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Theorizing school bullying: insights from Japan
that teacher violence in the form of ‘corporal punishment’ is not
rare in Japanese schools, and that the majority of teachers who
use violence against students do so with impunity. Corporal
punishment operates as institutional violence against students.
Statistics on corporal punishment also give an indication of the
political nature of discourse on school violence. The number of
teachers who were reprimanded for the use of corporal
punishment in the special survey mentioned above was almost 7
times as many as that reported in the official data collected
annually by the Ministry of Education. The Ministry reported
around 400 teachers per year from 2003 to 2011, in contrast to
the 2,752 cited in the special survey 205 . Miller points out that
official statistics, which have been used to record details of
corporal punishment since 1990, ceased to exist in 2004 206 .
Now, the statistics collected annually on corporal punishment
are limited to the number of teachers disciplined, which is only
a fraction of the actual incidence as seen above. Miller argues
that the status of corporal punishment as a ‘problem’ has been
marginalized in Japan 207 .
What Miller 208 alludes to in relation to corporal punishment is
the need to look at ‘youth problems’ from a social constructivist
perspective which focuses on the process of how a particular
issue comes to be problematized 209 . With regard to student-tostudent
bullying in Japan, Toivonen and Imoto demonstrated
how its discourse ‘has been linked to powerful actors in
educational reform agendas as well as to a new ‘industry’ of
205 Hirai, 2013
206
Miller, 2012
207
Miller, 2012:89.
208
Miller, 2012
209
Goodman et al., 2012
131