Sustaining Livelihoods through Organic Agriculture in Tanzania - UMB

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technology’. This is appropriate to the study of organic systems in which information and farmers understanding are critical production inputs. FSR and Extension and its many variations typically involve 'highly site-specific evaluations of possible solutions to well-identified limitations in the local production system' (Lockeretz & Stopes, 2005: 1). Often FSR involves 'on-farm research with a farming systems perspective' (Remenyi, 1987: 17) leading to the generation of qualitative data requiring interpretative analysis. The advantages of carrying out research on working farms are that the research can be conducted under a wide range of growing conditions, the research can benefit from farmers' expert knowledge of a farming system and also allow farmers' management ability and preferences to be part of what is studied, fostering farmer-to-farmer exchange of information, to allow farmers to have a greater role in choosing research topics. It is thought that more organic research is conducted on working farms than conventionally oriented research (Lockeretz & Stopes, 2005). This is because organic systems are usually considered to be more closely linked to conditions on a specific site. Furthermore, whole-farm studies are especially applicable to research into organic farming since an important concept in organic farming is for the entire farm to be managed as a coherent system. The primary objective of FSR is ‘to improve the wellbeing of individual farming families by increasing the productivity of their farming systems, given the constraints imposed by resources and the environment’ (Remenyi, 1987: 17), and this coincides with one of the main goals of this research – to improve the design of organic agricultural interventions so that they bring significant benefits to smallholder farmers. Conceptually FSR approach recognises the vital connection between technologies and policy support systems, and thus an important thrust of such research is the implementation of appropriate policies and support systems to create opportunities for improved production systems. Again this perspective is deemed useful in helping to provide conditions conducive to the adoption of organic technologies in Tanzania. 3.5 Case Study Research Case studies have been defined as ‘studies of events within their real-life context’ (Yin, 2003: 72). Retaining the holistic and meaningful characteristics of real-life events is particularly advantageous ‘when the relevant theory underlying the case study is of a holistic nature’ (Yin, 2003: 45) as is the case in organic agriculture. Case studies can act as "windows" on organic agriculture in a particular region or context. Case Study Research (CSR) is preferred ‘when “how” and “why” questions are being posed, when the investigator has little control over events, and when the focus is on a contemporary phenomenon within some real-life context’ (Yin, 2003: 1). In the context of this study, CSR was adopted as a way to investigate the causes and criteria for “success” in organic agriculture at the project level. During CSR, therefore, ‘researchers collect detailed information using a variety of data collection procedures over a sustained period of time’ (Creswell, 2003: 15). 20
When sites are selected on the basis of typicality, as opposed to uniqueness, they can be used to derive lessons that can be applied to other organic projects. Thus case studies may be generalisable to theoretical propositions (analytic generalisation). Although it can be useful to scale-up recommendations, case study research is also inherently context specific and not necessarily seeking replication. Owing to the complexity of Africa’s agricultural systems (FAO recognises 18 distinct farming systems in Africa), an overview of the development potential of organic agriculture in Africa is of limited practical value. Case studies and agroecosystem analyses throw more light upon the way in which traditional knowledge, social mobilisation and agro-ecological approaches are restoring degraded natural resources while producing food. The evaluation of past and current projects helps to clarify the relationship between organic production and the overall sustainability of agricultural systems. 3.6 Participatory Learning and Action When innovation in agriculture is conceived as a ‘social effort requiring joint competence of interrelated actors’ (Engel & Salomon, 1997), participation becomes an essential component in the transition to organic and sustainable systems. Much has been written on the importance of participatory practices in research (De Jager et al., 2001) and many prominent figures in rural development have argued that genuine participation is crucial to the sustainability of development projects (Chambers, 1983). Participatory strategies gained popularity in agricultural research and development in the 1970s, spreading rapidly in the 1980s. They are based on the premise that small farmers in developing countries have developed useful information and ideas that must be utilised in any project and are in opposition to the “transfer of technology” paradigm. Sillitoe (1998: 6) has argued that ‘the joint enterprise, or stakeholder participation approach, poses some of the most challenging and stimulating problems in development today’. It encompasses a wide spectrum of approaches from ‘consultation (outsiders retaining control), to collaboration (co-operation as equal partners), to collegiate (insiders making research decisions)’ (Sillitoe, 1998: 7). On-farm research is sometimes described more specifically with reference to a twocomponent classification scheme: 'researcher initiated, farmer managed' or 'farmer initiated, farmer managed'. Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) is part of an emerging family of ‘alternative systems of inquiry’ which also includes Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and Participatory Technology Development (PTD) (Pretty et al., 1995). PLA tools include mapping, time lines, daily activity diagrams, seasonal calendars, trend diagrams, transect walks, problem trees, ranking activities and Venn diagrams. Many of these tools are useful for investigating local knowledge in organic systems, particularly at farm and project levels. A fundamental goal is to “hand over the pen” and invite community members and stakeholders to draw, map, model and diagram. In this situation the researcher acts as a facilitator who builds rapport, listens, questions and learns. 3.7 Soft Systems Methodology Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) is a way of applying systems theory and practice to facilitating change. SSM aims for the improvement of human practices through debate 21
Page 1 and 2: Sustaining Livelihoods through Orga
Page 3 and 4: 6 Assessment of Organic Systems in
Page 5 and 6: TBS Tanzanian Bureau of Standards T
Page 7 and 8: Abstract Since certified organic ag
Page 9 and 10: Chapter Two: Literature Review The
Page 11 and 12: Typology of Organic Systems Source:
Page 13 and 14: healthy life’ (FAO, 1996). This i
Page 15 and 16: Impact of Organic Agriculture on Ca
Page 17 and 18: Furthermore, participatory action r
Page 19: considerations as well as economic
Page 23 and 24: Hawkesbury hierarchy of approaches
Page 25 and 26: Chapter Four: Research Process ‘O
Page 27 and 28: y stakeholders during fieldwork. As
Page 29 and 30: Feedback on the initial research pr
Page 31 and 32: This was drawn as a mind-map and us
Page 33 and 34: Specific activities that were under
Page 35 and 36: preliminary rich picture, these wer
Page 37 and 38: The mission of TOAM is to develop a
Page 39 and 40: Mushrooms Dried mushrooms Songea an
Page 41 and 42: 2. an export standard 3. a standard
Page 43 and 44: Representatives of the national far
Page 45 and 46: companies and ICS field staff. This
Page 47 and 48: Chapter Seven: Summary of Case Stud
Page 49 and 50: sustainable livelihoods for smallho
Page 51 and 52: organic farming allow farmers to ta
Page 53 and 54: constitute only 4 out of the 27 gra
Page 55 and 56: Low level or “pseudo” participa
Page 57 and 58: In contrast to other countries in E
Page 59 and 60: Tanzania has a distinct advantage o
Page 61 and 62: newsletters on the organic market a
Page 63 and 64: The specific interests of different
Page 65 and 66: Rather than initiating new systems
Page 67 and 68: Mozambique to provide certification
Page 69 and 70: Pretty et al. (2003: 13) notes that
Page 71 and 72:
terms of learning so that farmers b
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Ellinor, L. and Gerard, G. (1998) D
Page 75 and 76:
Lerdahl, E. (2001) Staging for crea
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Senge, P. M. (1990) The Fifth Disci
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APPENDIX 1 Interviews Summary Date
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APPENDIX 2 Case Study Protocol Over
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emphasis on “success stories”,
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APPENDIX 3 Report on Case Study Res
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Thus the sustainable livelihood’s
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once per year, provide training, mo
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Summary of Two Organic Initiatives
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Cross-Case Livelihood Analysis The
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Drought Dependence on rainfed agric
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Human Capital Human capital compris
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Social Capital The dominant tribes
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esult in soil acidificiation. Only
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livestock components. The influx of
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Stakeholder Analysis A stakeholder
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farmers and the PCI management, and
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(government directive in response t
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Whilst not exclusively promoting OA
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Conclusion In conclusion we may ask
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In some respects this is the ideal
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APPENDIX 4 January 26, 2006 R.e. In
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APPENDIX 5 Background Information t
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Organic agriculture offers a very r
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Outcome: Participants share immedia
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People go into groups defined by wh
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APPENDIX 8 Organic Stakeholders’
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Introduction After welcoming the pa
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2003 The Tanzanian organic certific
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PRODUCTION POLICY AND LEGISLATION I
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Institutional development Enhance n
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Acronyms ACT Agricultural Council o
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Accommodative knowledge Convergent
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Similarly in the CSR, there were or
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issues in the organic sector. Lack
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commitment to the task of developin
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important not to dwell on negative
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of transport, breakfast and dinners
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