Leadership in Organizations

Leadership in Organisations
Roe, Kevin (2017) Leadership. Practices and Perspectives.
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2022-2023
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Table of Contents
Chapter 2 Trait theory – description, analysis, and use ......................................................... 3
Chapter 3 Behavioral models................................................................................................... 5
Chapter 4 The Style approach to leadership .......................................................................... 8
Chapter 5 Situational and contingent leadership ................................................................ 12
Chapter 13 Power, influence, and authority ......................................................................... 18
Chapter 15 Leadership and change ...................................................................................... 19
Chapter 11 Ethical leadership ................................................................................................ 22
Chapter 12 Diversity & Leadership ........................................................................................ 25
*All images and figures in this summary are retrieved from Roe, Kevin (2017)
Leadership. Practices and Perspectives
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Chapter 2 Trait theory – description, analysis, and use
Trait theory
- Leader is born rather than created or trained
- Leader is born with certain character traits (self-confidence or extroversion for
example)
Trait: habitual patterns of behaviour, thought and emotion.
- According to the trait perspective, traits are relatively stable over time, differ
among individuals, and influence behaviour.
- There are different views on human characteristics, but this is the most
important one.
Gardner’s list is about traits that good leader should have: physical vitality and stamina,
intelligence and action-oriented judgment, eagerness to accept responsibility, task
competence, understanding of followers and their needs, skill in dealing with people,
need for achievement, capacity to motivate people, courage and resolution,
trustworthiness, decisiveness, self-confidence, assertiveness, adaptability/flexibility.
Type theory suggests that you can put an individual in 2 variables
(introversion/extraversion) and the individual is either introvert or extrovert, you cannot
be in between the two variables. After doing that with many variables, you can make
assumptions about their likely response to a given stimulus. (Trait approach doesn’t use
this way of classifying people. Trait approach suggest there is a continuum between the
two variables)
Factor
Openness
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Possible Behavioral Characteristics
Open to new experiences, explore ideas
and concepts
Self-discipline, act dutifully, aim for
achievement. Displaying planned rather
than spontaneous behaviour
Outward, visible signs of energy and
positive emotions. Tendency to seek
stimulation in the company of others
Compassionate and cooperative, rather
than suspicious and antagonistic towards
others. Trusting, empathic, sympathetic,
friendly and cooperative nature
Tendency to experience emotions easily,
such as anger, anxiety, depression,
vulnerability. A worrier, emotional and
often upset or down
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Important to note is that these traits are on a continuum with ‘high’ and ‘low’.
‘The Great Men’: these ‘Great Men’ were responsible through their own actions for
creating and shaping the world are considered to be endowed with a genetic makeup
that predisposed them to ‘leadership’. (Natural leaders)
Slowly people came to realize that environment and situation started to play a role. E.g.
Stogdill
Attributes associated with leadership are often viewed as male.
McCall and Lombardo (1983): instead of looking for those traits that earmarked
possessors for a life of leadership, they searched for traits that would prevent or ‘derail’
those with a predisposition or ambition to become ‘leaders’.
- Other words: they looked for the dark side, for personality traits that instead of
enabling, would disable leadership.
- 5 traits have been found: emotional instability, defensiveness, a lack of integrity,
over reliance on technical skills, absence of social skills.
Advantage of trait theory: organizations can develop ‘competency frameworks’ to
recruit. (also when transferring people in organizations)
Trait theory can help identify bad managers.
Judge et al. found that the presence of extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness to
new ideas did have a significant positive correlation with leadership effectiveness.
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Chapter 3 Behavioral models
Summary of behavioural theory: leaders can be made/trained within their context
Behavioural approach still focused on person à individual at the centre of study. Premise
that leadership is about understanding the person rather than the situation or context.
Trait theory: nature VS behavioural theory: nurture
The effective leader can learn these behaviours by appropriate developmental
programmes such as training courses, role modelling, or executive coaching.
Organizations can define what they consider to be required behaviours.
All behaviours are acquired through conditioning.
Conditioning:
1. Classical conditioning: naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a response.
Previously neutral stimulus is paired with the naturally occurring stimulus. Than
the previously neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response without the
presence of the naturally occurring stimulus. à Pavlov’s experiment with dogs.
2. Operant conditioning (=instrumental conditioning): rewards and punishments for
behaviour. An association is made between behaviour and a consequence for
that behaviour. à Thorndike and Skinner. (Skinner formulated a more detailed
analysis: reinforcement, punishment, extinction)
Katz (1955) – 3 skills of a leader
1. Technical skills: technical knowledge of their specialism
2. Human skills: to be able to work with people over the whole organization.
3. Conceptual skills: understand how the organization works together, internally
and externally.
Activities of a chief executive (Gulick, 1936): POSDCORB
1. Planning
2. Organizing: establishing formal structure of authority for subdivisions
3. Staffing: bringing in and training staff, maintaining favourable work conditions
4. Directing: making decisions and embody them in specific and general
orders/instructions.
5. Coordinating
6. Reporting
7. Budgeting: planning, accounting and control
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Taxonomy of managerial roles. 10 main activities within 3 broad roles: interpersonal,
information processing and decision making role.
Interpersonal roles
• Figurehead: symbolic role. Perform ceremonial duties: signing documents giving
speeches at dinners, receiving formal visitors.
• Leader: define culture of organization. Providing guidance and role modelling for
subordinates. Responsible for creating conditions for work, integrating all
functions of the organization and motivating workforce.
• Liaison: develop and maintain network of external contacts.
Information-processing roles
• Monitor: understand what is going on within the organization and its immediate
environment
• Disseminator: passing information down to subordinates
• Spokesperson: transmitting information about the organization to external
stakeholders (or internally when reporting to the board)
Decision-making role
• Entrepreneur: control and manage change. Take advantage of opportunities
identified via monitoring and networking role.
• Disturbance handler: resolve unforeseen disturbances. Can occupy a significant
proportion of the manger’s workload.
• Resource allocator: schedule individual employees’ time, programme work and
authorize expenditure.
• Negotiator: negotiate between subordinates and stakeholders when there is a
conflict.
Two fundamental drivers of managerial behaviour
• Task-focused approach: concern for getting the job done (production based)
• Relationship approach: concern for the people doing the work
Impoverished style: low concern
people, low concern production.
Preserve job and job seniority.
Seeking to protect themselves by
avoiding decisions. Manager
doesn’t want to be held
responsible for any mistakes. Less
innovative decisions. Unengaged
with workforce. ‘Keep your head
down in case it gets knocked off’.
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Country club approach: high
concern people, low concern
production. Well-being, security,

and harmony of employees is important. Friendly and easy-going sphere, not very
productive.
Authority-comply style: low concern people, high concern production. ‘My way or the
highway’. Employees get direct reward and managers expect compliance and
performance in return. Rules and punishments to achieve company goals. (Related to
Theory X). Could be appropriate in times of crisis or when a quick decision is required.
Team management: high concern people and high concern production. Encourage
teamwork and commitment among employees. Making employees feel they are
constructive parts of the company. Consult with individuals, share decision making,
delegate tasks. Mutual trust and dependency. Individuals are committed and recognize
their part in the business process.
Middle of the road: balance and compromise between company goals and workers’
needs. Avoid conflict. Both are half executed in this way. Confusing where priorities lie.
Blake and Mouton (1982): Paternalism/Maternalism and Opportunism.
- Paternalism/Maternalism: caring dictator who, as long as you do as you are
instructed, will treat you well
- Opportunism: exploit and manipulate. Leader gains maximum advantage by
using a different position depending on their interpretation of what is likely to
result in the maximum benefit. Preferring to adopt the style which offers the
greatest personal benefit.
John Adair (1973) approach to leadership: Achieving the task, building and maintaining
the team, developing the individual. You need to balance between these three things.
Core functions of leadership according to John Adair:
- Planning
- Initiating
- Controlling
- Supporting
- Informing
- Evaluating
Individuals can learn leadership capabilities.
Skills may vary across organizations, cultures or different hierarchical layers.
Strengths of this approach
- It gives structure and methodology to develop leaders and leadership in their
context
a. if an organization can define leadership, employees have a template
against which they can be mapped or measured
b. this can give direction for development.
Weaknesses of this approach
- including the environment makes it complex
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c. What about individuals without experience
Mumford three characteristics that need to be in individuals to make the journey
of leadership
1. Willing to tackle difficult and challenging organizational problems
2. Must be willing to exercise influence
3. Should be motivated to demonstrate social commitment – doing the righting for
society
Link between skill and effective outcome is not made explicit
➔ Model does not explain how an improvement in skill lead to improvement in
performance
Chapter 4 The Style approach to leadership
The role of, and relationship between, followers and the leader is now considered.
Leadership style is the combination of traits, skills and behaviours leaders use as they
interact with followers.
In order to be successful, the leader should adopt a leadership style that is appropriate
to the nature of the followers and circumstance the leader inhabits.
Stogdill’s model of leadership behaviour: consideration and initiating structures.
- Consideration: the extent to which a leader exhibits concern for the welfare of
the members of the group. Interpersonal relationships, mutual trust, friendship à
relationship oriented
- Initiating structures: a set of behaviours that involved the leader defining leader
and group member roles, initiating actions, organizing group activities, and
defining how tasks are to be accomplished by the group à task-oriented
University of Michigan had about the same split: employee orientation and production
orientation. But this theory is focused on delivering results for the organization instead
of developing strong human relationships.
Michigan model VS Ohio model: Michigan model states employee orientation and
production orientation is on a continuum. Ohio model states that a leader could
demonstrate both (or no) human and task orientation.
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Likert – Management System: leadership and the culture of organizations are mutually
dependent. Leaders have a considerable effect on the predominant culture within the
organizations and the resulting relationships between the stakeholders and the
leadership generate different experiences for those stakeholders.
Management system
• Exploitative authoritative system: decisions made exclusively by management.
Follower had to obey instructions, no consultation by managers. Coercive use of
power, punishment is consequence for not following orders. Task or production
focused.
• Benevolent authoritative system: decisions made exclusively by management.
Strict hierarchies. But: rewards for compliance and effort (not punishment).
Information flows from bottom to top to please the leader. Still task-oriented, but
for the outside it may look like human-oriented.
• Consultative system: limited degree of involvement by subordinates. Leaders are
asking, listening and using some of the subordinates’ ideas. Ultimately, decisions
are made by managers and collected information may not be used by the leader.
There is a flow up, down and across the business, but the flow is limited in terms
of quality and quantity. Rewards as recognition for effort of subordinates.
• Participative (group) system: complete confidence in subordinates. Clear and
plentiful flow of communication and subordinates fully involved in decision
making. ‘Linking pins’: individuals who belong to more than one team and can
exercise a degree of coordination across the organization by identifying and
informing teams of the activities of other areas. Combined with good
management and achievable goals, this system results in more loyalty, better
production, higher motivation and more profit.
Tannenbaum and Schmidt: continuum of 7 leadership styles
1. Tells: manager makes the decision and announces it. Manager has information,
makes decision and reports the solution to subordinates. Followers cannot
participate in decision making. Coercive threat by not following order by
subordinates.
2. Sells: manager makes decision, tries to persuade others. Considers the impact on
his followers and that they may react to the decision. Conflict resolution
techniques are needed to influence the followers when the reaction is not
favourable.
3. Presents solution: manager makes decision, but is prepared to outline his
thinking by explaining the solution to followers. Managers believes decision is
correct, but needs to explain his thinking in order to followers understand the
decision. Followers ask questions for clarification, not to challenge the decision.
4. Asks: manager presents decision that could be subject to changes. Subordinates
have limited input. They can give feedback, but the manager can still made his
own decisions, despite the input of the subordinates.
5. Presents problem: manager has identified the problem, but not the solution.
Decision has not been made by the manager, but he made a diagnosis and
identified the challenge. Manager presents the analysis of the problem and
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subordinates can come up with possible solutions. Manager chooses best
solution.
6. Defines: manager defines the problem, then states the limits and the group can
make the decisions.
7. Participates: group makes decisions. Manager is equal participant, no more
formal authority than other team members. Limits as cash, risk and strategy.
Tannenbaum and
Schmidt say that
there are forces
that influences
decisions. They explicitly believe that the manger does have a choice! Three areas of
forces: in the manager, in the subordinates, in the situation.
Forces in the manager
• Value system: manager knows he can make decisions by himself and has that
authority.
• Confidence in subordinates: making a judgment call on what he believes the
skill, knowledge and competence his team have in order to complete the
assignment. He decides how much he can trust his subordinates to deliver the
tasks. He may decide that his is best qualified to make the decision and not
involve any subordinates.
• Personal leadership tendency: certain ‘traits’ may enable a leader to be more or
less directive in decision making.
• Manager’s attitude to risk: by releasing the decision-making process, he will be
losing control over both process and outcome à higher risk.
Forces in the subordinate (nature of the subordinate and the expectations of him)
• Need for independence: specialist professions need freedom to solve things,
because they know it themselves because of their specialism;
• Need for responsibility: the amount of responsibility individuals are able and
willing to accept.
• Need for boundaries: some people need boundaries to accomplish a task,
others need complete freedom.
• Competence, experience, motivation: these three things influence the
manager’s decision.
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• Subordinate expectations: expectation management. Subordinates expect
inclusion or exclusion with decisions. Also: de degree to which followers have
confidence in their boss has to be considered.
Forces in the situation
• Organizational type and culture: some organizations will view the role of the
eexecutive very differently from others. Tannenbaum and Schmidt suggest that a
wide dispersal of an organization may preclude participative decision making.
But: because of real time video and voice tools, it could be that this concern is no
longer as restrictive as it would have seemed to a manager in the ‘50s.
• Team coherence: the extent to which a team is capable and motivated to work
together will be a major influence on his decision to use group work as a problem
solving method.
• Task complexity: e.g. for strategic issues the manager thinks he has to do this
himself. But there are also many issues without 'precedent', where many
different people are useful to solve it.
• Time pressure: more time à more delegating process. Time pressure à less input
for subordinates.
2 factors worth considering: decision quality (choose the best alternative) and decision
acceptance (of followers).
Strengths and weaknesses of the style approach
• Strengths:
o Richer and dynamic world into consideration
o Research supports this approach
o Not limited by the very essence of a person à it can be learned. Leaders
can develop and could become more effective as a result.
o Takes outside, contingent and situational forces into account
• Weaknesses:
o It is still not clear how the leader’s style actually influences the outcomes
of a given task. The leaders style should match the situation.
o No mention of the role of technology
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o
Oversimplifies the situation, by trying to answer to a complex and
dynamic situation
Chapter 5 Situational and contingent leadership
To succeed, a leader needs to adapt their behaviour to take knot account the demands
of the situation they face because effective leadership is dependent upon circumstance
and situation.
Anyone can lead as long as they use the correct approach, inferring that leadership can
be taught and learnt.
For the first time, the view on organizations and management changed à now they think
organizational form and its associated management and leadership were shaped by
external forces.
Leadership style is dependent (contingent) on situational factors outside the control of
the manager.
Reddin (1967) suggested that a different approach is needed in different organizations.
He created a three-dimensional model, divided in four ‘less effective types’, four ‘latent
types’ and four ‘more effective types’.
Reddin’s twelve 3-D styles
No orientation
Relationship
orientation
Task
orientation
Task and
relationship
orientation
Latent Separated Relations Task Integrated
Ineffective Deserter Missionary Autocrat Compromiser
Effective Bureaucrat Developer Benevolent
autocrat
Executive
Four basic (latent) types
1. Separated: maintaining the system and status quo. Largely removed from both
people and tasks.
2. Relations: friendly, open person who is concerned about a pleasant
environment. Communication mostly about personal matters, little focus on
driving business forward.
3. Task: wants to get the job done. Individual goals more important than the
broader agenda.
4. Integrated: supports teamwork, prefers a shared set of objectives.
Four ‘less effective’ types
5. Deserter (low task/low relationship): might destroy the morale and performance
of his subordinates.
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6. Missionary (low task/high relationship): more concerned about the people,
production could be disrupted by the need to be seen as popular and friendly
rather than making hard decisions.
7. Autocrat (high task/low relationship): task delivered regardless of the human
cost. Uses legitimate authority. Ineffective, because employees only respond
when coercion can be used, are not willingly and may exhibit resistance.
8. Compromiser (high task/high relationship): knows what should be done, but
cannot make the right decisions. Procrastinating and doubting about decisions,
usually reacting to the loudest demand first. Resolve immediate cries, but no
longer term issues.
Four ‘more effective’ types
9. Bureaucrat (low task/low relationship): effective and efficient via a set of rules.
They do not care about the process and people and will little attempt to improve
or modify it.
10. Developer (low task/high relationship): making the team delivering the required
results by coaching them to develop skills, talents and knowledge.
11. Benevolent autocrat (high task/low relationship): delivering the required goals.
Task achievement is rewarded in this culture.
12. Executive (high task/high relationship): recognizes the importance of delivering
the organization’s requirement, but to achieve this, he looks out for his people.
The manager understands people and how to switch them on, using motivational
techniques.
Reddin’s key observation: the difference between more or less effective managerial
types is a trait-based analysis.
Blanchard introduced The Situational Leadership Model. Original proposal was that
leader should adjust their approach to their subordinates according to conditions
existing tin the wider environment (the situation).
- Psychological readiness: the degree to which an employee is willing to take on
responsibility for their actions in relation to task achievement → motivation and
confidence in own ability.
- Task readiness: the ability to deliver what is asked. → skills, knowledge, ability of
employee
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Telling → Selling → Participating → Delegating
Directing → Coaching → Supporting → Delegating
The Situational Leadership Model
• Two assumptions: there is a task to be achieved and a set of followers available
to deliver the required outcomes.
• First stage: consider the maturity of the follower (state of the follower), judged
against the current task requirements.
• 4 different categories followers
o R1: unable to complete the task, because doesn’t possess necessary skills.
Either unwilling to deliver required performance or insecure in the belief
they can.
o R2: unable to complete the task, but is willing to try. Lack
ability/knowledge/skill but motivated to try.
o R3: necessary technical knowledge acquired, but unwilling to do.
o R4: ready, willing and able to do the required task.
• Second stage: consider their own style or behavioural pattern:
o S1: Telling (high task/low support). High concern with task delivery, low
concern with development of individuals. Explanations, clear instructions
and supervision.
o S2: Selling (high task/high support). Leader thinks followers are willing but
not able to complete the task. Leader makes decisions, but also focused
on developing confidence and skills of followers.
o S3: Supporting (low task/high support). Leader encourages and offers
feedback, but confidence in followers that they complete the task.
Assumption: follower is capable of achieving the task, but needs a
supportive environment.
o S3: Delegating (low task/low support). Autonomy encouraged. Employees
have skills, know-how and motivation to deliver the required, can be left
mostly unsupervised.
• A leader’s preferred style, may not be the most effective style. Use different styles
with the same employee, dependent on the situation.
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Three basic assumptions of the model
1. As individuals develop their skills and confidence, they will follow the
development path as described. It is also assumed that individuals with the same
degree of maturity or readiness will require the same input from the leader.
2. The manager needs the skill and insight to be able to correctly assess the state of
maturity and readiness of his followers.
3. The manager must have the skills and emotional tools to be able to carry off the
four different styles sufficiently well to convince his followers theses are genuine
behaviours.
Criticism of The Situational Leadership Model
- The model lacks theoretical or logical justification for the way the components of
maturity combine.
- The flow between the different maturity phases are not always clear why.
- Other factors affect this aspect of a subordinates. Like age, education, culture or
gender.
- Doesn’t help to lead a team with different personalities.
Vroom → Path-Goal theory: suggest a leader should aim to improve followers’
performance by enhancing their motivation.
- Motivation is an explanation of choices made by organisms among different
voluntary responses (Vroom, 1964). → free choice and trough motivation you
choose the choise you make.
- Valence: the extent to which the individual considers the outcome of the task
worthwhile. (a manager who wants a promotion will work hard to achieve a task
that is linked to that promotion)
- Expectancy: the extent a person thinks their efforts will lead to the task being
achieved.
- Force: a mathematical equation that links the two ideas. It suggests the outcome
with the greatest value will be the path followed by the individual
F = ∑ (E x V) → Force = sum of (expectancy x valence)
House indicated three main determinants of how effective a leader would be in
increasing this motivational force. First, leadership style:
• Participative: consulting with subordinates. Producing shared decision.
• Directive: telling individuals what to do.
• Supportive: group atmosphere, looking after feelings of the team
• Achievement Orientation: leader sets standards and improves performance by
non-directive methods.
Second, followers characteristics (similar to Hersey and Blanchard)
• Desire for control: external locus of control à directive style. Internal locus of
control → participative style.
• Ability to achieve task: follower’s own view of their ability to achieve the task.
Confident employees less likely to accept a directive style.
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• Desire for clarity: directive style appropriate for those who need clarity. For
those with a greater tolerance for ambiguity a more ‘hands-off’ approach.
• Need for affiliation: task- or relationship oriented approaches and preferences
of followers.
Third, task characteristics
• Task: routine or complex? Routine → leader offers support in order to maintain
motivation. Complex → leader need to supply structure and shape to the task.
• Authority System: difference between organizations with formal hierarchy and
organizations with less well-defined bureaucracy.
• Group norms: difference between groups who look out for each other than
groups with individuals concerned by their task only.
Criticism:
The complexity of the model may
make it difficult to apply to a ‘real’
situation.
Little empirical data to support the
validity.
Contingency theory – Fiedler
• The effectiveness of a leader was contingent upon three distinct factors or
situational dependent variables.
• He proposed that leader’s effectiveness depends on personality as well as the
degree to which the leadership situation provides control and influence.
Establishing situational favourableness
1. Leader-member relations: atmosphere within the group, degree of trust and
confidence in each other. When leader-member relationships are good, the
leader will have more chance of success in terms of influencing followers’
opinions and behaviour.
2. Task structure: high structure type task → clear set of stages, well tested process,
unambiguous desired outcome. Little room for creative input, great deal of
control for leader. Four dimensions to be considered with examining high or low
structure of the task: (1) goal clarity, (2) goal-path multiplicity, (3) decision
verification, (4) solution specificity.
3. Leader position power: high level of authority has strong power relationships.
Little authority has weak power relationships.
➔ Favourable situation: leader-member relations are good, task is clear and leader
has legitimate authority.
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Black box: Fiedler doesn’t answer why a certain style of leader would work in one
situation and not another. It is not clear why certain task/team/power combinations
result in certain LPC scores being favoured over others, and whilst some options feel
intuitively correct.
Criticism: LPC instrument is difficult and misleading.
Kerr and Jermier (1978) had a different view on leadership where the leader was placed
less in the centre as in the theories before.
Leadership Substitute Theory: under certain circumstances, leadership in a formal sense
is neither needed nor wanted and may actually have a demotivating and negative
impact on the achievement of a task.
- Substitutes for leadership: characteristics of the task, organization or followers
that make leadership behaviours either irrelevant or unnecessary.
- Neutralizers for leadership: characteristics that either prevent effective
leadership or nullify the effects of leadership.
Kerr and Jermier described three different aspects of the situation that may mitigate
against effective leadership.
1. Characteristics of followers
a. Ability and experience: when employees know what to do and how, you can
better not interfere as a leader.
b. Emotional needs: people who prefer to work unsupervised for example.
c. Professional orientation: only comments from peer group are valued.
d. Reward orientation: degree to which an individual responds to external
rewards offered by the organization can neutralize any leadership
behaviour.
2. Characteristics of tasks
a. Task structure: simple tasks doesn’t always need leader’s input.
b. Nature of feedback: when feedback is provided by the task outcome,
feedback from the leader is substituted.
c. Intrinsic satisfaction: interesting and enjoyable tasks don’t need a leader to
motivate other to complete them.
3. Characteristics of the organization
a. Bureaucracy: when there are many rules that block new ideas, a leader
who wants to investigate new processes etc. is neutralized.
b. Formalization: when there are clear written contracts, letters of
understanding and codified performance systems, leadership is
neutralized.
c. Group coherence: a group with high degree of coherence may gain all
necessary guidance and support from its own internal resources without
the need to refer to an outside authority.
d. Limited positional power: predetermined bonus structure can limit a
leader’s ability to reward a hard-working employee.
e. Geographic proximity: the farther away, the harder it is for a leader. Virtual
teams are more difficult to maintain than static, conventional units.
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Kerr and Jermier: where substitutes are sufficiently well developed, leadership in the
formal sense could be completely discounted.
An inexperienced, ill-informed leader could neutralize the best laid organizational plans.
Chapter 13 Power, influence, and authority
Power: the absolute capacity of an individual agent to influence the behaviour or
attitudes of one or more designated target persons at a given point in time (Yukl, 2010).
Power: the capacity or potential to influence (Northouse, 2010).
- Power and influence are not the same. Power is the force behind the ability to
influence.
Three choices of followers when leader has power:
1. Commitment: follower will do their best to ensure the task is completed,
demonstrating enthusiasm and pride in their work.
2. Compliance: follower will do as they have been instructed, because they
recognize the legitimacy of the command. Minimal amount of effort.
3. Resistance: follower rejects the order.
Types of power (French & Raven, 1959)
• Legitimate power: perceived authority (hierarchy).
o Scope of power associated with the role: if the instruction is outside the
scope of de leader’s role, the instruction is unlikely to be seen as
legitimate.
o If the person loses or changes role, their legitimate power disappears to.
• Coercive power: punishment or withholding benefits from the follower. Doesn’t
have to be carried out, the follower must perceive this to be the case. The target
must believe the agent has the capacity and will to carry out the threat.
• Reward power: agent (leader) has the perceived ability to control a resource
valued by the target (follower). Target must believe that agent has the capacity
and willingness to carry through their promise. ‘If you do this for me, I’ll do that
for you’.
• Expert power: knowledge is power. The target must believe the agent to be
credible and trustworthy.
• Referent power: individuals seeking to please others they feed attracted to, so
that they believe that by doing something for them, they will get something in
return (not money, but psychological rewards). Being influenced by others you
admire (buying perfume from a cool person, they think others are going to see
them as ‘cool’).
o A leader who does not deliver against the promise, will lose referent
power.
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Clayton (2010) suggested two more refinements:
1. Connection power: the ability to make connections (networking) is considered a
vital part of the modern manager’s skill set.
2. Resource power: ability to control access to an organizational asset.
Dark side of power:
- Power can be a corrupting force
- Milgram experiment
Chapter 15 Leadership and change
Any successful change process begins with the understanding of what the new ‘state’
for the organization will look and feel like.
A vision has to be:
• Imaginable: creating a ‘picture’ of what the new future will look like.
• Desirable: needs to be appealing to all of the stakeholders.
• Feasible: achievable
• Focused: vision should give a clear path for decisions
• Flexible: when circumstances change, leaders and followers may change the
vision
• Communicable
Two models for leaders when considering what actions need to be taken: HSM and SSM
Hard systems methodology (HSM)
• ‘Tame’ and ‘wicked’ problems. Tame problems are solved with HSM approach → a
problem that can be well defined and contained and has a clear beginning and
end.
• Measurement and reasoned analysis to come up with a solution to a defined
problem.
• Concerned with how things are done.
• Outlining a process:
o 1. Description: recognizing a problem and being able to define the
problem. Objectives and performance measures for example.
o 2. Options: possible solutions can be developed, considered and
prioritized.
o 3. Implementation: preferred option is selected. For implementing, 3
options:
• Test with a pilot
• Old and new systems run in parallel.
• Just do it!
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The 7 S framework
Soft Systems methodology (SSM)
• Organizations, societies and human groupings are considered.
• By considering humans, each person can perceive a situation differently and act
differently.
• When you solve a problem for one person, they may be rise a problem for
another person.
• More concerned with why things are done.
• CATWOE:
o Customers: how are these groups or individuals likely to react when the
changes are announced?
o Actors: who are the groups who will implement any change? Who do I
need to win over?
o Transformation: what changes are being proposed and how do they
interlink?
o Weltanschauung: worldview. Considering the big picture
o Owners: who runs the systems? What would make these people follow the
instructions? Of what would make them resist the change?
o Environmental constraints: considering external factors that may help of
hinder.
➔ Make a systems map with the different elements of the problem and show
interconnection
Hard systems methodology
Problem is well defined
System is clearly bounded
Problem is separable from system
Who ought to be involved is clear
Data to solve the problem is known and
available
Soft systems methodology
Problem can be undefined
System is fuzzy-edged
What is the problem?
Not sure who ought to be involved
Unsure what information is needed
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Know what the solution would look like
Test of success is established
End point is clear
Not sure what the solution would look
like
Not sure how to measure success
Often no end
Lewin (1951): Change process
1. Unfreezing: prepare individuals and the organization for change. Articulating new
vision, breaking down old structures and processes.
2. Change: new systems, processes and positions can be introduced.
3. Refreezing: move the organization to its new state and embedding and
confirming it.
Kotter (1995): eight stages of change
1. Establish a sense of urgency: individuals need to recognize the need for change.
2. Form a powerful coalition: get a team who have expertise, power and influence
3. Create a vision: a new future
4. Communicate the vision
5. Empower others: removing barriers to action
6. Create short term success: create short term milestones and successes. Keeps
individuals motivated and on track.
7. Consolidate and use success to generate more change
8. Institutionalize the change
Individual reaction to change
• Stage 1: shock and denial
• Stage 2: blame and anger
• Stage 3: exploration
• Stage 4: acceptance
Politics: the use of power through influencing techniques and tactics aimed at
accomplishing personal and/or organizational goals.
Types of lies that are intended to advantage the liar (Meltzer, 2003)
• Self-enhancement: over-emphasizing personal achievement
• Ingratiation: making friends with powerful individuals
• Fraudulent achievement: deliberately falsifying data and records
• The ‘noble’ lie: an attempt to maintain a false hierarchy by claiming that some
groups are simply not intelligent enough the grasp the full implications of a
situation. ‘I can’t tell you, because you wouldn’t understand’
• Permissible exploitive lies: minor distortions designed to hide truths from others.
10 turf games (Buchanan and Badham, 2008) → help managers to establish a position
to influence the change agenda.
1. Image building: looking confident. Establishing credibility and appearing
competent.
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2. Information manipulation: withholding vital data from others, releasing selective
figures etc.
3. Scapegoating: blaming someone else for a problem
4. Alliances: to form bonds
5. Networking: turning up at meetings or informal events
6. Compromise: one party agrees to support the other in return for a favour next
time
7. Bureaucracy: using organization’s rules, processes and procedures, an individual
can frustrate opponents by requiring certain documents to be completed etc.
8. Position: choosing projects that enhance your visibility.
9. Spin doctor: altering messages and information to suit a particular person or
audience. Telling people what they want to hear.
10. Dirty tricks: blackmail, gossip and spying
Chapter 11 Ethical leadership
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Teleological: goal/end. Looks at the
consequences of an action → the
outcome of a decision has to be
‘good’
Egoism example: manager and his
team win in sales competitions and
not share the bonus with other
teams.
- The ‘best’ outcome, is defined by
the individual themselves.
Altruism example: Germany let in
many immigrants from other
countries during the 'refugee crisis'.
• Could be destroying the
individual himself, and causes that
there is nothing left to give to
others.
Utilitarianism example: invest in disease
as diabetes rather than a rare cancer,
because more people will
benefiting. (In practice: impractical)
Deontological framework: the intention of the decision is important, not the
consequence. So an outcome is irrelevant when the intention is good (even if the
outcome is horrible).

Kohlberg (1984): humans are capable of evolving through a hierarchy of moral justice,
and at each stage they are more effective at resolving moral dilemmas.
Kohlberg’s level Stage Main drive Outcome
Level 1: Preconventional
morality
Stage 1
Punishment and
obedience
Doing what is right
based on fear of
punishment
Stage 2 Hedonistic Actions based on
gaining personal
reward or gain
Level 2:
Conventional
morality
Level 3: postconventional
morality
Stage 3
Stage 4
Stage 5
Interpersonal
relationships
Law and order,
society’s values
Social contract and
democracy
Good is based on
what will please
others
Right thing is driven
by social norms,
rules are fixed
Laws are social
contracts and can
be redefined and
broken
Stage 6 Inner conscience Self-selection of
universal principles.
Ethical acts are
ends in themselves
Level 1 – Pre-conventional morality (is about self interest: avoiding punishment or
gaining favour)
• Stage 1: decisions are based on not getting punished or getting a favour
• Stage 2: satisfying their own needs. Self-interest comes first. There might be an
exchange of favours (Swapping toys or: if you do something for me, I owe you)
Level 2 – Conventional morality
• Stage 3: decisions are based on what wins approval from others in the social
group
• Stage 4: the right thing is considering the law and rules in society
Level 3 – Post-conventional morality (could be dissonance between what an individual
wants and what society demands)
• Stage 5: if laws are to be seen as fair, the majority of the population affected by
those laws must agree upon them.
• Stage 6: an individual understands they can make their own moral framework in
line with their own moral conscience. Considering the needs of others, the
society and their own needs.
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Criticism: study based on men and ignores female concerns. Women resolve conflict and
dilemmas from a different starting point, based on care. This criticism led to a new
model:
Garol Gilligan’s Stages of Moral development
Stage
Goal
Pre-conventional
Main driver is survival. Decisions based
on what is ‘best’ for the individual
Transition begins with a move from selfishness to seeing a responsibility for others
Conventional
Self-sacrifice is seen as good and moral.
Helping others over the needs of self is
seen as the right thing to do
Transition is when there is an appreciation that as an individual it is okay to have
wants and needs too
Post-conventional
As well as a broader understanding of
how society works, the individual is
committed to non-violent solutions and
creative resolution of conflict that meets
the needs of all parties.
There are many reasons for (un)ethical decisions. See book and lectures for more.
Whistleblowing: an individual raises awareness of poor, bad or illegal practices to a
broader audience
- The individual may believe there is wrongdoing inside an organization and this
can only be righted by exposure to public scrutiny. The belief drives them to
speak sensitive, confidential, or embarrassing information to a wider audience.
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Chapter 12 Diversity & Leadership
Diversity can bes een in different things. Man/woman, diversity whithin teams, diversity
within the market etc.
By being diverse, organizations can avoid some of the negative aspects of having a
leadership paradigm that only reflects part of their stakeholders’ values.
There is an idea of some researchers that leaders should be men. In this way it leads to
a self-fulfilling prophecy of men having a stranglehold over leadership roles.
Discrimination: ‘any conduct based on a distinction made on ground of natural or social
categories, which have no relation either to individual capacities or merits or to the
concrete behaviour of the individual person.
NCVO defines diversity in the context of organizations as ‘a successfully diverse
workforce is one that contains people at all levels who have a range of different
characteristics and who have been recruited on the basis of their abilities and
competence to do the job’.
- Presents the leader many challenges: people with different skills, needs, wants.
Identity theory
• Individuals are driven to develop a positive image of themselves and look for
opportunities to build self-esteem.
o For example, associate with other individuals to reinforce and build on
this sense of ‘self’, possibly by affiliating oneself with a group → in-group is
the negative consequence when this goes too far. So, identifying with a
group, but when you think that your group is superior can create and ingroup
and out-group effect.
• By showing favouritism to those perceived as being in your Group, and by
discriminating against those in the out-group, an individual builds self-esteem.
Mummendey (1995) – ‘Positive distinctiveness’ (us VS them) via a three-stage
process
• Stage 1: categorization. In order to process all the information that we are
revealed to, our brain categorizes this information. Male/female; white/black;
Scottisch/Welsch etc. When you put something in one group, you assume it has
the same characteristics and traits as that group. Criticism: other views that do
not belong to the group can be ignored.
• Stage 2: identification. We define ourselves in the categories and adopt the
behaviour of the groups we wish we can belong to. It gives us a sense of
perspective. We can belong to several groups (student, musician, female etc.)
• Stage 3: comparison. You compare your group with another. Either you make
yourself better, or you talk bad or other groups. Groups begin to compete.
Differences between groups need not actually exist, they are 'perceived
differences'.
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o
Depersonalization and stereotyping follow with any number of negative
outcomes, such as violence and war.
Criticism of social identity: theory oversimplifies group behaviour
Benefits of social identity theory
• It can help to understand rivalry between groups
• It can help to identify the pressures to conform to a particular way of behaving.
Women can be a positive contribution to an organization by being different from
existing paradigms (in the past).
Discussion about women as a leader. Some say that leaders should be men, others say
that women are better suited because their values, traits and abilities to inspire others
in a more sustainable, transformational way.
Labyrinth of leadership: two barriers for women which create a structure almost
impossible for women to navigate through:
- Women are communal in nature. They are seen as compassionate, concerned for
well-being of others, gentle and kind. Men are ‘agentic’ (assertive, control,
dominant). And they say that the traits of an agentic person, are the traits a
leader needs.
- Difficult for women, because if they act like a leader needs to act, they are
opposing what a woman should do (according to the theory).
Eagly & Karau (2002): a group will be judged by society by the degree to which a group
matches society’s expectations from them. (Women will not be viewed as leaders
because their communal attributes do not align with the ‘agentic’ requirements of
leadership.
Veccio (2002): claims of masculine or feminine advantage do not have the data to
support them.
Androgyny = both male and female characteristics.
Bolton and Humphreys (1977): men and women both have agentic and communal traits.
Also: research in the area of leadership often has been contaminated by a masculinity
bias in which the task leadership function is viewed as more important than the socialemotional
function.
Effective leaders are not specifically men or women, but an individual who can exhibit
both masculine and female behaviours in different situations.
Diversity and culture
• Different parts of the world view leadership different.
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• GLOBE project: aim of determining the extent to which the practices and values
of business leadership are universal (i.e. are similar globally) and the extent to
which they are specific to just a few societies.
Hofdstede
Power distance
GLOBE
Power distance
Uncertainty avoidance
Collectivism Collectivism (1)
Collectivism (2)
Long term orientation
Humane orientation
Assertiveness
Uncertainty avoidance
Gender egalitarianism
Long term orientation
Masculinity
Performance orientation
After the GLOBE project, the next stage was to develop 6 global leadership behaviours:
1. Charismatic/value-based: inspire, motivate followers
2. Team oriented: emphasizes team-building and a common purpose or goal
3. Participative: involve others in decision-making
4. Humane oriented: supportive and considerate leadership. Compassion and
generosity.
5. Self-protective: the degree to which the leader seeks to preserve the integrity
and power of the group. Being status- and class-conscious, evasive, ritualistic,
procedural, normative, secretive, indirect, self-centred, asocial (you should not be
this)
6. Autonomous: leader operates independently and is seen by others as unique
and autonomous
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