Telework - Telenor

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28 Julsrud, T, Opheim, H. 1998. Erfaringer med fjernarbeid i norske bedrifter. Oslo, Norges Forskningsråd. Lie, M. 1985. Fjernarbeid. Vegen til det gode liv? Trondheim, IFIM. LO. 1995. Informasjonshefte om fjernarbeid. Oslo, LO. LO – NHO. 1997. Basic Agreement 1998 – 2001. Oslo, Norwegian Confederation of Trade Unions and Confederation of Norwegian Business and Industry. Makimoto, T, Manners, D. 1997. Digital nomad. Chichester, John Wiley & Sons. Nilles, J M. 1998. Managing telework. New York, John Wiley & Sons. NIN. 1995. National Information Network. Oslo, Norges forskningsråd. NIN. 1999. Til debatt – Fjernarbeid. Temahefte nr. 1/99. Oslo, Norges Forskningsråd. NIST. 1994. The information infrastructure: Rethinking society’s goals. Gaithersburg, National Institute of Standards and Technology. NOU 1983:32. Telematikk. Oslo, Universitetsforlaget. Nærings- og handelsdepartementet. 1998. Norge – en utkant i forkant: Næringsrettet IT-plan 1998–2001. Oslo, Næringsog handelsdepartementet. Nystrøm, B. 1992. EG och arbetsrätten. Stockholm, Publica. Olberg, D (ed.). 1995. Endringer i arbeidslivets organisering. Oslo, FAFO. de la Serna, E. 1996. DIPLOMAT: European telework charter. Notiziario del Lavoro, No. 81. St.meld. nr. 38 (1997–98). IT-kompetanse i et regionalt perspektiv. Oslo, Nærings- og handelsdepartementet. Toffler, A. 1981. The third wave. New York, Pan Books. John Willy Bakke (44) is Research Scientist at <strong>Telenor</strong> R&D, Kjeller. His research interests include teleworking and other flexible work arrangements, as well as the more general theme of social aspects of information and communication technologies. email: john-willy.bakke@telenor.com Telektronikk 4.1999
Approaches to understanding teleworking LESLIE HADDON Over the course of some years of reviewing literature and conducting empirical research on telework, it is quite clear that it is a diverse phenomenon, approachable in numerous ways and for a range of objectives. Furthermore, the actual experience of teleworkers is varied and dynamic, as is their relationship to information and communication technologies (ICTs). The following sections aim to address all these issues by: 1 setting the scene in terms of indicating the diverse perspectives brought to the topic, including public representations of the practice; 2 exploring the issues involved in defining telework and drawing boundaries around the practice; 3 charting the dimensions according to which home-based teleworking experiences can be differentiated; 4 indicating the key dynamics by which teleworking may change over time; 5 providing a framework for specifically considering how we might analyse the role of ICTs in such teleworking households. Images: The diverse perspectives on telework <strong>Telework</strong> has attracted interest from diverse quarters. What has therefore emerged is not one but a variety of discourses about telework, involving different images of the teleworker, different ‘problems’ for which telework is a solution and different perspectives from which to evaluate this phenomenon. While more detailed histories of the concept have been provided elsewhere (Huws, 1991; Julsrud, 1996), it is nevertheless important broadly to indicate some key strands since this will become relevant to a later discussion of definitions of telework and drawing boundaries around telework. If we start by considering the interests of the various research communities, the topic of telework started to gain publicity in academic circles in the early 1970s, especially when the energy crisis led researchers to consider telecommuting as an alternative to physically commuting. Huws (1991) notes that these writers usually portrayed the teleworker as a male manager or professional living in the outer suburbs. Since that time, geogra- Telektronikk 4.1999 phers and town planners have retained an interest in the effects of telework upon patterns of commuting and hence upon urban design and ways of life. The Rio accords to reduce car emissions for environmental benefits have helped to reinforce some interest in this dimension (Gillespie et al., 1995). In the 1980s another academic strand of analysis emerged from managerial and business schools, and in particular from schools of personnel management 1) (eg. DeSanctis, 1984; Olsen, 1987). Under the heading of ‘human resource management’, telework has been seen by these writers as simply one form of flexible labour among others which could be clearly located within contemporary discussion of the need to develop firms which could adapt more easily to market changes. Huws (1991) describes a later discourse into which telework has been inserted – one concerning the enterprise economy. Here telework is an intermediary stage on the road to entrepreneurship, where employees break away from their previous company to set up a small business in the home – perhaps as a prelude to moving out into separate premises 2) . In fact, Huws notes that the image here is one of males working long hours to inject new life into the traditional values of self-reliance and the free market – even if many women have also set up businesses. A more critical approach to telework has been adopted by researchers working for Trade Unions and bodies such as the UK’s Low Pay Unit which have long monitored telework as part of the changing nature of working conditions (eg. Huws, 1984). Their concern dates back to fears in the 1970s about the impact of 1) These generated not only much speculation about the many issues which could arise around telework but provided the source of many empirical studies which have emerged in recent years. 2) Rank Xerox’ ‘networking’ scheme was the most publicised case of this move to self-employment, whereby the firm encouraged some senior executives and professional staff to set up their own businesses while initially guaranteeing them some work from Xerox (Judkins, P. et al, 1985). new technology on work, especially the threat of deskilling. Making comparisons with traditional homeworking, these researchers feared that teleworking could be a means of applying exploitative conditions of service to the clerical labourforce. In particular, the benefit for management of flexibility – and its promise of reducing labour costs – had a different meaning for the unions. It could imply a ‘casualisation’ of the workforce, as the firm reorganised its employees into core and peripheral workers (Holti and Stern, 1986; Brocklehurst, 1989). Moreover, isolating employees from one another militated against collective union action to resist pressures from employers. Thus, teleworkers might not only become nonunionised but non-unionisable. Huws draws attention to the way in which optimistic writers in the early 1980s saw telework as a solution to a tension within society between the need for women’s paid labour in the whitecollar workforce and for their unpaid labour at home. In this scenario, telework helps to retain the traditional family, with women staying in their ‘proper’ place within the home. Understandably, there has been a strong feminist response to this suggestion, especially following their 1970s focus on the housewife who was trapped and isolated in the home (Huws, 1991). Going out to work and being present in the workplace was seen as being important for women’s self-identity, social standing and influence. Feminists have been keen to point out that although telework may be a solution to women’s dual role, and hence one adopted by some women, it is by no means the ideal solution – with many writers pointing to the difficulty of working with young children around, and the stress of coping with both work and domestic roles when in the home (Olsen and Primps, 1984; Christensen, 1987). Moreover, there has been a feminist undercurrent in much union research which draws parallels with women’s negative experience of traditional homework. Women are already disproportionately located in the peripheral, secondary labour markets with poorer conditions and narrower options. The fear is that teleworking might have the potential to exacerbate this trend, and further marginalise women within the workforce. Beyond these various research communities, the concept of teleworking is now well and truly in the public domain: The predictions of popular futurologists such 29
Page 2 and 3: Contents At the age of 95 and into
Page 4 and 5: 2 Telektronikk 4.1999
Page 6 and 7: 4 Telework research: Setting the sc
Page 8 and 9: 6 During the 1990s the focus was in
Page 10 and 11: 8 be internally conflicting. Howeve
Page 12 and 13: 10 The silent transformation of the
Page 14 and 15: 12 tions, telework became a favorit
Page 16 and 17: 14 Table 1 Categories of teleworker
Page 18 and 19: 16 120 100 25 20 15 10 80 60 40 20
Page 20 and 21: 18 The paradox is intriguing but al
Page 22 and 23: 20 The knowledge gap in the IT sect
Page 24 and 25: 22 Developing telework regulations
Page 26 and 27: 24 The International Labour Organiz
Page 28 and 29: 26 For the practice of telework, it
Page 32 and 33: 30 as Toffler in the 1970s and 1980
Page 34 and 35: 32 Table 3 Proportion of time spent
Page 36 and 37: 34 (eg. whether it is seen as being
Page 38 and 39: 36 ence of ICTs. Individual use of
Page 40 and 41: 38 Huws, U, Korte, W, Robinson, S.
Page 42 and 43: 40 of boundaries of here and there,
Page 44 and 45: 42 the understanding of work and le
Page 46 and 47: 44 for other activities than work,
Page 48 and 49: 46 Illustration 2 Why is boundary w
Page 50 and 51: 48 Flexible work and health ERIK BE
Page 52 and 53: 50 civil servants in jobs character
Page 54 and 55: 52 HIGH Decision Latitude (control)
Page 56 and 57: 54 Case La Dolce cooperativa A stud
Page 58 and 59: 56 productivity benefits. Policy de
Page 60 and 61: 58 Working with others: the virtual
Page 62 and 63: 60 try to co-ordinate their trips t
Page 64 and 65: 62 beginning, one of the teleworker
Page 66 and 67: 64 Telecottages and other work cent
Page 68 and 69: 66 • Place of purchase of commodi
Page 70 and 71: 68 too expensive to the organizatio
Page 72 and 73: 70 Toward increased organisational
Page 74 and 75: 72 Table 1 Telework and life form c
Page 76 and 77: 74 • Individual agreements concer
Page 78 and 79: 76 References Amin, A. Post-Fordism
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78 • Intra-organisationel - Focus
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80 Lack of physical proximity Less
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82 • intended - a conversation in
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84 Electronic team rooms The need f
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86 transformation from hierarchy-bu
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88 Proceedings from CSCW’96, (Cam
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90 changed from being very optimist
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92 Table 2 Inhabitants of Oslo and
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94 Table 6 Reduction in total car j
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96 Epilogue - “Confessions of a w
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98 Telektronikk 4.1999
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102 PBX IP telephony software Phone
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104 Control information Voice conne
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106 Intelligent Network Management
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108 the two standing working commit
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110 References 1 Voice over IP Serv
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114 Everything was easier before ..
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116 IIA Internet Industry Associati
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120 Engset was not afraid of long a
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