Cartography Development - Technische Universiteit Eindhoven

Urban Analysis
code 7W565
Cartography
Development
Copyright Technische Universiteit Eindhoven
This material is intended for students of the Technische Universiteit
Eindhoven only. No part of it may be copied or distributed in any form.
Lecturer: Reinder Rutgers
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Content
Using historical examples:
• Functions of maps
• Types of maps
• Use of maps
Urban Analysis
code 7W565
Content of the lecture
The idea is that many aspects of mapping can be shown by looking at the
history of mapping. This is not out of nostalgia. Our forefathers often had
to cope with the same questions somebody venturing in the field of
cartography faces today. Many themes are still to be found in modern
maps.
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Babylon
600 B.C.
Oldest known map of the world.
Babylonian clay tablet ca. 600 B.C..
Earth depicted as a circle with the city of Babylon in the middle (horizontal
rectangle)
The River Euphrate streams through the city (two lines in the middle).
Other cities depicted as circles
Triangle of seven islands on the edge of the world where fable animals are
thought to live.
The map maker was more interested in a mythical view of the world than in a
geo-political representation. Babylon is linked to 'fabulous' places in the
literal en figurative meaning of the world.
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Rotterdam 1982
Rotterdam as center of the world
Map means:
• Establishing your own position in the world. A map is a window to the world.
• Power. This is reflected for instance in the fact that the new grandiose town hall of
Amsterdam built in the 17th century (now a Royal Palace) has a map of the world
on the floor in the great hall, showing the power of the low countries.
• Knowledge
• Proudness
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Tuba City
400 B.C.
Fragment of the city plan of ‘Tuba’, 4th century B.C. (clay tablet)
The oldest known town plan of an inhabited place dates from ca. 2000 B.C.
(It has been carved in a rock face in the north of Italy)
The town plan of Tuba includes directions for the defense of the town: the
positions of the guards, opening times of the gates, etc.
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Eindhoven
2001
Map of the police districts and stations in Eindhoven (2001)
A modern equivalent of the Tuba map
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Polynesia
Polynesian sea map
• shells depict islands
• palm twigs indicate wind directions and sea currents
This knowledge is essential for survival in the Pacific. Islands can only been
found with thorough knowledge of the way nature behaves.
The map is used to transfer knowledge from one generation to the other.
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Australia
Holy map of Australian Aboriginals
Australian aboriginals believe that the spirits of their forefathers have formed
caves, lakes and water holes. The time of the forefathers is called the
'dream time'. This means that for the aboriginals the landscape is sacred.
The path that where followed by the forefathers are called 'dream tracks',
some of them are hundreds of kilometers long. Holy maps are used to
teach children about the dream time. The maps are painted on birch bark.
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Egypt
Egyptian map of the underworld
Routes for the underworld painted on the inside of a coffin to help the
deceased on his last journey. There is one map for the daytime (light
colors) and one for the nighttime (dark colors).
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Peutinger map 4 th century
Part of a Roman roadmap 4th century
11th or 12th century copy of a Roman map. The so called Peutinger map,
after a German scientist.
Intention of the map: a guide for traveling. The map depicts travel stages
between cities, fortifications and outpostst. A traveler can estimate the
distances and knows where there are possibilities for save stay overs.
Topographical correctness is not of importance so the information is
stretched to form ‘routes’. Other information on the map: harbours,
springs and rivers are depicted with symbols.
The circle on the right side of the illustration symbolizes Rome. At the bottom
of it its port Ostia is shown.
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Mabada
6 th century
6th century mozaik map
In a church in Mabada, Jordania (east roman empire)
Original size 6 x 24 m.
Part that still exists: Palestina form the valley of Jordan to the valley of the
Nile. In the middle Jerusalem. Central street with columns. 36 buildings,
some of them are identifiable.
-Upper right: the church of Theotokos. Built by the emperor Justinianus, 542
-Middle Church of the holy grave (facing down in the illustration with the
golden cupola).
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Stone map China 1136
Stone map from China 1136
Shows China during the Nan Song dynasty and also covers a part of Korea.
The big rivers are shown and the map contains 400 names of cities
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Portolan 13
13 th century
‘Portolan’, sea map 13th century
The word ‘Portolan’ points to a list with names of ports (Portolani) that for a
long period if time was used by sailors.
-North is on the upper side of the map (this was not at all a convention on
earlier maps).
-The map contains Loxodromes (directions on the compas) and an indication
of scale. This indicates that the map was intended for practical use.
-Remarkable: Sardinia has been depicted very accurate (trade, pirates,
hiding place during storms?). Engeland is only shown as a rough
rectangle (upper left).
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Mappa mundi
Hereford
14 th century
The Mappamundi of Hereford, 13th century (east is upper)
A ‘mappamundi’ is schematic world map
The function is symbolic and didactic 'to learn and entertain'.
The Latin word 'Mappa' means cloth. The factual meaning of 'Mappamundi' is
thus ‘tapestry of the world’. The English word 'map' has been abbreviated
from 'mappa'. The map in Hereford Cathedral is the larges medieval map
that has been preserved.
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T-O O map
14 th century
So called ‘T-O’ world map,14th century
-The world as a diagram with Jerusalem in its centre
-Theocentrical map
-The map is about its content, it says something of the world view
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Concept from Generalsiedlungsplan Köln ln 1923
Schematical representatin of Köln (Cologne) by Fritz Schumacher,
Generalsiedlungsplan, 1923
-A modern equivalent of the diagramatic map of the middle ages.
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Constantinopel
15 th century
Map of Constantinopel, 1482
Made to promote the city.
The map reflects the importance and influence of the city.
-The map and the buildings that are shown have the intention to convey a
positive image and to inspire awe.
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Manhattan
1995
Manhattan, 1995
-In modern days maps are still made that have the intention to
reflect the importance of a city and to promote its image.
-And they also are deformed to emphasize the message, as were
the old maps.
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World map Juan de la Costa 1500
World map Juan de la Costa 1500
The world gets bigger (and round). Maps are used to make sense of it. To
support this functions all kinds of ‘marginalia’ are depicted that explain
‘strange things’ for outsiders. This map is also an indication of the power
of Spain, emphasizing its claims on parts of the world.
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Amsterdam
by Cornelis
Anthoniszoon
1544
Amsterdam 1544
‘The famous merchant city of Amsterdam’. Cornelis Anthoniszoon.
-The map is an expression of the pride of the city.
-It is a means to promote the involvement with and attachment of the citizens with
their city. The printed map was hanging in many Amsterdam homes at the time.
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Rotterdam
2001
Rotterdam 2001
-The modern equivalent: Rotterdam the famous merchant city, Biggest
harbor in Europe and one of the biggest harbors in the world.
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Abraham Ortelius 1570
Abraham Ortelius, map of America 1570
-This map was part of the very first atlas ‘Theatrum Orbis Terrarum’, made in
1570 and published by Abraham Ortelius in Antwerpen. The first version
had 70 maps. The word 'Atlas' was devised by the famous Antwerp map
maker Mercator.
- All maps have the same dimensions, have a comparable cartographic lay
out and are bound in a book. Before maps where rolled up.
- The atlas was thé bestseller of the 16th century and the idea was copied
many times.
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Frankfurt, Braun en Hogenberg 1599
Frankfurt, Braun en Hogenberg 1575
Six books with city plans ‘Civitates Orbis Terrarum’ published between 1572
and 1618. Bran and Hogenberg worked in Köln.
-Compromise between a diagrammatic and a picturesque city plan.
-In reality many parts of Frankfurt had a much higher density of buildings
and much narrower streets.
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City panorama as marketing image
Köln ln 1474
'Side show': the city panorma as a way to market the city
Panorama Köln 1474
From Werner Rolevinck, Fasciculus Temporum. Published 1474, Wood
carving. As far is known the first printed book with town views.
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Köln ln by Braun en Hogenberg 1599 copper engraving
Panorama Köln Braun en Hogenberg 1599, Copper engraving.
Throgh the centuries Köln exploited its riverside panorama to promote the
city.
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Los Angels 1894
Panorama, Los Angeles 1894
Panoramas were very popular in America in the 19th century. They represent
the same pride as the map of Amsterdam by Anthoniszoon of 1544.
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Rotterdam 1955 Frits
Frits Rotgans, Rotgans,
Maashaven
Panorama, Maashaven Rotterdam, Frits Rotgans, 1955
In the second world war Rotterdam was devastated by a heavy
bombardment. After the war the city worked hard to reestablish itself as a
major harbor and succeeded in doing so. The pride of the citizens was
expressed in the series of panoramic photographs of the city and its
harbor made by the Rotterdam photographer Frits Rotgans.
On the sideline it can be remarked that Rotgans later was criticized because
his photos were clean, accentuating the gigantic works of humans rather
than showing the humans themselves. In twist of fate at the end of the
twentieth century this style of photography became highly popular.
Especially the work of the German couple Becher has become famous.
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Eindhoven 2007
Skyline, Eindhoven 2007
Every provincial city in Europe seems to think high rise building defines a real
city and makes it stand out. So the profile of every provincial city is
starting to look like cliché American provincial cities that all have the
same type of skyline and do not stand out at all.
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Accurate maps
Imola 1502 Leonardo da Vinci Polar co
Accurate maps
Polar coördinates rdinates
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Immola 1502 by Leonardo da Vinci Polar coordinates
Da Vinci based his way of mapping on the techniques of Leon Battista Alberti
(1404 - 1472) who performed measurements of Rome using polar
coordinates.
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Alkmaar
Jacob van
Deventer
ca. 1565 Triangulation
Alkmaar, map by Jacob van Deventer (ca 1570) Triangulation
-At the end of the sixteenth century maps are becoming more accurate,
especially maps of smaller areas. Dutch and Flemish cartographers like
van Deventer and Snellius play a key role in this.
-Function of the van Deventer maps: military data. He was working for the
King of Spain, who at that time was souvereign of the Netherlands and
faced a growing opposition, leading to the Dutch freedom war that lasted
from 1568 to 1648. Van Deventer made maps of all 400 cities of the low
countries.
-If you project his maps on the present topographical map it turns out that
they are remarkably accurate thanks to his method of triangulation. The
van Deventer maps where unique in this respect and where not surpassed
until the middle of the eighteenth century. When comparing: keep in mind
that the later defeces of Alkmaar shown on the present map where not yet
constructed in 1565.
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transition
1997
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transition
1997
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topographical map 1997 scale 1:25.000
1997
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Culemborg by
Johannes Blaeu
1648
Culemborg by Johannes Blaeu 1648
Detaild depiction of the characteristic of the town. The maps of van Deventer
are geometric correct diagrams. Blaeus maps on the contrary try to
convey the image of the city.
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Idem besides the modern topographic map
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Comparison of the map of Bleau with the modern geometric correct
map.
In the Blaeu map the streets have been depicted to represent the way they
are percieved if you walk the streets of Culemborg (you can check this by
going there). Sometimes they feel much more curved then they are,
sometimes straighter. Bleaus map thus is 'cognitive' to a certain extend.
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Westfriese omringdijk 17
17 th century
part of the Westfriese omringdijk.
-A dike to protect the area of West Friesland in the North of Holland.
-To protect the dikes had to be managed carefully. Correct maps where an
important tool for this (North is left on this map). This partly explains the
flourishing of cartography in the low countries.
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1633
Maps for polders
By Henricus Hondius, Amsterdam 1633
The polders depicted (Zijper, Beemster, Purmer, Wormer, Buikslotermeer,
Broekermeer and Bijlmermeer). Where all completely new land recovered
from former lakes and made dry by extensive civil works including
hundreds of windmills.
Maps were used to design the new land. This can be considered to be the
first example of design on a regional level.
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A different view of the world
North polel Gerardus Mercator 1595
A different view of the world
Gerardus Mercator: Map of the north pole 1595
The first map devoted to the north pole. It shows the north pole as a group
of rock islands.
The map can be seen as a design for the new world that yet has te be
discovered. In this sense it is a kind of 'research by design', as in modern
urban design. The design represents a hypothesis based on the
knowledge available. This hypothesis can be adapted as knowledge
increases.
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Mollweide projection Mercator projection
Cilindrical projection
Equal area surfaces
Mercator projection
The Mercator projection has become dominant in cartography. It makes it
easy for sea farers to plot a course, however, like all projections, it
distorts the view of the world. Other forms of projection have been used
to overcome the shortcomings of the Mercator projection. They also
convey a different view of the world. In the Mercator projection the
western countries in the northern hemisphere look disproportional big and
Africa to small. It has been argued that this feeds the predjudice that the
world is all about the developed countries and that the rest is of no
particular importance. The cylindrical projection for instance depicts the
dimensions of the landsurfaces but the top and bottom look very
unnatural flattened.
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Left: map 1960, right: map 1971
Up until the seventies of the twentieth century the ocean floor was
considered to be a kind of fairly flat and gently undulating 'desert'.
The map based on research of the late sixties and published in National
Geographic magazine of 1971 completely transformed our view of the
ocean floor, leading to a new view of the world.
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Map as propaganda
Leo Belgicus
1585 and later
Map as propaganda
‘Leo Belgicus’
-The map depicted as the 'Belgian lion' (In that time 'Belgica' was the Latin
expression used for all of the low countries, present Belgium, The
Netherlands and Luxemburg)
-It is an expression of the freedom struggle of the low counties against Spain
-It has been printed in many alternative forms and was distributed on a large
scale as propaganda for the freedom fighters that wanted to make the
low countries independent. They eventually succeeded after 80 years.
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1611
Leo Belgicus turnes around
-This is the expression of an internal struggle in the low countries concerning
the question if a peace treaty should be negotiated with Spain. -The
turned around lion symbolizes aggression and continuing the battle.
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1780
Later Leo Belgicus: only the north of the Netherlands
Eventually the north and the south of the low countries where divided. The
south remaining under Spanish rule, the North independent. Moreover the
part of The Netherlands that is called ‘Holland’ became totally dominant.
This is reflected in the new Leo Belgicus. It only covers Holland, Utrecht
and Zeeland (that gave its name to New Zealand), the rest of the country
is left out.
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1940 Nazi propaganda map
Nazi propaganda map
1940 publicized in the propaganda magazine 'Facts in review'. This was
published in America with the purpose to influence public opinion to keep
America out of the war. The map suggests that the territorial claims of
Germany are nothing compared to the imperialism of England.
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1950 American map of Korea
American map 1950
Invasion of South Korea by North Korea. Threatening pitch black. White
arrows to symbolize heroic defence (refering to the ‘white knight’ of fairy
tales). The map has the intention to rally support among the American
people for the American intervention.
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Australia up above! Cilindrical map projection
Australia up above!
The expression 'land down under' is only based on the fact that in present
maps and globes north is standard on the upper side of the map. In fact
the universe has no up or down. Like the Mercator projection, the idea of
'down under' looks innocent but it has in implicit connotation of 'less
important'. As a reaction this map was published with the south pole on
top and also in the cylindrical projection, depicting the size of the
landmasses correctly.
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Map as argument
Translation: The Netherlands have the most poluted air in Europe
Map as argument
‘The Netherlands have the most poluted air of Europe’
This map published in a Dutch newspaper is drawn in such a way - with
alarming colors - that the situation looks most severe. An example of
processing facts in a specific way, just like the propaganda maps of slides
45 and 46.
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Proliferation of settlements in occupied territory
Maps have always been a battleground for controvercies. This sublimates in
what is portrayed and what not and how elements on the map are
named.
The Israelian architect Eyal Weizman uses cartography to show that official
Israeli maps do not accurately show the real progress of new settlements
and Israeli interventions in the West Bank and the Gaze Strip. In fact
much more space has been taken up by this. He uses his own
observations from airplanes and satellite photographs for this.
Left: consolidated map of the West Bank. This is part of the official
agreement between Isreal and the Palestinans about autonomous areas
for the Palastine people.
Right: Map by Weizman showing the factual settlements and safety walls
build by the Israelians. It makes clear that this totally fragments the
Palestinian area and that the situation differs significantly from the official
agreement. Every difference in itself looks small, but the totality of these
small differences is substantial. Moreover some Israeli settlements block
connections between Palestine areas.
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Map as advertisement
Map as advertisement
Map of Oberstdorf and the Kleinwalzertal
Conveying the message: 'look what a phantastic ski resort we have'. Thus
trying to influence peoples choice of destination.
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How do I get to Ikea? Real situation
How do I get to Ikea
And how is the map distorted....?
Right: the topographical correct dimensions.
By distorting the map Ikea is conveying the massage that their Eindhoven
store is easy to reach and the distances are short. In fact many routes
are often choked with traffic.
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Texaco Gas
Road map of
Florida
1927
Texaco Gas Map of Florida 1927
From 1923 maps where to be had free at gas stations (UK english: petrol
stations). This was done to promote car travel. This tradition led to a type
of road map that is simple and 'empty' up to the present day.
In Europe the artistic tradition prevailed leading to elaborate maps with often
beautifull graphics.
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American map (advertisement-tradition) European map (artistic tradition)
Comparison of an Amercian and European road map
Left: part of Maryland Right: an area near Kassel (Germany)
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American map (advertisement-tradition) European map (artistic tradition)
Comparison of an Amerikan and European city plan
Left: Queens New York, right: Frankfurt am Main
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Map as advertisement / as depiction of an imaginary world
'Outdooria'
Advertisment map that suggests that a world is a limiteless, almost empty
and perfect 'playground', inviting to buy products to enjoy it. Equivalents
can be found in car advertisments showing cars on empty endless roads
in empty countries, whereas in reality most people drive on clogged
roads.
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Imaginary world
Map to facilitate phantasy
Part of Middle Earth
Map to facilitate phantasy
A non existing world that is still well known to many people
The map portrays Middle Earth form the famous book 'Lord of the rings'.
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Map as emblem
Map as an emblem
Plan for Kopenhagen 1954
-metaphores often play a role in urban design and planning, they make it
easier to convey an idea (but can also be misleading ofcourse).
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Map as news
London 1666
Map as news
Londen after the great fire of 1666
The map serves two purposes
-Accurate survey in preparation of rebuilding the city
-News for the rest of the world. It satisfies curiosity for disasters, just like TV
programs do now a days. This could be called disaster cartography.
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Enschede
2000 Map of the area destoyed in the great disaster of 2000
Disaster area, Enschede 2000
Modern equivalent of the London map of 1666. Map showing the area of the
city of Enschede (The Netherlands) destroyed when a factory of fireworks
exploded in the year 2000. A complete living quarter was destroyed and
there were many wounded and deaths. The hastely made map tries to
convey the seriousness of the situation to the authorities and to the
public in general.
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Map as knowledge
Map as knowledge
Accurate cartography of France 1693
By the French academy of sciences.
Blue line: the outline of France as shown on maps up until that moment,
Black line: the accurate contour of France as established by accurate
measurement.
France 'loses' the largest piece of land in its history!
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1832 1:2500 / 1: 1250
Kadaster map of Eindhoven 1832
-From the end of the 18th century accurate cartography really takes on. In
particular France plays a great role in this development.
-Maps mean power and the French kings were fully aware of this, they
promoted cartography, unintentionally paving the way for Napoleon. His
success is attributed by military historians to the fact that he possessed
excellent maps allowing him to take full advantage of a situation in the
filed and thus able to outsmart his opponents.
-One of the legacies of the Napoleontic area is the public Kadaster. This was
founded with the intention to register land ownerschip for the purpose of
leveying taxes by the gouvernment. The Kadaster made accurate maps of
the whole country.
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ca. 1830 1:25.000
Hand drawn map of the southern part of The Netherlands on a scale
of 1:25.000. 1830
These accurate topographic maps were made by military officers in a short
period of time when there was a state of war between The Netherlands
and Belgium who had declared itself independent. The maps formed the
basis of:…. (see next slide)
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ca.1850 published since 1860 1:50.000
…Militaire Topografische kaart 1:50.000 (Military and topographic map of the
Netherlands on a scale of 1:50.000) 1865
-A second heritage of the Napoleontic area was the topographic service, producing
accurate maps for military and general use.
-The first printed accurate detailed topographic map of the Netherlands was published
from 1865 onwards. It is based on the hand drawn maps of 1830 and field work
between 1845 and 1855.
-This is still a very important map, and thus it is still reissued in facsimile. The
importance lays in the fact that it is invaluable in studying landscape structures,
geology, soil structures and historic developments.
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Since 1894 1:25.000
First colored topographic map of The Netherlands 1894 1:25.0000
This was made possible by the invention of lithography by Senefelder.
However the size of the printing stones was limited, making it necessary
to order the maps in a new system that deviated from the numbering of
1865. The 1894 maps are in Dutch also known as 'Bonnebladen'. After
1940 the topographic service returned to the original numbering because
at that time Lithographic presses using aluminium plates where able to
print large formats.
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1996
Topografical map 1:25.000 1996
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Mount Everest 1988 drawn by Swiss cartographs
Swiss cartographs elevated the topographical maps mountain areas to works
of art. Eventually their style also influenced Dutch topographic maps, not
in so much in the 'Dutch mountains' (that do not exist), but in the cleaner
look of the maps since the late eighties of the twentieth century.
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First geological map
William Smith
1815
First geological map William Smith 1815
15 copper engravings. Total size 2,60 x 1,80 meter.
This map gave a revolutionary view of Britain, it raised many questions and
eventually thoroughly shook the believe that the earth had been created
in seven days and had been the same ever since.
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Geological map Soil map
Example of the geological maps and soil maps of The Netherlands
The fact that The Netherlands are flat does not say that geology is of no
importance. On the contrary: in the river delta that the country in
essence is, the geology changes much faster than in mountainous areas.
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Map as knowledge = power
Map as knowledge / map equals power
German map of the area around Duinkerken (Dunkirk) 1940
Why did the German panzers halt just before Duinkerken allowing much of
the British expeditionary army to escape? This is a question that always
has puzzled historians. Many sought the answer in the sphere of politics
or psychology. There is however a plausible physical explanation. The
German high command used this soil map of Belgium in planning their
campaign. The blue area on the map depicts clay (so called 'Ieper clay').
This is bad terrain for tanks because it is water logged and tanks tend to
sink in it, especially with some types of weather. Possible this made the
high command hesitate to send tanks in it. Commanders in the field did
not have this information and could not understand the decision of the
high command.
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Map as a tool for research
John Snow
1855
Map as a tool for reseach
Proliferation of cases of Cholera near the Broad Street Pump
A map made by doctor John Snow
- In Engeland accurate mapping of cities was driven by considerations of
hygiene
- The commission that was established in 1834 to fight the proliferation of
contagious diseases soon discovered that improvements could only be
achieved if accurate maps were available.
- Generally it was believed that diseases where spread by smell. John Snow
had the suspicion it was probably water. He mapped all the death cases in
an area of London and discovered they where far more numerous around
Broad Street pump. His conclusion was that the disease was carried by
the water of that pump. This was later confirmed when it turned out that
also at the source of the water of the pump many had died of cholera.
- This map is an early example of socio-geographical research an as thus a
precursor of later research in planning and design.
In the Netherlands in 1862 doctor M.F.Onnen performed a comparable
research in the city of Dordrecht. His map showed that the cases of
Cholera where related to polluted water in the canals of the city
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Fire insurance map
Leeds
1886
Fire insurance map of Leeds 1886
-The data on the map are of importance in establishing the height of the
premiums that have to be paid for fire insurances. Shown are for instance
the vicinity of pumps and water and on the one hand buildings with fire
resistant walls and roofs on the other hand combustable buildings.
-This knowledge gives insurance companies an advantage.
- This is still the case today: insurances can flourish because they do know
more of the real risks then their customers who just perceive risk.
- Better cartographic base maps made these type of maps possible
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Map of London Poverty 1891
Map of London poverty 1891
-The map as a tool for policy and a way of evoking action. Maps made the
extend of the poverty of the industrial age visible.
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Examples of so called Choropleth maps
A well known form of depicting spatial data but also a very dangerous form.
See Monmonier, 'How to lie with maps' for an explanation.
These type of maps are also refered to as 'cartograms'
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Example of a cartogram: shops and services in a street
Köln Venloer strasse. The map is augmented by photographs to convey the
message that the atmosphere of the street is not just about ‘dry data’.
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Schipping
North sea
24 hours
Shipping in the North Sea during a 24 hour period
Established by tracking signals that ships use for satellite navigation.
Mobile phones have been used to establish the flow of traffic. The map shows
a world that is not visible on normal maps, where the see looks empty.
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Distance Travel time
Distance to the town of Lille
Left: absolute distance as the crow flies.
Right: equal travel times distort the absolute distances. (red circles
represent equal absolute distances)
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Descicion support tool
Mapping as a decision support instrument
Source: De Volkskrant 24-11-2007
As has been shown in the previous slides maps can have many functions,
meanings and connotations. This is an important notion, but leaving this
aside for a moment, in essence a map can be seen as a way to visualize
relating data. This can be spatial data but also not-spatial data. Thus
ideas, organizations or processes can be mapped out. This can be a
powerful tool. This example maps out the arguments pro and contra
making discharge of employees easier for employers. The map shows that
some decisions are related and cannot be made independently of each
other. The power of visualizations is based in the fact that over 50% of
our brains is devoted to processing visual information.
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Maps in Urban Design and Planning
Maps play an important role in urban design and planning. In many ways it is
all the designer has (that is to say: if one includes all types of visual
representations in the word 'map') as the urban environment is not an
object that can be manipulated as a work of art or can be perceived as a
building. For the researcher it is a primary means to obtain overview and
structure the data. This makes it of utmost importance that professional
master mapping to an extend that is adequate for their specific purposes.
It is no wonder that throughout the history of planning and urban design
much attention has been given to maps and illustrations.
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Extension plan Haarlem1644
Plan for the extension of Haarlem 1644
Already in the seventeenth century maps were invaluable in urban design in
The Netherlands. The building boom of that period perhaps is the root of
the tradition of urban design and planning in the Netherlands
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79

Leonard Springer
Design for a
cemetery
Hilversum
1889
Leonard Springer design for a cemetery in Hilversum 1889
Naturalistic drawing. A very clear way to show the design, no legend
nescessary.
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80

H.P. Berlage
Amsterdam Zuid
1915
Map of the design of Amsterdam Zuid, 1915, H.P. Berlage
-Highlight of urban design according to artistic principles in The Netherlands.
Getting international acclaim, but dissapproval by Dutch modernistic
architects. Now a days it is a highly valued district of Amsterdam. The
map is in the tradition of urban design drawings in the 19th century.
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81

H.P. Berlage
Amsterdam Zuid
1915
Birds eye perspective of Berlages plan
The plan for Amsterdam Zuid was complemented with birds eye perspectives.
These convey the intention of the designer.
The perspectives can be seen as a far echo of the 1544 plan of Amsterdam
by Anthonisszoon.
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82

Köln ln
Design for a
green structure
F. Schumacher
1923
1923, Köln (Cologne), Design for a green structure, Fritz Schumacher
One of the earliest thematic designs in urban planning. Also a beautiful
example of mapping in black and white. Many students of planning and
urban design tend to make too much use of color on their maps.
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83

1923 Köln K ln design for part of the city F. . Schumacher
1923, Köln, Design for part of the city, Fritz Schumacher
The use of perspective and detailed drawings convey the intention of the
designer. Although Schumacher also made designs on what could be
called the 'abstract planning level' he did not forget that eventually the
environment was no abstraction had to look right. This is expressed in the
maps and drawings.
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84

1930 Amsterdam
Preliminary design for the Algemeen Uitbreidings Plan (AUP)
1930 , Amsterdam, preliminary design for the A.U.P.
The famous General Extension Plan of Amsterdam (Algemeen
Uitbreidingsplan Amsterdam A.U.P.), icon of the international modern
movement in Architecture, was preceded by extensive research and
preliminary plans.
-The plan consists of districts for which the surface area, number of
inhabitants and number of dwellings are given. It reflects the abstractness of
the modern approach. It marks the start of modern spatial planning. The
problem with this approach that the urban design of the living quarters could
go any way, numbers hardly give any clue of the quality of the spaces that
are designed within their confines.
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85

1934 AUP
A.U.P., 1934
The well known map reflects the abstractness of the approach. Sometimes
also referred to as a 'rational' approach. In that case 'rational' stands for
a specific type of rationality in which the way space is experienced plays
no role. However the picturesque medieval city image could also be called
'rational', be it in a different meaning, because it is based on the
rationality of everyday interaction with the environment and adapting it to
human needs.
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86

1936 v.d. v.d.
Broek, Broek,
competition design ‘goedkope goedkope arbeiderswoningen’
arbeiderswoningen
Isometric drawing of a design for a living quarter
Submission by the architect v.d.Broek for a competition to design cheap
housing for workers, 1936 (prijsvraag goedkoope arbeiderswoningen
gemeente Amsterdam). A design according to modernistisc principles.
The abstractness of the drawing reflects the abstractness of thinking.
Modernist deliberately rejected perspective drawing in favour of
planimetric mathematic projections. In their view this reflected better the
universal and abstract values architecture should stand for and the
multidimensionallity of architecture.
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87

1937 Aerial photograph Amsterdamse bos
Aerial photograph
The mega park Amsterdamse Bos (Amsterdam forest), part of the AUP.
Photograph 1937. Aerial photography had a profound influence on the
way we percieve the earth. Being novel and modern, the modernist
embraced this new technique. Le Corbusier went as far as writing a
special booklet about it, pronouncing that finally aerial photography would
make urban design 'scientific' and 'rational'.
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ca. 1990 Orthogonal areal photograph in color
Orthogonal aerial photograph in color
Of special interrest for mapping, planning and urban design are orthogonal
aerial photographs. This technique was extensively used for military
reconnaissance in the second world war and has been invaluable since.
Because of the costs photographs where taken in black and white but
from the end of the eighties of the twentieth century it became normal
practice to take colored photographs. Professional aerial photographs are
taken in late autumn or early spring to reveal the structures beneath
trees. In recent years detailed satelite photographs have become
available. Google Earth and Windows Life satellite photo's are taken in
summer. It looks nice for the layman but is a disadvantage for
professional use. Als their resolution is low compared to professional
photographs. On the other had the availability revolutionizes the use of
maps.
Besides photographs depicting the visible spectrum there are photographs in
other frequency bands making it able to analyze all sorts of data. For
instance infrared aerial photographs are used to analyze the health of
trees in cities. However these type of data are often very expensive.
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89

Areal photograph Irrigation Tuscarora, Nevada
Irrigation fields, Tuscarora, Nevada
Aerial photographs have numerous technical applications, but they can also
make us aware of the way we interact with the earth. American
photographer Alex MacLean has devoted many years of aerial
photography to showing how the American landscape is transformed by
human interaction, always fascinating but often also alarming.
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90

Renaturalisation of the river Beerze near Eindhoven
Renaturalisarion of the river Beerze
The photographs of Eindhoven aerial photographer Karel Tomei document the
way the Dutch people have interacted and still interact with the
landscape. Perhaps more than any other country The Netherlands are
made by man. This photograph shows a river near Eindhoven that in the
middle of the twentieth century was made from a meandering stream into
a canal to facilitate quick discharge of rainwater for agricultural purposes.
Recently the ideas on irrigation as well on landscape have changed and
now the river has been given an 'natural' form again.
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91

C. van Eesteren
Design
Lelystad newtown
1964
1964 Design for the Lelystad newtown by C. van Eesteren
The city as an abstract schema. The best possibilities to realize an abstract
schema are of course if a completely new town has to be built, especially
when it is on completely new and empty land reclaimed from the sea as
in this case.
Eventualy the city was not built exactly to van Eesterens plans, although the
definitive plans where just as abstract. Nowadays it is a problematic city,
epitome of the failure of an abstract approach.
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92

2e nota
Ruimtelijke
Ordening
1966
Tweede Nota over de Ruimtelijke Ordening 1966
(Translation: second bill on spatial ordening, 1966)
The modern approach to planning lead to a number of government bills
outlining the way the country should be spatially zoned and managed.
These where internationally regarded as being at the forefront of spatial
planning.
The second bill on spatial planning in the Netherlands 1966 contained a plan
for a network of motorways. The map reflects the abstract 'scientific'
approach advocated by planners.
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93

Projektburo
Almere
Design for
Almere newtown
1976
1976 Design of the general structure of Almere New Town
The lines on the map have become a bit more sinuous under the influence of
changing times ('the seventies') but the design is still an abstract
schema. The map reflects this with harsh colors and abstract textures.
The individual urban designer has made way for an anonymous design team
and 'management' - although that word was not yet used in that time.
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94

Strcutuurschets
verstedelijking
1977
Structuurschets voor de verstedelijking 1977
Translation: structure sketch for the urbanization of the Netherlands, 1977.
Map reflecting a more cautious approach than the Tweede Nota Ruimtelijke
Ordening of 1966. 'Blobs' in stead of bold lines and zones on the map
showing that not everything in real life is ‘exact’.
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95

Globale
structuur-
schets
Benelux
1986
Benelux* Global Structure Sketch 1986
These type of maps, that also can be found in many international reports,
have a remarkable resemblance with the schematic medieval maps. One
could also say that they do not so much depict real geopgraphical space
as symbolic space.
* Cooperation of Belgium, The Netherlands and Luxemburg
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1988 Conceptual design ‘Kattenbroek
Kattenbroek’ Amersfoort Ashok Bhalotra
Conceptual design of the new city quarter Kattenbroek, Ashok
Bhalotra, 1988
In the eighties of the twentieth century the expressive sketch appears as a
way to design a ‘living environment’ and 'atmosphere' in stead of just
'housing'. It is an attempt to move away from rational planning that leads
to uniform living environments. It also is an attempt to make the
profession more 'artistic', but not in the sense urban designers of the
start of the twentieth century where artistic. This 'design' gives no clue at
all about the way real space will be percieved by the inhabitants. In that
sense it is just as abstract as earlier modernistic designs. The way it is
executed is highly dependent of the way the process of realization is
organized and the persons involved. The expression of the drawings is
meant to set the tone for this process.
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97

Tilburg
Dongewijk
1993
1993 design for Dongewijk Tilburg
This still has an artistic feel about it, but it also is clear about the concrete
design of buildings and public space.
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98

Eindhoven
Flight Forum
1996
1999 Eindhoven, Flight Forum, design by the bureau MVRDV
The Flight Forum is an industrial estate near Eindhoven Airport.
At the very end of the twentieth century computers are becoming powerful
and at the same time affordable enough to come within the reach of all
architects and urban designers.
On the one hand this leads to photo realistic visualizations on the other hand
to something that could be called 'Photoshop design'. Things that look
great on the computer screen, but what will they be in reality?
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99

Utrecht, Vondelpark
Mecanoo 1998
Utrecht Vondelpark, design by Mecanoo Architects 1998
Computer drawings can be very adequate if the right expression is chosen. A
very common mistake is to use drop shadows for buildings in stead of
realistic shadows. Drop shadows makes them look like pieces of paper
hovering over the map.
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100

‘Netwerkstad Noordholland’
Arcadis 2000
Study Network City Noord Holland, Arcadis 2000
Dark colors used to make specific roads and areas stand out. This has
become very much a fashion since computers have made it easy to draw
that way. It is however known from literature that using a black
background leads to misinterpretations by the users of the map. If
printed it uses a lot of ink, which is questionable from the environmental
point of view. A common mistake is to leave the white edges of printed
dark maps en stead of trimming them the result is ugly.
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Deventer, Regionaal landschapsplan, H+N+S 2000
Deventer: regional landscape plan, H+N+S 2000
A map with a hand drawn expression emphasizing the 'natural' aspects of the
plan.
The map can either have been hand drawn completely, or a base drawing has
been made that has been photographed or scanned which has
subsequently been processed by computer or it has been drawn directly
on a computer tablet. The method is in principle of no importance, the
result counts.
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102

5e nota R.O. Networks
5e Nota Ruimtelijke Ordening 2000. Networks
The 5th bill on spatial ordering has a so called 'layered approach'. The spatial
environment is seen as a stack of layers, the main ones being networks,
occupation and ground.
The map of the layer 'Network' has beside it maps of the sub layers 'Primary
artificial water defenses', 'railways', 'waterways'. Emphasizing their
importance.
After a period of 'vague' maps, the whole map again has the 'scientific'
expression of earlier Dutch planning maps.
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103

Role of the map in
modern stedebouw
(urban design and
planning)
stedebouw: from prescription to description
Role of the map in modern stedebouw (urban design and
planning)
'Constellation'
Stedebouw is more and more becoming an explenatory discipline, or to put it
in other words: it is becoming more descriptive in stead of prescriptive.
Research and design are combined to make sense out of the chaos that is
our modern environment. The question is not if the patterns that are
identified are real in the physical sense of the world, they must be
instrumental in communication about our environment and in determining
the strategic actions to be undertaken. The difference between physical
world and the sense we try to make of it forces us to be very cautious,
this approach should not lead to castles en thin air.
A metaphor for this can be the way sense is made of the night sky by
identifying figures that can be easily remembered. It also is a metaphore
for the fact that different readings can be given of the same constellation
(different cultures have different readings of the sky).
This illustration is from a report for the city of Tilburg in 1994.
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City form Tilburg 1996
Stadsvorm Tilburg 1996 (City Form Tilburg)
Concepts
Cartograms
A way to compare the spatial implications many different viewpoints on the
actual and desired development of a city is to represent them in a similar
way and at the same scale on a base map. In this case the ideas have a
general character and are not very specific. This is why an abstract
background has been chosen. The figures represent consequences from
bills at several levels of government, traffic research, plans for the green
structure, plans for intermediate areas in the city, etc.
From the book 'Stadsvorm Tilburg' By Kees Doevendans, Reinder Rutgers and
Jan Luiten, 1996.
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105

Köln Historisch-topographische Atlas 2001
Köln Historisch-topographische Atlas 2001
Historic-topgraphical atlas of Cologne. Besides this spatial atlas there is also
an historic atlas.
In recent years many cities have commited atlases to boost knowledge of the
city and attachment to the city. This can partially be seen as a reaction to
globalization that tends to de-identify place but is also an expression of
the trend towards more descriptive stedebouw (urban design and
planning). Atlases can provide input for urban designs that are more
geared to the specific context.
This slide: Roman period of Köln
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Köln Historisch-topographische Atlas 2001
Defenses in the 19th century
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107

Köln Historisch-topographische Atlas 2001
Broadcast organizations and facilities in Köln
Modern city atlases in many instance not only cover artefacts but also
'invisible' aspects. This is an example from the Köln atlas:
Köln is an important media city with several broadcast organizations and
production companies.
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108

Köln Historisch-topographische Atlas 2001
Köln marathon 1998
Big events can partially define a cities image and identity. Marathons are
seen by many big cities to be a means to promote the city. But the image
of Köln is more closely linked to the big Carnival that takes place yearly.
The Köln atlas comprizes also maps about the well known spatial aspects like
green structure, industry, etc, And besides that maps and descriptions of
the main districts of the city.
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109

Xaveer de Geyter ‘After-Sprawl’ 2002
Flanders
Xavier de Geyter:'After Sprawl' 2002
City triangle Brussel-Antwerpen-Gent
De Geyter used Cartography as an means to explore the differences in spatial
structures in several European countries. These differences are an
expression of different attitudes towards use of space and spatial policy.
The difference between The Netherlands become very clear. In Belgium
private landownership and the freedom to build everywhere one likes
prevails. In The Netherlands the distribution of space has always been a
matter of planning and Governmental policy.
This leads to a pattern of ribbon settlements in Belgium and to clearly
defined boundaries between open space and built up areas in The
Netherlands. Both approaches have their pros and contras. In The
Netherlands ground prices are very high due to the shortage of building
ground created by the restrictions on building in open space, Also
government has always interfered with the architectural style of building.
Leading to architectural design that has found much international acclaim
under architects, but their taste differs considerably from the taste of the
average citizen. On the other hand the zoning of the land is fairly
functional and attractive open landscapes have been preserved to be
enjoyed by all. In Belgium it has always been fairly easy and cheap to
build your own home in the place you like. Also the freedom to build in
the style you like is much greater. On the other hand the countryside has
become clogged with sprawl and roads, there is not much open space and
there are not many places that are serene and quiet.
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110

Xaveer de Geyter ‘After-Sprawl’ 2002
The Netherlands
Western part of The Netherlands at the same scale
The ring of cities in the western part of the Netherlands is also refered to as
'Randstad', which literally translates as Edge City, however this
expression has acquired a specific meaning in English so 'Ring City' would
perhaps be a better translation.
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Xaveer de Geyter ‘After-Sprawl’ 2002
Overview of the regions that where explored
From left to right: London, Randstad, Flemisch city triangle, Triangle Basel-
Zürich-Bern, Veneto.
From top to bottom:
-Built Space
-Infrastructure
-Negative space
-Nature
-Agriculture
-Water
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112

Atlas Zuidelijk-West-Vlaanderen 2002
Atlas Zuidelijk-west Vlaanderen 2002
Atlas of the region South West Flanders
Analysis of the post-industrial landscape around Kortrijk
This is a so called 'Eclectic atlas', after the ideas of Stephano Boeri. This type
of atlas is a collection of studies that do not strive to provide one spatial
image of an area. In stead the multiplicity of the environment is the
starting point. It is expressed in the multiplicity of the contributions.
Besides maps the Atlas Zuidelijk-west Vlaanderen contains photographic
studies, partial studies and 'samples' out of the study area.
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Atlas Zuidelijk-West-Vlaanderen 2002
Analysis of the routes between Roeselare and Tielt
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Atlas Zuidelijk-West-Vlaanderen 2002
Example of a 'Sample' taken from the area
A characteristic strech of road between Roeselare and Torhout.
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115

Netzstadt 2003
Netzstadt 2003
Network City
Oswald en Baccini, Schweiz (Switserland)
An attempt to gain insight into the territorium via graphical techniques. In
this case the region of Luzern.
As usual with Swiss books it looks very smart on paper, however many of the
maps represent data that have been calculated using algorithms based
ratios been certain numbers. It is questionable if this provides a clear and
dependable insight, especially if the outcomes calculations cannot be
linked to interventions or designs. Some maps just seem to be
complicated ways to represent aspects - like density - that would also be
clear on well made more conventional maps that would have the added
advantage of linking the insight to the real topography.
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Netzstadt 2003
Examples from ‘Netzstadt’
Showing maps based on mathematically transformed data.
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117

Euroscapes 2003
Urban Areas
Interregional cooperation
Euroscapes 2003
Sources of finance within the EU
Trans European Networks
Common Agriculture Policy
This publication explores the spatial characteristics of modern Europe,
homing in on questions like: what is the state of coöperation between
nations, how do trans European networks develop.
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118

Euroscapes 2003
Bounderies
divide natural
landscapes
Borders devide natural landscapes
Landscapes have no borders, but political history has devided them.On the
other hand borders also have led to the preservation of landscapes
because they were ‘on the edge’ of countries.
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Euroscapes 2003
Economic accessebility versus geography
Geography deforms the costst of travel. It is cheaper to travel from London
to Barcelona then to Edingurgh.
This is a variation on the map that shows the distortion of geography by
travel time.
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120

KAN atlas 2003
‘position in the world’
De Grote KAN Atlas 2003
The big KAN Atlas. KAN: Knooppunt (=Node) Arnhem Nijmegen.
The Atlas claims to be a 'Mental atlas of the urban network Arnhem -
Nijmegen'. The title is more a declaration of intention then a correct
description of the content.
Intention 1: 'Mental' only refers to the minds of the researchers, there is no
underlining research concerning the mental maps of the inhabitants of the
region. There is also no indication of the relation between the maps and
reality.
Intemtion 2: 'Urban network'. This is a fashionable statement imposed upon
the two cities - a common occurrence with many cities as 'network' is a
fashionable word. In fact the region is not a network, but the atlas tries to
depict it as a network. Something could be said in favor of this: maps can
serve to express intentions. However it is not acceptable when this is not
clearly expressed.
The atlas is in interesting attempt to grasp the complexity of a region. It also
devotes considerable attention to culture and heritage.
This slide:
A classic style figure
Showing a city as the centre of the world is the oldest style figure in
mapping. It is still widely used as in the KAN atlas.
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KAN atlas
Much attention for cultural history
The word cultural history is a translation of the Dutch word 'cultuurhistory',
this is not only about art ore folk customs but also about the occupation
of the land. A logical extension given the fact that most of the country is
artificial.
In this example old riverbeds of the river Rhine are shown. Even in the
distant past the riverbed this big river was changed by human
intervention to tame the water.
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KAN atlas
Things that cannot be seen but linger in the mind
The 'Genius Loci'*, or 'spirit of the place' represents the aspects that make a
place unique, they make a place stand out from anonymity and make it
possible to experience a bond with it. During the second wold war the
region around Arnhem was the theatre of war of the notorious Operation
Market Garden. This is linked to features in the natural and urban
landscape. It represents a long lasting 'heritage in the mind'.
*This is a well known expression form professional architecture and urban
design. Those following this course are expected to know what it means.
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123

KAN atlas
Different cultural groups
An attempt to a different approach of the spatial environment
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KAN atlas
A typical sign of our time: ranking, naming 'highlights', or 'top locations'
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125

KAN atlas
....logo's
It is indisputable that modern visual commerce invades our unconsciousness.
Research has shown that even very young children recognize a significant
number of logo's. So logo's are definitely a part of our mental image. One
can ask oneself what is the relation between logo's, real buildings and our
mental image. Do we really link logo's to a mental spatial image or do
they 'hang in abstract space'.
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KAN atlas
Aspects are linked to neigborhoods (example)
In the atlas many aspects are linked to neigborhoods. These are in fact
choropleth maps. This leads to nice looking pictures. -The cartography
however is completely unclear.
-The use of color is bad in many aspects. See the theory of MacEachren to
identify the errors.
-The criteria are unclear. Did they use the mathematical average, the median
or a weighed avarage to establish the 'color' of an area on the map?
-It is also unclear what it means if an neigbourhood is stamped with a certain
type of sport. If it is 'Tennis' does that mean that all public space is
covered in gravel? If it is 'Shooting' does that mean that all visitors of an
area are considered to be targets?
Modern techniques make it easy to produce a lot of maps in a relatively short
time, but making meaningfull and usefull maps is a different story.
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127

KAN atlas
'Secret map' (geheime kaart)
Last map in the atlas. Without any explanation or legend. It is supposed to
describe legends and myths of the area. Bad minds could call it a cheap
attempt to suggest profoundness.
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128

Limes atlas 2005
Limes Atlas 2005
Editor: Bernard Colenbrander
Between 0 and 400 A.C. the Rhine formed the border or 'Limes' of the Roman
empire. It is an important archeological heritage of The Netherlands,
however it is almost totally unvisible in the present landscape. The Limes
Atlas is a detailed record of everything that is presently known about the
Limes and its fortifications. The idea is to make it better known and to be
a incentive to use this heritage to enrich planning and design. It could
contribute to more 'Genius Loci'.
This slide:
Military fortifications along the Limes
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129

Limes atlas 2005
Buildings, Settelments (examples)
Left: the principia (headquarters of a military camp) situated on the site of
the Medieval Dome Church of Utrecht.
Right: The civil city of Nijmegen in 170 A.C. (top) and Voorburg 125 A.C
(bottom).
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130

Limes atlas 2005
Nijmegen 200 A.C. and 400 A.C
Two maps from a series showing the development of the Roman military
settlement and the civil city at Nijmegen.
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131

Limes atlas 2005
Leiden Region. Comparison between the years 200, 1200, 1650,
1900 and 2000
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132

Den Haag 1908-2030 2006
Den Haag 1908-2030 2006
An atlas providing an overview of all major plans for Den Haag. A multitude
of plans and ideas has been translated to the same scale and the same
graphic representation.
Shown in this slide: The plan made by Berlage in 1908 for the extension of
Den Haag. Planm shown in red. Den Haag of that time in black. Present day
Den Haag in gray.
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133

Den Haag 1908-2030 2006
Consequences of the regional plan Zuid-Holland West for the infrastructure
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Den Haag 1908-2030 2006
Zones that are designated to become build up areas within present open
space.
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135

Den Haag 1908-2030 2006
Vision for the future structure of green areas and waterways of Den Haag
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136

James Corner 1996
American modern cartography
In recent American cartography related to planning there is a tendency to
make maps that graphically integrate may aspects. The intention is to 'tell
a complete story in one map' and to make unexpected connections. It
leads to intriguing maps.
From: James Corner ‘Taking measures across the American Landscape’, 1996
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137

Alan Berger ‘Drosscape’ 2006
Alan Berger 'Drosscape 2006
Dispersal graph Dallas/Fort Worth Texas.
Berger records the waste of land in America as a result of the prevailing
political-economic system. In this example the population density sharply
falls within a radius of 10 miles in all directions from the center of Dallas.
Colored graphs describe the change of density in the sections shown with
a line of the same color on the map.
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138

Asia Link Karachi Matara 2007
reconstructie historisch nederzettingspatroon
Asia Link Karachi / Matara 2007
Cartographic analysis is a very adequate tool in areas of urban sprawl and
spontaneous settlements. As the fact is that these type of areas form an
ever expanding part of the world the importance of cartography is
growing proportional with it.
The Asia Link project was initiated by the TU Eindhoven, Leuven University
and three asian universities. Its aim was to develop tools to be able to
contribute to the improvement of the urban situation in developed
countries. The tools are aimed at realistic small scale interventions.
Shown in thios slide:
Karachi
Reconstruction of the historic settlement pattern.
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139

Asia Link Karachi Matara 2007
Voorstel consolidatie gemeenschappen langs rivier de Nalla
Karachi
Proposal to consolidate existing communities in a strip along side the river
Nalla
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140

Asia Link Karachi Matara 2007
Matara
Streetscapes and sites
Left: composition map. Right: the several seperate layers of the composition
map.
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The evolution of cartography
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142

Technical revolutions that had a big impact on cartography
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143