of, 329Caesar (title of the Romanemperors), Augustus, 313, 315,349, 369, 387, 401, 403; Nero,359, 391, 433 ; Caligula, 241, 305Caligula, nickname of Gains Caesar,101Cambyses (king of Persia, 529-522B.C., son and successor of Cyrusthe Great;, addicted to wine, 289rage of, 307Campus Martins, 83Cannae (scene of Hannibal's greatvictory over the Romans in 216B.C.), 171, 177Capitol (ancient temple on' theTarpeian Rock, sacred to Jupiter,Juno, and Minerva, symbol ofthe eternity of Rome), 67Carthage, 67, 135, 177Carthaginian array, 135Castor, temple of, 87Catiline, Lucius Sergius, instrumentof Sulla, 301Cato, M. Porcius (the Younger, anardent and high-minded Stoic,supporter of Pompey's cause,who committed suicide afterCaesar's victory at Thapsus, 46Rc), noble death of, ll", 13, 17 ;struggles of, 23, 25 ; unappreciatedby his age, 51, 53 ;greatnessof, 69, 91, 237, 239, 345Catulus, Quintiis (colleague ofMarius in the consulship, butlater condemned to death byhim), tomb of, 301Chaerea, Cassius (tribune of thepraetorian guards and assassinof Caligula), 101Chrysippus (Stoic philosopher ofSoli in Cilicia, successor ofClean thes and third head of theStoic School), quoted, 97Cicero, Marcus Tullius(the famousorator, 106-43 b.c.), wit of, 97 ;banishment of, 171 ;poetry of,343Cicero, Marcus Tullius (son of theorator, after the death of Caesara partisan of Brutus and laterof Sextus Pompeius), Augustusshowed mercy to, 387Cimbrians, invasion of, 133Cinna, Lucius, plots against Augustus,381, 383, 385, 387Circus (Maximus), 181Clitus, killed by Alexander, 299Clodius, Publius (Roman demagogueand enemy of Cicero),corruptness of, 51 ; banishesCicero, 171Cocceius ( Jferva, M., consul 36 bc,a partisan of Anthony), sparedby Augustus, 387Corbulo, Cn. Domitius (Romangeneral, distinguished by hiscampaigns against the Germansand the Parthians under Claudiusand Xero), 97Cornelian Law, 21Cornelius Fidus, son-in-law ofOvid, 97Cossi, a noble family, 387Cras.sus, M. Licinius (triumvir withCaesar and Pompey), 23Cyrus (the Great, king of Persia),rages against the river Gyndes,309Danube, 33Darius (king of Persia), 297Deillius, Quintus (follower ofAntony, who shortly before thebattle of Actium joined the sideof Octavian), 387Demetrius (Cynic philosopher, whotaught at Rome during thereign of Caligula), saying of, 17,37Demetrius (Poliorcetes, liberatorofAthens and Megsra, 307 B. c. ), 63451

;INDEX OF NAMESDemochares (Athenian orator,neplifiw of Demosthenes), 313Democritus (Greek philosopher,born about 460 B.C., early exponentof the atomistic theory),despises riches, 43; the "laughingphilosopher," 187; teachestranquillity, 269Diogenes (Stoic philosopher, pupilof Chrysippus), self-control of,345Dionysius (the Elder, tyrant ofSyracuse, 405-367 B.C.), praise of.393Domitius(Ahenobarbus,Cn., greatgrandfatherof the emperorNero ; in the civil struggle hewas a follower of Antony, butdeserted to the side of Octavianshortly before the battle ofActium), 387Egnatius (Rufus, M.), conspiredagainst Augustus, 383Elius, a panderer, 3,5Bnnius, Quintus (the " father ofRoman poetry," 239-169 B.c.),343Epicurus (Greek vhilosopher ofSamos, 341-270 B.C.), advocate ofinaction, 93 ; indulged the fle.sh, 95Ethiopians, long life of, 307colour of, 321Fabius, Arch of (erected by Q.Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus tocelebrate his victory over theAUobroges in 121 b c), 51Fabius (Maximus, Q., see note,p. 134), dilatory policy of, 135;saying of, 235Fabius Maximus (descendant of thedictator), representative of anoble house, 387Fabricius (Luscinus C, prominentgeneral in the war againstPyrrhus, a stock type of RomanIntegrity and simplicity), triedby poverty, 17, 19Father of his Country (honorarytitle bestowed upon Augustusand some of his successors), 399Fortunate, the (title assumed bySulla), 399452Gains Caesar (Caligula, emperor ofRome, 37-41 a.d.), 99, 163, 239,301, 309Gains, see Gaius CaesarGaul, Augustus in, 381Gauls, conquerors of the Germans,135Germans, uncivilized, 33 ; courageof, 133; freedom of, 199; theirhairdress, 321Great, the (honorary title), 399Greek (language), 177, 433Greeks, 117, 257, 311Gyndes (tributary of the Tigris),Cyrus at the, 309Hannibal, policy of Fabius andScipio towai-d, 135; beforeRome, 171 ; .saying of, 177Harpagus (a noble Mfde, preserverof the infant Cyrus and later oneof his generals), made to feastupon the flesh of his children,293Heaven, Lord of (Jupiter), 11Heraclitus (Greek philosopher ofEphesus, who lived about 535-475 B.C.), weakness of, 187Herculaneum (city in Campania),villa at, 309Hercules, type of wise man, 51Herennius " Macer (unknown),offends Caligula, 101Hieronymus (of Rhodes, Peripateticphilosopher and disciple ofAristotle), quoted, 157Hippias (son of Pisistratus, whomhe succeeded as tyrant ofAthens in 527 B.C.), cruelty of,215Homer, words of, 165Hortensius, Quintus (celebratedorator, rival of Cicero and exponentof the Asiatic manner),speeches of, 343Ida, Mount (see note p. 102), 103Juba (king of Numidia; see note,p. 12), 13Julius, see CaesarLaberius, Df'cimus (Roman knightborn about 107 B.C., famed forf

;INDEX OF NAMEShis talent in writing mimes),famous line of, 191Lacedaemonians, discipline of,31Land-of-the-stmnp-nosed (Syria),307Lentulus (probably P. CorneliusLentulns Sura, chief among theCatilinarian conspirators), insultsCato, 345Lepidus, M. Aemilius (the triumvir; though subdued by Octavianin 36 B.C. and stripped of power,he lived until 13 B.C.), clemencyof Augustus to, 387Lepidus, M. Aemilius (son of thetriumvir), conspired againstAugustus, 383Livia (Drusilla, second wife ofAugustus and mother of theemperor Tiberius), counselsAugustus, 383Livius, Titus (ihe most popular ofRoman historians, 59 B.C. -17A.D.), saying of, 1>53Longevals, appellation of theEthiopians, 307Lucilius (friend of Seneca, Romanknight and procurator of Sicily,see Introd., p. xi), 3Lysimachus (one of Alexander'sgenerals, who having escapeddeath at the hands of Alexanderbecame king of Macedonia),thrown to a lion, 299, 423Macedonian, 209Maecenas, Gains Cilnins (Romanstatesman, courtier, and patronof literature in the reign ofAugustus^ felicity of, 21, 23Marias, Gaius (leader of the democratsin the struggle againstSulla, consul for the seventhtime 86 b.c), violence of condemned,171Marias, Marcus (nephew, by adoption,of Gaius Marius), torturedby Sulla, 301Marseilles, place of exile, 401Medes, subjects of Parthia, 87king of the, 87Megara (capital of the Megarid, adistrict north of Corinth), capturedby Demetrius, 63Messala (CorAinus, M. Valerius,famous orator and piatron ofletters; pardoned by the triumvirsafter Philippi, he becameone of the chief friends ofAugustus), spared by Augustus,387Metellus, L. Caecilius (distinguishedgeneral in the First PunicWar, who is sai

;;INDEX OF NAMESpendent monarchy, which lasteduntil 226 a.d.), 87Pastor, a Roman knight, 230, 241Paulus, representative of a noblehouse, 387Persian slave, 209Persians, king of, 203, 305 ; Darius,first ruler ot', 297Perusia (city of Etruria, modernPerugia, refuge of L. Antonius,brother of the triumvir, in theCivil Wars ; see note, p. 390),holocaust of, 391Petreius, Marcus (see note, p. 12),13Phalaris (notorious tyrant of Agrigentuni,made famous by thestory of the brazen bull in whichhis victims were roasted alive),cruelty of, 175, 437Philip, physician of Alexander,217Philip (the Second, king of Macedonand father of Alexander theGreat), his endurance of insults,313, 315Pisistratus (tyrant of Athens 560-527 i).c.), a story about, 283Piso, Gnaeus (descendant of an oldand powerful house, appointedgovernor of Syria by Tiberius,and represented by Tacitus astlie murderer of Germanicus),injustice of, 165Plato (Athenian philosopher, 428-347 B.C.), condemns anger, 123 ;his theory of punishment, 159 ;forbids wine for children, 209character of, 213 ; controlledanger, 285, 287Poliorcetes (appellation of Demetrius),63Pollio. see AsiniusPompeians (followers of Pompey),831Pompeius Magnus, Gnaeus (formedthe so-called First Triumviratewith Caesar and Crassus in 60B.C., later leader of the senatorialparty in opposition to Caesar,defeated at Pharsalus in 48 B.C.,and murdered in Egypt shortlyafter the battle), member of thecoalition, 23 ; type of greatness,45451 ; Caesar's consideration for,217 ; his death, 331 ;grandsonof, 383Pompey, see PompeinsPraexaspes, friend of Cambyses,289Priam (last king of Troy), 241Priapus, watchword given by Caligula.101Pyrrhus, gymnastic trainer, 199Pyrrhus (a king of Epirus, whoinvaded Italy 280 B.C.), Fabriciuswaged war on, 19Pythagoras (Greek philosopher,who flourished 540-500 B.C.),calmed by the lyre, 277Regulus, M. Atilius (hero of FirstPunic War ; captured by theCarthaginians and sent to Rometo sue for peace, he advised theSenate to refuse the otters ofthe enemy, returned to Carthageand died by torture), tried bytorture, 17, 21 ; type of misfortune,23Rhodian (Telesphorus), 299Roman (citizens), 21, 393 ; (civilization),33 ;(way.s), 135 ;(legion),135 ; (hand), 183 ;(knight), 230 ;(father), 241 ;(people), i4o, 303,361, 385, 389 ;(senators andknights), 303 ;(peace), 369(blood), 391 ;(empire), 431Romans, 135, 301, 309Rome, 19, 67, 171, 361Rutilius (Rufus, P., Roman statesman,forced into exile in 92 B.C.because he had repressed theextortions of the tax-collectorsin Asia), tried by exile, 17 ; recalledby Sulla, 19Sallustius (Crispus, C, grandnephewand heir of Sallust thehistorian, after the death ofMaecenas, chief adviser of Augustus),opponent of Augustus, 387Salvidienus (Rufus, Q., officer inthe army of Octavian, accusedin 40 B.C. of plotting against himand condemned by the Senate),

INDEX OF NAMESconspired against Angustus,SS3Scipio (Africanus Maior, P. Cornelius,conqueror of Hannibalat Zama 202 bc.)i his dilatorypolicy, 135Scipio (Africanus Minor, see note,p. 134X idles before Numantia,135Sc>-thians (a nomadic people ofsoutheastern Europe), freedomof, 199 ; Darius declares war on,297Serenus, Annaeas (friend of Seneca,to whom are addressed the DeConstantia, De Otic, and Ik TranquiUUateAnimi. See Introd.,p. xii)Sen-ilii, a noble family, 387Serrilius, pool of, 19Sextius, Qiiintus (an eclectic Romanphilosopher, who flourished underthe late Republic and the earlyEmpire), saying of, 249 ;practiceof, 339Sicily (see note, p. 390), 391SUenus (companion of Bacchus, ajovial old man with bald headand blunt nose, gifted with propheticpower), 311Socrates (Athenian philosopher,469-399 B.C.), poisoning of, 17,23 ; condemnation of, 69 ; selfcontrolof, 103, 145, 179, 283,287Spaniards, conquerors of the Germans,135Speusippus (Athenian philosopher,nephew of Plato), 287Stilbo (Greek philosopher of thefourth century B.C., skilled indialectic, forerunner of the Stoicsin his conception of virtue), sayingof, 63Stoic, 55, 93 ; philosopher, 345 ;school, 439Stoics, 49, 51, 53, 67Sulla, Lucius (Roman dictator,died 78 ac), recalls Rutilius,19 ;proscription of, 19, 171 ;cruelty of, 21, 243, 301 ; times of,161 ; tyranny of, 393Sun-god (Phoebus), 41Sybaris (Greek town in Lacania,proverbial for its wealth andluxury), 219Syria, 135, 307Tarios (Rnfiis, L., a man of hnmbleorigin who attained public distinctionand great wealth in thereign of Augustus), 401, 403Tarpeian Rock, 149Telesphorus, mutilated by Alexander,299Terentia (see note, p. 22), 23Teutons (see note, p. 132), invasionof, 133Theodotus (see note, p. 170), 171Theophrastus (successor of Aristotleas head of the PeripateticSchool), saying of, 137, 141Thersites (see note, p. 312), 313Thracian woman, 103Tiberius Caesar (emperor of Rome,14-37 Ji-D.), 27, 361Tillius Ciniber, L. (a favouredfriend of Caesar, but subsequentlyone of his enemies), faithlessnessof, 331Tiraagenes (Alexandrinns, historianand rhetorician at Rome in thereign of Augustus), unfriendly toAugustas, 313; burned his recordof the acts of Augustus, 314Tiasuniennus (lake in Etroria,memorable for the victory ofHannibal over the Romans in217 B.C.), 177Tricho, a Roman knight, 401Triumphus, a gladiator, 27Ulysses, type of a wise man, 51Valerius Asiaticus, friend of Caligula,99Vatinius, Publius (a political adventurerin the last days of theRepublic), 23. 51, 97Vedius Pollio (Roman knight, notedfor his riches and his cruelty),349, 409Venus, watchword given by Caligula,101VolesQS, L. Valerius Messala (con-455

INDEX OF NAMESsul in A.D. 5 and several yearslater pro-consul of Asia), hiscruelty, 177War-god (Mars), 139, 171Xanthippe (shrewish wife of Socrates),103Xenophantus, flutist of Alexander,171Xerxes (king of Persia 485-465 b.c.)icruelty of, 299Zeno (probably the founder of theStoic School, flourished about300 B.C.), saying of, 149Printed in Great Britain by R. & R. Ci.ark", Limited, Edinburgh.

THE LOEB CLASSICALLIBRARY.VOLUMES ALREADY PUBLISHED.LATIN AUTHORS.APULEIUS. THE GOLDEN ASS (METAMORPHO-SES). Trans, by W. Adlington (1566). Revised byS. Gaselee. (3rd Impression^AULUS GELLIUS. Trars. by J. C. Rolfe. 3 Vols.AUSONIUS. Trans, by H. G. Evelyn White. 2 Vols.BOETHIUS: TRACTS and DE CONSOLATIONEPHILOSOPHIAE. Trans, by the Rev. H. F. Stewartand E. K. Rand. {2nd Impression.)CAESAR: CIVIL WARS. Trans, by A. G. Peskett.{2nd Impression.)CAESAR : GALLIC WAR. Trans, by H. J. Edwards.{4th Impression.)CATULLUS. Trans, by F. W. Cornish ; TIBULLUS.Trans, by J. P. Postgate ; PERVIGILIUM VENERIS.Trans, by J. W. Mackail. {7th Impression.)CICERO : DE FINIBUS. Trans, by H. Rackham. {2ndImpression.)OFFICIIS. Trans, by Walter Miller. {2ndCICERO : DEImpression.)CICERO : DE REPUBLICA and DE LEGIBUS. Trans.by Clinton Keyes.CICERO: DE SENECTUTE, DE AMICITIA, DEDIVINATIONE. Trans, by W. A. Falconer. {2ndImpression.)CICERO: LETTERS TO ATTICUS. Trans, by E. O.Winstedt. 3 Vols. (Vol. I. 4ith Impression, II. andIII. 2nd Impression.)CICERO: LETTERS TO HIS FRIENDS.W. Glynn WiUiams. 3 Vols. Vol. I.Trans, byCICERO : PHILIPPICS. Trans, by W. C. A. Ker.CICERO : PRO ARCHIA POETA, POST REDITUM INSENATU, POST REDITUM AD QUIRITES, DEDOMO SUA, DE HARUSPICUM RESPONSIS, PROPLANCIO. Trans, by N. H. Watts.1

THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARYCICERO : PRO CAECINA, PRO LEGE MANILIA,PRO CLUENTIO, PRO RABIRIO. Trans, by H.Grose Hodge.CICERO: TUSCULAN DISPUTATIONS. Trans, byJ. E. King.CLAUDIAN. Trans, by M. Platnauer. 2 Vols.CONFESSIONS OF ST. AUGUSTINE. Trans, by W.Watts (1631). 2 Vols. {3rd Impression.)FRONTINUS : STRATAGEMS and AQUEDUCTS.Trans, by C. E. Bennett.CORRESPONDENCE. Trans, by C. R.Haines. 2 Vols.FRONTO :HORACE: ODES and ERODES. Trans, by C. E.Bennett. {7th Impression.)HORACE: SATIRES, EPISTLES, ARS POETICA.Trans, by H. R. Fairclough.JUVENAL AND PERSIUS. Trans, by G. G. Ramsay.{'ith Impression.)LIVY. Trans, by B. O. Foster. 13 Vols. Vols. I.-IV.(Vol. I. 2nd Impression.)LUCRETIUS. Trans, by W. H. D. Rouse.MARTIAL. Trans, by W. C. A. Ker. 2 Vols, {2ndImpression.)OVID : HEROIDES, AMORES. Trans, by Grant Showerman.{2nd Impression.)OVID: METAMORPHOSES. Trans, by F. J. Miller,2 Vols. (Vol. I. Uh Impression, II. Srd Impression.)OVID : TRISTIA and EX PONTO. Trans, by A. L,Wheeler,PETRONIUS. Trans, by M, Heseltine ; SENECA :APOCOLOCYNTOSIS. Trans, by W. H. D. Rouse.{5th Impression.)PLAUTUS. Trans, by Paul Nixon. 5 Vols. Vols. I.-III.(Vol. I. Srd Impression.)PLINY: LETTERS, Melmoth's translation revised byW. M, L. Hutchinson, 2 Vols. {Srd Impression.)PROPERTIUS. Trans, by H. E. Butler. {3rd Impression.)QUINTILIAN. Trans, by H. E. Butler. 4 Vols.SALLUST. Trans, by J. C. Rolfe.2

THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARYSCRIPTORES HISTORIAE AUGUSTAE. Trans, byD. Magie. 3 Vols. Vols. I. and II,SENECA : EPISTULAE MORALES. Trans, by R. M.Gummere. 3 Vols. (Vol. I. 2nd Impression.)SENECA : MORAL ESSAYS. Trans, by J. W. Basore.3 Vols, ^'ol. I.SENECA: TRAGEDIES. Trans, by F. J. MiUer2 Vols. {2nd Impression.)STATIUS. Trans, by J. H. Mozley. 2 Vols.SUETONIUS. Trans, by J. C. Rolfe. 2 Vols. (3rdImpression.)TACITUS : DIALOGUS. Trans, by Sir Wm. Peterson ;and AGRICOLA axd GERMAXIA. Trans, by MauriceHutton. {Srd Impression.)TACITUS : HISTORIES. Trans, by C. H. Moore. 2 Vols.Vol. I.TERENCE. Trans, by John Sargeaunt 2 Vols. {5thImpression.)VELLEIUS PATERCULUS and RES GESTAE DIVIAUGUSTI. Trans, by F. W. Shipley.VIRGIL. Trans, by H. R. Fairclough. 2 Vols. (Vol. I.6th Impression, II. Srd Impression.)GREEK AUTHORS.ACHILLES TATIUS. Trans, by S. Gaselee.AENEAS TACTIC US, ASCLEPIODOTUS andSANDER. Trans, by The Illinois Greek Club.ONA-AESCHINES. Trans, by C. D. Adams.AESCHYLUS. Trans, by H. Weir Smytb. 2 Vols.(Vol. I. 2nd Impression.)APOLLODORUS. Trans, by Sir James G. Frazer. 2 Vols.APOLLONIUS RHODIUS.' Trans, by R. C. Seaton.(3rd Impression.)THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS. Trans, by Kirsopp Lake.2 Vols. (Vol. I. ith Impression, II. 3rd Impression.)APPIAN'S ROMAN HISTORY. Trans, by HoraceWhite. 4 Vols. (Vol. IV. 2nd Impression.)3

'THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARYARISTOPHANES, Trans, by Benjamin Bickley Rogers.3 Vols. (Verse translation.) {2nd Impression.)ARISTOTLE : THE " ART " OF RHETORIC. Trans.by J. H. Freese.ARISTOTLE : THE NICOMACHEAN ETHICS. Trans.by H. Rackham.ARISTOTLE : POETICS "; LONGINUS " : ON THESUBLIME. Trans, by W. Hamilton Fyfe, and DE-METRIUS : ON STYLE. Trans, by W. Rhys Roberts.ATHENAEUS: THE DEIPNOSOPHISTS. Trans, byC. B. Gulick. 7 Vols. Vols. I. and II.CALLIMACHUS and LYCOPHRON. Trans, by A. W.Mair, and ARATUS, trans, by G. R. Mair.CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA. Trans, by the Rev.G. W. Butterworth.DAPHNIS AND CHLOE. Thornley's translation revisedby J. M. Edmonds: and PARTHENIUS. Trans, byS. Gaselee. {2nd Impression.)DEMOSTHENES: DE CORONA and DE FALSALEGATIONE. Trans, by C. A. Vince and J. H. Vince.DIOCASSIUS: ROMAN HISTORY. Trans, by E. Cary.I9 Vols.DIOGENES LAERTI US. Trans, by R. D. Hicks. 2 Vols.EPICTETUS. Trans, by W. A. Oldfather. 2 Vols. Vol.1.EURIPIDES. Trans, by A. S. Way. 4 Vols. (Versetranslation.) (Vols. I. and IV, 3rd, II. 4

THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARYHESIOD AND THE HOMERIC HYMNS. Trans, byH. G. Evelyn White. (3rd Impression.)HIPPOCRATES. Trans, bv W. H. S. Jones and E. T.Withington. 4 Vols. Vols. I.-III.HOMER: ILIAD. Trans, by A. T. Murray. 2 Vols.(Vol. I. 2nd Impression.)HOMER : ODYSSEY. Trans, by A. T. Murray. 2 Vols.(\'ol. I. ith, II. 2nd Impression.)ISAEUS. Trans, by E. S. lorster.ISOCRATES. Trans, by G. NorUn. 3 Vols. Vol. I.JOSEPHUS. Trans, by H. St. J. Thackeray. 8 Vols.Vols. I.-III.JULIAN. Trans, by Wilmer Cave Wright 3 Vols.LUCIAN. Trans, by A. M.Harmon. 8 Vols. Vols. I.-IV.(Vol. I. 3rd, II. 2nd Impression.)LYRA GRAECA. Trans, by J. M. Edmonds. 3 Vols.(Vol. I. 2nd Edition.)MARCUS AURELIUS. Trans, by C. R. Haines. {2ndImpression.)MENANDER. Trans, by F. G. Allinson.OPPIAN, COLLUTHUS and TRYPHIODORUS. Trans.by A. W. Mair.PAUSANIAS : DESCRIPTION OF GREECE. Trans.by W. H. S. Jones. 5 Vols, and Companion Vol. Vols.I. and II.PHILOSTRATUS : THE LIFE OF APOLLONIUS OFTYANA. Trans, by F. C. Conybeare. 2 Vols. (Vol. I.3rd, II. 2nd Impression.)PHILOSTRATUS and EUNAPIUS : LIVES OF THESOPHISTS. Trans, by Wibner Cave Wright.PINDAR. Trans, by Sir J. E. Sandys, {ith Impression.)PLATO : CHARMIDES, ALCIBIADES I. and II.,HIPPARCHUS, THE LOVERS, THEAGES. MINOS.EPINOMIS. Trans, by W. R. M. Lamb.PLATO : CRATYLUS. P.\RMENIDES, GREATER andLESSER HIPPIAS. Trans, by H. N. Fowler.PLATO: EUTIFk'PHRO. APOLOGY, CRITO, PHAEDO,PHAEDRUS. Trans, by H. N. Fowler. {5th Impression.)5

THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARYPLATO: LACHES, PROTAGORAS, MENO, EUTHY-DEMUS. Trans, by W. R. M. Lamb.PLATO : LAWS. Trans, by Rev. R. G. Bury. 2 Vols.PLATO : LYSIS, SYMPOSIUM, GORGIAS. Trans, byW. R. M. Lamb.PLATO : STATESMAN, PHILEBUS. Trans, by H. N.Fowler ; ION. Trans, by W. R. M. Lamb.PLATO : THEAETETUS, SOPHIST. Trans, by H. X.Fowler.PLUTARCH : THE PARALLEL LIVES. Trans, byB. Perrin. 1 1 Vols. (Vols. I., II. and VII. 2nd Impression.)PLUTARCH: MORALIA. Trans, by F. C. Babbitt.14 Vols. Vol. I.POLYBIUS. Trans, by W. R. Paton. 6 Vols.aPROCOPIUS ; HISTORY OF THE WARS. Trans, by^H. B. Dewing. 7 Vols. Vols. I.-IV. «QUINTUS SMYRNAEUS. Trans, by A. S. Way. (Verse,translation.)ST. BASIL : THELETTERS. Trans, by R. Deferrari.4 Vols. Vol. I. viST. JOHN DAMASCENE :BARLAAM AND I0ASAPH.4Trans, by the Rev. G. R. Woodward and Harold Mattingly.SOPHOCLES. Trans, by F. Storr. 2 Vols. (Verse translation.)(Vol. I. Uh Impression, II. Srd Impression.)STRABO : GEOGRAPHY. Trans, by Horace L. Jones.8 Vols. Vols. I.-V.THEOPHRASTUS : ENQUIRY INTO PLANTS. Trans.by Sir Arthur Hort, Bart.2 Vols.THUCYDIDES. Trans, by C. F. Smith. 4 Vols. (Vol. I.2wd Impression.)XENOPHON : CYROPAEDIA. Trans, by Walter Miller.2 Vols. (Vol. I. 2nd Impression.)XENOPHON : HELLENICA, ANABASIS, APOLOGY.AND SYMPOSIUM. Trans, by C. L. Brownson andO. J. Todd. 3 Vols.XENOPHON :Trans, by E. C. Marchant.MEMORABILIA and OECONOMICUS.XENOPHON : SCRIPTA MINORA. Trans, by E. C.Marchant.

; STOTLE'THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARYVOLUMES INPREPARATION.GREEK AUTHORS.: ORGANON, W. M. L. Hutchinson.ISTOTLE : PHYSICS, the Rev. P. Wicksteed.ARISTOTLE: POLITICS axd ATHENIAN CONSTI-TUTION, Edward Capps.RRIAN : HISTORY OF ALEXANDER asd INDICA,the Rev. E. Iliffe Robson.2 \'ols.)EMOSTHENES : MEIDIAS, ANDROTION, ARISTO-CRATES, TIMOCRATES, J. H. Vince.»EMOSTHENES : OLYNTHIACS, PHILIPPICS, LEP-TINES, MINOR SPEECHES, J. H. Vince.jEMOSTHENES : PRIVATE ORATIONS, G. M.Calhoun.)IO CHRYSOSTOM, W. E. Waters.^REEK IAMBIC AND ELEGIAC POETS.YSIAS, W. R. M. Lamb.lANETHO, S. de Ricci.•APYRI, A. S. Hunt'HILO, F. M. Colson and Rev. G. H. Whitaker.'HILOSTRATUS : IMAGINES, Arthur Fairbanks.^LATO : REPUBLIC, Paul Shorev.'LATO: TIMAEUS, CRITIAS, CLITOPHO, MENE-XENUS, EPISTUL.\E, the Rev. R. G. Bury.EXTUS EMPIRICUS, the Rev. R. G. Bury.HEOPHRASTUS : CHARACTERS, J. M. Edmonds;HERODES ; CERCID.\S, etc., A. D. Knox.LATINAUTHORS.5EDE : ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY.ICERO : CATILINE ORATIONS, B. L. UUman.:iCERO : DE NATURA DEORUM, H. Rackham.:iCERO : DE ORATORE, ORATOR, BRUTUS, CharlesStuttaford.

^ 1 1THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARYCICE^ : IN PISONEM, PRO SCAURO, PRO FON-TEIO, PRO MILONE, PRO RABIRIO POSTUMO,PRO MARCELLO, PRO LIGARIO, PRO REGEDEIOTARO, N. H. Watts.CICERO : PRO SEXTIO, IN VATINIUM, PRO CAELIO,PRO PROVINCIIS CONSULARIBUS, PRO BALBO,D. Morrah.CICERO : VERRINE ORATIONS, L. H. G. Greenwood,ENNIUS, LUCILIUS, AND OTHER SPECIMENS OFOLD LATIN, E. H. Warmington.FLORUS, E. S. Forster.LUCAN, J. D. Duff.OVID: ARS AMATORIA, REMEDIA AMORIS, etc.,F. H. Mozley.OVID : FASTI, Sir J. G. Frazer.PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY, W. H. S. Jones anL. F. Newman.ST. AUGUSTINE : MINOR WORKS.SIDONIUS, E. V. Arnold and W. B. Anderson.TACITUS : ANNALS, John Jackson.VALERIUS FLACCUS, A. F. Scholfield.VITRUVIUS : DE ARCHITECTURA, F. Granger.DESCRIPTIVE PROSPECTUS ON APPLICATION.LondonNew YorkWILLIAM HEINEMANN LTG. P. PUTNAM'S SON!

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