Leseprobe_Chinese Traditional Music

Yuan Jingfang, editor
Translated by Boyu Zhang and Lam Ching-Wah

Comprehensive Introduction to Chinese
Traditional Music

National Key Teaching Materials for
General Higher Education
Chinese Arts Education Series · Music Volume
Comprehensive Introduction to Chinese
Traditional Music
Yuan Jingfang (Editor-in-Chief)
Zhou Qingqing, Yang Minkang,
Zhang Hongyi, and Qian Rong
Translated by Boyu Zhang and
Lam Ching-Wah
Central Conservatory of Music Press

Yuan Jingfang (ed.):
Comprehensive Introduction to Traditional Chinese Music
Translated by Boyu Zhang and Lam Ching-Wah
Wien: HOLLITZER Verlag, 2023
Cover Image
Wang Zhenpeng: Boya Playing Qin (detail), Yuan dynasty (1271-1368),
The Palace Museum, Beijing
All rights reserved
© Central Conservatory of Music Press, Beijing and Hollitzer Verlag, Wien
Printed and bound in the EU
ISBN 978-3-99094-097-6 (e-book)

NOTES FROM THE TRANSLATORS
This book is translated from the Chinese book entitled Introduction to Traditional
Chinese Music, one of the books of Chinese Art Education Series, published by
the Shanghai Music Press in 2000. The Chinese version is part of “National Key
Teaching Materials” of “Ninth Five-Year Projects” (1996–2000) for General Higher
Education—Chinese Arts Education Series·Music Volume. The authors include the
teachers from the Musicology Department of Central Conservatory of Music, Yuan
Jingfang, Zhou Qingqing, Yang Minkang, Zhang Hongyi, Qian Rong. The chief
editor is Prof. Yuan Jingfang. General Editorial Board of Chinese Arts Education
Series include: General Editor-in-Chief Zhao Feng; Honorary Director Pan Zhenzhou;
Director: Tao Chunxiao; Deputy Directors Du Changsheng, Lin Yongjun, Dai Jiafang,
Wang Jinsui; Executive Director Ying Feng; Executive Deputy Directors Zheng
Shuzhen, Zhu Qi, Niu Gengfu; together with 31 board members.
Members of the Editorial Board of Introduction to Traditional Chinese Music
include Editor-in-chief: Yuan Jingfang; Deputy Editor-in-chief: Zhou Qingqing;
Editorial Board: (in order of strokes of Chinese Characters): Xiao Xuejun, Yang
Minkang, Zhang Hongyi, Zhou Qingqing, Xiang Yang, Qian Rong, Yuan Jingfang.
During the translation, several changes have been made by the translators. The
first, the Chinese version of the book includes two parts: Traditional Chinese Music
and Chinese Religious Music. The English version contains only the first part.
The second, during the translation, the translators follow the text flow of the
Chinese version, but added explanation sentences and made slightly necessary
variations in order to be understandable by English readers.
The third, the Chinese terms appeared with the Pinyin romanizations and English
translations, either the Chinese Pinyin first, with the English translation in brackets, or
English translation first, with the Pinyin in brackets, depending on the text flow.
The fourth, Pinyin romanizations of names of books as well as their English
translations in brackets are italic; other terms, such as instrument names, song titles,
etc., only Pinyin romanizations using italic, if the Chinese Pinyin is first, and both
italic, if the English translation is first.
The fifth, a long list of Chinese glossary is added at the end of the book.
The sixth, a bibliography and recommended sound recordings that were listed at
end of each chapter in Chinese have been moved to the end of the book.
The seventh, as a theoretical book, it is impossible to show too many music
examples necessary to discuss music artistic features. Readers can find most of the
music pieces discussed in the book in the Music Scores Compiled for the Course of the
“Introduction to Chinese Traditional Music” (2 volumes), edited by Zhou Qingqing,
and published by the Central Conservatory of Music Press in 2007.
Beijing, 2022

LIST OF MUSIC EXAMPLES
Note: The mark indicates that audio examples are available at the Central
Conservatory of Music Press.
Chapter I
Example 1-1. Bend Your Back to Hook the Timber (Hayao’gua)
Example 1-2. Tamping Song (Dawo’ge) from Macheng, Hubei Province
Example 1-3. Rice-husking Song (Chongmi Haozi)
Example 1-4. Introduction and Sanyao’tai part of Lishui River Boatmen Song (Lishui
Chuangong Haozi)
Example 1-5. Jiaofu Diao (Tune of the Deliverer)
Example 1-6. The Mountain Keeps Us Apart (Liaobujian Meimei Shan Dangzhule)
from Hequ, Shanxi
Example 1-7. Typical use of Zhi mode of mountain songs of Jiangsu and Zhejiang
Example 1-8. Picking Grapes. Eastern Sichuan mountain song, arranged by Zheng
Chenglu
Example 1-9. All the Way Following the Sun. Sichuan Shange (Mountain Song of
Sichuan)
Example 1-10. Ganma’diao (Horse Riding Song), from Binchuan, Yunnan
Example 1-11. Midu Shange (Midu Mountain Song), from Midu, Yunnan
Example 1-12. Shuiniuer (Water Snail), from Beijing
Example 1-13. Embroidering a Small Pouch (Xiu’hebao), from Cangshan, Shandong
Example 1-14. Embroidering a Small Pouch (Xiu’hebao), from Yibin, Sichuan
Example 1-15. Peng’hama (Weighing Crabs), from Qianjiang, Hubei
Example 1-16. Mengjiang’nu (Lady Mengjiang), from Jiangsu
Example 1-17. Farewell My Love (Song’qinglang), from Liaoning
Example 1-18. Dropping Watermelon (Shuai’xigua), from Shenxian, Hebei
Example 1-19. Flower Drum Tune (Huagu Diao), from Kaifeng, Henan
Example 1-20. Visiting In-Law’s Family (Tan’qingjia), from Central Hebei
Example 1-21. Meeting Mother-in-Law (Hui Qingjia), from Linxi, Hebei
Example 1-22. The tone row used in the song Laili Gul
Example 1-23. Arirang, from Luda, Liaoning
Example 1-24. The third phrase of Gesangla
Example 1-25. The fourth phrase of Gesangla

VIII
LIST OF MUSIC EXAMPLES
Chapter II
Example 2-1. Caicha’yao (Tea-picking Ballad) of Yudu, Jiangxi
Example 2-2. Tea-picking in Twelve Months from Yulin, Guangxi
Example 2-3. Kaihuang (Cultivation from Bare Land) in Yulin Tea-picking Genre
Example 2-4. Song of Wang Sanjie Ganji (Sister Wang Goes to Market)
Example 2-5. The dance song Shidui Hua (Ten Passages of Flower Song)
Example 2-6. Badou Kaihua (Croton is Blossoming, also called “Laoninglang”).
Female chorus, Cangyuan County, Yunnan
Example 2-7. Melodic variation of Liu Qingniang (Slender Lady)
Example 2-8. The main section of the dance music for Lusheng
Example 2-9. Melody development of the dance music for Lusheng
Example 2-10. Jiaoban Dian (Starting Rhythmic Pattern) of Shandong Guzi Yangge
(Drum Field Dance of Shandong)
Example 2-11. Proceeding drumbeat of Shandong Guzi Yangge (Drum Field Dance of
Shandong)
Example 2-12. Ending rhythmic pattern of Shandong Guzi Yangge (Drum Field Dance
of Shandong)
Example 2-13. Rhythmic patterns of percussion music of Elephant-Foot Drum Suite
of Peacock Dance in Dehong Prefecture
Example 2-14. Gengu’diao (Hanban’guang), sung by Jing E
Example 2-15. The structure of single-section piece in Sänäm of Naghma of Čäbbiyat
Muqam
Example 2-16. The most common scales used in the Twelve Muqam
Example 2-17. The Rhythms of Dap Hand Drum
Chapter III
Example 3-1. Wukongzai “Antong’nao”
Example 3-2. Sikongzai “Ma Sange” (Scolding Third Brother)
Example 3-3. “Haidi’fan” (Rebellion under the Sea), a piece belongs to Wukong
Zanianzai (Varied Recitals in the Wukong Mode)
Example 3-4. Fengyangge (Fengyang Song) “Shuangganche” (On the Cart)
Example 3-5. Duozi’ban used in Liangzhu Xiashan (Liang and Zhu Departing the
Mountain)
Example 3-6. A comparison of two versions of Xianhua’diao (Flower Tune)
Example 3-7. Early version of Changcheng’diao (Excerpt from Duanqiao)
Example 3-8. Changcheng’diao (Tune of the Great Wall) (Excerpt from Duanqiao,
Broken Bridge).
Example 3-9. Chaqu song Wanxia (The Sunset Glow) sung by Ma Tanhui
Example 3-10. Yaeryo from Danxian Paiziqu
Example 3-11. Daxin’chun (The New Year Begins) (Excerpt from Dangpi’xiang-
Pawning the Leather Trunk)
Example 3-12. Qutou (Opening Tune) used in Danxian Paiziqu

LIST OF MUSIC EXAMPLES
IX
Example 3-13. Shuchang (Rapping Tune) used in Danxian Paiziqu
Example 3-14. Taiping’nian (Peaceful Year) used in Danxian Paiziqu
Example 3-15. Nancheng Diao (Southern City Tune) used in Danxian Paiziqu
Example 3-16. Qie’kuaishu (Rural Copper Clapper Reciting) used in Danxian
Paiziqu
Example 3-17. Liushui’ban (Flowing Water Beat) used in Danxian Paiziqu
Example 3-18. Hongna’ao (Red Padded Jacket) used in Sichuan Jinqianban
Example 3-19. Sichuan Jinqian’ban: Xiucai Guogou (A Scholar Crossing the Ditch)
Example 3-20. Linchong Fapei (Banishment of Lin Chong) from Jingyun Dagu
Example 3-21. First phrase of Zhaoyun Jiejiang (Zhao Yun Recovering Liu Shan in
the River)
Example 3-22.The Long Melody in Linchong Fapei (Banishment of Lin Chong)
Example 3-23. Linchong Taxue (Lin Chong Walking in the Snow). Chen Style, sung
by Liu Tianyun
Example 3-24. Gongyuan (Complaints from the Palace). Yu Style, sung by Zhu
Huizhen
Example 3-25. Yingying Baiyue (Cui Yingying Worshipping the Moon). Xiao
Yangdiao, sung by Yang Renlin
Example 3-26. Sidiao from Shuang Zhufeng (Huo Dingjin Mourning for Her
Husband). Qi Style, sung by Qi Lianfang
Example 3-27. Fangqing Xie’jiaxin (Fang Qing Writing a Family Letter). Ma Style,
sung by Wei Hanying.
Example 3-28. Kuta of Zhenzhu Ta (Crying before the Pagoda in The Pearl Pagoda),
Suzhou Tanci
Example 3-29. Youhui Jidi (Swimming Back to the Base) in Jiang Style, Suzhou
Tanci
Example 3-30. Du Shiniang (Lady Du Shiniang), Suzhou Tanci
Example 3-31. Danyu Fengao (Daiyu Burning Manuscripts), Suzhou Tanci
Chapter IV
Example 4-1. Chao’tianzi (Paying Respect to the Emperor), version 1. Unison chorus
in Act Hunting of the Play Huanshaji
Example 4-2. Chao’tianzi (Paying Respect to the Emperor) , version 2. Unison chorus
in Act Hunting of the Play Huanshaji
Example 4-3. Shanpo’yang (The Sheep on Hill), version 1. Vocal melody sung by
Wu Feixia (female role) in Act Cangzhou (Hiding the Boat) of the Play
Yujia’le (Happiness of A Fishing Family)
Example 4-4. Shanpo’yang (The Sheep on Hill), version 2. Song sung by Du Liniang
(female role) in Act Jingmeng (Waking Dream) of the Play Mudan’ting
(Love Story of the Peony Pavilion)
Example 4-5. Possible melodic flow for the Chinese character “Yin” in level tone used
in Kunqu opera

X
LIST OF MUSIC EXAMPLES
Example 4-6. Possible melodic flow for the Chinese character “Yang” in rising tone
used in Kunqu opera
Example 4-7. The relationship between melody and text in Mandarin and Suzhou
dialects
Example 4-8. Lanhua’mei (Skipping Make Up for Eyebrows), a Labelled Piece of
Chuanju Gaoqiang
Example 4-9. The padding character using the rhyme of the preceding character
Example 4-10. Dragging tunes must use the “an” rhyme
Example 4-11. The application of padding words displaying the most distinctive
geographical characteristics
Example 4-12. Colorful tune used in Qinqiang Opera
Example 4-13. Song of Cui Jinding in Sanshang’jiao (The Chaste Female Who Takes
Revenge) sung by Chen Suzhen
Example 4-14. Song of Bai Suzhen in Baishe’zhuan (Legend of the White Snake)
sung by Chang Xiangyu
Example 4-15. A long first of the Paired Phrases of Erhuang Original Best in Beijing
Opera
Example 4-16. The Condensed Paired Phrases of Erhuang Original Best in Beijing
Opera
Example 4-17. A long second of the Paired Phrases of Erhuang Original Best in
Beijing Opera
Example 4-18. “Ending Phrases” of Erhuang Original Best in Beijing Opera
Exmaple 4-19. Comparison of the melodic, metric and modal structures between
Original Metre used by male and female roles
Example 4-20. The character “er” is clearly pronounced in Pingju Opera
Example 4-21. Gadayin of Pingju
Example 4-22. Madam Xianglin (Xianglin’sao)
Example 4-23. Fanyue’diao Tune Pattern used in Pingju Opera
Example 4-24. Two paired phrases of five-character phrase used in Pingju Opera
Example 4-25. Nanqiang’diao (Southern Melodies) used Yuejuin Opera
Example 4-26. Sigong’qiang used in Yueju Opera
Chapter V
Example 5-1. Comparison of the melodies of the first four phrases in four variations
of Wu’bangzi to appreciate the performing style of Feng Zicun and folk
wind music in general
Example 5-2. The introduction of Qudi flute piece Zhegu’fei (Flying Partridges,
arranged by Lu Chunling)
Example 5-3. Prelude of South Liaoning Wind-and-Drum Piece Jianghe’shui (Water
in River)
Example 5-4. Bainiao Chaofeng (Hundred Birds Facing the Phoenix), from First
Section

LIST OF MUSIC EXAMPLES
XI
Example 5-5. The Introduction and Theme of Erquan Yinyue played by Abing in
1950. Transcribed by Yang Yinliu, with fingering by Chu Shizhu and Li
Songshou
Example 5-6. Excerpt from Erquan Yingyue
Example 5-7. Prelude of Tingsong. Performed by Hua Yanjun, 1950
Example 5-8. Theme A of Erhu Piece Guangming’xing
Example 5-9. Theme B of Erhu Piece Guangming’xing
Example 5-10. Excerpt from second section of Qin Piece Meihua Sannong
Example 5-11. Excerpt from the second section of Liushui
Example 5-12. Excerpt from the fourth section of Liushui
Example 5-13. Comparison of melodies of each section of Chaozhou Zheng piece
Hanya Xishui: Erban, Kaopai, Sanban, Sanban Cui
Example 5-14. Excerpt from Yuzhou Changwan
Example 5-15. Excerpt from Lieying of Shimian Maifu
Example 5-16. “Wujiang Ziwen” from Shimian Maifu
Example 5-17. Excerpt from Yinggu of Pipa piece Bawang Xiejia
Example 5-18. Excerpt from Shengzhang of Pipa piece Bawang Xiejia
Example 5-19. Bieji of Pipa piece Bawang Xiejia
Example 5-20. The prelude and the theme of Xiyang Xiaogu (Sounds of Vertical Flute
and Drum at Moonlit Night)
Example 5-21. Theme of Jiangnan Sizhu piece Sanliu (Three-six)
Example 5-22. “Yunyang Ban” of Jiangnan Sizhu piece Xingjie
Example 5-23. Excerpt from Cantonese music Yuda Bajiao
Example 5-24. Excerpt from first section of Cantonese music Shuangsheng’hen
Example 5-25. Excerpt from Sailong Duojin
Example 5-26. Prelude and theme of Chaozhou Xianshi music Shizi Xiqiu
Example 5-27. “Hewei” (Common Tail) of each section of Fujian Nanyin piece
Bajun’ma
Example 5-28. First section of Fanglyu of “Association of Southern Style”
Example 5-29. Excerpt from the third section of Fanglyu
Example 5-30. Excerpt from the piece “Caicha” of Badatao in north Shanxi province
Example 5-31. “Sanban” of Luxinan Guchui’yue Yizhi Hua (A Flower) performed by
Ren Tongxiang, with score transcribed by Chen Jiaqi
Example 5-32. Excerpt from “Suizi” of Luxinan Guchui’yue: Dahe’tao
Example 5-33. Luogu Paizi piece Shiba Liusi’er
Example 5-34. Luogu Paizi piece Yuhe’ba
Example 5-35. “Hetou”(Common Head) of “Dasi’duan”
Example 5-36. Ending of first part of Hou Manting’fang
Example 5-37. Excerpt from Jiangjun Desheng’ling
Example 5-38. First “Xia” of Xi’an Guyue “Full Set of Eight-Beat Sitting Music in
Chediao Mode and Using Double Yunluo Set of Gongs”: Chi-Gong-
Chi

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Illustration 1-1. The structure of A Man is Singing a Mountain Song Outdoors
Illustration 2-1. The structure of Yulin (Guangxi) Tea-picking Songs and Dances
Illustration 2-2. The structure of Gengu’diao
Illustration 2-3. Second Mashrap of the Rak Muqam and its binary structure
Illustration 2-4. The structure of the melody in Sänäm of Naghma of Čäbbiyat Muqam
Illustration 3-1. Phrasal relationship of Chaqu between melody and lyrics
Illustration 3-2. Thirteen Rhymes of Chinese Putonghua
Illustration 3-3. Part of the verses of Ezuo Mizuo (Sky and Earth) from Hani ethnic
group
Illustration 4-1. Outlines of the characteristics of Banqiang form
Illustration 4-2. Outlines of the characteristics of Qupai form
Illustration 4-3. The “Four-tone Melodic Pattern” of South Kunqu
Illustration 4-4. Relationship of Bang (Vocal ensemble accompaniment), Da
(percussion) and Chang (singing) in Sichuan Opera
Illustration 4-5. Chuanju uses unique symbols, pronunciations and beating methods of
its notation forpercussion music
Illustration 4-6. A list of Xiqu Genres based on Bangzi Melodic Type
Illustration 4-7. Characteristics of Banhu fiddle in different operatic genres
Illustration 4-8. Classification and explanations of the metircal patterns of Qinqiang
Illustration 4-9. Yudong melodic style
Illustration 4-10. Metrical patterns of Yuju Opera
Illustration 4-11. Schools and transmission relationship of Beijing Opera
Illustration 4-12. The classification of roles of Beijing Opera
Illustration 4-13. Metrical patterns of Erhuang
Illustration 4-14. Metrical patterns of Xipi
Illustration 4-15. Rhythmic patterns of Zhengdiao in Pingju Opera
Illustration 4-16. Rhythmic patterns of Fandiao in Pingju Opera
Illustration 4-17. The voice ranges of Yuediao of Pingju Opera
Illustration 4-18. Metrical patterns used in Pingju Opera
Illustration 4-19. Metrical patterns used in Zhengdiao Pile Metre (Duoban) of Pingju
Opera
Illustration 4-20. Metrical patterns of Manban and Mizi of Pingju Opera
Illustration 4-21. Metrical patterns of Pingju
Illustration 4-22. 28 Initials notated in Yue dialect
Illustration 4-23. 41 Vowels, including “r,” but not appeared in the table, notated in
Yue dialect

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
XIII
Illustration 4-24. The relationship between the Chinese characters with entering tone
and melody treatments
Illustration 5-1. The tuning and range of each type of Banhu
Illustration 5-2. The range of Zheng of different designs
Illustration 5-3. There are different ways of tuning the Pipa, three most common ones
being
Illustration 5-4. The modes of each piece of “Thirteen Suites for String Ensemble”
and the relationship of key and tuning system for each instrument
Illustration 5-5. Illustration of the names of the modes, fingerings and the relationship
between keys and tunings of strings of Erren’tai Paizi’qu
Illustration 5-6. The relationship of mode names, fingerings, tunings, pitch names and
pitches of leading instruments Dizi and Erhu in Jiangnan Sizhu music
Illustration 5-7. The names of the modes, the relationship between keys and tunings of
strings of Yuehu fiddle used in Guangdong Yinyue
Illustration 5-8. The relationship of keys, fingering sequences and pitches of Guanzi
Pipe as principal instrument in ensemble of “Association of Southern
Style”
Illustration 5-9. The relationship of mode names, fingering techniques and tone pitch
of Guanzi pipe as principal instrument of Badatao
Illustration 5-10. Key relationships of the four modes used in Badatao of Shanxi
Illustration 5-11. The relationship of modal names, fingering sequences and keys of
Suona in the Luxinan Guchui’yue
Illustration 5-12. The relationship of modes, fingering techniques and pitches of the
Suona used in Wind-and-Drum Music in Shanxi Province
Illustration 5-13. The relationship of modes, fingering techniques and pitches of
Suona used in Wind-and-Drum Music in Liaoning
Illustration 5-14. The relationship between modal names, fingering techniques,
degrees and pitches of Di flute used in Shifan Luogu
Illustration 5-15. Characteristics of rhythmic changes of each variation of “Dasi’duan”
(Great Four Variations) of Xiaxi’feng of Shifan Luogu
Illustration 5-16. Arrangement of Ten Sets Gongs in Zhedong Luogu
Illustration 5-17. Key names, fingerings, tablature pitches and key relations of the
Suona
Illustration 6-18. The plan of sitting music shawm in Zhedong Luogu
Illustration 5-19. Pitches (in Gongche notation) of the double Yunluo

Contents
Notes from the translator and proofreader
List of music examples
List of illustrations
V
VII
XII
INTRODUCTION
I. Long History of Traditional Chinese Music Culture 1
II. Rich Connotation of Traditional Chinese Music Culture 8
III. Main Features of Traditional Chinese Music Culture 11
CHAPTER I FOLK SONGS
● SECTION 1 OVERVIEW 17
I. Definition of Folk Songs 17
II. Historical Evolution of Folk Songs 17
III. Status of Folk Songs in Lives of the Chinese 18
● SECTION 2 TYPES OF FOLK SONGS AND THEIR
ARTISTIC FEATURES 29
I. Folk Songs of Han People 29
II. Genres of Folk Songs of Ethnic Groups 69
CHAPTER II DANCE MUSIC
● SECTION 1 OVERVIEW 85
I. Definition of Dance Music 85

XVI
Contents
II. Historical Evolution of Chinese Dance Music 85
III. Artistic Features of Folk Dance 94
● SECTION 2 DANCE MUSIC AND ITS ARTISTIC FEATURES 98
I. Vocal Dance Music 98
II. Instrumental Dance Music 121
III. Composite Dance Music 137
CHAPTER III NARRATIVE SINGING
● SECTION 1 OVERVIEW 151
I. Definition of Narrative Singing 151
II. Historical Evolution of Narrative Singing 153
III. The Position of Narrative Singing in Traditional Chinese Culture 165
● SECTION 2 CATEGORIES AND ARTISTIC CHARACTERISTICS
OF NARRATIVE SINGING 170
I. Labeled Piece-based Narrative Singing 170
II. Narrative Singing: Gushu (Drum Songs) 203
III. The Art of Narrative Singing of Ethnic Minorities 256
CHAPTER IV MUSIC OF CHINESE OPERA (XIQU)
● SECTION 1 OVERVIEW 269
I. Definition of Music of Chinese Opera (Xiqu) 269
II. Historical Evolution of Xiqu Music 274
III. Position of Xiqu Art in Traditional Chinese Culture 279
● SECTION 2 CATEGORIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
XIQU MUSIC 282
I. Classification of Xiqu Music 282

Contents
XVII
II. Four Major Xiqu Melodic Types and Their Characteristics 287
III. Introduction to Selected Emerging Regional Xiqu Genres 353
CHAPTER V INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC
● SECTION 1 OVERVIEW 377
I. Definition of Instrumental Music and the Concept of Yuezhong
(Music Genre) 377
II. Historical Evolution of Instrumental Music 379
III. The Roles of Chinese Instrumental Ensembles in Chinese
Traditional Music Culture 393
● SECTION 2 SOLO AND ENSEMBLE GENRES AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS 395
I. Types of Solo Music and Their Music Characteristics 395
II. Major Types of Ensemble Music and Their Artistic Characteristics 454
REFERENCES
● CONTINUING READING MATERIALS 527
● SOUND RECORDINGS FOR LISTENING AND ANALYSES
RELATED TO EACH CHAPTER 529
APPENDIX
● GLOSSARY OF CHINESE TERMS 533
● ABOUT AUTHORS AND TRANSLATORS 646

INTRODUCTION
I. Long History of Traditional Chinese Music Culture
The musical culture in China has a long history. This is not surprising, as the country
has a written history over 5000 years, and its history of music culture can be traced
even further, a piece of solid evidence being the some 20 bone flutes excavated at the
tomb of Neolithic Age Site in Jiahu Village, Wuyang County, Henan Province during
1986 to 1987. The flutes are sophisticated, made to a high standard, with unified
shape and structure. The hollow pipe body measures about 20 cm in length, carved
with 7 holes (with an additional small hole at the back). After a trial performance and
acoustic test, the most intact bone flute (M282: 20) can emit accurate pitches of the
heptatonic scale; five of these instruments can produce a complete pentatonic scale.
These flutes dated back to 7000 to 8000 years based on Carbon-14 dating tests, that
is, the same age as Neolithic culture. Hence, the discovery of the bone flutes is the
earliest tangible proof of the origin of music culture in China. The precious legacy
from early history also includes over 160 bone flutes unearthed at Hemudu Site,
Yuyao County, Hangzhou Bay, Zhejiang Province. These instruments are of different
shapes and designs, and of different sizes. It is possible to conclude that they bear
rudimentary features of three structures, namely open, close and retractable pipes,
after thorough study of the positions of sound holes, blow holes, and the principle
of sound production. This indicates that, in China, as early as seven millennia ago,
there was a good understanding of various principles of making and performing wind
instruments.
Fig. 1. The bone flutes excavated at the tomb of Neolithic Age site in Jiahu Village, Wuyang County,
Henan Province (used with licence)

2 INTRODUCTION
Dating back three millennia to the Shang Dynasty, the character “ (yue, music)”
was found inscribed on oracle. The diagrammatic features can be interpreted as a
stringed instrument resting on a wooden stand. In the ensuing Zhou Dynasty some
2500 years ago, Confucius was believed to have compiled the classic of poetry
Shijing (Book of Songs), which contains 305 sung poetry, and can be considered as the
oldest extant Chinese songs. These were believed to be sung to an accompaniment.
From the verse structure, it is possible to distinguish over ten music forms, and these
provide the basis for study of Chinese music. The advent of Book of Songs marks
the early effort of folk song collection and collation in China. The social and cultural
life inherent in the texts is the beginning of realism in literature and art in China, and
they have a significant impact on the development of music and literature of later
generations.
The long history of bell-chimes dating back to pre-Qin period in the third century
B.C. is a unique feature of music culture in China, showing on the one hand the
great advancement of bronze casting technology, and on the other hand the pinnacle
of the theory of temperament and acoustic science in general. In the late Western
Zhou Dynasty (1045–771 B.C.), the number of bells included in a set had developed
from three or five to eight pieces. The famous set of bell-chimes unearthed at tomb
of Marquis Yi of Zeng of the Warring States Period in Sui County (present Suizhou
City), Hubei Province in 1978 comprises 64 regular bells and a Bo (large bell of
distinct shape). The finding has generated much interest in archaeological research
in organology, since the bells are the largest and most complete set of Chinese
Fig. 2. The set of bell-chimes unearthed at tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng of the Warring States Period
in Sui County (present Suizhou City), Hubei Province

Long History of Traditional Chinese Music Culture 3
tuned percussion instruments so far. The bell chimes cover a range of three octaves
chromatically. In addition, the bells are cast with temperament inscriptions and other
texts of over 2,800 ancient Chinese characters. There is a feeling amongst Chinese
scholars that the music treasure buried over 2400 years has become the testimony of
one aspect of advanced development of Chinese music culture in ancient times.
The Chinese believe that music is a composite art, meaning that a performance
usually comprises singing, instrumental playing, dance or acrobatics. In other
words, it is often difficult to single out one aspect of performance. Hence in the Han
Dynasty, when a new art form known as Xianghe 1 appeared, it encompasses songs,
dance, acrobatics and instrumental performance, and the genre later developed to
folk songs in Eastern and Western Han, Wei and Jin Dynasties. Songs in the Han can
be divided into two kinds, namely Xianghe’ge and Xianghe Daqu according to style
and context of performance. Xianghe’ge refers to the songs and ballads “sung in
streets”, that is, folk songs. These were first performed in style of Tuge (bare songs),
sung unaccompanied, and they were also known as Dange; these songs were later
performed with instrumental accompaniment. The singer usually holds a clapper to
mark the tempo, while the accompaniment may include Di bamboo flute, Sheng mouth
organ, Qin zither, Pipa lute and Zheng zither. Xianghe Daqu is a kind of large-scale
combined art form featuring songs, dance and music, developed from Xianghe’ge; the
former is performed as a kind of suite, and sections are organized according to certain
type of structure. When the instrumental part is played independently, the music is
called Danqu. After the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Xianghe Daqu was incorporated
into Qingyue Daqu with a new outlook. There was a general recognition of the value
of wind and drum music of Xianghe, and it had an important role to play in the
development of ceremonial music.
Music of western regions had a profound influence during the Sui and Tang
Dynasties, and various genres, including those developed amongst ethnic minorities,
began to have a more marked influence on Han music of central regions. The music
records in Suishu (Annals of Sui) and Jiu Tangshu (Old Annals of Tang) include
detailed descriptions of ensembles from western regions performed at court, which
included seven categories. For example, the description of Tianzhu music (from
India) refers to costumes of the musicians as monk’s gowns, inferring to ceremonial
Buddhist music; Qiuci music describes music of ancient Kucha (Qiuci), or present
Kuche County, Xinjiang, and it was considered the most influential type of foreign
music (Hubu’yue) at the Tang court; Xiliang music, originally known as Qinhan
music, developed from Han music in central regions by absorbing local Qiuci music
and folk music of northwest regions, and Xiliang music assumed a prominent position
at the Chinese court for many generations; Gaochang music originated from the
present Turpan of Xinjiang, and the music ensemble was established after Emperor
Taizong of Tang ascended to the throne; Kangguo music is originated near Samarkand
in Central Asia, the most outstanding feature being Whirling Dance (Huxuan’wu);
1 相 和

4 INTRODUCTION
Anguo music has links with music of the present Bukhara of Central Asia; Shule music
was music performed in present Shule and Yengisar areas of Xinjiang. While the
music of these genres is lost, the detailed description of the instrumental ensembles
throws some light on the acculturation that has been taking place.
In addition to influence of music from ethnic minorities of west regions,
important music genres of the Sui and Tang Dynasties included Yanyue (Ancient
Court Entertaining Music), Faqu (Buddhist Music), Guchui’yue (Wind-and-Drum
Music) and Guqin zither music. Yanyue refers to a kind of composed songs under the
influence of Qingyue (Han Chinese Music), while Huyue (Music of Ethnic Minorities)
was one of the six types of Zuobu’ji (Seated Performing Section) of the Tang court;
Faqu originated in the Sui Dynasty, and it was further developed in the Tang Dynasty.
It was a kind of song and dance Daqu (Composite Music) built on Chinese folk music
while absorbing foreign music; Guchui’yue (Wind-and-Drum Music) of Tang court
had many opportunities to develop. According to the instruments used in different
performing contexts, the genre could be divided into Wind-and-Drum Music Section
(Guchui’bu), Ritual Music Section (Yubao’bu), Cymbals-and-Wind Music Section
(Naochui’bu), Big Horizontal Flute Music Section (Da Hengchui’bu) and Small
Horizontal Flute Section (Xiao Hengchui’bu).
Gewu Daqu (Song-and-Dance Composite Music) assumed an important position
in the Sui and Tang Dynasties. The genre is based on large-scale musical form, and
huge varieties of instrumentation facilitated by rapid development of the art of making
instruments, resulting in music of grand scale. Gewu Daqu has much influence on
music of East and Southeast Asia.
Music for Pipa (four-stringed pear-shaped lute) became very fashionable in the
Sui and Tang Dynasties. In spite of its ethnic origin from western regions, Pipa music
developed much, as it was performed at court as well as used as a folk instrument,
undergoing Sinicization, and being enriched by improved techniques of instrumental
making and performing skills. The art of Guqin zither (or simply Qin) also developed,
with the emergence of famous Guqin musicians such as He Ruobi, Zhao Yeli, Dong
Tinglan, Xue Yijian and Chen Kangshi, who had made extraordinary contributions
and had far-reaching influence; many songs and Qin compositions are still extant,
thanks to the discovery of Guqin notation, which had further helped the preservation
and dissemination of its music. The earliest extant Guqin notation is a rather lengthly
text notation in the Tang Dynasty recorded by Liang Qiuming of the Southern Dynasty
(494~590 AD), entitled Jieshi’diao Youlan (Secluded Orchid in Jieshi Mode). During
the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Zhao Yeli, Chen Zhuo, Cao Rou and other Qin musicians
reformed Guqin text notation, and finally discovered the Jianzi notation (abbreviated
characters notation). This special notation of Guqin is still in use today. The Qin
making technology reached unprecedented height in the Tang Dynasty. The Lei family
in Sichuan was famous for Qin making, Lei Wei being the most famous. Shen Liao
and Zhang Yue from south of the Yangtze River were “master players of Qin” in the
period.
Narrative singing took its shape in the Tang Dynasty and was marked by Bianwen

Long History of Traditional Chinese Music Culture 5
(Changing Scriptures) and Jiangchang (Storytelling and Singing) in the temples.
In the Song Dynasty, Ci poem music (Ciyue) and Guqin music were most
important. Ci poem music is a vocal genre sung to Ci poem, and the core music
materials dated back to the Sui and Tang Dynasties. During the later part of the
Tang dynasty, the literati were more involved in writing song texts, therefore greatly
improving the artistic value of Ci. By the way, Ci was a popular literary genre during
the Five Dynasties, and it reached its heyday in the Song Dynasty. Structurally
Ci has a structure comprising long and short verses, and such flexibility allows
juxtapositioning between texts according to the length, and the twists and turns of the
tune. Cipai (poetic labels set musically) has a framework, its feature being “structure
with sentence pattern; a sentence with word pattern, and a word with sound pattern.”
Cipai includes Ling, Jin and Man categories based on its length. In Ciyuan (Origin
of Ci ) written by Zhang Yan, there is a reference to Yang Zuan’s Zuoci Wu’yaosu
(Five Elements for Ci Creation), which states that the first step is to choose a tune,
second is to set a tempo, third is to juxtapose words with music, fourth is to rhyme,
and the last is to introduce new ideas. Yang’s idea of Ci is therefore not limited to
the literary aspect, but rather encompassing creativity in music. Ci music therefore
refers to art songs in ancient China, and it has absorbed ethnic and foreign music, in
addition to folk music. Folk musicians and literati also created new form of this music
genre, known as Ziduo’qu (self-composed song). The famous Baishi Daoren Gequ (A
Song Collection by Baishi Daoren) by Jiang Kui (whose pen name is Baishi Daoren)
includes music notations along Ci music, which had enabled scholars of many
generations to investigate an authentic style of performance.
In addition to Ci poem music, Guqin zither music developed much in the Southern
Song Dynasty, which also led to everlasting influence in the history of Chinese
music. Famous masters of the Guqin of the period included Guo Mian (literary name
Chuwang, c.1190–1260 AD), and he was recognized for his interpretation of famous
pieces such as Xiaoxiang Shuiyu (Mist and Clouds over Xiaoxiang Lake), Fan
Canglang (Waves Coming Over) and Qiuhong (Autumn Geese); Liu Zhifang was
remembered for his famous pieces Wangji (Empty Mind) and Wujiang’yin (The Song
of Wujiang River); Mao Minzhong was highly regarded for his famous pieces Yuge
(Fisherman Song), Qiaoge (Song of Woodcutter) and Peilan (Having Orchid).
During the Jin and Yuan Dynasties, opera and narrative music came into limelight.
The former genre mainly includes Zaju (Miscellaneous Dramatic Performances) and
Nanxi (Southern Opera), while the latter refers to Zhugong’diao (Tunes in Multiple
Modes).
In the Northern Song Dynasty, Zaju (Miscellaneous Dramatic Performances)
was a general term for different formats of performance, such as farce, puppet show,
shadow puppets, narrative singing, song-and-dance, acrobatics and martial arts, but
it can also refer to a special kind of operatic performance. In the ensuing Southern
Song Dynasty, there was an understanding that “only Zaju is idiomatic” 2 . Zaju was,
2 From Ducheng Jisheng (Records of the Capital), written by Nai Deweng in the Southern Song Dynasty.