Algae Anatomy, Biochemistry, and Biotechnology

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General Overview 31 appearance of these organisms, all photosynthetic organisms were anaerobic bacteria that used light to couple the reduction of carbon dioxide to the oxidation of low free energy molecules, such as H2S or preformed organics. Cyanobacteria developed a metabolic process, the photosynthesis, which exploits the energy of visible light to oxidize water and simultaneously reduces CO2 to organic carbon represented by (CH 2O)n using light energy as a substrate and chlorophyll a as a requisite catalytic agent. Formally oxygenic photosynthesis can be summarized as: Chlorophyll a CO2 þ H2O þ light ! (CH2O)n þ O2 All other oxygen producing algae are eukaryotic, that is, they contain internal organelles, including a nucleus, one or more chloroplasts, one or more mitochondria, and, most importantly, in many cases they contain a membrane-bound storage compartment or vacuole. The three major algal lineages of primary plastids are the Glaucophyta lineage, the Chlorophyta lineage, and the Rhodopyta lineage (Figure 1.48). Glaucophyta lineage occupies a key position in the evolution of plastids. Unlike other plastids, the plastids of glaucophytes retain the remnant of a Gram-negative bacterial cell wall of the type found in cyanobacteria, with a thin peptidoglycan cell wall and cyanobacterium-like pigmentation that clearly indicate its cyanobacterial ancestry. In fact, the Cyanophora paradoxa plastid genome shows the same reduction as other plastids when compared with free-living cyanobacteria (it is 136 kb and contains 191 genes). The peptidoglycan cell wall of the plastid is thus a feature retained from their free-living cyanobacterial ancestor. In this context, the Glaucophyta are remarkable only for their retention of an ancestral character present in neither green nor red plastids. No certain case of a secondary plastid derived from Glaucophyta is known. Green algae (Chlorophyta) constitute the second lineage of primary plastids. The simple twomembrane system surrounding the plastid, the congruence of phylogenies based on nuclear and organellar genes, and the antiquity of the green algae in the fossil record all indicate that the green algal plastid is of primary origin. In these chloroplasts, chlorophyll b was synthesized as a secondary pigment and phycobiliproteins were lost. Another hypothesis is that the photosynthetic ancestor of green lineage was a prochlorophyte that possessed chlorophylls a and b and lacked phycobiliproteins. The green lineage played a major role in oceanic food webs and the carbon cycle from about 2.2 billion years ago until the end-Permian extinction, approximately 250 million years ago. It was this similarity to the pigments of plants that led to the inference that the ancestors of land plants (i.e., embryophytes) would be among the green algae, and is clear that phylogenetically plants are a group of green algae adapted to life on land. Euglenophyta and Chlorarachniophyta are derived from this primary plastid lineage by secondary endosymbiosis; the green algal plastid present in Euglenophyta is bounded by three membranes, while the green algal plastid present in the Chlorarachniophyta is bound by four membranes. Since that time, however, a second group of eukaryotes has risen to ecological prominence; that group is commonly called the “red lineage.” The plastids of the red algae (Rhodophyta) constitute the third primary plastid lineage. Like the green algae, the red algae are an ancient group in the fossil record, and some of the oldest fossils interpreted as being of eukaryotic origin are often referred to the red algae, although clearly these organisms were very different from any extant alga. Like those of green algae, the plastids of red algae are surrounded by two membranes. However, they are pigmented with chlorophyll a and phycobiliproteins, which are organized into phycobilisomes. Phycobilisomes are relatively large light-harvesting pigment/protein complexes that are water-soluble and attached to the surface of the thylakoid membrane. Thylakoids with phycobilisomes do not form stacks like those in other plastids, and consequently the plastids of red algae (and glaucophytes) bear an obvious ultrastructural resemblance to cyanobacteria.
32 Algae: Anatomy, Biochemistry, and Biotechnology FIGURE 1.48 Algal evolution and endosymbiotic events. A number of algal groups have secondary plastids derived from those of red algae, including several with distinctive pigmentation. The cryptomonads (Cryptophyta) were the first group in which secondary plastids were recognized on the basis of their complex four membrane structure. Like red algae, they have chlorophyll a and phycobiliproteins, but these are distributed in the intrathylakoidal space rather than in the phycobilisomes found in red algae, Glaucophyta, and Cyanophyta. In addition, cryptomonads possess a second type of chlorophyll, chlorophyll c, which is found in the remaining red lineage plastids. These groups, which include the Heterokontophyta (including kelps, diatoms, chrysophytes, and related groups), Haptophyta (the coccolithophorids), and probably those dinoflagellates (Dinophyta) pigmented with peridinin, have chlorophylls a and c, along with a variety of carotenoids, for pigmentation. Stacked thylakoids are found in those lineages (including the cryptomonads) that lack phycobilisomes. The derivation
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Page 5 and 6: Published in 2006 by CRC Press Tayl
Page 7 and 8: Our sincere gratitude and a special
Page 10 and 11: Table of Contents Chapter 1 General
Page 12 and 13: How Algae Use Light Information ...
Page 14 and 15: Lambertian Surfaces . . ...........
Page 16: In memory of Maria Antonietta Barsa
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6 Algal Culturing COLLECTION, STORA
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Algal Culturing 211 TABLE 6.1 Shape
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Algal Culturing 213 maintenance of
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Algal Culturing 215 tissue culture
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Algal Culturing 217 TABLE 6.2 BG11
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Algal Culturing 219 TABLE 6.5 Aaron
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Algal Culturing 221 TABLE 6.7 Beije
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Algal Culturing 223 TABLE 6.9 Mes-V
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Algal Culturing 225 MARINE MEDIA Se
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Algal Culturing 227 reactions. Of t
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Algal Culturing 229 TABLE 6.11 Waln
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Algal Culturing 231 TABLE 6.14 PCR-
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Algal Culturing 233 TABLE 6.17 ESAW
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Algal Culturing 235 . CSIRO (CSIRO
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Algal Culturing 237 extended period
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Algal Culturing 239 In practice, cu
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Algal Culturing 241 SEMI-CONTINUOUS
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Algal Culturing 243 around the worl
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Algal Culturing 245 tech,” and ca
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Algal Culturing 247 FIGURE 6.3 Sche
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Algal Culturing 249 Digital microsc
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7 INTRODUCTION Algae and Men Microa
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Algae and Men 253 of cattle is rapi
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Algae and Men 255 FIGURE 7.2 Drying
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Algae and Men 257 for equally valua
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Algae and Men 259 thickening powers
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Algae and Men 261 FIGURE 7.6 Frond
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Algae and Men 265 TABLE 7.3 Mineral
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Algae and Men 267 sporophyte. Spore
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Algae and Men 269 naturally found i
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Algae and Men 271 so that water and
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Algae and Men 275 and some fish spe
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Algae and Men 277 Because Ascophyll
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Algae and Men 279 Maerl is the comm
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Algae and Men 281 THERAPEUTIC SUPPL
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Algae and Men 283 in globules in ot
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Algae and Men 285 supplement due to
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Algae and Men 287 epiphyte and has
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Algae and Men 289 closely-related P
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Algae and Men 291 Takeyama, H., Kan
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294 Index Carbohydrate storage prod
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296 Index Endosymbiosis, serial sec
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298 Index Motility about, 85 buoyan
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300 Index Redfield ratio, 161-162 R
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Algae Anatomy, Biochemistry, and Biotechnology

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