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JOURNAL OF EUROPEANINTEGRATION HISTORYREVUE D’HISTOIRE DEL’INTÉGRATION EUROPÉENNEZEITSCHRIFT FÜR GESCHICHTE DEREUROPÄISCHEN INTEGRATIONedited by theGroupe <strong>de</strong> liaison <strong>de</strong>s pr<strong>of</strong>esseurs d’histoire contemporaineauprès <strong>de</strong> la Commission européenne2003, Volume 9, Number 2NOMOS VerlagsgesellschaftBa<strong>de</strong>n-Ba<strong>de</strong>n


EditorsPublished twice a year by theGroupe <strong>de</strong> liaison <strong>de</strong>s pr<strong>of</strong>esseurs d’histoirecontemporaine auprès <strong>de</strong> la Commission européenne.This publication is part <strong>of</strong> a Thematic NetworkEuropean Integration History financed within the keyaction improving the socio-economic knowledge base.Editorial BoardLOTH, Wilfried (chairman)Universität EssenJean Monnet ChairBITSCH, Marie-ThérèseUniversité <strong>de</strong> Strasbourg III Robert SchumanJean Monnet ChairBOSSUAT, GérardUniversité <strong>de</strong> Cergy-Pontoise,Jean Monnet ChairDEIGHTON, AnneWolfson College, OxfordDUMOULIN, MichelUniversité catholique <strong>de</strong> LouvainJean Monnet ChairGUIRAO, FernandoUniversitat Pompeu Fabra, BarcelonaJean Monnet ChairLAURSEN, JohnnyUniversity <strong>of</strong> AarhusMILWARD, Alan S.European University Institute, FlorenceSCHWABE, KlausRheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule AachenJean Monnet ChairTRAUSCH, GilbertCentre Robert Schuman, Université <strong>de</strong> LiègeVAN <strong>de</strong>r HARST, JanUniversity <strong>of</strong> GroningenJean Monnet ChairVARSORI, AntonioUniversità <strong>de</strong>gli Studi di FirenzeJean Monnet ChairJOURNAL OF EUROPEANINTEGRATION HISTORYREVUE D’HISTOIRE DEL’INTÉGRATION EUROPÉENNEZEITSCHRIFT FÜR GESCHICHTE DEREUROPÄISCHEN INTEGRATIONEditorial SecretariatCharles Barthel, directorAddress:Centre d’étu<strong>de</strong>s et <strong>de</strong> recherches européennesRobert Schuman4 Rue Jules WilhelmL-2728 LuxembourgTel.: (3 52) 4 78 22 90/4 78 22 91Fax.: (3 52) 42 27 97


JOURNAL OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION HISTORYREVUE D’HISTOIRE DE L’INTÉGRATION EUROPÉENNEZEITSCHRIFT FÜR GESCHICHTE DER EUROPÄISCHEN INTEGRATIONedited by theGroupe <strong>de</strong> liaison <strong>de</strong>s pr<strong>of</strong>esseurs d’histoire contemporaineauprès <strong>de</strong> la Commission européenne2003, Volume 9, Number 2The Hague Summit <strong>of</strong> 1969


The Liaison Committee <strong>of</strong> Historians came into being in 1982 as a result <strong>of</strong> an important internationalsymposium that the Commission had organized in Luxembourg to launch historical research on European<strong>integration</strong>. The committee is composed <strong>of</strong> historians <strong>of</strong> the European Union member countrieswho work on contemporary <strong>history</strong>.The Liaison Committee:– gathers and conveys information about work on European <strong>history</strong> after the Second World War;– advises the European Union on research projects concerning contemporary European <strong>history</strong>.Thus, the Liaison Committee was commissioned to make publicly available the archives <strong>of</strong> theCommunity institutions;– enables researchers to make better use <strong>of</strong> the archival sources;– promotes research meetings to get an update <strong>of</strong> work in progress and to stimulate new research:seven research conferences have been organized and their proceedings published.The Journal <strong>of</strong> European Integration History – Revue d’histoire <strong>de</strong> l’intégration européenne – Zeitschrift fürGeschichte <strong>de</strong>r europäischen Integration is in line with the preoccupations <strong>of</strong> the Liaison Committee. Beingthe first <strong>history</strong> <strong>journal</strong> to <strong>de</strong>al exclusively with the <strong>history</strong> <strong>of</strong> European Integration, the Journal <strong>of</strong>fers theincreasing number <strong>of</strong> young historians <strong>de</strong>voting their research to contemporary Europe, a permanent forum.The Liaison Committee is supported by the European Commission, but works completely in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>ntlyand according to historians’ critical method.❋Le Groupe <strong>de</strong> liaison <strong>de</strong>s pr<strong>of</strong>esseurs d’histoire contemporaine auprès <strong>de</strong> la Commission <strong>de</strong>sCommunautés européennes s’est constitué en 1982 à la suite d’un grand colloque que la Commissionavait organisé à Luxembourg pour lancer la recherche historique sur la constructioneuropéenne. Il regroupe <strong>de</strong>s pr<strong>of</strong>esseurs d’université <strong>de</strong>s pays membres <strong>de</strong> l’Union européenne, spécialistesd’histoire contemporaine.Le Groupe <strong>de</strong> liaison a pour mission:– <strong>de</strong> diffuser l’information sur les travaux portant sur l’histoire <strong>de</strong> l’Europe après la Secon<strong>de</strong> Guerremondiale;– <strong>de</strong> conseiller l’Union européenne sur les actions scientifiques à entreprendre avec son appui; ainsile Groupe <strong>de</strong> liaison a assuré une mission concernant la mise à la disposition du public <strong>de</strong>s archives<strong>de</strong>s institutions communautaires;– d’ai<strong>de</strong>r à une meilleure utilisation par les chercheurs <strong>de</strong>s moyens <strong>de</strong> recherche mis à leur disposition(archives, sources orales...);– d’encourager <strong>de</strong>s rencontres scientifiques afin <strong>de</strong> faire le point sur les connaissances acquises et<strong>de</strong> susciter <strong>de</strong> nouvelles recherches: sept grands colloques ont été organisés et leurs actes publiés.L’édition du Journal <strong>of</strong> European Integration History – Revue d’histoire <strong>de</strong> l’intégration européenne– Zeitschrift für Geschichte <strong>de</strong>r europäischen Integration se situe dans le droit fil <strong>de</strong>s préoccupationsdu Groupe <strong>de</strong> liaison. Première <strong>revue</strong> d’histoire à se consacrer exclusivement à l’histoire <strong>de</strong> laconstruction européenne, le Journal se propose <strong>de</strong> fournir un forum permanent au nombre croissant<strong>de</strong> jeunes historiens vouant leurs recherches à l’Europe contemporaine.Le Groupe <strong>de</strong> liaison bénéficie du soutien <strong>de</strong> la Commission européenne. Ses colloques et publicationsse font en toute indépendance et conformément à la métho<strong>de</strong> critique qui est celle <strong>de</strong>s historiens.


JOURNAL OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION HISTORYREVUE D’HISTOIRE DE L’INTÉGRATION EUROPÉENNEZEITSCHRIFT FÜR GESCHICHTE DER EUROPÄISCHEN INTEGRATION2003, Volume 9, Number 2Jan VAN DER HARST, coordinatorJan VAN DER HARSTThe 1969 Hague Summit: a New Start for Europe?........................................ 5N. Piers LUDLOWAn Opportunity or a Threat?The European Commission and The Hague Council <strong>of</strong> December 1969............. 11Anjo HARRYVAN and Jan VAN DER HARSTSwan Song or Cock Crow?The Netherlands and the Hague Conference <strong>of</strong> December 1969 .................. 27Jérôme WILSONNégocier la relance européenne:les Belges et le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye.............................................................. 41Claudia HIEPELIn Search <strong>of</strong> the Greatest Common Denominator.Germany and the Hague Summit Conference 1969 ...................................... 63Marie-Thérèse BITSCHLe sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye.L’initiative française, ses finalités et ses limites ........................................... 83Maria Eleonora GUASCONIItaly and the Hague Conference <strong>of</strong> December 1969 .................................. 101Alan S. MILWARDThe Hague Conference <strong>of</strong> 1969 and the United Kingdom’sAccession to the European Economic Community .................................... 117Book reviews – Comptes rendus – Buchbesprechungen ............................ 127Abstracts – Résumés – Zusammenfassungen.............................................. 147Contributors - Auteurs - Autoren ................................................................ 157Books received – Livres reçus – Eingegangene Bücher ............................. 159


Editorial noticeArticles for inclusion in this <strong>journal</strong> may be submitted at any time. The editorial board will thenarrange for the article to be refereed. Articles should not be longer than 6000 words, footnotesinclu<strong>de</strong>d. They may be in English, French or German.Articles submitted to the Journal should be original contributions and not be submitted to anyother publication at the same time as to the Journal <strong>of</strong> European Integration History. Authorsshould retain a copy <strong>of</strong> their article. The publisher and editors cannot accept responsibility forloss <strong>of</strong> or damage to authors’ typescripts or disks.The accuracy <strong>of</strong>, and views expressed in articles and reviews are the sole responsibility <strong>of</strong> theauthors.Authors should ensure that typescripts conform with the <strong>journal</strong> style. Prospective contributorsshould obtain further gui<strong>de</strong>lines from the Editorial Secretariat.Articles, reviews, communications relating to articles and books for review should be sent to theEditorial Secretariat.CitationThe Journal <strong>of</strong> European Integration History may be cited as follows:JEIH, (Year)/(Number), (Page).ISSN 0947-9511© 2003 NOMOS Verlagsgesellschaft, Ba<strong>de</strong>n-Ba<strong>de</strong>n and the Groupe <strong>de</strong> liaison <strong>de</strong>s pr<strong>of</strong>esseursd’histoire contemporaine auprès <strong>de</strong> la Commission européenne. Printed in Germany.All rights reserved. No part <strong>of</strong> this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, ortransmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,without prior permission <strong>of</strong> the publishers.


5The 1969 Hague Summit: a New Start for Europe?by Jan van <strong>de</strong>r HarstIt was only within a stone’s throw from the place where I lived that the Haguesummit <strong>of</strong> December 1969 took place. The event in the nearby Rid<strong>de</strong>rzaal broughttogether the most distinguished political lea<strong>de</strong>rs at a crucial moment in post-warEuropean <strong>de</strong>velopment. Since then, ‘The Hague’ has been portrayed as a majorbreakthrough and as the most successful European conference since Messina 1955,heralding UK membership and extending EC responsibilities to foreign andmonetary affairs. All this failed to impress the 11-year-old boy who I was at thattime. Worse still, the conference totally escaped my attention, as did anotherremarkable event, which occurred simultaneously, the biggest fe<strong>de</strong>ralist<strong>de</strong>monstration ever held. Close to the venue <strong>of</strong> the European Council – avant lalettre – meeting a group <strong>of</strong> about one thousand European fe<strong>de</strong>ralists marchedthrough the centre <strong>of</strong> The Hague, clashing with the police and shouting for the needto revitalise Europe after years <strong>of</strong> stagnation. To attract attention to their cause, theycarried a c<strong>of</strong>fin with them: Europe was <strong>de</strong>ad and waited for the resurrection whichonly the government lea<strong>de</strong>rs could provi<strong>de</strong>.In this special issue on the 1969 Hague summit an attempt is ma<strong>de</strong> towardsanswering the question to what extent the protagonists Willy Brandt, Piet De Jong,Gaston Eyskens, Georges Pompidou, Mariano Rumor and Pierre Werner have beencapable <strong>of</strong> realising such a far-reaching European re-launch after the ill-fated DeGaulle period. Was The Hague really a ‘watershed’ or ‘turning-point’ in post-warEuropean <strong>history</strong>, as it has been termed by several authors, 1 or is this an overratedconclusion? What is the true significance <strong>of</strong> The Hague, both in the short and in thelonger term? In the historical literature so far only scant efforts have been ma<strong>de</strong>towards answering these questions. 2In this volume, historians from Belgium, France, Germany, Italy and theNetherlands have investigated their respective government’s position concerningThe Hague, before, during and immediately after the two-day conference. Inaddition, the policies <strong>of</strong> the European Commission and the United Kingdom havebeen scrutinised, the former as an active participant at the meeting – although onlypresent on the second day – the latter still waiting in the wings. For mainlypractical reasons we have not inclu<strong>de</strong>d all member states and applicant countriesinvolved in the process. Luxembourg is exclu<strong>de</strong>d here, because on many issues –1. E.g. H. SIMONIAN, The Privileged Partnership: Franco-German Relations in the EuropeanCommunity, 1969-1984, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1985, p.349; D. ARMSTRONG, L. LORNAand J. REDMOND, From Versailles to Maastricht. International Organisation in the TwentiethCentury, Macmillan, London, 1996, p.164.2. One <strong>of</strong> the rare exceptions is M.-T. BITSCH, Le sommet <strong>de</strong> la Haye. La mise en route <strong>de</strong> la relance<strong>de</strong> 1969, in: W. LOTH (ed.), Crises and Compromises: the European Project, 1963-1969, Nomos,Ba<strong>de</strong>n Ba<strong>de</strong>n, 2001, pp.539-565. In the conclusions <strong>of</strong> this article, the author analyses the importance<strong>of</strong> the summit by making a comparison between Messina 1955 and The Hague 1969.


6by Jan van <strong>de</strong>r Harstnot all – its <strong>de</strong>legation took a position similar to that <strong>of</strong> Belgium (see also thecontribution by Jérôme Wilson). This is not to say that the Luxembourg position onThe Hague is irrelevant, as will be shown later. Of the applicant countries, onlyBritain bears a part in this volume (Alan S. Milward’s contribution), first andforemost because it was exactly this ‘outsi<strong>de</strong>r’ that attracted the bulk <strong>of</strong> attentionduring the summit’s <strong>de</strong>liberations. Talking about EC enlargement basically meanttalking about the UK, rather than Denmark, Ireland or Norway. Having said that,the Hague story can never be complete without taking into account also thepositions <strong>of</strong> the other three applicants. We hope that this gauntlet will be taken upsoon by those historians working on the period and topic in question.During a small workshop in Groningen held in September 2002, 3 thecontributors to the present volume convened and discussed the central issues to be<strong>de</strong>alt with. They agreed that studying The Hague 1969 is useful and relevant forreasons <strong>of</strong> historical evi<strong>de</strong>nce and analytical verification, rather than the trivialpersonal motive I mentioned in the opening lines <strong>of</strong> this introduction. Manyquestions arose. Was The Hague really so significant as has been <strong>de</strong>picted in mosttextbooks on European <strong>integration</strong>? 4 And if the conference was successful, howcould this be explained? Was its impact visible and tangible at once or only inretrospect? The lifting <strong>of</strong> the 30-year-embargo for most government archives hascertainly helped us in our attempt to answer these questions.The importance <strong>of</strong> the summit could be analysed with the help <strong>of</strong> fourinterpretations, each giving a different assessment <strong>of</strong> the results booked:1. The Hague’s significance is overrated because some crucial <strong>de</strong>cisions furthering<strong>de</strong>velopment in European <strong>integration</strong> had been taken at an earlier stage, in thecourse <strong>of</strong> the period 1958-1968. Especially the year 1968 was important, in that itbrought the complete removal <strong>of</strong> EEC internal customs duties, the establishment<strong>of</strong> a common external tariff and acceptance <strong>of</strong> a common agricultural policy.These were exactly the issues and areas dominating the EC during the next<strong>de</strong>ca<strong>de</strong>s to come. The <strong>de</strong>finite regulation on the financing <strong>of</strong> agriculture, conclu<strong>de</strong>dsoon after the Hague summit, was important but basically an indispensablecorollary to <strong>de</strong>cisions taken the year before. 53. With thanks to pr<strong>of</strong>. L.W. Gormley for making this workshop possible.4. See e.g. D. DINAN, Ever closer Union. An Introduction to the European Community, Macmillan,London, 1994, p.73; S. GEORGE, Politics and Policy in the European Union, Oxford UniversityPress, Oxford, 1996, p.11; P. GERBET, La construction <strong>de</strong> l’Europe, Imprimerie Nationale, Paris,1983, pp. 352-356; A.M. EL-AGRAA, The European Union. History, Institutions, Economics andPolicies, Prentice Hall Europe, London, 1998, pp.545-546.5. A similar argument can be found in: A. MORAVCSIK, The Choice for Europe. Social Purpose &State Power from Messina to Maastricht, UCL Press, London, 1998. On p.312 Moravcsik notes:“Agreements on permanent CAP financing and British membership at The Hague are <strong>of</strong>ten seenas beginning <strong>of</strong> a new era, but […] they were, in fact, the final steps in the consolidation <strong>of</strong> a […]bargain that had taken over a <strong>de</strong>ca<strong>de</strong> to negotiate”. For an apt analysis <strong>of</strong> the early CAP years (anda critical review <strong>of</strong> Moravcsik’s interpretation <strong>of</strong> 1960s European <strong>integration</strong> <strong>de</strong>velopments), see:A.C. LAURING-KNUDSEN, Defining the Policies <strong>of</strong> a Common Agricultural Policy. A HistoricalStudy, PhD thesis EUI Florence, 2001.


y Jan van <strong>de</strong>r Harst 72. The Hague was a failure, both the conference itself and its aftermath, becausethe government lea<strong>de</strong>rs proved unable to reach consensus on a concrete datefor enlargement, just as they failed to provi<strong>de</strong> a real stimulus towards politicaland monetary co-operation. The terms <strong>of</strong> the final communiqué were distinctlyvague, as were also the summit’s institutional outcomes. The EPC, eventuallyresulting from the preparatory talks carried out by the Davignon committee,turned into a low-key forum for co-ordination <strong>of</strong> foreign policies and never<strong>de</strong>veloped into a credible player in the global arena. The EMU plan, <strong>de</strong>velopedby Werner, was even shelved in the course <strong>of</strong> the 1970s, and was only to berevitalised by Jacques Delors at the end <strong>of</strong> the 1980s. By then, the renowned‘spirit <strong>of</strong> The Hague’ had fa<strong>de</strong>d into the twilight zone. Likewise, institutionalreforms remained forthcoming: the <strong>de</strong>cision on holding direct elections for theEuropean Parliament was postponed for an ‘in<strong>de</strong>finite’ period. Finally, Britishentrance, indirectly resulting from the conference, was to lead to years <strong>of</strong>stagnation and haggling over this country’s budget contribution.3. The Hague was a success, although not an instant one, its significance becameclear only in the aftermath <strong>of</strong> the summit. The conclusions <strong>of</strong> the presi<strong>de</strong>ncyhad in<strong>de</strong>ed appeared vague and evasive, and there was every reason forparticipants and observers to feel disappointed, but soon afterwards and as animmediate result <strong>of</strong> the summit, new <strong>de</strong>velopments evolved which wouldchange the face <strong>of</strong> the entire EC. Late in December 1969 already, the BrusselsCouncil meeting managed to break the financial stalemate, which hadthwarted Community <strong>de</strong>velopment for such a long time, even having beenco-responsible for the empty-chair crisis <strong>of</strong> 1965. Also on this occasion,provisions were ma<strong>de</strong> for granting budgetary powers to the EuropeanParliament, a real breakthrough after years <strong>of</strong> dawdling over this issue. Theenlargement negotiations with Britain and the other three applicants started inthe spring <strong>of</strong> 1970 and led to an EC <strong>of</strong> nine members in 1973. And theDavignon and Werner committees soon succee<strong>de</strong>d in <strong>de</strong>veloping blueprints forco-operation in foreign and monetary policies, both ‘virgin territories’ untilthen. In particular the creation <strong>of</strong> EPC was – after the Fouchet stalemate <strong>of</strong> the1960s – hailed as a major result.4. The Hague was a success, but only in the short-, not in the longer-run. The<strong>de</strong>finite regulation <strong>of</strong> CAP financing was welcomed by the sixmember-countries <strong>of</strong> that time, but it was also a potential time bomb, seen inthe light <strong>of</strong> future <strong>de</strong>velopments. The obtaining <strong>of</strong> own resources and thefixing <strong>of</strong> the financial outlay, prepared in The Hague and conclu<strong>de</strong>d inBrussels, were costly solutions, putting a heavy strain on the donor countries,particularly on Britain when it entered the Community in 1973. For EdwardHeath, eager to join the EC, this was just acceptable, but later, un<strong>de</strong>r hissuccessors Harold Wilson and Margaret Thatcher, the issue <strong>of</strong> the budgetcontribution became highly contentious and eventually resulted in the latter’s‘I want my money back’ litanies and a long-running impasse in European<strong>integration</strong>.


8by Jan van <strong>de</strong>r HarstLooking at the seven contributions to this volume, all four <strong>of</strong> the aboveinterpretations have an element <strong>of</strong> validity in them. The start <strong>of</strong> the customs unionand the acceptance <strong>of</strong> CAP in 1968 were necessary precursors for further EC<strong>de</strong>velopment. Moreover, all the authors emphasise the disappointment among most<strong>of</strong> the actors concerning the concrete results booked in The Hague. Especially theDutch and Italian <strong>de</strong>legations, as well as the Commission, threw doubts upon theimmediate relevance and practicability <strong>of</strong> the summit’s outcomes. France andBelgium seemed more pleased with the wordings used in the final communiqué,while Germany took up a position in between. British observers wereun<strong>de</strong>rstandably puzzled by the lack <strong>of</strong> a formalised date nee<strong>de</strong>d for the start <strong>of</strong> theenlargement negotiations. But, even if the summit itself left room for doubts, it isalso true that the immediate aftermath was promising and the medium-term impactsubstantial. Three weeks after The Hague, at the Brussels Council meeting <strong>of</strong> 21and 22 December, a solution was found for the problems <strong>of</strong> agricultural financing(by introduction <strong>of</strong> a system based on 1% <strong>of</strong> national VAT receipts), the EC’s ownresources, as well as the long-<strong>de</strong>bated budgetary powers <strong>of</strong> the EuropeanParliament. In the spring <strong>of</strong> 1970, a date was fixed for the start <strong>of</strong> the enlargementnegotiations and the Davignon and Werner committees soon succee<strong>de</strong>d inproducing reports on EPC and EMU. In line with interpretation number three, TheHague’s final communiqué was still a rather shaky construction, but it had thepotential <strong>of</strong> <strong>de</strong>livering results in the medium term, and this potential was used.Having said that, one should not neglect the longer-range implications, as<strong>de</strong>monstrated by Milward’s contribution on Britain. The <strong>de</strong>cisions taken at TheHague and Brussels concerning agricultural financing encumbered the EC with aheavy mortgage, which became particularly onerous during the protractednegotiations on the British budget during the Thatcher years.Was there a clear winner in The Hague? Which country got the best out <strong>of</strong> theresults achieved during and after the summit? Even after perusing the variouscontributions to the volume, these questions are still difficult to answer. It seemsthat, in line with the best European traditions, each <strong>de</strong>legation found something toits liking. As said above, France and Belgium could boast that they reached most <strong>of</strong>their aims, Paris being particularly happy with the ‘completion’ <strong>of</strong> the Community,in the form <strong>of</strong> a secure system <strong>of</strong> guaranteed financing for agricultural production(see the Marie-Thérèse Bitsch article). Paymaster Germany, as highlighted byClaudia Hiepel, had to make a substantial concession on this score, but, on theother hand, cajoled France into <strong>of</strong>fering the long-awaited opening towards Britain.The German <strong>de</strong>legation also ensured that monetary <strong>integration</strong> would not take theform <strong>of</strong> an open-en<strong>de</strong>d commitment to countries with a less solid financialreputation than the FRG itself. To French and Belgian regret, the implementation <strong>of</strong>a European reserve fund was postponed and economic <strong>integration</strong> was to takeprece<strong>de</strong>nce over progress in the monetary area. The new German lea<strong>de</strong>r WillyBrandt was universally admired for his forceful début on the European stage,thereby overshadowing presi<strong>de</strong>nt Pompidou, whose performance in The Hague –also as a <strong>de</strong>butant – was generally consi<strong>de</strong>red disappointing. Chairman the


y Jan van <strong>de</strong>r Harst 9Netherlands largely shared Germany’s ambitions, strongly emphasising the needfor British entrance and slowing the urge for monetary union. From Anjo Harryvanand Jan Van <strong>de</strong>r Harst’s contribution, it appears that interpretation number three(above) particularly applied to the Dutch position. At the end <strong>of</strong> the meeting PietDe Jong and Joseph Luns proved ambivalent and insecure, but their mood soonchanged when the positive after-effects <strong>of</strong> The Hague became visible, including thegranting <strong>of</strong> new powers to the EP. Italy, as shown by Eleonora Guasconi, scored onthe issues <strong>of</strong> British membership and social policy, but ma<strong>de</strong> concessions onagricultural financing. Britain became aware that France no longer blocke<strong>de</strong>nlargement but, as said above, the terms on ‘completion’ were, in the longerperspective, unsatisfactory to London. For the Commission, the obtaining <strong>of</strong> ownresources was a substantial result, but presi<strong>de</strong>nt Jean Rey could not prevent theHague conference from opening a new episo<strong>de</strong> in the <strong>de</strong>velopment <strong>of</strong> ‘summitry’,eventually resulting in the creation <strong>of</strong> the European Council in 1974. Piers Ludlowrightly conclu<strong>de</strong>s that the Commission’s future “did not look like being a rapidadvance to wi<strong>de</strong>-ranging political power”. All in all, the summit’s outcome was apackage <strong>de</strong>al with gains and losses for all the parties involved. There could be notalk <strong>of</strong> an evi<strong>de</strong>nt, undisputed winner.Yet, if we need to mention one, then we might opt for precisely themember-country not <strong>de</strong>alt with in this volume. Luxembourg was in favour <strong>of</strong>completion and enlargement, but cautious – at least more ‘economist’ oriented thanneighbour Belgium – as far as monetary union was concerned. Hence, the carefullydrafted EMU provisions in the final communiqué were fully compatible withLuxembourg’s ambitions on this score. Moreover, Prime minister Werner wasappointed chairman <strong>of</strong> the prestigious committee charged with <strong>de</strong>veloping a planon economic and monetary union. Although only mo<strong>de</strong>stly involved in thediscussions with his colleagues, the lea<strong>de</strong>r <strong>of</strong> the smallest country had every reasonto look back on the meeting with satisfaction. However, as said above, the <strong>de</strong>finitestory on Luxembourg and The Hague has yet to be written.


Esther KramerEuropäisches o<strong>de</strong>ratlantisches Europa?Kontinuität und Wan<strong>de</strong>l in <strong>de</strong>n Verhandlungenüber eine politische Union 1958–1970Die Frage nach <strong>de</strong>r Finalität <strong>de</strong>r europäischen Einigung – supranationale o<strong>de</strong>rintergouvernementale Entwicklung – und die Schicksalsfrage nach <strong>de</strong>r europäischeno<strong>de</strong>r atlantischen Orientierung Europas sind nicht neu. Sie bestimmtenbereits die bisher einzige Grundsatz<strong>de</strong>batte über eine außen- undverteidigungspolitische Union Europas Anfang <strong>de</strong>r 60er Jahre. Im Zentrumeuropapolitischer Verhandlungen stand seit<strong>de</strong>m die Rolle <strong>de</strong>r Nationalstaaten,beson<strong>de</strong>rs umstritten in <strong>de</strong>r Verteidigungspolitik. Insgesamt wird <strong>de</strong>utlich,wie und weshalb aus historischer Sicht zukunftsfähige Lösungen in <strong>de</strong>r Komplementaritätdiverser Europakonzepte, nicht aber in einseitigen Perspektivenliegen. Die Schlüsselfragen sind bis zur aktuellen europäischen Verfassungs<strong>de</strong>batte<strong>of</strong>fen: Kompetenzverteilung zwischen nationaler Ebene, EU-Kommissionund Europaparlament, Vetorecht und Mehrheitsentscheidungen, europäischerAußenminister und Verteidigungsunion. Diese auf erstmalszugänglich gemachten diplomatischen Akten basieren<strong>de</strong> nuancierte Bewertungnationaler, bilateraler sowie europäischer Konflikte und Lösungsansätzebietet neue Einsichten in die strukturellen Grundlagen <strong>de</strong>r EU und in die Verhaltensmuster<strong>de</strong>r europapolitischen Akteure.2003, 331 S., brosch., 64,– €, ISBN 3-8329-0366-6Nomos


11An Opportunity or a Threat?The European Commission and the Hague Council<strong>of</strong> December 1969N. Piers LudlowThe Hague Council communiqué signalled that the European Heads <strong>of</strong> State andGovernment looked back on the Community’s first <strong>de</strong>ca<strong>de</strong> <strong>of</strong> operation with a fair<strong>de</strong>gree <strong>of</strong> pri<strong>de</strong>. Never before, they speculated, had in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt states gone so farin cooperation with one another. Paragraphs five to fourteen, meanwhile, set out anambitious set <strong>of</strong> future Community targets spanning all three elements <strong>of</strong> the broadtriptych <strong>of</strong> achèvement, appr<strong>of</strong>ondissement and élargissement that presi<strong>de</strong>nt Pompidouhad invited his colleagues to discuss. 1 If these goals were reached, the Communitywould truly have completed its initial programme, <strong>de</strong>epened the level <strong>of</strong>cooperation attained by opening up new areas <strong>of</strong> EEC activity and wi<strong>de</strong>ned its geographicscope by admitting several new member states and concluding commercialarrangements with most <strong>of</strong> the Western European states that were not yet in a positionto join.Given that much <strong>of</strong> the Community’s past advance had been based on proposalsput forward by the European Commission, and that its ambitious new targets wouldonce again require similar Commission activism, the Brussels body might havebeen expected to view these conclusions as a welcome pat on the back for its earlierwork and an exciting invitation to press ahead in its en<strong>de</strong>avours. The Commissionshould also, logically, have welcomed the new <strong>de</strong>gree <strong>of</strong> consensus that the Haguemeeting appeared to indicate amongst the EEC member states, since its role, itspersonnel and its scope <strong>of</strong> action had all been adversely affected by previous discordamongst the Six national governments. But as this article will show, the Commission’spleasure, anticipation and relief, while genuine, coexisted with a <strong>de</strong>gree<strong>of</strong> discontent. In part this sprang from what the Heads <strong>of</strong> State and Governmentchose not to mention in their final communiqué; more fundamentally, it also reflectedthe forum and manner in which the Hague conclusions had been drafted andwhat this <strong>de</strong>monstrated about the European Community’s gradual institutionalevolution.1. The communiqué is reprinted in full as an annex to European Commission, Troisième RapportGénéral sur l’activité <strong>de</strong>s Communautés 1969, European Commission, Brussels, 1970, pp. 520-524.


12N. Piers LudlowAccentuating the positiveThe Commission’s pleasure in the outcome <strong>of</strong> the Hague summit sprang from threemain sources. The first <strong>of</strong> these was the reaffirmation <strong>of</strong> the Community’s politicalpurpose – or to use the language <strong>of</strong> the communiqué itself, ‘les finalités politiques’<strong>of</strong> European <strong>integration</strong>. These had all too <strong>of</strong>ten been forgotten <strong>of</strong> late, Jean Reytold the European Parliament, referring no doubt to the way in which EEC negotiationshad become dominated by references to narrow national interest (<strong>of</strong>tenexpressed in purely economic and financial terms) rather than the l<strong>of</strong>ty i<strong>de</strong>alismand esprit communautaire which had seemingly characterised the early stages <strong>of</strong>the EEC’s existence. 2 The Commission had always <strong>de</strong>plored this trend. Althoughready to acknowledge that national interests could and should be pursued throughthe Community system, the Commission had grown apprehensive about the mannerin which Community negotiations from the mid-1960s onwards became evermore dominated by the tactics <strong>of</strong> ultimatums, linkage, threats and even boycotts. Areaffirmation, by the most senior European gathering possible, <strong>of</strong> the fact thatEuropean <strong>integration</strong> was a fundamentally political process, <strong>of</strong> greater long-termsignificance than the financial or economic impact <strong>of</strong> the latest agreement struck inBrussels, would act as a valuable brake on this ten<strong>de</strong>ncy.It was also likely to be <strong>of</strong> value – although for obvious reasons Rey did not saythis quite so explicitly – when the Community stood on the verge <strong>of</strong> an enlargementprocess which would almost certainly bring into the EEC a number <strong>of</strong> states,with Great Britain to the fore, that had long been suspected <strong>of</strong> having a rather coolattitu<strong>de</strong> towards the long-term political aims <strong>of</strong> European <strong>integration</strong> and a muchgreater interest in the short and medium term tangible economic and financialgains. Future Commission representatives wanting to follow Walter Hallstein’s leadand persua<strong>de</strong> observers, not to mention participants and would-be participants inthe Community process, that fundamentally the EEC was about ‘politics’ and not‘business’, would now be able to refer to the Hague summit conclusions as well asto the more traditional source, namely the Treaty <strong>of</strong> Rome preamble. 3A second, and still greater source <strong>of</strong> satisfaction for the Commission, was theway in which the Hague communiqué mapped out a bold set <strong>of</strong> new challenges forthe <strong>integration</strong> process. Un<strong>de</strong>r the heading <strong>of</strong> ‘completion’, there were several summitconclusions which gave the Commission particular pleasure. One such was themember states’ willingness (paragraph 5) to complete the Community’s transitionalperiod at midnight <strong>of</strong> December 31, 1969 and to pass into the <strong>de</strong>finitive stagemapped out by the Treaty from 1970 onwards. This <strong>de</strong>cision was seen as a vindication<strong>of</strong> the way in which the Commission had kept its nerve, earlier in the year, andresisted strong and numerous calls for the transitional phase to be prolonged and2. Débats du Parlement européen. Session 1969-1970. Séance du jeudi 11 décembre 1969,pp.165-166.3. Hallstein cites a slightly less snappy version <strong>of</strong> this claim in, Europe in the Making, Norton, NewYork, 1972, p.29.


An Opportunity or a Threat? 13the 1970 <strong>de</strong>adline allowed to pass by unobserved. 4 Such calls had been justified onthe grounds that a Community so at odds with itself and so chronically unable toreach agreement on any significant measures as the EEC <strong>of</strong> 1969, could not possiblyhope to complete its transitional phase on time. The summit communiqué, especiallywhen taken in conjunction with the flurry <strong>of</strong> Council <strong>of</strong> minister agreementsthat both prece<strong>de</strong>d and immediately followed the Heads <strong>of</strong> Government’smeeting, appeared to <strong>de</strong>monstrate that the Commission had been right to disregardthe Cassandras and press on with the Treaty timetable. 5Equally important was the summit’s recognition that agreement would have tobe reached, prior to the year’s end, on the financial regulation establishing how theCommunity’s ever more costly agricultural policy would be paid for, creating thesystem <strong>of</strong> Community own-resources the Commission had long awaited and settingup a higher <strong>de</strong>gree <strong>of</strong> European Parliamentary control over the EEC budgetary process.(Paragraph 5). This package <strong>of</strong> measures was not just the outcome <strong>of</strong> alengthy and <strong>de</strong>licate preparation process within the European Commission (althoughscrutiny <strong>of</strong> the Commission minutes for 1969 <strong>de</strong>monstrates that the draftingprocess had been both time-consuming and divisive); it was also a set <strong>of</strong> provisions<strong>of</strong> immense intrinsic and symbolic value to Brussels, which, if agreed upon, wouldconsolidate even further the CAP – very much still the Commission’s flagship policyin 1969 -, would give the Commission a much greater <strong>de</strong>gree <strong>of</strong> financial in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>ncethan it had hitherto enjoyed and would at last bring some tangible rewardfor the Commission’s long-standing campaign to see some increase in the powers<strong>of</strong> the European Parliament. 6 And, perhaps still more important, the package was avirtual re-run <strong>of</strong> those proposals which, when submitted in March 1965, had precipitatedthe most serious crisis <strong>of</strong> the Community’s twelve year <strong>history</strong>. 7 Giventhat one <strong>of</strong> the key problems in 1965 had been that several member states – Germanyand Italy most obviously – had not been prepared to accept that the <strong>de</strong>adline foragreeing to the financial regulation was nearly as sacrosanct and as unbreakable asthe French maintained, the recognition by all <strong>of</strong> those present at the summit that4. The Commission <strong>de</strong>cision to ignore calls for postponement is in ECHA, COM(69) PV 76, 2 e partie,30.04.1969. The institution’s earlier doubts are clear from COM(69) PV 72, 2 e partie,19-20.03.1969. The Commission was very open about its ambivalence on this issue in theTroisième Rapport Général sur l’activité <strong>de</strong>s Communautés 1969, Commission, Brussels-Luxembourg,1970, pp.15-16.5. The most important <strong>of</strong> the Council agreements was that on CAP finance, reached on December 22,1969.6. Some indication <strong>of</strong> the internal Commission <strong>de</strong>bate about this can be gained from ECHA, COM(69) PVs 76, 78, 83, 85 & 86.7. See e.g. M. SCHÖNWALD, Walter Hallstein and the “Empty Chair” Crisis 1965/6 and M.VAÏSSE, La politique européenne <strong>de</strong> la France en 1965: pourquoi “la chaise vi<strong>de</strong>”? both in: W.LOTH (ed.), Crises and Compromises: The European Project 1963-1969, Nomos, Ba<strong>de</strong>n-Ba<strong>de</strong>n,2001, pp.157-172 & 193-214.


14N. Piers Ludlowagreement had to be reached by December 31 was <strong>of</strong> immense importance and ren<strong>de</strong>redmuch less likely a recurrence <strong>of</strong> the earlier crisis. 8 This was all the more significantin view <strong>of</strong> the fact that Italy had been hinting strongly, both prior to theconference and at The Hague itself, that it did not feel itself bound by the 1969<strong>de</strong>adline. 9 French success in persuading Mariano Rumor, the Italian Prime minister,to put his signature to a communiqué including a firm date was thus a welcome<strong>de</strong>velopment for both Paris and the European Commission. With the summit conclusionsbinding all <strong>of</strong> those who would feature in the forthcoming Council marathonon the subject, the prospects <strong>of</strong> agreement being reached on the single mostimportant Commission proposal <strong>of</strong> 1969, were vastly improved. Rey and his colleaguescould not but welcome this <strong>de</strong>velopment.Also highlighted by the Commission’s presi<strong>de</strong>nt in his speech in Strasbourg – in<strong>de</strong>ed<strong>de</strong>scribed somewhat improbably as the single most important outcome in terms <strong>of</strong>achèvement – was the Hague pledge to resolve the ongoing crisis <strong>of</strong> Euratom. 10 Thisreflected the European Commission’s dissatisfaction with the way in which the 1967fusion process had not brought together three healthy institutions, but instead hadmerged the thriving EEC Commission with the seriously ailing, if not moribund, HighAuthority <strong>of</strong> the ECSC and the Euratom Commission. 11 Any promise <strong>of</strong> new money,attention, and commitment by the member states to the Atomic Energy Communitymight bring to an end this highly unsatisfactory state <strong>of</strong> affairs.Perhaps even more enticing for the Commission than the promises <strong>of</strong> completionwere the vistas opened up by those paragraphs <strong>of</strong> the Hague communiqué<strong>de</strong>aling with ‘<strong>de</strong>epening’. 12 One <strong>of</strong> the recurrent themes <strong>of</strong> both the Commission’sinternal <strong>de</strong>liberations during the latter half <strong>of</strong> the 1960s, and its public pronouncementshad been the <strong>de</strong>sire to find new fields <strong>of</strong> EEC activity now that the originalCommunity agenda – the establishment <strong>of</strong> a working customs union and the parallelconstruction <strong>of</strong> a CAP – was all but complete. 13 After all, a future spent merelymaintaining and periodically tinkering with, the existing acquis communautaire,would scarcely justify a bureaucracy the size <strong>of</strong> the European Commission, norcontain much scope for the type <strong>of</strong> political engrenage that many in Brussels still8. For the importance <strong>of</strong> this German and Italian position in 1965, see N.P. LUDLOW, ChallengingFrench Lea<strong>de</strong>rship in Europe: Germany, Italy and The Netherlands and the Outbreak <strong>of</strong> the EmptyChair Crisis, in: Contemporary European History, vol.8, no.2(1999), pp.245-247.9. Archives Nationales (AN), Pompidou papers, 5AG2/1036, Raimond to Pompidou, 27.11.1969; forRumor’s comments at The Hague itself, stressing the number <strong>of</strong> issues that had to be settledalongsi<strong>de</strong> the financial regulation, see SGCI archives, Fontainebleau (SGCI), versement 900568,article 386, Ministre <strong>de</strong>s Affaires étrangères note, MU/SF No.19 col/CE, 06.12.1969.10. Débats du Parlement européen. Session 1969-1970. Séance du jeudi 11 décembre 1969,pp.165-167.11. See the section on ‘la crise <strong>de</strong> l’Euratom’ in: Deuxième Rapport Général sur l’activité <strong>de</strong>sCommunautés 1968, Brussels-Luxembourg, Commission, 1969, pp.15-16.12. It was certainly on this point that the Commission’s assessment <strong>of</strong> 1969 chose to dwell. TroisièmeRapport Général 1969, pp.17-18.13. It was for instance an important sub-text throughout the discussions <strong>of</strong> enlargement in the later1960s. See e.g. ECHA. COM(67) 750 Annexe 2. Avis <strong>de</strong> la Commission au Conseil concernant les<strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong>s d'adhésion du Royaume-Uni, <strong>de</strong> l'Irlan<strong>de</strong>, du Danemark et <strong>de</strong> la Norvège, 29.09.1967.


An Opportunity or a Threat? 15hoped would drive the EEC forward towards out and out political unity. 14 Hence itwas extremely good news for the European Commission that the Heads <strong>of</strong> Stateand Government had collectively <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d that the Community nee<strong>de</strong>d to press forwardinto a number <strong>of</strong> challenging and important new areas <strong>of</strong> activity.Of these the single most exciting was probably monetary cooperation. This wasadmittedly a field where the European Commission had already taken its first tentativesteps. 15 In<strong>de</strong>ed the Hague communiqué explicitly referred to the Barre Plan <strong>of</strong>February 1969, one <strong>of</strong> the recent Commission forays into the field <strong>of</strong> monetary affairs.But the Barre Plan had been more notable for its caution than for its audacity.16 Receiving member state sanction to go much further and faster towards fulleconomic and monetary union was a huge and potentially highly rewarding <strong>de</strong>velopment.This certainly was an area <strong>of</strong> European activity which would provi<strong>de</strong> amplescope for Commission activism and for large-scale economic and politicalspill-over. Only a truly moribund institution could have failed to react with excitementto this prospect.Another reason to welcome member state activism on monetary affairs was theway in which discord and inaction in the field <strong>of</strong> exchange rates might actuallythreaten the EEC’s existing activities. This danger had already been brought hometo the Commission in the course <strong>of</strong> the preceding year, when first the <strong>de</strong>valuation <strong>of</strong>the French Franc and then the re-evaluation <strong>of</strong> the Deutsche Mark had brought toan end that cocoon <strong>of</strong> currency stability within which most <strong>of</strong> the early phase <strong>of</strong>European <strong>integration</strong> had occurred, <strong>de</strong>monstrated the <strong>de</strong>gree to which unilateralmember state actions in the monetary field had the potential to aggravate relationsamongst the Six, and greatly complicated the operation <strong>of</strong> the CAP whose centralisedprice system had been posited on the maintenance <strong>of</strong> exchange rate stabilitybetween EEC nations. 17 Should the 1969 currency movements prove to be harbingers<strong>of</strong> much more generalised exchange rate instability, then the Communitymight not merely find forward movement difficult, but could actually discover itselfto be moving backwards, with both the CAP and the customs union seriously un<strong>de</strong>rthreat. Again there were strong reasons for Rey and his fellow Commissioners to bethankful that the summit had not chosen to ignore this issue. 1814. For a good example <strong>of</strong> ongoing faith that spill-over would in the end prevail, see W. HALLSTEIN,Europe in the Making, op.cit. The influence <strong>of</strong> ‘neo-functionalist’ theory on the Commission’sown un<strong>de</strong>rstanding <strong>of</strong> how the future would evolve is discussed in Jonathan P.J. WHITE, TheoryGuiding Practice: the Ne<strong>of</strong>unctionalists and the Hallstein EEC Commission, in: Journal <strong>of</strong>European Integration History, 1(2003), pp.111-131.15. For an indication <strong>of</strong> how lengthy the pre-<strong>history</strong> <strong>of</strong> European monetary cooperation was, see B.CURLI, Questioni monetarie e costruzione europea (1955-1962), in: Europa Europe, 10/1(2001),pp.94-119.16. See ECHA, COM(69)150, Memorandum <strong>de</strong> la Commission au Conseil sur la coordination <strong>de</strong>spolitiques économiques et la coopération monétaire au sein <strong>de</strong> la Communauté, 12.02.1969.17. For the anxious Council <strong>de</strong>bates that followed the French and German <strong>de</strong>cisions see Council <strong>of</strong>Ministers archive, Brussels (CMA), R/2416/69, Procès-verbal <strong>de</strong> la 78 e session du Conseil,11-12.08.1969 & R2420/69, Procès-verbal <strong>de</strong> la session extraordinaire du Conseil tenue àLuxembourg, 27.10.1969.


An Opportunity or a Threat? 17The Commission’s interest was equally strong in the final category <strong>of</strong> action <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>dupon at The Hague namely enlargement. By 1969, the days had long gone when theCommission had been sceptical about enlargement, regarding it at best as an annoyingdistraction at a time when much else nee<strong>de</strong>d to be done, and at worst as a threat to theunity and prospects <strong>of</strong> success <strong>of</strong> the EEC. That sceptical neutrality, bor<strong>de</strong>ring on thehostile and tempered only by an awareness that opposing enlargement overtly would bepolitically very hazardous, that had been the hallmark <strong>of</strong> the Brussels institution duringthe first enlargement talks, was but a distant memory.Instead, most members <strong>of</strong> the Commission (with a few exceptions, notably RaymondBarre) regar<strong>de</strong>d enlargement as a highly positive <strong>de</strong>velopment which, ifproperly implemented, would inject new dynamism into the European project,would facilitate the expansion <strong>of</strong> European <strong>integration</strong> into new fields, wouldstrengthen the <strong>de</strong>mocratic and commercially liberal ten<strong>de</strong>ncies within Europewhich the Commission wanted to champion and would remove from the EEC’sagenda a highly divisive issue that had <strong>de</strong>monstrated its capacity to seriously disruptthe Community in 1963 and again in 1967-1969. 22 The Hague resolution,promising the imminent start <strong>of</strong> talks with Britain and its fellow applicants (althougha date was not mentioned it was generally un<strong>de</strong>rstood that negotiationswould begin within six months) was thus welcomed by the Commission. 23This was all the more true given the way in which the Heads <strong>of</strong> State and Governmenthad stipulated in advance that the negotiations would take place betweenthe Community and the applicants, and not be as had been the case when Britainhad first applied, a set <strong>of</strong> intergovernmental talks between the member states andthose countries seeking to join. This distinction was much more important to theCommission than might at first seem obvious. First <strong>of</strong> all it ma<strong>de</strong> it likely that thenegotiations would be a more communautaire process than they had been in1961-63, and correspondingly would pose less <strong>of</strong> a threat to the Community fabric,something which the Commission, as a guardian <strong>of</strong> the treaty and the acquis wasbound to welcome. And second it all but guaranteed a vital role for the Commission.This again contrasted sharply with 1961-63 when the Commission hadstrongly feared being marginalised in the negotiations and had seen its role preservedonly thanks to strong advocacy from the Italians and Germans. 24 Within aCommunity rather than an intergovernmental arrangement, a place for the Commissionat the very heart <strong>of</strong> the process was much more secure. 2522. For further <strong>de</strong>tails on the Commission’s volte-face on this issue see N.P. LUDLOW, A Short-TermDefeat: The Community Institutions and the Second British Application to Join the EEC, in: O.DADDOW (ed.), op.cit., pp.141-143.23. Débats du Parlement européen. Session 1969-1970. Séance du jeudi 11 décembre 1969,pp.165-167.24. N.P. LUDLOW, Dealing With Britain: the Six and the First UK Application to the EEC,Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997, pp.62-63.25. Rey’s <strong>de</strong>light at this aspect <strong>of</strong> the summit <strong>de</strong>al was very clear in his European Parliament speech.Débats du Parlement européen. Session 1969-1970. Séance du jeudi 11 décembre 1969, p.167.


18N. Piers LudlowThe final reason why the promise to enlarge was always likely to please theCommission, was the way in which it seemed to mark the formal end <strong>of</strong> the tusslebetween Gaullist France and its partners – a struggle which had frustrated Commissionhopes and which had at times appeared to endanger its very existence. Theovert confrontation between France and the Five had after all first erupted over theissue <strong>of</strong> enlargement, the British veto and the ensuing crisis <strong>of</strong> January 1963 beingthe first, painful confrontation between <strong>de</strong> Gaulle and his Community opponents. 26Enlargement had moreover remained an ongoing problem – even when other issueswere subsequently ad<strong>de</strong>d to the dispute. La question anglaise had always beenwaiting in the wings throughout the empty chair crisis – with both France and itsopponents making tentative overtures to the British at the very height <strong>of</strong> the dispute.27 It had moved much more clearly centre-stage in 1967 with the second application– a bid the failure <strong>of</strong> which seemed once more to bring the Community tothe brink <strong>of</strong> total impasse. 28 And it had remained a shadowy but disruptive presencethroughout the 1968-69 period. Georges Pompidou in<strong>de</strong>ed had resorted to a theatricalmetaphor himself when complaining to Chancellor Kurt Georg Kiesinger thatthe British were like L’Arlésienne <strong>of</strong> Dau<strong>de</strong>t’s play – i.e. a character who whilenever appearing in person on the stage nevertheless succee<strong>de</strong>d in haunting all thescenes from which she was absent. 29 A successful conclusion to the long-runningenlargement drama would therefore un<strong>de</strong>rline the fact that <strong>de</strong> Gaulle had gone andthat the EEC’s prospects were correspondingly brighter.This argument neatly introduces the third main source <strong>of</strong> Commission satisfactionat the Hague summit, namely the way in which the summit itself, and its successfulconclusion, appeared to disprove all <strong>of</strong> those who had predicted that theCommunity experiment had advanced as far as was likely to be possible. 30 TheCommission itself had <strong>of</strong> course always <strong>de</strong>nied such predictions. 31 To do otherwisewould have been to accept impending dissolution. But so halting had progress beenat an EEC level during 1968 and 1969, that the doom-sayers had proved ever har<strong>de</strong>rto rebut. Now at last the Commission had something to shout about, a sign <strong>of</strong> mem-26. For analyses <strong>of</strong> the January 1963 crisis see O. BANGE, The EEC Crisis <strong>of</strong> 1963. Kennedy,Macmillan, <strong>de</strong> Gaulle and A<strong>de</strong>nauer in conflict, Macmillan, London, 2000; W. HOLSCHER,Krisenmanagement in Sachen EWG. Das Scheitern <strong>de</strong>s Beitritts Grossbritanniens und die<strong>de</strong>utsch-französischen Beziehungen, in: R. BLASIUS (Hrsg.), Von A<strong>de</strong>nauer zu Erhard. Studienzur Auswärtigen Politik <strong>de</strong>r Bun<strong>de</strong>srepublik Deutschland 1963, Ol<strong>de</strong>nbourg Verlag, München,1994; N.P. LUDLOW, Dealing With Britain …, op.cit., pp.200-230.27. For the French hints, analysed with interest by London, see PRO, T312/1015, Reilly to FO, tel.794,24.11.1965; for an inept Dutch attempt to threaten the French with the prospect <strong>of</strong> Britain beingdrafted in to replace them, Netherlands Foreign Ministry Archives (NLFM), 996.0 EEG, box 176,tel.623, Bentinck to MBZ, 25.11.1865. With thanks to Helen Parr for the PRO reference.28. See N.P. LUDLOW, A Short-Term Defeat …, op.cit.,pp.135-150.29. AN, Pompidou papers, 5AG2/1010, Entretien en tête-à-tête entre le Chancelier Kiesinger et lePrési<strong>de</strong>nt Pompidou, 09.09.1969.30. The most famous <strong>of</strong> such predictions was S. HOFFMAN, Obstinate or Obsolete? The Fate <strong>of</strong> theNation-State and the Case <strong>of</strong> Western Europe, in: Dae<strong>de</strong>lus, vol.95,3(1966), pp.862-915.31. See for instance ECHA, speeches collection, Hallstein speech to the Organization <strong>of</strong> EuropeanJournalists, Brussels, 14.04.1967.


An Opportunity or a Threat? 19ber state dynamism and member state commitment to Europe that had been sorelymissed during the preceding couple <strong>of</strong> years. Furthermore, while Pompidou’swords at The Hague were not all entirely comforting to the Commission, the merefact that the French presi<strong>de</strong>nt was present at all, talking openly and multilaterally tohis European colleagues, rather than launching unilateral thun<strong>de</strong>rbolts from afar,was a consi<strong>de</strong>rable relief to any institution eager to see European cooperation prosper.Again the distance travelled by the new French presi<strong>de</strong>nt to be present in theDutch administrative capital could be seen as symbolising the distance the Communityhad travelled from the nadir <strong>of</strong> its struggle with <strong>de</strong> Gaulle.It was thus unsurprising that Rey chose to conclu<strong>de</strong> his analysis <strong>of</strong> the Hagueconference to the European Parliament on this note <strong>of</strong> renewed confi<strong>de</strong>nce and unity.Having noted that in 1970 it would be twenty years since Robert Schuman hadstarted the <strong>integration</strong> process, he went on:‘… nous pensons maintenant que la Communauté est en train <strong>de</strong> retrouver cedynamisme créateur qu’il [Schuman] avait su lui insuffler au départ, et qui nous amanqué dans les <strong>de</strong>rniers mois, [et] c’est avec une meilleure conscience que tousensemble, Parlement, Conseil <strong>de</strong>s ministres et Commission, je le répète ensemble, le9 mai 1970, nous manifesterons avec une énergie renouvelée notre volonté <strong>de</strong> hâterla construction du continent européen’. 32The wrong conclusions and the wrong venueSimply stopping here and concluding that the European Commission was <strong>de</strong>lightedwith the Hague summit and excited by the multiple prospects it appeared to openup, would however be pr<strong>of</strong>oundly misleading. For both in its public response andstill more in its private analysis, the Commission also had reasons to be disappointedabout the outcome <strong>of</strong> the summit, and to be concerned about the way inwhich the conclusions had been reached. The second half <strong>of</strong> this article thereforeneeds to explore the less positive si<strong>de</strong> <strong>of</strong> the Commission’s reactions to the Hague.The first reason for the Commission’s discontent was the omission from theHague communiqué <strong>of</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> issues that the Brussels institution had hopedwould be <strong>de</strong>alt with. Of these the most important was the Hague’s failure to reachany significant agreement on the issue <strong>of</strong> institutional reform. 33 The need tostrengthen the institutions <strong>of</strong> the Community had been a very prominent theme <strong>of</strong>the ai<strong>de</strong>-mémoire which the Commission had <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d to submit to the memberstate governments on the eve <strong>of</strong> the summit. 34 In particular, the Commission hadhighlighted the way in which both the ever-growing number <strong>of</strong> tasks entrusted tothe Community and the prospect <strong>of</strong> EEC enlargement required an improvement onthe current institutional arrangements. According to the Commission, two specific32. Débats du Parlement européen. Session 1969-1970. Séance du jeudi 11 décembre 1969, p.16933. Again Rey was quite open about this. Débats du Parlement européen. Session 1969-1970. Séancedu jeudi 11 décembre 1969, pp.167-168.


20N. Piers Ludlowchanges were the most urgently nee<strong>de</strong>d: first the Council <strong>of</strong> ministers nee<strong>de</strong>d to returnto ‘leur fonctionnement normal prévu par les traités’ - an oblique reference toseveral perceived Council abuses, but most importantly a complaint about the ministers’ongoing reluctance to make much use <strong>of</strong> the majority voting provisions containedin the Treaty. 35 And second the European Parliament nee<strong>de</strong>d to be directlyelected. 36 This would reinforce the <strong>de</strong>mocratic character <strong>of</strong> the Community andblunt charges that the EEC was an unaccountable technocracy. It might also advancethe Commission’s long-standing ambition <strong>of</strong> forging more direct links betweenthe Community institutions and the wi<strong>de</strong>r European public, a process whichin the long-run would help emancipate the Community institutions from memberstate control.Unfortunately neither <strong>of</strong> these changes had been endorsed by the assembledHeads <strong>of</strong> Government. Both issues had been raised: several lea<strong>de</strong>rs, notably MarianoRumor the Italian Prime minister and Piet <strong>de</strong> Jong his Dutch counterpart, had calledfor a change in the manner that the European Parliament was chosen. 37 And <strong>de</strong> Jonghad ma<strong>de</strong> a comment about Council reform and the need for the Community to useall possible methods that the French at least had taken to be an allusion to majorityvoting. 38 But in neither case had a strong enough push been ma<strong>de</strong> for agreementamong the Six. As a result, the final communiqué contained only a passing referenceto the continuing discussions about European Parliamentary elections (and even thiswas only secured as a result <strong>of</strong> the last minute insistence <strong>of</strong> the Italians) and no mentionat all <strong>of</strong> majority voting. 39 Therefore the Commission’s hopes for institutional reformwere not advanced at all by the summit. In<strong>de</strong>ed it could even be argued that theywere set back, since in the all too obvious absence <strong>of</strong> enthusiasm for or consensusabout either reform at the highest political level, it would be a brave member state orCommunity institution that pushed too hard for their agreement in the short term. Inthe light <strong>of</strong> The Hague the Commission was likely to go on working within the sameinstitutional framework for the next few years at least.The caution <strong>de</strong>monstrated by the member state lea<strong>de</strong>rs on the theme <strong>of</strong> politicalunion was equally disappointing to Rey and his colleagues. 40 The Commission hadoriginally been rather sceptical about the political union process, objecting to thenon-communautaire framework within which it was to be conducted and fearingthat it might un<strong>de</strong>rmine the ability <strong>of</strong> the Community institutions to discuss an everexpanding range <strong>of</strong> topics. Sicco Mansholt had for instance told the press in 196234. The Commission memorandum <strong>of</strong> November 19, 1969 was reprinted as an annex to Le TroisièmeRapport Général, pp.518-520. A very brief reference to the Commission’s internal discussion <strong>of</strong>this note is in ECHA, COM(69) PV 97, 2 e partie, 05.11.1969. It had been largely drafted by Hansvon <strong>de</strong>r Groeben.35. Troisième Rapport Général, annex, p.520.36. Ibid.37. SGCI, versement 900568, article 386, Ministre <strong>de</strong>s Affaires étrangères note, MU/SF No.19 col/CE, 06.12.1969.38. Ibid.39. Troisième Rapport Général, pp.520-524.40. Débats du Parlement européen. Session 1969-1970. Séance du jeudi 11 décembre 1969, p.167.


An Opportunity or a Threat? 21that ‘il est dangereux <strong>de</strong> participer à la soi-disant union politique, qui n’a rien à voiravec une union’. 41 By the later 1960s, however, the Commission had ceased to fearthe i<strong>de</strong>a and had instead come to believe that any framework that served to co-ordinatethe foreign policies <strong>of</strong> the Six would improve relations amongst the memberstates and facilitate its own external policy activities. Therefore, as with the enlargementissue, the Commission had shifted by 1969 from a position midway betweenagnosticism and outright hostility, to a position <strong>of</strong> advocacy. It was for thisreason that the Commission’s ai<strong>de</strong>-mémoire <strong>of</strong> November 19 had specificallycalled for an advance towards political union. 42Once again, however, this expectation <strong>of</strong> the Commission had not been fullymet. The Hague communiqué did, admittedly, contain a paragraph on politicalunion (paragraph 15). But rather than launching the process outright or at very leastaffirming the lea<strong>de</strong>rs’ <strong>de</strong>termination to see the process succeed, this merely chargedthe foreign ministers to study the manner in which political union might be realisedand to submit proposals by the middle <strong>of</strong> 1970. 43 It was thus a tentative half-stepforward, rather than the bold leap that the Commission had hoped to see.Still more serious for the Commission than the Hague’s sins <strong>of</strong> omission – i.e.those things that the Prime ministers and presi<strong>de</strong>nts had chosen not to do – was theway in which the Hague summit could be seen as part <strong>of</strong> a longer term shift <strong>of</strong> theEEC’s institutional balance away from the Commission-centred pattern <strong>of</strong> advancethat many in Brussels still clung to, towards a much more clearly member-state ledapproach. This was <strong>of</strong> course not an entirely new process. On the contrary it hadcertainly been un<strong>de</strong>rway since the mid-1960s and had arguably been happeningever since the Treaty <strong>of</strong> Paris in 1951. 44 But the success <strong>of</strong> the Hague summit un<strong>de</strong>niablygave it a new dimension that would take some time for the Commission toaccept fully.For the Commission the first worrying institutional aspect <strong>of</strong> The Hague was theway in which the Brussels ‘executive’ was marginalised during the summit itself.As soon as the Commission had heard Pompidou’s plan for a high-level Europeanmeeting, Rey had approached Maurice Schumann, the French Foreign minister, requestingthat the Commission be invited to take part. He recognised <strong>of</strong> course thatwhen the Heads <strong>of</strong> Government discussed non-Community related matters, theCommission representative should not get involved; whenever Community affairswere discussed, however, it was important for the Commission to be present. 45 TheFrench, however had been non-committal and it was only un<strong>de</strong>r pressure from theirpartners that they agreed that Rey (accompanied by one vice-presi<strong>de</strong>nt, EdoardoMartino) should be invited at all, but only for the second <strong>of</strong> the two days. 46 Commissionprotestations about how inappropriate it was for the member states to <strong>de</strong>-41. Cited in Le Mon<strong>de</strong>, 27.03.1962.42. Troisième Rapport Général, p.520.43. Ibid., p.524.44. This is a theme that will be explored in much greater <strong>de</strong>pth in the author’s forthcoming monographon the European Community’s <strong>de</strong>velopment between 1963 and 1969.45. AN, Pompidou papers, 5AG2/1036, Gaucher to Pompidou, 18.07.1969.


22N. Piers Ludlowci<strong>de</strong> who should represent the nominally in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt Brussels institution went unhee<strong>de</strong>d.47The Commission was therefore very displeased to discover that the first day <strong>of</strong>the summit, when it had not been present, had not been <strong>de</strong>voted to discussing mattersoutsi<strong>de</strong> <strong>of</strong> the Community’s competence, but had instead been used to talk <strong>of</strong>enlargement and the financial regulation – in other words issues that were clearlyCommunity affairs. 48 Rey ma<strong>de</strong> some effort to complain about this when he finallyjoined the conference on the second day; that he almost certainly harboured muchstronger private misgivings about this way <strong>of</strong> proceeding is extremely likely in<strong>de</strong>ed.49 Equally worrying was the way in which neither the Commission’s ai<strong>de</strong>-mémoirenor the European Parliament’s resolution about The Hague (November 3,1969) were referred to in the final communiqué nor, seemingly, during the summit’s<strong>de</strong>liberations themselves. 50 Consi<strong>de</strong>red together with the fact that several <strong>of</strong>the substantive issues that the Commission had i<strong>de</strong>ntified as most pressing hadbeen ignored, this appeared to suggest that the Heads <strong>of</strong> State and Government didnot feel bound by the rules <strong>of</strong> Community behaviour or in any way obliged to heedthe workings <strong>of</strong> the Community system.Finally Rey himself seemed to have had little impact on the course <strong>of</strong> discussionsat The Hague. On the basis <strong>of</strong> the French record at least (and it has to be acknowledgedthat this may well not have been an entirely objective source as far asthe Commission role was concerned) Rey ma<strong>de</strong> only one significant speech, an interventionthat provoked little response from the other conference participants, andleft no mark at all on the process <strong>of</strong> drafting the communiqué. 51 The summitseemed therefore to have un<strong>de</strong>rlined rather than rebutted the subordinate status <strong>of</strong>the European Commission within the Community system.The second source <strong>of</strong> institutional discomfort for the European Commission,was the way in which the summit could be perceived as just the latest in a series <strong>of</strong><strong>de</strong>viations from the normal mechanisms <strong>of</strong> Community negotiation. In the monthsprior to The Hague, the Commission had grown increasingly alarmed at a number<strong>of</strong> unorthodox institutional <strong>de</strong>cisions taken by the member states. First it had beenunhappy about the prominence given to an informal meeting <strong>of</strong> the Community fi-46. AN, Pompidou papers, 5AG2/1036, Raimond to Jobert, 15.09.1969; for a more <strong>de</strong>tailed discussion<strong>of</strong> the Commission role, including an unsuccessful attempt to get Rey invited to both days, seeSGCI, versement 900568, article 386, Boegner to Quai, tel.1281-94, 11.11.1969.47. Rey was asked by the Commission to make this point strongly to Luns. ECHA, COM(69) PV94,2 e partie, 15.10.1969.48. The most complete record <strong>of</strong> the summit is the French record: SGCI, versement 900568, article386, Ministre <strong>de</strong>s Affaires étrangères note, MU/SF No.19 col/CE, 06.12.1969.49. Ibid.50. The European Parliament’s resolution <strong>of</strong> November 3, 1969 is also reproduced as an annex to LeTroisième Rapport Général, pp.516-518.51. SGCI, versement 900568, article 386, Ministre <strong>de</strong>s Affaires étrangères note, MU/SF No.19 col/CE, 06.12.1969. A French analysis <strong>of</strong> who contributed what to the drafting process – which againun<strong>de</strong>rlined the Commission’s minimal role – is in the same fol<strong>de</strong>r, Commentaires succincts sur lecommuniqué <strong>de</strong> la Conférence au Sommet, undated.


An Opportunity or a Threat? 23nance ministers, convened at Garmisch-Partenkirchen, and not subject to the usualrules and procedures <strong>of</strong> Council <strong>of</strong> ministers meetings. Such gatherings, the Commissionhad stressed in the meeting’s aftermath, should in no sense replace moretraditional Council meetings, and should be given much less publicity. 52 Then,more seriously, the Commission had felt obliged to protest in April about the mannerin which Gaston Thorn, as presi<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>of</strong> the Council, had organised a working-lunchwith his fellow foreign ministers to discuss Community affairs withoutthe Commission being present. 53 Even when the Dutch presi<strong>de</strong>ncy ma<strong>de</strong> sure thatthe representatives <strong>of</strong> the Brussels body were invited to subsequent working lunches,Rey and his colleagues continued to feel uneasy about a type <strong>of</strong> meeting that eschewedthe standard Council format. 54 And finally the Commission disliked theway in which neither France nor Germany had seen fit to consult their Communitypartners prior to their changes <strong>of</strong> currency parity. 55 Instead the Council had had tobe rapidly summoned to ratify what was already a fait accompli.These examples <strong>of</strong> non-communautaire behaviour came on top <strong>of</strong> an ongoingseries <strong>of</strong> blows to the Commission’s own prestige and capacity for autonomous action.In December 1968, for instance, the Commission had become embroiled in alengthy tussle over how far it would be able to negotiate for the Community in theplanned talks with the ACP countries about the renewal <strong>of</strong> the Yaoundé convention.56 The upshot <strong>of</strong> this procedural battle – resolved only at the end <strong>of</strong> January1969 - had been that when talks were conducted at ambassadorial level, the EECpresi<strong>de</strong>ncy would be held by the Chairman <strong>of</strong> COREPER and not by the Commission’srepresentative. 57 And then in June, Rey had not been received by presi<strong>de</strong>ntRichard Nixon when on an <strong>of</strong>ficial visit to the US – a striking contrast to the behaviour<strong>of</strong> earlier US administrations that had gone out <strong>of</strong> their way to emphasise theimportance and esteem in which they held Commission <strong>de</strong>legations. 58 These multipleinci<strong>de</strong>nts ad<strong>de</strong>d together seemed to <strong>de</strong>monstrate the slippage in the Commission’spower and prestige since the heady days <strong>of</strong> the early 1960s. And this ma<strong>de</strong> itall the har<strong>de</strong>r for the Commission to look on with total equanimity as the key <strong>de</strong>cisionsconcerning the Community’s future membership, agenda and direction weretaken at an intergovernmental forum where the Commission’s participation was incompleteand largely ineffective.Finally, the very success <strong>of</strong> The Hague seemed to consecrate the disappearance <strong>of</strong>the Commission’s agenda setting-power which had been threatened throughout the1960s. The early European Commission liked to style itself as the motor <strong>of</strong> the Europe-52. ECHA, COM(69) PV 63 final, 2 e partie, 15.01.1969.53. ECHA, COM(69) PV74 and 75, 2 e partie, 16.04.1969 & 23-24.04.1969.54. ECHA, COM(69) PV98, 2 e partie, 11-12.11.1969.55. ECHA, COM(69) PV92, 2 e partie, 29-30.09.1969.56. ECHA, COM(68) PV60, 2 e partie, 11.12.1968.57. ECHA, COM(69) PV65, 2 e partie, 29.01.1969.58. The Commission minutes allu<strong>de</strong> only briefly to the episo<strong>de</strong>. It is clear from the text neverthelessthat the Commission had been bruised by the inci<strong>de</strong>nt. ECHA, COM(69) PV 83, 2 e partie,24-25.06.1969.


24N. Piers Ludlowan Community and believed that one <strong>of</strong> its key assets in carrying out this dynamic taskwas its unique capacity to <strong>de</strong>termine the direction into which the Community moved.As Hallstein explained at length in a lecture in London in March 1965 which in manyways represents the high water mark <strong>of</strong> his institutional ambitions (it was <strong>de</strong>livered amere three months before the outbreak <strong>of</strong> the empty chair crisis), the Commission’smonopoly <strong>of</strong> the right to propose Community legislation gave it a unique capacity to directthe Community and represented a clear <strong>de</strong>monstration <strong>of</strong> the political in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nceenjoyed by the Brussels body. 59 Member states could and did ask for legislativeproposals to be ma<strong>de</strong>; but the Commission was un<strong>de</strong>r no obligation to heed these requests.60 Furthermore the Commission had shown in 1962, in 1964 and again in 1969that it could use this power to set the Community agenda to draw up extensive workprogrammes, <strong>de</strong>signed to map the EEC’s course over a year or two ahead.Even before Hallstein <strong>de</strong>livered his London speech, however, this ability to plotthe Community’s course had been un<strong>de</strong>r threat. In 1963 it had been a member state– West Germany acting through its foreign minister Gerhard Schrö<strong>de</strong>r – that had<strong>de</strong>vised the action plan that had pulled the EEC out <strong>of</strong> the crisis caused by the failure<strong>of</strong> the first enlargement talks. 61 And over subsequent years Germany in particular,but latterly other member states also, revealed signs <strong>of</strong> having acquired a tastefor such behaviour, submitting a succession <strong>of</strong> action programmes and work timetables.62 The Commission’s own efforts, meanwhile, whether in 1962, 1964 or1969 had remained largely unimplemented. The success rate <strong>of</strong> unilateral nationalattempts to set the Community agenda was sufficiently patchy, however, for theCommission still to feel that it retained some claim to be able to set the Communityagenda in the short and medium term. It did after all still control the timing <strong>of</strong> most<strong>of</strong> the single legislative proposals. Its 1969 effort, moreover, suggested that it perceiveda role in bringing together and making more coherent the multiple nationalsuggestions for Community advance that had already been ma<strong>de</strong>. 63 An agenda setby agreement between all six Heads <strong>of</strong> State and government was entirely different.It would be very hard for any Council <strong>of</strong> ministers meeting to ignore such a document.By the same token, however, it was all but impossible for the Commission todisregard it. As a result it could be construed as a serious blow to the Commission’shighly valued autonomy and in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nce. No longer would Rey and his colleaguesbe able to <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong> what targets to work towards or what priorities to i<strong>de</strong>ntify.59. ECHA, speeches collection, Hallstein lecture to the British Institute <strong>of</strong> International andComparative Law, 25.03.1965.60. Ibid.61. Schrö<strong>de</strong>r’s plan is examined in some <strong>de</strong>pth in O. BANGE, Picking Up the Pieces. Schrö<strong>de</strong>r’sWorking Programme for the European Communities and the solution <strong>of</strong> the 1963 crisis,Unpublished Ph.D, London, 1997, pp.158-225.62. Germany had submitted plans in 1964 and 1967, France one in 1968. See CMA, R/121/64,Procès-verbal <strong>de</strong> la réunion restreinte <strong>de</strong> la 121 e session du Conseil CEE (03-05.02.1964); R/601/67, Procès-verbal <strong>de</strong> la 212 e session <strong>de</strong> la Conseil CEE (10-12.04.1967); R/2111/68, Procès-verbal<strong>de</strong> la 51 e session du Conseil (04-05.11.1968).63. Rey’s presentation <strong>of</strong> the Commission’s latest plan is in CMA, 505/69, Procès-verbal <strong>de</strong> la 66 esession du Conseil (25-26.03.1969).


An Opportunity or a Threat? 25Instead they would be largely bound by the agenda and priorities that had been setby Pompidou, Willy Brandt and their fellow lea<strong>de</strong>rs at The Hague.To make matters worse, the very success <strong>of</strong> the Community’s first major summitmeant that it was unlikely to remain a once-<strong>of</strong>f event. France’s 1974 suggestion toinstitutionalise Community summitry and create the European Council still laysome way <strong>of</strong>f, <strong>of</strong> course. But it was wi<strong>de</strong>ly known that several <strong>of</strong> the participants <strong>of</strong>the Hague Council believed that further meetings between Heads <strong>of</strong> State and Governmentwould be useful, and their initial success was only likely to encouragethem to meet again. The Commission was therefore un<strong>de</strong>r serious threat <strong>of</strong> seeingthe last vestiges <strong>of</strong> its power to set the Community’s agenda – and thereby claim insome senses at least to lead Europe – being arrogated by a gathering <strong>of</strong> Communitylea<strong>de</strong>rs that was not even subject to the rules and conventions governing the Council<strong>of</strong> ministers. For the Commission’s long-term sense <strong>of</strong> its own mission and purpose,this was a pr<strong>of</strong>oundly <strong>de</strong>pressing <strong>de</strong>velopment.ConclusionsThe Hague summit was therefore not a wholly positive event for the EuropeanCommission. The <strong>de</strong>monstration provi<strong>de</strong>d that the Six were still committed to the Europeancause was <strong>of</strong> course highly welcome. And the agenda that was set, both in themonth that separated the meeting from the end <strong>of</strong> the Community’s transitional periodand over the following few years, <strong>of</strong>fered a very welcome opportunity for the Brusselsbody. There would be ample scope for Rey and his successors to prove their technicalcompetence and their ability to broker agreement amongst the member states.And it was also important to see the Community move <strong>de</strong>cisively into the direction<strong>of</strong> enlargement and away from some <strong>of</strong> the most acrimonious divisions <strong>of</strong> therecent past. Taken together, the Hague conclusions did seem to indicate that theCommission would have plenty to do in the short and immediate term, and plenty<strong>of</strong> scope to <strong>de</strong>monstrate its continuing usefulness within the Community system.But institutionally what happened at The Hague was more <strong>of</strong> a threat than an opportunitynot simply because the Commission’s institutional <strong>de</strong>si<strong>de</strong>rata were ignored,but also because the very fact that it took a meeting <strong>of</strong> the Heads <strong>of</strong> Stateand Government to get the Community back on track <strong>de</strong>monstrated that the Europeanlea<strong>de</strong>rship role once aspired to by Hallstein now belonged ever more clearlyto those who ruled Europe’s individual member states. The Commission’s future,while busy and far from marginal, did not look like being a rapid advance towi<strong>de</strong>-ranging political power. Europe might have been on the move once more afterthe successful summit, but it was not quite the type <strong>of</strong> Europe which the EuropeanCommission had long hoped to see.


Georg Michels (Hrsg.)Auf <strong>de</strong>r Suchenach einem Phantom?Wi<strong>de</strong>rspiegelungen Europas in <strong>de</strong>r GeschichtswissenschaftDas Zusammenwachsen Europas tritt mit <strong>de</strong>m anstehen<strong>de</strong>n EU-Beitritt <strong>de</strong>rersten ostmitteleuropäischen Län<strong>de</strong>r in eine neue Phase. Diese Tatsache legteine geistige Bestandsaufnahme nahe, die sich weniger mit aktuellen politischeno<strong>de</strong>r wirtschaftlichen Erwartungen dieser Län<strong>de</strong>r befaßt, son<strong>de</strong>rn<strong>de</strong>ren historisches und kulturelles Handgepäck in <strong>de</strong>n Mittelpunkt stellt.Welches historische Erbe und welche Vorstellungen verbin<strong>de</strong>n sich mit <strong>de</strong>mBegriff »Europa«? Ist Europa in historischer Hinsicht überhaupt ein Begriffund wenn ja, wie wur<strong>de</strong> und wird er gefüllt? Historiker aus Österreich, Polen,Tschechien, Litauen und Deutschland untersuchen in diesem Sammelbanddas »Europabild« in <strong>de</strong>r Geschichte und in <strong>de</strong>r Geschichtswissenschaft Ostmitteleuropas.Dazu wer<strong>de</strong>n sowohl ganze Epochen im Längsschnitt durchmessenwie auch einzelne, ausgewählte Aspekte beleuchtet, die beispielhaftfür bestimmte, die Län<strong>de</strong>r betreffen<strong>de</strong> Entwicklungen stehen. Damit tritt <strong>de</strong>rscheinbar ein<strong>de</strong>utige Begriff von Europa in einer Vielzahl von Facetten hervor,die die verschie<strong>de</strong>nen Sichtweisen von Völkern Ostmitteleuropas <strong>de</strong>utlichwer<strong>de</strong>n lassen. Der Band wen<strong>de</strong>t sich an alle, die an <strong>de</strong>r historischen Entwicklung<strong>de</strong>s Europabegriffes interessiert sind.2003, 218 S., geb., 48,– €, ISBN 3-8329-0317-8(Schriften <strong>de</strong>s Zentrum für Europäische Integrationsforschung (ZEI), Bd. 42)Nomos


Swan Song or Cock Crow?The Netherlands and the Hague Conference <strong>of</strong> December 196927Anjo Harryvan and Jan van <strong>de</strong>r HarstDuring the 1960s, French-Dutch relations had <strong>de</strong>teriorated, mainly as a result <strong>of</strong> ECcontroversies, such as the French vetoes on British entry, the heated discussions on theFouchet plans, the empty chair crisis and unwillingness by Paris to confer real powersto the embryonic European Parliament. Nevertheless, by the end <strong>of</strong> the <strong>de</strong>ca<strong>de</strong> DutchEuropean policy-makers would have a number <strong>of</strong> successes to look back upon. Ridingthe ti<strong>de</strong> <strong>of</strong> economic prosperity the ‘Original Six’ managed to establish the customsunion as agreed on in the Rome Treaty by July 1968, well before it was due, thusrealising the Netherlands’ most important European policy goal since the launching <strong>of</strong>the Beyen plan in 1952. True, the French taste for high external tariffs was still lookedupon with scorn, but the GATT’s Kennedy Round had eased part <strong>of</strong> the pain.Throughout the 1960s, however, fear <strong>of</strong> remaining ‘locked up’ in a limited andprotectionist continental block constituted a major motive for Dutch insistence onenlargement <strong>of</strong> the Communities, also known as the préalable anglais. The government’spolitical motive for enlargement was poignantly wor<strong>de</strong>d by Prime minister Piet <strong>de</strong> Jongduring a cabinet (Ministerraad) meeting late in 1967: he <strong>de</strong>emed it“irresponsible to lead the Netherlands towards a European satellite state un<strong>de</strong>r French, andafter De Gaulle’s <strong>de</strong>ath, un<strong>de</strong>r German hegemony. History teaches us that French or Germanhegemony does not leave <strong>de</strong>mocratic principles in safe hands. British and Scandinavianaccession is <strong>of</strong> the highest importance for maintaining <strong>de</strong>mocracy in Europe”. 1Of equally high importance as British accession was, in the government’s view, theestablishment <strong>of</strong> the Community’s common agricultural policy (CAP). On this issue,France and the Netherlands saw eye to eye, at least to a consi<strong>de</strong>rably larger <strong>de</strong>gree thanon institutional matters and enlargement. Benelux had taught the government the hardway that un<strong>de</strong>r no condition was this sector to be exempted from the general process <strong>of</strong>economic <strong>integration</strong>. Like France, the Netherlands nee<strong>de</strong>d European outlets for itsagricultural surplus production as <strong>of</strong>fered by the EEC’s common agricultural market.The resulting Dutch-French coalition had managed to dominate the Community’sagricultural <strong>de</strong>cision-making process during the CAP’s formative years (1958-1963). 21. Notulen Ministerraad (MR), 27 October 1967.2. It is interesting to note that the Dutch-French agricultural coalition reached its peak simultaneously withthe clash between Paris and The Hague over De Gaulle’s proposals for a European Political Union, in theframework <strong>of</strong> the so-called Fouchet-negotiations. J.H. MOLEGRAAF, Boeren in Brussel. Ne<strong>de</strong>rland enhet Gemeenschappelijk Europees Landbouwbeleid 1958-1971, PhD thesis University <strong>of</strong> Utrecht, Utrecht,1999, pp.291-292. For a <strong>de</strong>tailed analysis <strong>of</strong> the Dutch and French impact on the CAP negotiations in theearly years <strong>of</strong> the EC, see also A.-C. LAURING-KNUDSEN, Defining the Politics <strong>of</strong> the Common AgriculturalPolicy. A Historical Study, PhD thesis EUI, Florence, 2001.


28Anjo Harryvan and Jan van <strong>de</strong>r HarstSuch positive results, however, did not conceal the fact, that by the end <strong>of</strong> the <strong>de</strong>ca<strong>de</strong>disagreement between France and the other five member states on a number <strong>of</strong>institutional, financial and foreign policy issues had led to a virtual standstill <strong>of</strong> theCommunity’s integrative momentum.The Hague summit <strong>of</strong> heads <strong>of</strong> state and government <strong>of</strong> December 1969 isgenerally regar<strong>de</strong>d as the diplomatic breakthrough that en<strong>de</strong>d this stagnation. Thisessay analyses Dutch European policy with regard to the Hague summit and theextent to which this summit was <strong>de</strong>emed instrumental for re-launching European<strong>integration</strong>.Signs <strong>of</strong> hope and reappraisalsCharles <strong>de</strong> Gaulle’s resignation as French presi<strong>de</strong>nt in April 1969 raised newexpectations among advocates <strong>of</strong> European <strong>integration</strong> and co-operation, both inthe Netherlands and abroad. De Gaulle’s successor Georges Pompidou clarified hisintentions to re-launch Europe soon after his inauguration in mid-June. On 29 June,exactly two weeks after Pompidou’s coming to power, the Dutch cabinet referred tothe announcement <strong>of</strong> a French plan for a European summit to be held in the autumn<strong>of</strong> 1969. Although the plan obviously nee<strong>de</strong>d further elaboration and clarification,the Netherlands welcomed it as the first signal <strong>of</strong> a changing climate in France. 3Apparently, Pompidou realised the importance <strong>of</strong> keeping the European <strong>integration</strong>process alive and attractive for West Germany. In this respect, Chancellor WillyBrandt’s Ostpolitik constituted an obvious success for the Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Republic as wellas a challenge for France. Fear <strong>of</strong> a German Alleingang appeared to make palatablewhat had been unacceptable for Pompidou’s pre<strong>de</strong>cessor. The <strong>de</strong>gree to whichFrance would be willing to commit itself to enlargement and British membership,however, remained to be seen. 4At an earlier stage, at the Rome conference <strong>of</strong> 1967, Foreign minister JosephLuns had raised objections to summit conferences in general. In the Dutch politicalsystem he and not the Prime minister was to be responsible for the country’sforeign policy. Traditionally, the Dutch Prime minister is a primus inter paresrather than the government’s political boss. Consequently, Luns rather than DeJong represented the country at international conferences. Also, summitry smacked<strong>of</strong> un<strong>de</strong>rmining – à la Fouchet – the communitarian system. Thus, the fact thatLuns did eventually acquiesce in the Hague summit is an indication <strong>of</strong> the value heattached to a breakthrough from the integrative impasse. Institutionalisation <strong>of</strong>summitry, however, was a phenomenon to be guar<strong>de</strong>d against. Dutch and, for thatmatter, Benelux agreement necessitated a Council resolution stating that “cetteconférence <strong>de</strong>s chefs d'Etat et <strong>de</strong> gouvernement ne doit pas être considérée comme3. Notulen MR, 27 June 1969.4. J.H. MOLEGRAAF, op.cit., p.261.


Swan Song or Cock Crow? 29la première d'une série”. 5 In the context <strong>of</strong> the Hague conference, the joint editing<strong>of</strong> this text proved one <strong>of</strong> the few occasions <strong>of</strong> successful collaboration betweenLuns and his Benelux colleagues. Personal and political convergences hamperedcombined action <strong>of</strong> Belgium and the Netherlands in the framework <strong>of</strong> the Six.Brussels ten<strong>de</strong>d to criticise Luns for self-willed and tactless behaviour, whereas theNetherlands blamed its southern neighbour for being over-sensitive to Frenchviews on enlargement and agriculture.On 4 July, during an extensive cabinet discussion on European <strong>integration</strong>issues, Foreign minister Luns noticed an internal struggle within the new Frenchgovernment – hea<strong>de</strong>d by Prime minister Jacques Chaban-Delmas – between theso-called ‘European’ group (represented by minister <strong>of</strong> Agriculture JacquesDuhamel, minister <strong>of</strong> Finance Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, minister <strong>of</strong> Foreign affairsMaurice Schumann and State secretary for Foreign affairs Jean De Lipkovsky),other mo<strong>de</strong>rate Gaullists and orthodox Gaullists. On 1 July, the Netherlands hadbegun its six-month chairmanship <strong>of</strong> the EC Council <strong>of</strong> ministers and thegovernment sought to use this period and position to launch new initiatives,particularly regarding the Community’s enlargement. Since the early 1960s, theNetherlands had <strong>de</strong>veloped into a fervent advocate <strong>of</strong> UK membership, but duringthe entire <strong>de</strong>ca<strong>de</strong> De Gaulle successfully managed to thwart Dutch ambitions byblocking enlargement unilaterally.De Gaulle’s <strong>de</strong>parture opened new avenues. Luns urged the Ministerraad toapproach the new French government with caution – in or<strong>de</strong>r to spare sensitivities –and suggested <strong>de</strong>veloping a carefully wor<strong>de</strong>d <strong>de</strong>claration <strong>of</strong> intention regarding ECenlargement, including a proposal on starting accession negotiations with the UKas <strong>of</strong> 1 January 1970. The Cabinet supported Luns in drafting such a <strong>de</strong>claration, tobe presented to the European partners. The Foreign minister further hoped thatFrance would retake – without loss <strong>of</strong> face – its seat in the West European Union(WEU), after having abandoned this seat in the spring <strong>of</strong> 1969. To pacify theFrench government, the WEU Council should draft a list <strong>of</strong> sensitive issues thatshould not be raised, Luns suggested.A more controversial topic discussed at the Ministerraad meeting wasagriculture. France urged the speeding up <strong>of</strong> EC talks on finding a <strong>de</strong>finitearrangement for the financing <strong>of</strong> common agricultural policy, but the Dutch cabinetfeared that too much progress in this area would endanger the prospect <strong>of</strong> Britishentry, for two reasons. Firstly, there was the risk that the Pompidou governmentwould relapse and revive its resistance against British entry, once the financialarrangement had been agreed upon. Secondly, it was felt that the latter would entailfurther price-increases for farm products on the continent. This would be5. “U moet het genuanceerd zien”, vraaggesprek met D.P. Spierenburg, in: A.G. HARRYVAN, J.VAN DER HARST and S. VAN VOORST (eds.), Voor Ne<strong>de</strong>rland en Europa. Politici enambtenaren over het Ne<strong>de</strong>rlandse Europabeleid en <strong>de</strong> Europese integratie, 1945-1975, Boom,Amsterdam, 2001, pp.261-283 (277-279), and M.-T. BITSCH, Le sommet <strong>de</strong> la Haye. La mise enroute <strong>de</strong> la relance <strong>de</strong> 1969, in: W. LOTH (ed.), Crises and Compromises: the European Project,1963-1969, Nomos, Ba<strong>de</strong>n-Ba<strong>de</strong>n, 2001, pp.539-565, 544-547 (quote: 547).


30Anjo Harryvan and Jan van <strong>de</strong>r Harstdisadvantageous for Britain with its tradition <strong>of</strong> low agricultural prices.Consequently, even though the interests <strong>of</strong> France and the Netherlands, as twomajor agricultural producers and exporters which would both pr<strong>of</strong>it from agenerously financed CAP showed consi<strong>de</strong>rable overlap, no EEC agreement couldbe reached on the matter, due to the differences on British accession. A few Cabinetmembers suggested some way <strong>of</strong> British involvement – “in the wings” – in theongoing discussions on finding a <strong>de</strong>finite solution for CAP financing, but minister<strong>of</strong> Agriculture Pierre Lardinois disagreed. Rather than having the British involved,he thought it sufficient to “inform” London <strong>of</strong> progress in the CAP talks. In allcircumstances, Lardinois expected a long transitional period for British agricultureto adapt itself to European standards, so there was no need <strong>of</strong> a special treatment <strong>of</strong>Britain at this stage.The Cabinet meeting <strong>of</strong> early July also discussed a monetary <strong>integration</strong> planput forward by European commissioner Raymond Barre and supported by theFrench government. The plan provi<strong>de</strong>d for some form <strong>of</strong> mutual credit supportbetween the six EC member states. The Hague’s view was that <strong>integration</strong> in thisarea was only open to discussion after British entry into the Community, in linewith the wording <strong>of</strong> a recent Benelux memorandum on this issue. Likewise, thegovernment ma<strong>de</strong> progress in political <strong>integration</strong> conditional on the resultsbooked at the enlargement negotiations. 6Luns’ <strong>de</strong>claration <strong>of</strong> intention regarding EC enlargement met with a strikinglack <strong>of</strong> interest abroad. In particular, France was unwilling to accept the date <strong>of</strong> 1January 1970 to open membership negotiations with Britain. It seemed that TheHague’s cautious diplomacy vis-à-vis France had failed to produce the <strong>de</strong>sire<strong>de</strong>ffect. Instead, the French government reconfirmed its preference for convening asummit <strong>of</strong> the heads <strong>of</strong> state and Prime ministers <strong>of</strong> the six EC countries, to be heldin the month <strong>of</strong> November. State secretary for Foreign affairs Hans <strong>de</strong> Kosterwarned the Cabinet for a further <strong>de</strong>lay <strong>of</strong> EC enlargement “with at least fourmonths” if the French got what they wanted. 7Towards a European summit:passing the buck and a triptych emergingLate in July, the government came to realise that there was no credible alternativeto dropping the <strong>de</strong>claration <strong>of</strong> intention and accepting the plan for holding aEuropean summit. In an attempt to justify this early concession, De Koster said thatFrench Foreign minister Schumann had proved to be much more co-operative thanhis two pre<strong>de</strong>cessors, and that France thus <strong>de</strong>served a fair chance to <strong>de</strong>monstrate itsEuropean intentions. As chairman <strong>of</strong> the Council, the government therefore6. Notulen MR, 4 July 1969.7. Notulen MR, 18 July 1969.


Swan Song or Cock Crow? 31proposed to organise the conference in The Hague. At the Cabinet meeting <strong>of</strong> 24July, the discussion centred on the preferred location for the summit: either thehistoric buildings <strong>of</strong> the Binnenh<strong>of</strong> in the centre <strong>of</strong> town or the more mo<strong>de</strong>rn andspacious but lesser charming Congresgebouw (Conference hall). For securityreasons, the eventual <strong>de</strong>cision turned out in favour <strong>of</strong> the Rid<strong>de</strong>rzaal (Knights’Hall) located on the Binnenh<strong>of</strong>. The government emphasised that the meetingshould be held in mid-November at the latest and, that in the meantime theEuropean Commission should not waste time, but continue its work on updatingthe 1967 advice on enlargement. The government also stipulated a proper and equalCommission representation at the summit meeting. This was another bone <strong>of</strong>contention with Paris, the latter preferring a much lower Commission pr<strong>of</strong>ile duringthe conference.Concerning agriculture, the Cabinet supported minister Lardinois in hisresistance to a coupling <strong>of</strong> agricultural financing and enlargement; a paralleltreatment <strong>of</strong> the two issues was to be preferred. This seemed to confirm both theimportance <strong>of</strong> CAP’s implementation to the national economy and the prominentposition the minister <strong>of</strong> Agriculture held in the Cabinet. 8 As Lardinois wor<strong>de</strong>d it,linking CAP financing and enlargement“would not constitute a problem for a country like Italy. The Netherlands’ interest ina common agricultural policy, however, [was] way too large for such a course <strong>of</strong>action”. 9After all, he argued, the country topped the bill <strong>of</strong> intra-EEC agriculturalexports, making a speedy CAP arrangement <strong>of</strong> vital importance. Issue linkagewould, at the very least, lead to adverse effects on the level <strong>of</strong> national contributionto CAP. In spite <strong>of</strong> Lardinois’ protestations, it was agreed that for tactical anddiplomatic reasons, minister Luns would be allowed to use the word “coupling”during the negotiations with France and the other European partners. 10 Lardinoisfelt uneasy about this, and urged Luns continuously to be very reticent in using theterm. 11In August 1969, the ‘honeymoon’ in the Dutch approach <strong>of</strong> the new Frenchgovernment was sud<strong>de</strong>nly over, when Paris announced a <strong>de</strong>valuation <strong>of</strong> the Frenchfranc, without prior consultation with the European partners. Apart from irritationsabout French unilateralism, the Netherlands feared a substantial increase in farmprices, particularly <strong>of</strong> dairy products as a result <strong>of</strong> the French <strong>de</strong>cision. In thecontext <strong>of</strong> enlargement, this was seen as unpropitious. Eventually, the pain waseased by the introduction <strong>of</strong> an intricate system <strong>of</strong> import subsidies and exportlevies for France during a period <strong>of</strong> three months (lasting till December) which8. This had also been the case with Lardinois’ pre<strong>de</strong>cessor Biesheuvel, who had a dominant impacton EC discussions within the Cabinet, for example during the Empty Chair crisis <strong>of</strong> 1965; see A.G.HARRYVAN and J. VAN DER HARST, For once a united front. The Netherlands and the EmptyChair crisis in the mid-1960s, in: LOTH (ed.), Crises and Compromises …, op.cit., pp.173-192.9. Notulen MR, 4 July 1969.10. Notulen MR, 4 July 1969 and 24 July 1969.11. Notulen MR, 24 October 1969.


32Anjo Harryvan and Jan van <strong>de</strong>r Harstsuccee<strong>de</strong>d in keeping prices un<strong>de</strong>r control. Despite this quick solution, thegovernment’s suspicions regarding French intentions started to become moreevi<strong>de</strong>nt and contributed to a har<strong>de</strong>ning <strong>of</strong> tone regarding EC matters.At the same time, the political situation in Italy was a matter <strong>of</strong> concern. InAugust, Mariano Rumor was appointed Prime minister <strong>of</strong> a Christian Democraticminority government, <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt on parliamentary support <strong>of</strong> the Socialist andRepublican parties. The Hague feared political instability in Italy, not so muchbecause <strong>of</strong> the abundant size <strong>of</strong> the Rumor government (consisting <strong>of</strong> 33 ministersand 55 state-secretaries, as Luns could not resist telling his colleagues) but mainlybecause <strong>of</strong> the seemingly unstoppable rise <strong>of</strong> the Communist party. Communistpresence in a future government was no longer to be exclu<strong>de</strong>d. 12 In spite <strong>of</strong> thesemisgivings, Italian support for British membership was <strong>de</strong>emed as important as ever.In September, the government discovered that France was not prepared toco-operate on any European issue (including enlargement), as long as a <strong>de</strong>finiteagreement on agricultural financing was not secure. However, Luns thought that theMinisterraad should allow the summit to take place – in mid-November – on thestrict condition that, during the meeting, a positive <strong>de</strong>cision would be taken onBritish entry. It was then still unclear when the negotiations on UK membershipwould begin. In July, France had rejected the date <strong>of</strong> 1 January 1970, and March1970 was also consi<strong>de</strong>red as too early. The cabinet <strong>de</strong>liberated on the minimumconditions to be fulfilled before it could agree on holding the conference. Mostmembers won<strong>de</strong>red whether a rigid approach was realistic, given that theNetherlands, being the host <strong>of</strong> the meeting, should “not incur the odium <strong>of</strong>torpedoing the negotiations”. Luns remarked that Italy’s stance on enlargement wassimilar to that <strong>of</strong> the Netherlands and he therefore preferred to “pass the buck” (forcriticising the French position and promoting enlargement) to the Italian Foreignminister Aldo Moro. 13 This is what eventually happened.New <strong>de</strong>velopments broa<strong>de</strong>ned the projected summit’s agenda. The cabinetmeeting <strong>of</strong> 3 October centred on the expected revaluation <strong>of</strong> the German mark, as thefluctuating exchange rate <strong>of</strong> the Mark caused great anxiety in the Netherlands. 14 Acouple <strong>of</strong> weeks later, at the end <strong>of</strong> October, the cabinet proved apprehensive <strong>of</strong>rumours concerning a revaluation <strong>of</strong> the Belgian franc. 15 Monetary problems inEurope proved persistent and eventually induced the Belgian government to <strong>de</strong>velopa plan for monetary co-operation to be presented at the conference in The Hague.In mid-October, the Council <strong>of</strong> ministers convened in Luxembourg and agreedon a common tra<strong>de</strong> policy, implying that after 1 October 1970 bilateral tra<strong>de</strong>arrangements with third countries were no longer to be allowed. Although theMinisterraad was pleased with this important result, it also worried about theexceptional provision accepted in Luxembourg that for a period <strong>of</strong> three years and12. Notulen MR, 22 August 1969.13. Notulen MR, 12 September 1969.14. Notulen MR, 3 October 1969.15. Notulen MR, 31 October 1969.


Swan Song or Cock Crow? 33un<strong>de</strong>r certain conditions, bilateral agreements were still possible, particularly withEastern European countries. Luns said that on this point France, initially claimingan exception for five years, had ma<strong>de</strong> a concession, and ad<strong>de</strong>d that his Frenchcolleague wanted to “prevent this issue from becoming contentious” during thesummit in The Hague. 16 It was clear that, in the short run, Paris had other, morepressing problems that nee<strong>de</strong>d to be solved in a European context.Early in November, it was <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d to postpone the European summit –originally scheduled for 17 and 18 November – to 1 and 2 December 1969. The<strong>of</strong>ficial reason given was a serious illness <strong>of</strong> Italian Foreign minister Moro, but theMinisterraad also pointed to internal political problems in Italy as anotherimportant cause for the <strong>de</strong>lay. The cabinet anticipated that the conference would becharacterised by general observations, rather than thorough discussions ontechnical issues. The Ministerraad meeting <strong>of</strong> 7 November used, for the first time,the terms ‘completion, wi<strong>de</strong>ning and <strong>de</strong>epening’ (voltooiing, verbreding enverdieping), the so-called triptych, to <strong>de</strong>scribe the objectives <strong>of</strong> the forthcomingHague summit. As for enlargement (wi<strong>de</strong>ning), the Ministerraad was ratherpessimistic about the results <strong>of</strong> preliminary talks with the French government. Ashas been said above, the fixing <strong>of</strong> a concrete starting date for the negotiations withBritain was rejected, and the cabinet now felt itself forced to accept “an indicationfor the start <strong>of</strong> the negotiations”. This position was far from the original preferenceto begin the enlargement talks on 1 January 1970. Another point <strong>of</strong> contention withFrance concerned the <strong>de</strong>gree <strong>of</strong> Commission representation at the summit. TheMinisterraad noticed that Paris was now prepared to accept Commissionattendance at the second day <strong>of</strong> the conference, but not on the first day. For thegovernment, preferring unrestricted Commission participation, this was at leastsomething, after France’s initial point-blank refusal. 17Concerning political <strong>integration</strong> (<strong>de</strong>epening), Luns refused to makeconcessions. He reiterated his stance <strong>of</strong> 4 July that the Netherlands was notprepared to allow progress on this issue, unless the other <strong>de</strong>legations accepted thequid pro quo <strong>of</strong> British membership. 18However, another aspect <strong>of</strong> ‘<strong>de</strong>epening’, monetary <strong>integration</strong>, gave more roomfor discussion in the Ministerraad. Belgium had just launched the Snoy plan, 19which advocated further steps in this area, motivated by European exchange rateproblems in the autumn. Likewise, in July, Jean Monnet’s Action Committee forthe United States <strong>of</strong> Europe had called for a fully-fledged Economic and MonetaryUnion. 20 The government was confronted with a difficult dilemma. It had always16. Notulen MR, 24 October 1969.17. Notulen MR, 7 November 1969. For a more <strong>de</strong>tailed analysis <strong>of</strong> the Commission’s position and itsrepresentation at the summit, see N.P. Ludlow’s contribution to this issue <strong>of</strong> the <strong>journal</strong>.18. Notulen MR, 21 November 1969.19. The Snoy plan comprised the gradual establishment <strong>of</strong> a European monetary community and theintroduction <strong>of</strong> a single currency in three stages.20. ‘Resolutions et déclaration communes adoptées par le Comité. Quinzième Session, 15 et 16 juillet,Bruxelles’, Private collection Max Kohnstamm.


34Anjo Harryvan and Jan van <strong>de</strong>r Harstregar<strong>de</strong>d monetary <strong>integration</strong> as a potential coping stone, i.e. final phase, <strong>of</strong> theeconomic <strong>integration</strong> process rather than an issue <strong>of</strong> immediate political concern.Moreover, Finance minister H.J. Witteveen was anxious not to throw good moneyafter bad and, with some justification, suspected France <strong>of</strong> attempts to makeGermany and the Netherlands foot the bill for its own financial and monetaryproblems. At the same time, the government realised that a flat refusal <strong>of</strong> the Snoyplan was tactically inexpedient. It therefore <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d to a ‘forward escape’,announcing that the plan was acceptable if accompanied by closer co-operation oneconomic and financial policies and real parliamentary control; “if this wasaccepted, one should also add the social and income policies”. 21As we have argued elsewhere, 22 the prospect <strong>of</strong> the Hague summit did have animportant impact, in that it brought traditional Dutch reluctance to monetarycooperation outsi<strong>de</strong> the Bretton Woods institutions (including the Bank forInternational Settlements and the Group <strong>of</strong> Ten) to a close. Monetary co-operationwithin a European framework was no longer consi<strong>de</strong>red an issue for some distantfuture but from now on a valid topic for present-day political discussion and anacceptable mid-range policy goal. As before, sound economic and fiscal policiesby all countries involved were <strong>de</strong>emed an essential precondition for Dutchco-operation on this issue. Un<strong>de</strong>r no circumstances should intra-Europeansolidarity foot the bill resulting from a lack <strong>of</strong> financial discipline by nationalgovernments. Thus, Witteveen viewed mutual credit mechanisms as proposed inthe Barre plan with caution. Emphasis on preceding harmonisation <strong>of</strong> economicand fiscal policies characterised Witteveen’s policy at The Hague, as well as duringthe subsequent negotiations leading to the Werner report.Meeting in The Hague: completion, wi<strong>de</strong>ning and <strong>de</strong>epeningOn 1 and 2 December 1969 the long awaited conference took place on theBinnenh<strong>of</strong> in The Hague. Although the Foreign ministry had to cope with a number<strong>of</strong> logistical problems and setbacks, most <strong>of</strong> them could be solved in time. Theefforts <strong>of</strong> the French embassy to convince the owner <strong>of</strong> the local pub ChezPompidou to change the name <strong>of</strong> his establishment were, however, to no avail. 23While the background noise <strong>of</strong> <strong>de</strong>monstrations by ar<strong>de</strong>nt fe<strong>de</strong>ralists and theirclashes with the police heightened the spirits, <strong>de</strong>liberations in the Rid<strong>de</strong>rzaal21. Notulen MR, 28 November 1968. For a more elaborate discussion <strong>of</strong> Dutch European policy withregard to the monetary <strong>integration</strong> issue: J.W. BROUWER and A.G. HARRYVAN, Les Pays-Baset la coopération monétaire européenne, 1968-1972, in: MINISTÈRE DE L'ÉCONOMIE, DESFINANCES ET DE L'INDUSTRIE, Le rôle <strong>de</strong>s ministères <strong>de</strong>s Finances et <strong>de</strong> l’Economie dans laconstruction européenne (1957-1978), Comité pour l'histoire économique et financière <strong>de</strong> laFrance, Paris, 2002, pp.85-108.22. Ibid.23. F. ITALIANER, Terugblik op een ambtelijke loopbaan, in: H.J. LABOHM (ed.), De waterdragers vanhet Ne<strong>de</strong>rlandse Europabeleid. Terugblik op 40 jaar DGES, Sdu uitgevers, Den Haag, 1997, pp.53-81, 66.


Swan Song or Cock Crow? 35commenced. The Dutch <strong>de</strong>legation consisted <strong>of</strong> Prime minister Piet De Jong andForeign minister Joseph Luns, assisted by the top civil servants Karel Hartogh,Franz Italianer, Jan De Ranitz, Dirk Ringnalda and Dirk Spierenburg.Contrary to Dutch preferences and expectations, the various proposals for monetaryco-operation as well as suggestions for revitalising Euratom, in fact attractedconsi<strong>de</strong>rable attention during the plenary meeting. De Jong had inten<strong>de</strong>d to start theconference by discussing the enlargement issue, arguing that the other two subjectswere to be <strong>de</strong>alt with in the presence <strong>of</strong> the European Commission, i.e. on the secondday <strong>of</strong> the conference. The French <strong>de</strong>legation, however, supported by Belgium an<strong>de</strong>ventually Germany, successfully argued in favour <strong>of</strong> prioritising the EC’s‘completion’, in the form <strong>of</strong> finding a <strong>de</strong>finitive arrangement for the financing <strong>of</strong>agriculture first. 24 According to some analysts, this or<strong>de</strong>r was adhered to so as not toendanger a previously prepared compromise between Pompidou and Brandt. 25 It isquestionable, however, that such a pre-conference compromise ever saw the light <strong>of</strong>day. True, an exchange <strong>of</strong> letters between Brandt and Pompidou and a series <strong>of</strong>preparatory bilateral talks among all participating governments, cleared the airsubstantially and – at least with hindsight – foreshadowed possible compromises.Perhaps equally important, these confi<strong>de</strong>nce-building interactions led Brandt to theconviction that this time the French veto could in<strong>de</strong>ed be lifted. But agreement had notbeen reached yet, as the disappointing lack <strong>of</strong> progress on the first conference daywould show. In his memoirs, Brandt indicates that <strong>de</strong>cisive agreement was reached onlyafter the state banquet at the end <strong>of</strong> the first day. 26 All in all, it appears safe to conclu<strong>de</strong>with Marie-Thérèse Bitsch that up to the start <strong>of</strong> the summit, the governments had“assoupli leurs positions mais rien n’est acquis lorsque la conférence s’ouvre le 1 erdécembre”. 27With French, German and Dutch support the issue <strong>of</strong> CAP finances was resolvedquickly, providing for a financial regulation by 31 December 1969. On this issue, likemany others, the final communiqué was cautiously wor<strong>de</strong>d and did not go beyondstating the participants’ intention <strong>of</strong> arriving at a <strong>de</strong>finitive arrangement before theend <strong>of</strong> the year. Analysts do point, however, to the positieve geest van Den Haagwhen explaining how the hoped-for agreement did actually materialise. The <strong>de</strong>bate24. Ministry <strong>of</strong> Foreign Affairs, 999.0, Europese Gemeenschap, Europese topconferentie ‘s-Gravenhage,1-2 <strong>de</strong>cember 1969, <strong>de</strong>el II, <strong>de</strong>c. 1969 t/m 1970, Tekst van communiqué uitgegeven naafloop van Franse Ministerraadsverga<strong>de</strong>ring, 5 December 1969.25. M.E. GUASCONI, Italy and the Hague Conference <strong>of</strong> 1969 in this volume; and J.W. BROUWERand J. VAN MERRIËNBOER, Van buitengaats naar Binnenh<strong>of</strong>, P.J.S. <strong>de</strong> Jong, een biografie, Sduuitgevers, Den Haag, 2001, p.199.26. N.P. LUDLOW, Chronicle <strong>of</strong> an Enlargement Foretold? Pompidou, The Hague Summit and thelifting <strong>of</strong> the French Veto [draft paper presented in the context <strong>of</strong> Breakthrough Project, Barcelona,in November 2002]; Brandt: “Pompidou und ich hatten die Angelegenheit im Schriftwechsel undmit Hilfe tüchtiger Mitarbeiter vorgeklärt. Am Abend <strong>de</strong>s ersten Sitzungstages, nach <strong>de</strong>m Essen,zu <strong>de</strong>m die Königin gela<strong>de</strong>n hatte, setzten wir im Zweiergespräch <strong>de</strong>n Punkt aufs i” in: W.BRANDT, Erinnerungen, Propyläen Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 1989, p.454.27. M.-T. BITSCH, op.cit., p.558. On the monetary issue, in particular, the conference outcome wouldgo well beyond the scope <strong>of</strong> the preparatory communications between Brandt and Pompidou.


36Anjo Harryvan and Jan van <strong>de</strong>r Harston how to finance CAP was relieved <strong>of</strong> the strongly i<strong>de</strong>ological overtones it hadcarried in 1965, which had hitherto ma<strong>de</strong> compromise impossible. In<strong>de</strong>ed, on 22December, the Council would reach agreement on CAP finance as well as the ownresources issue. No longer bur<strong>de</strong>ned by the accession conflict, overlapping interestsand converging stances could at last prevail. At least in this respect, the ‘spirit <strong>of</strong> TheHague’ appears to have been <strong>of</strong> overriding importance. 28The Belgian plan for monetary union was taken up, somewhat transformed andstrongly supported by the West German government. Fe<strong>de</strong>ral chancellor Brandtconsi<strong>de</strong>red an Economic and Monetary Union imperative: EMU, as previouslyproposed by the Action Committee for the United States <strong>of</strong> Europe, to whichBrandt adhered, would meet concerns caused by FRG’s Ostpolitik in linking thecountry to Western Europe “in such a way it could no longer cut loose”, asPompidou wor<strong>de</strong>d it. Likewise, EMU and the ultimate introduction <strong>of</strong> a commonEuropean currency served as an indication that Germany did not intend to use itseconomic and financial strength to gain economic and possibly political supremacyin Europe. Lastly, a European monetary agreement would facilitate theestablishment <strong>of</strong> a common monetary policy vis-à-vis the United States. 29 Thus,the conference agreed upon <strong>de</strong>signing a plan for creating an Economic andMonetary Union in stages. This did not imply that Brandt’s support for monetary<strong>integration</strong> was unqualified. On German, Dutch and Luxembourg insistence, thecommuniqué prioritised the harmonisation <strong>of</strong> economic to monetary policies andthe European Reserve Fund was scheduled to emerge only at the end <strong>of</strong> thetransition to economic and monetary union. Therefore, as Kenneth Dyson andKevin Featherstone observe, the EMU paragraph <strong>of</strong> the communiqué was by nomeans a clear victory for Pompidou. The French, strongly supported by the Belgian<strong>de</strong>legation, did succeed in getting monetary <strong>integration</strong> on the EEC’s negotiationtable, but the issue was to be <strong>de</strong>alt with along the lines <strong>of</strong> a German/Dutchagenda. 30 Franco-German preparatory talks on this issue had remained limited inscope. Brandt had shown himself willing to go along with the creation <strong>of</strong> aEuropean reserve fund, as an expression <strong>of</strong> monetary solidarity among the Six. Atthe conference, however, he presented this fund in the much broa<strong>de</strong>r context <strong>of</strong> ageneral <strong>de</strong>velopment towards EMU, which came as a surprise to Pompidou as well28. J.H. MOLEGRAAF, op.cit., p.261.29. A. SZÁSZ, The Road to European Monetary Union, Macmillan, Houndmills, 1999, p.28.30. K. DYSON and K. FEATHERSTONE, The Road to Maastricht. Negotiating Economic and MonetaryUnion, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1999, pp.106-107. G. EYSKENS, De topconferentievan Den Haag en <strong>de</strong> Monetaire Unie, in: O. DE RAEYMAKER, Belgisch buitenlands belei<strong>de</strong>n internationale betrekkingen, liber amicorum, Universitaire Pers, Leuven, 1978, pp.295-307.


Swan Song or Cock Crow? 37as, presumably, the other <strong>de</strong>legations. 31 Pompidou, however, gave the Germanproposals his full support.Dutch Finance minister Witteveen was only partly convinced. He <strong>de</strong>emed theEMU set-up too far-reaching, advocating informal exchanges <strong>of</strong> opinion among theEEC Finance ministers instead. Luns’ view that France being ‘<strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong>ur’ on themonetary issue was ‘convenient’ and should be put to good bargaining use won theday. 32 As late as June 1970 Witteveen complained about the pressure the Foreignministry had exerted on him to accept the EMU compromise at the Hague summit,six months previously. 33Thus, at The Hague, the EMU <strong>de</strong>cision laid the foundation for the subsequentheated discussions its corollary, the October 1970 Werner report would give rise to.In prescribing communitarisation <strong>of</strong> economic and fiscal policies, the report wouldgo well beyond what was acceptable for the rank and file Gaullists, led by MichelDebré, necessitating Pompidou and his Finance minister Giscard d’Estaing todistance themselves hastily from its contents. This ma<strong>de</strong> The Economist cast doubton the sagacity <strong>of</strong> Pompidou’s earlier stance at the Hague summit:“Then, in what can only be regar<strong>de</strong>d as a political fluke, the French presi<strong>de</strong>nt at the nowfamous summit meeting at The Hague a year ago picked up the ball <strong>of</strong> monetary unionand ran like a bull with it for the line. There is good reason to believe that Presi<strong>de</strong>ntPompidou would not have done what he did if he had realised where it might lead”. 34Further talks on “the best way <strong>of</strong> achieving progress in the matter <strong>of</strong> politicalunification” were to take place “within the context <strong>of</strong> enlargement”, as wor<strong>de</strong>d inthe communiqué. This formula was reassuring for – and in<strong>de</strong>ed insisted upon by –the Dutch government as far as the struggle for British membership and against acontinental ‘third way’ was concerned. But its vagueness ma<strong>de</strong> this formula utterlyunsatisfactory in terms <strong>of</strong> the hoped-for strengthening <strong>of</strong> Community institutions,the Commission and European Parliament (EP) in particular. Much likeCommission presi<strong>de</strong>nt Jean Rey, the Dutch government regretted that there hadbeen “hardly any mention <strong>of</strong> political union and no discussion on strengthening theCommunity institutions”, such strengthening <strong>de</strong>emed “crucial to the progress <strong>of</strong> the31. A. WILKENS, Westpolitik, Ostpolitik and the project <strong>of</strong> the Economic and Monetary Union. Germany’sEuropean policy in the Brandt era (1969-1974), in: Journal <strong>of</strong> European Integration History,5(1999), pp.80-81. More generally, Wilkens argues (p.80), “[t]he program Brandt finally presentedin The Hague […] was much more extensive than his former communication to Pompidou”.The contributions <strong>of</strong> Cl. Hiepel and M.-T. Bitsch to this volume provi<strong>de</strong> more <strong>de</strong>tailed treatments<strong>of</strong> the Franco-German bilateral contacts and preparations for the Hague summit.32. J.W. BROUWER and A.G. HARRYVAN, Les Pays-Bas et la coopération monétaire …, op.cit.,p.98. Notulen MR, 7 November 1969 and 5 June 1970.33. J.W. BROUWER and A.G. HARRYVAN, Les Pays-Bas et la coopération monétaire …, op.cit.,p.98. Notulen MR, 7 November 1969 and 5 June 1970. At the first Ministerraad meeting followingthe Hague summit, Witteveen blamed Luns and De Koster for the allegedly “unbalanced composition”<strong>of</strong> the national <strong>de</strong>legation at the conference: Foreign affairs had been over-represented,while the <strong>de</strong>partments with more specialised know-how had not been allowed to attend sufficiently,Notulen MR, 5 December 1969.34. The Economist, 21 November 1970.


38Anjo Harryvan and Jan van <strong>de</strong>r HarstCommunities”. 35 The subsequent success <strong>of</strong> the Davignon Committee and itsproposal for European Political Co-operation (EPC) were far from evi<strong>de</strong>nt at thetime <strong>of</strong> the summit. Actually, the lines that were to give birth to EPC were tuckedaway as the penultimate paragraph in the final communiqué. As Hill and Smithrightly comment: “Even the interested observer might have been forgiven forfailing to notice”, 36 and Stephen George argues that the paragraph was generallyconsi<strong>de</strong>red a sop for Pompidou’s Gaullist supporters and few observers thought itwould amount to anything. 37 The clause ‘within the context <strong>of</strong> enlargement’ wasinserted on Dutch insistence, expressing the thought that political co-operationconcerned a wi<strong>de</strong>r circle than the Six alone. 38 Nevertheless, on at least twooccasions, Luns had to remind fellow cabinet ministers that European politicalco-operation, once Britain were to join the Community, was not a bad thing.At first sight the Dutch <strong>de</strong>legation appeared to have been left short-changed as far asenlargement was concerned. Pompidou refused to commit himself to mentioning aconcrete starting date in the final communiqué. Although in a private conversation withPrime minister De Jong, he pledged himself to enlargement – by giving his word <strong>of</strong>honour 39 – an <strong>of</strong>ficial written statement, even an indication, was consi<strong>de</strong>red impossibleat that stage. At the suggestion <strong>of</strong> the Belgian <strong>de</strong>legation De Jong proposed to usePompidou’s own wordings on the matter, as registered on tape, to which the latter couldscarcely object. 40 Thus the conference communiqué stated that the states“agreed that the essential preparatory work for establishing a basis <strong>of</strong> negotiation[with the applicant countries] could be un<strong>de</strong>rtaken as soon as practically possible”. 41Moreover, De Jong secured permission for issuing a press statement, saying thatall <strong>de</strong>legations were <strong>of</strong> the opinion that“preparations <strong>of</strong> the Six for negotiations with Great Britain will have to be finished by 30June 1970 at the latest and the negotiations were to start immediately afterwards”. 42Which is how things turned out eventually.But in December 1969, these i<strong>de</strong>as still had to take shape. Hence, reviewing theconference a couple <strong>of</strong> days afterwards, the Ministerraad felt rather uncomfortableabout the outcome, not only regarding enlargement, but also in view <strong>of</strong> its initial <strong>de</strong>sireto reinforce the position <strong>of</strong> the European Parliament. The Dutch <strong>de</strong>legation had plea<strong>de</strong>d35. W.F.V. VANTHOOR, A chronological <strong>history</strong> <strong>of</strong> the European Union 1946-1998, Edward Elgar,Cheltenham, 1999, p.39.36. Ch. HILL and K.E. Smith, European Foreign Policy. Key Documents, Routledge, London, 2000, p.72.37. S. GEORGE, Politics and Policy in the European Union (3 rd ed.), Oxford University Press, Oxford,1996, p.261.38. J.K. DE VREE and M. JANSEN, The Or<strong>de</strong>al <strong>of</strong> Unity. Integration and Dis<strong>integration</strong> in Mo<strong>de</strong>rnEurope, Prime Press, Bilthoven, 1985, p.291.39. The articles by Cl. Hiepel and M.E Guasconi in this volume provi<strong>de</strong> evi<strong>de</strong>nce that Pompidou’sword <strong>of</strong> honour was also given to the other prime ministers present at the meeting.40. Public Record Office (PRO) , Telegram Sir P. Garran no.619 to Foreign and Commonwealth OfficeLondon, 2-12-1969 (with thanks to Alan Milward).41. ‘Final Communiqué <strong>of</strong> the meeting <strong>of</strong> heads <strong>of</strong> state or government <strong>of</strong> the EC Countries’, in: Bulletin<strong>of</strong> the European Communities, 1(1970), pp.11-16.42. F. ITALIANER, op.cit., p.66; J.K. DE VREE and M. JANSEN, op.cit., p.308.


Swan Song or Cock Crow? 39for both EP control over CAP financing and the Community’s own resources, as well asdirect elections for the Parliament, but these <strong>de</strong>si<strong>de</strong>rata had remained largelyunfulfilled. Likewise, the summit had failed to wi<strong>de</strong>n the possibilities for majorityvoting in the Council <strong>of</strong> ministers, as the government had hoped for. De Jong diagnosedthat the conference “had been neither a resounding success, nor a failure”. Statesecretary De Koster blamed the French presi<strong>de</strong>nt for having shown lack <strong>of</strong>commitment, <strong>de</strong>eming the latter’s European <strong>de</strong>but “disappointing”. On the other hand,he gave high praise to the Fe<strong>de</strong>ral chancellor, complimenting Brandt for having “savedthe meeting”. 43 In Albert Kersten’s analysis,“only at the Hague summit <strong>of</strong> December 1969 did Luns become convinced thatBonn dared to confront Paris. Thus his long-time perception <strong>of</strong> the Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Republicas a hesitant supporter <strong>of</strong> further European <strong>integration</strong> finally fell apart”. 44In other European capitals Dutch summit diplomacy was looked back upon withequally mixed feelings. The Belgian government felt that Luns had overreacted againstthe negative attitu<strong>de</strong> <strong>of</strong> Pompidou, with the lamentable result that on the first eveningthe conference was in disarray. On the other hand there was general praise for Primeminister De Jong and the way he had presi<strong>de</strong>d over the conference. 45Conclusion“How should the summit be typified: as a swan song or cock crow”? 46 In an effortto assess the results <strong>of</strong> the meeting, State secretary De Koster brought up thisquestion during a parliamentary <strong>de</strong>bate at the end <strong>of</strong> December. It was another sign<strong>of</strong> the government’s initial ambivalence regarding the outcomes. To what extent didthe Rid<strong>de</strong>rzaal event constitute a real breakthrough in European <strong>integration</strong> or “had[it] all been rather more like a normal council meeting than a summit”, as Foreignaffairs <strong>de</strong>legate Karel Hartogh lamented? 47 In the immediate aftermath <strong>of</strong> theconference, this was still far from clear.The Netherlands’ original condition for agreeing to a summit <strong>of</strong> the Six turnedout to be eventually, from the government’s perspective, its most important43. Notulen MR, 5 December 1969.44. A. KERSTEN, De langste. Joseph Antoine Marie Hubert Luns (1952-1971), in: D. HELLEMA,B. ZEEMAN and B. VAN DER ZWAN (eds.), De Ne<strong>de</strong>rlandse ministers van Buitenlandse Zakenin <strong>de</strong> twintigste eeuw, Sdu uitgevers, Den Haag, 1999, pp.211-227, 224.45. PRO, Telegram Sir J. Beith no.408 to Foreign and Commonwealth Office London, 3-12-1969(with thanks to Alan Milward); J.W. BROUWER and J. VAN MERRIËNBOER, Van buitengaats…, op.cit., pp.199-200. Possibly, some <strong>of</strong> the Belgian irritation was aggravated by the bleak picture<strong>of</strong>fered by Benelux foreign policy cooperation before and during the summit. Attempts at Belgian-Dutchco-operation were scarce and unsuccessful.46. Han<strong>de</strong>lingen Staten Generaal Twee<strong>de</strong> Kamer zitting 1969-1970, 36e verga<strong>de</strong>ring, 23 December1969, p.1751.47. PRO, Telegram Sir P. Garran no.626 to Foreign and Commonwealth Office London, 3-12-1969(with thanks to Alan Milward).


40Anjo Harryvan and Jan van <strong>de</strong>r Harstoutcome: the French promise to go along with enlargement negotiations withBritain in the near future. At least, that was what the French presi<strong>de</strong>nt had acce<strong>de</strong>dprivately. Otherwise, in the short run, the Hague results were to be consi<strong>de</strong>red ratherdisappointing: little or nothing <strong>of</strong> substance had been agreed upon in terms <strong>of</strong>progress towards European economic union on a communitarian footing. Theempowerment <strong>of</strong> the European Parliament fell short <strong>of</strong> Dutch wishes and furtherintergovernmentalisation <strong>of</strong> the <strong>de</strong>cision-making process was looming.In the greater scheme <strong>of</strong> things, however, ‘The Hague’ would turn out to be thesummit that initiated both – the first attempt at – EMU as well as EPC, plus theactual beginning <strong>of</strong> the first enlargement, all three to become <strong>of</strong> the greatestimportance in the Communities’ <strong>de</strong>velopment during the 1970s and later <strong>de</strong>ca<strong>de</strong>sto come. Moreover, at the Brussels conference <strong>of</strong> 21 and 22 December, agreementwas reached to give some budgetary powers to the European Parliament.Thus, the historical importance <strong>of</strong> the Hague summit is by large to be attributedto the subsequent implementation and follow-up <strong>of</strong> the conclusions it arrived at.Had the Brussels conference, the Werner and Davignon committees and theenlargement negotiations been unsuccessful, the by now famous triptych‘completion, wi<strong>de</strong>ning and <strong>de</strong>epening’ would have remained null and void. In thisrespect the ‘spirit <strong>of</strong> The Hague’ appears to have been <strong>of</strong> more importance than theactual wording <strong>of</strong> the compromises arrived at in the Rid<strong>de</strong>rzaal.What is fundamentally new about the Hague summit was the <strong>de</strong>cisive roleplayed by the West-German government, led by chancellor Brandt. The Germancontribution went well beyond its advocacy <strong>of</strong> EMU. As wor<strong>de</strong>d by Kersten:“Die Regierung Brandt hatte sich zugunsten <strong>de</strong>r Erweiterung und Vertiefung entschie<strong>de</strong>nund nicht versucht, die Gegensätze innerhalb <strong>de</strong>r EWG durch einen vagen Kompromisszu vertuschen, <strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong>n Anschein eines französischen Sieges gehabt hätte”. 48As such, the German performance heral<strong>de</strong>d a new era in European <strong>integration</strong>. TheBun<strong>de</strong>srepublik <strong>de</strong>finitely freed itself <strong>of</strong> its historically <strong>de</strong>termined reticence inpost-war European affairs and, thus emancipated, was ready and willing to lead theCommunity towards further <strong>integration</strong> and against future attempts at dominance.It had excellent reasons to embark upon this course since international support forits Ostpolitik was both required and on <strong>of</strong>fer. In this respect, one can agree withDerek Urwin’s statement that with“the exception perhaps <strong>of</strong> <strong>de</strong> Gaulle’s dramatic press conference vetoes <strong>of</strong> Britishentry, the Hague summit was the most significant event within the Community sinceits inception”. 49For the Netherlands, now that the préalable anglais was about to be fulfilled,such further European propositions were again open for consi<strong>de</strong>ration.48. A.E. KERSTEN, Das Europäische Gipfeltreffen in Den Haag 1969, in: J.W.F. WIELENGA (ed.),Nachbarn. Nie<strong>de</strong>rlän<strong>de</strong>r und Deutsche und die Europäische Einigung, Presse- und Kulturabteilung<strong>de</strong>r Kgl. Nie<strong>de</strong>rländischen Botschaft, Bonn, 1997, pp.45-49, 49.49. D.W. URWIN, The Community <strong>of</strong> Europe. A History <strong>of</strong> European Integration since 1945, Longman,London, 1993, p.138.


41Négocier la relance européenne:les Belges et le sommet <strong>de</strong> La HayeJérôme WilsonLe sommet <strong>de</strong> Rome en 1967 se sol<strong>de</strong> par un échec et le second veto français opposésix mois plus tard à tout élargissement vers la Gran<strong>de</strong>-Bretagne sonne l’hallali. LaCEE apparaît très divisée sur toute une série <strong>de</strong> problèmes. Le refus <strong>de</strong> 1963 étaitprobablement justifié par <strong>de</strong>s divergences sur les plans politique et militaire. En 1967,le «niet» français s’explique davantage par <strong>de</strong>s raisons économiques et monétaires,qui se manifestent également par la sortie <strong>de</strong> la France du Pool <strong>de</strong> l’or. 1Sans parler d’association, il <strong>de</strong>vient difficile <strong>de</strong> trouver un lieu même où les Six sontsusceptibles <strong>de</strong> pouvoir discuter, entre Européens (y compris les Britanniques), <strong>de</strong>l’organisation économique du continent. 2 Seuls les gouverneurs <strong>de</strong>s banques centralesconservent <strong>de</strong>s liens privilégiés via leurs rencontres à Bâle. En réaction, les pays duBenelux, largement favorables à l’adhésion britannique, vont progressivement semontrer plus déterminés dans leur volonté d’élargissement. Dès janvier 1968, ils fontpression sur la France en proposant l’organisation d’échanges <strong>de</strong> vues entre Européens– c’est-à-dire les Six plus les pays candidats – sur <strong>de</strong>s matières non abordées dans leTraité. Parallèlement, en septembre 1968, Willy Brandt propose une réactivation duprocessus d’intégration déclinée sous divers thèmes: la coopération technologique, lerenforcement <strong>de</strong>s liens commerciaux, la consultation politique entre ministres <strong>de</strong>sAffaires étrangères <strong>de</strong>s Six et <strong>de</strong>s pays candidats sur <strong>de</strong>s sujets où une cohérenceeuropéenne serait la bienvenue (Moyen-Orient par exemple). Dans la même veine, laCommission entame <strong>de</strong>s étu<strong>de</strong>s dans le domaine <strong>de</strong> l’intégration monétaire(mémorandum <strong>de</strong> décembre 1968), travail qui se précise avec la publication du planBarre en février 1969.En octobre 1968, Pierre Harmel reprend une proposition française <strong>de</strong> 1963, etsuggère <strong>de</strong> recourir à l’UEO pour traiter <strong>de</strong>s questions non seulement politiques etmilitaires, mais aussi <strong>de</strong> considérations technologiques et monétaires. 3 Aprèsquelques tergiversations – dont l’affaire Soames – la France fait <strong>de</strong> nouveaubarrage. Elle sent cependant que l’initiative d’une relance doit venir d’elle, et lesappels hexagonaux les plus divers à une réunion au sommet <strong>de</strong>s chefs d’Etat et <strong>de</strong>gouvernement se multiplient dès le mois <strong>de</strong> mars 1969. Lorsque GeorgesPompidou accè<strong>de</strong> à la prési<strong>de</strong>nce, ce projet se concrétise.1. M. VAÏSSE, La gran<strong>de</strong>ur. Politique étrangère du général <strong>de</strong> Gaulle 1958-1969, Fayard, Paris,1998, p.602. Voir aussi A. MORAVCSIK, Le grain et la gran<strong>de</strong>ur : les origines économiques <strong>de</strong>la politique européenne du Général <strong>de</strong> Gaulle (2 e partie), in: Revue française <strong>de</strong> Science politique,1(février 2000), pp.73-124.2. Le G10 concentre tous les débats. Voir R. ROTHSCHILD, Un Phénix nommé Europe. Mémoires1945-1995, Racine, Bruxelles, 1997, p.328.3. M. VAÏSSE, op.cit., p.606.


42Jérôme WilsonRobert Rothschild, ambassa<strong>de</strong>ur <strong>de</strong> Belgique à Paris en 1969, évoque un lienentre Rome et La Haye: «Tandis que le sommet <strong>de</strong> Rome pour le X ème anniversairedu Traité avait été funèbre, celui <strong>de</strong> La Haye d’abord et celui <strong>de</strong> Paris en 1972<strong>de</strong>vaient être <strong>de</strong>s étapes constructives». 4 Quels sont les facteurs qui expliquent cetteévolution?Après Rome, tous n’ont pas cédé à la fatalité. Si en 1967 les pionniers ne sontplus sur le <strong>de</strong>vant <strong>de</strong> la scène, <strong>de</strong>s hommes politiques tels Pierre Werner, JosephLuns, Willy Brandt et bientôt Maurice Schumann garantissent la pérennité <strong>de</strong>l’idéal européen. A leurs côtés, les Belges ne sont peut-être pas nombreux, 5 mais ilsne sont certainement pas inactifs. Aux Affaires étrangères, Pierre Harmel dirige unpetit orchestre brillant qui, <strong>de</strong>s len<strong>de</strong>mains <strong>de</strong> Rome qui déchantent aux joursmeilleurs <strong>de</strong> La Haye, a su jouer avec brio la pièce imposée. Au milieu <strong>de</strong>s gran<strong>de</strong>spuissances paralysées, les Belges ont suscité l’imagination institutionnelle (àtravers le Benelux et l’UEO), provoquant certains grincements <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>nts, voire, àleur corps défendant, <strong>de</strong>s casus belli. Mais au final, l’approche pragmatique mettantl’accent sur la consultation mutuelle sera plébiscitée avec force à La Haye. Dès quela voie monétaire se <strong>de</strong>ssine sous la pression <strong>de</strong>s événements (non-dévaluation <strong>de</strong>1968 et dévaluation <strong>de</strong> 1969 du franc français) et l’impulsion d’acteursextra-gouvernementaux (la Commission et le plan Barre, le Comité d’Action pourles Etats-Unis d’Europe, la Ligue européenne <strong>de</strong> Coopération économique), <strong>de</strong>spropositions belges bien charpentées voient le jour.Le glissement réaliste <strong>de</strong> préoccupations – pourtant chères aux Belges – dudomaine politico-militaire vers <strong>de</strong>s préoccupations technologiques et monétaires,en donnant vie à l’appr<strong>of</strong>ondissement auquel les Français souhaitent couplerl’élargissement, contribuera gran<strong>de</strong>ment à la «réussite» du sommet. Ce succès n’estpossible que parce qu’il y a eu <strong>de</strong>s évolutions dans la pratique diplomatique et lesexigences politiques. Du point <strong>de</strong> vue belge, ce changement se matérialise par unpragmatisme plus grand au détriment <strong>de</strong> l’orthodoxie. Ainsi, une petite évolutioncomme la clarification dans le paragraphe 15 <strong>de</strong>s responsabilités en matière <strong>de</strong>coopération politique entre les chefs <strong>de</strong> gouvernement et leurs ministres <strong>de</strong>sAffaires étrangères, favorable à ces <strong>de</strong>rniers, s'avérera décisive pour que <strong>de</strong>s4. R. ROTHSCHILD, op.cit., p.83.5. «Faute <strong>de</strong> débat politique sur l’Europe, la formulation <strong>de</strong> la politique européenne <strong>de</strong>meura, commepar le passé, la chasse gardée d’un groupe très restreint <strong>de</strong> personnes autour du ministre <strong>de</strong>s Affairesétrangères et dans les administrations concernées», R. COOLSAET, La politique extérieure <strong>de</strong>la Belgique, au cœur <strong>de</strong> l’Europe, le poids d’une petite puissance, De Boeck & Larcier, Bruxelles,2002, p.197. A noter que l’on retrouve cependant <strong>de</strong>s Belges dans les principaux groupes <strong>de</strong> pression<strong>de</strong> l’époque, Comité d’Action pour les Etats-Unis d’Europe et Ligue européenne <strong>de</strong> Coopérationéconomique en tête.


Négocier la relance européenne: les Belges et le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye 43progrès informels mais spectaculaires soient accomplis dans les six mois suivants. 6Ceci permettra à Harmel, un peu après La Haye, d’affirmer que «les actions sontplus importantes que les structures». 7La présente contribution tente <strong>de</strong> rendre compte <strong>de</strong> cette réactivité. Aprèsl’évocation du contexte politique <strong>de</strong> l’organisation du sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye, elleabor<strong>de</strong> plus particulièrement les questions monétaires et le rôle qu’ont joué lesacteurs belges, tant <strong>of</strong>ficiels qu’<strong>of</strong>ficieux, dans les différents groupes <strong>de</strong> pression etcomités <strong>de</strong> réflexion qui tentent d’influencer les Six réunis à La Haye pour mettreconcrètement sur pied une relance européenne qui unit étroitement la question <strong>de</strong>l’élargissement à celle <strong>de</strong> l’appr<strong>of</strong>ondissement.1. L’Europe en crise: visions belgesA Rome en mai 1967 le général <strong>de</strong> Gaulle s’obstine à refuser l’adhésion <strong>de</strong> laGran<strong>de</strong>-Bretagne, et fait référence au Traité CEE pour recomman<strong>de</strong>r que lescandidatures soient examinées au Conseil <strong>de</strong>s Communautés et non lors d’unsommet. Les petits Etats, soucieux <strong>de</strong> faire respecter les textes, emboîtent le pas àla France. Cette absence <strong>de</strong> cohésion <strong>de</strong>s Européens affecte sérieusement leurcrédit sur la scène internationale. Pour y remédier, les pays du Benelux font unpremier pas en janvier 1968. Ils s’accor<strong>de</strong>nt entre eux pour procé<strong>de</strong>r à <strong>de</strong>sconsultations mutuelles sur toutes les matières touchant la politique étrangère.Mais alors que l’URSS met fin au printemps <strong>de</strong> Prague en août 1968, et que latension <strong>de</strong>meure très vive au Moyen-Orient, aucune voix communautaire unanimene se fait entendre.En octobre 1968, Harmel propose d’utiliser la seule institution qui rassemble lesSept (les Six plus la Gran<strong>de</strong>-Bretagne): l’UEO. Il met l’accent sur la nécessité <strong>de</strong>consultations politiques, tout en ouvrant la porte également à <strong>de</strong>s échanges <strong>de</strong> vuesdans d’autres domaines. Parallèlement, en novembre 1968, un important congrèsréunit à La Haye <strong>de</strong>s parlementaires européens. George Brown, ancien secrétaireau Foreign Office, se prononce pour l’organisation d’un sommet (qui pourraitréunir les Sept). Les propositions d’Harmel sont mises à l’ordre du jour àLuxembourg lors d’une réunion du Conseil les 6 et 7 février 1969. Desconsultations sont envisagées entre les Six et les pays candidats dans plusieursdomaines où l’effet d’échelle est important: coopération technologique et militaire,6. Cette précision était particulièrement utile pour <strong>de</strong>s gouvernements (surtout aux Pays-Bas) où leministre <strong>de</strong>s Affaires étrangères était quasiment indépendant, le Premier ministre n’étant qu’un«primus inter pares». Voir J.W. BROUWER, A.G. HARRYVAN, Les Pays-Bas et la coopérationmonétaire européenne, in: Comité pour l’histoire économique et financière <strong>de</strong> la France (ed.),Lerôle <strong>de</strong>s ministères <strong>de</strong>s Finances et <strong>de</strong> l’Economie dans la construction européenne (1957-1978),Actes du colloque tenu à Bercy les 26, 27, 28 mai 1999, Paris, 2002, p.86.7. Voir Ch. FRANCK, La politique européenne <strong>de</strong> la Belgique. Les années 1970-1996: entre orthodoxieet pragmatisme, in: Res publica, 2(1998), pp.197-198.


44Jérôme Wilsonpolitique étrangère. La coopération technologique a déjà fait l’objet <strong>de</strong> discussionsfructueuses. Quant à la coopération militaire, il est proposé <strong>de</strong> s’abstenir étantdonné la visite imminente du nouveau prési<strong>de</strong>nt américain – Richard Nixon – enEurope. L’essentiel <strong>de</strong> la discussion porte donc sur la politique étrangère. Un débats’enclenche sur la consultation politique. La question du Moyen-Orient est enfinabordée, mais, faute <strong>de</strong> temps, elle n’est pas achevée. Au cours <strong>de</strong> cette réunion,Jean <strong>de</strong> Lipkowski 8 confirme la réticence <strong>de</strong> la France à toute forme <strong>de</strong> consultationpolitique favorisant l’intégration européenne, 9 mais, peut-être dans le souci <strong>de</strong>ménager le Benelux dans le cadre <strong>de</strong>s négociations bilatérales qu’elle envisageavec les Britanniques, la France laisse sous-entendre qu’elle <strong>de</strong>meure ouverte auxpropositions d’Harmel. 10Le 12 février, la France raidit fortement sa position. Elle refuse toute discussionfuture à Sept sur la politique extérieure, et plus particulièrement sur leMoyen-Orient. Elle recomman<strong>de</strong> à ses partenaires <strong>de</strong> ne pas tenir <strong>de</strong> réunions sanssa participation, réunions qu’elle considère illégales au regard <strong>de</strong> l’article 8 dutraité <strong>de</strong> Bruxelles modifié (1954). Elle estime en effet qu’avant <strong>de</strong> procé<strong>de</strong>r à <strong>de</strong>sconsultations entre la CEE et la Gran<strong>de</strong>-Bretagne, il faudrait d’abord songer àétablir <strong>de</strong>s relations entre les pays membres <strong>de</strong> la CEE.A l’initiative <strong>de</strong>s Britanniques une réunion <strong>de</strong>s Représentants permanents estcependant programmée le 14 février à Londres. Les partenaires <strong>de</strong> la Franceacceptent d’y participer, probablement parce qu’ils y voient une manière d’abor<strong>de</strong>run sujet qui autrement ne serait traité que par les «Grands». Le 17 février, la Francelance un ultimatum, et met en œuvre une politique <strong>de</strong> la chaise vi<strong>de</strong> en cessanttoute participation au Conseil permanent <strong>de</strong> l’UEO. Signe supplémentaire <strong>de</strong>mécontentement, elle exige la démission du Belge Maurice Iweins d’Eeckhoutte,alors secrétaire général <strong>de</strong> l’UEO. Enfin, le 21 février, la France annonce <strong>de</strong>s«révélations» sur l’attitu<strong>de</strong> britannique.Au moment où éclate la crise <strong>de</strong> l’UEO, un autre épiso<strong>de</strong> se joue. En novembre1968, la France a, contre toute attente, et pour protester contre l’«arrogancegermanique», 11 décidé <strong>de</strong> ne pas dévaluer sa monnaie. S’en est suivi une brouillefranco-alleman<strong>de</strong>. Paris, isolé, semble alors favorable à un rapprochement avecLondres, et <strong>de</strong>s contacts sont noués entre De Gaulle, son entourage proche (MichelDebré) et Christopher Soames, conservateur, gendre <strong>de</strong> Winston Churchill et8. Jean <strong>de</strong> Lipkowski, grand résistant, figure parmi les premiers partisans du général <strong>de</strong> Gaulle. Il futSecrétaire d’Etat aux Affaires étrangères dans le gouvernement dirigé par Maurice Couve <strong>de</strong>Murville (<strong>de</strong> juillet 1968 à juin 1969), puis dans le gouvernement <strong>de</strong> Jacques Chaban-Delmas (<strong>de</strong>juin 1969 à juillet 1972).9. M. VAÏSSE , op.cit., p.606.10. «Puisque la voie du plan Harmel est fermée, puisque les arrangements commerciaux ne paraissentpas convenir, y a-t-il une voie qui permette <strong>de</strong> sortir <strong>de</strong> la querelle actuelle? Bien que le gouvernementbritannique préfère le moyen d’entretiens multilatéraux, pourquoi pas <strong>de</strong>s conversations bilatérales?[…] Pour emporter l’adhésion, il faut avoir l’air <strong>de</strong> s’intéresser au plan Harmel». M.VAÏSSE, op.cit., p.608.11. K. DYSON, K. FEATHERSTONE, The Road to Maastricht. Negotiating Economic and MonetaryUnion, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1999, p.105.


46Jérôme Wilson«Les responsables directs <strong>de</strong> la construction européenne semblent bien n’avoir été,jusqu’en 1969-1970, que faiblement motivés par <strong>de</strong>s considérations d’ordrethéorique. Parce qu’ils ne savaient pas toujours exactement «où» <strong>de</strong>vait aboutir leprocessus <strong>de</strong> l’intégration économique européenne, il n’est pas étonnant que leurconception <strong>de</strong>s moyens <strong>de</strong> mener à bien l’intégration n’ait pas, elle non plus,toujours été précise». 15Il y a par ailleurs également <strong>de</strong>s dégâts collatéraux: si la Belgique et leLuxembourg sont sur la même longueur d’on<strong>de</strong>s, il ne semble pas qu’il y ait eu, ausujet <strong>de</strong> l’affaire Soames, <strong>de</strong>s consultations entre Belges et Néerlandais. On ne peutpas dire que, dans cette affaire, les consultations prévues par le Benelux aientfonctionné pleinement. Le modèle qu’il se veut être pour l’Europe pâlit.2. L’idée d’un sommetLa solution UEO ayant échoué, les Européens les plus convaincus sentent que laseule issue passe par un «grand coup». Le 11 mars 1969, Jean Monnet organise uneréunion du Comité d’Action pour les Etats-Unis <strong>de</strong> l'Europe à Londres, avec laparticipation <strong>de</strong> lea<strong>de</strong>rs britanniques. Valéry Giscard d’Estaing <strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong>, au nom<strong>de</strong> la Fédération <strong>de</strong>s Républicains Indépendants qu’il dirige, dans un geste claird’opposition à l’idéologie gaulliste, l’adhésion <strong>de</strong> son groupe au Comité d’Action.Le 12 mars 1969, René Pleven, alors porte-parole du groupe libéral à l’Assembléeparlementaire européenne, se prononce pour la convocation d’une conférence ausommet. 16 Le 20 mars 1969, Jean Lecanuet 17 appelle <strong>de</strong> ses vœux un nouveau«Messine», proposition qui recueille également le soutien <strong>de</strong> Giscard d’Estaing.Enfin, après le départ du général <strong>de</strong> Gaulle (27 avril 1969), Willy Brandt lanceégalement un appel à une réunion au sommet <strong>de</strong>s Sept à l’UEO (à Bruxelles), serapprochant ainsi <strong>de</strong>s Belges, qui continuent à jouer cette carte, et tentent <strong>de</strong>ramener la France dans le giron <strong>de</strong> l’institution.Après ces interventions <strong>de</strong> Giscard d’Estaing, <strong>de</strong> Pleven et <strong>de</strong> Lecanuet, ilsemble assez naturel que Georges Pompidou, lorsqu’il arrive au pouvoir, reprennecette proposition à son compte. Ce qui est moins clair, c’est la forme que doitprendre ce sommet. S’agit-il d’une relance du projet à Sept tenté au sein <strong>de</strong> l’UEO?Ou plutôt d’une prise <strong>de</strong> contact ne <strong>de</strong>vant, dans un premier temps, réunir que lespartenaires du Marché commun?15. H. ANSIAUX, M. DESSART, Dossier pour l’histoire <strong>de</strong> l’Europe monétaire, Van <strong>de</strong>r Nauwelaerts,Bruxelles-Paris-Louvain, 1975, p.44. Dans ses «Souvenirs» (document non publié), HubertAnsiaux évoque le climat <strong>de</strong> coopération entre les gouverneurs <strong>de</strong> banques centrales (voirparticulièrement pour La Haye les pages 176-177).16. Agence Europe, éditorial, 12 mars 1969.17. Secrétaire d’Etat à la prési<strong>de</strong>nce du Conseil sous Edgar Faure, Lecanuet est connu pour s’être présentéà la première élection prési<strong>de</strong>ntielle au suffrage universel en 1965 en tant que «candidat ducentre démocrate, social et européen».


Négocier la relance européenne: les Belges et le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye 47Au len<strong>de</strong>main <strong>de</strong> la conférence <strong>de</strong> presse <strong>de</strong> Pompidou du 10 juillet qui ouvre laporte à la possibilité d’une rencontre, Maurice Schumann, qui vient <strong>de</strong> prendre lesrennes du ministère <strong>de</strong>s Affaires étrangères, entreprend, en collaboration avec Jean<strong>de</strong> Lipkowski, une consultation <strong>de</strong>s membres du Marché commun. Ainsi, <strong>de</strong>Lipkowski rencontre Gaston Thorn à Luxembourg le 11 juillet. Il confirme auministre <strong>de</strong>s Affaires étrangères luxembourgeois que les objectifs français sont,dans l’ordre, l’achèvement, l’appr<strong>of</strong>ondissement et l’élargissement (les <strong>de</strong>uxpremiers volets étant acquis, le troisième <strong>de</strong>vant être discuté). Thorn comprend quela France veut attendre, avant tout début <strong>de</strong>s négociations, un changement <strong>de</strong>majorité en Gran<strong>de</strong>-Bretagne, et il fait état <strong>de</strong> ses sentiments aux Belges. 18La nouvelle ligne politique française préconise un renforcement <strong>de</strong> lacoopération, dont la réalisation pourrait rendre possible l’élargissement. Elle semontre favorable à la discussion d’une Europe politique qui ne soit pas un planFouchet II, mais quelque chose <strong>de</strong> plus pratique. Ce 11 juillet également, <strong>de</strong>Lipkowski informe Thorn que le gouvernement français envisage, pour discuter <strong>de</strong>ces problèmes, <strong>de</strong> proposer une rencontre <strong>de</strong>s chefs d’Etat et <strong>de</strong> gouvernement ennovembre ou décembre <strong>de</strong> la même année. Mais il exclut la participation <strong>de</strong> laCommission Rey ainsi que la préparation <strong>de</strong> cette rencontre par une réunion <strong>de</strong>sministres <strong>de</strong>s Affaires étrangères (qui avait pourtant eu lieu lors du précé<strong>de</strong>nt«sommet» à Rome en 1967).Les Belges sont mis au courant par les Luxembourgeois <strong>de</strong> certains détails duprojet français. Maurice Schumann, qui est en excellents termes avec PierreHarmel, est cependant soucieux <strong>de</strong> ne pas donner l’impression aux Belges qu’ilssont mis sur le côté. Il rencontre très vite Robert Rothschild à Paris. Il insiste sur lanécessité <strong>de</strong> rendre le Marché commun «irréversible». Il abor<strong>de</strong> par ailleurs unautre terrain sensible: le Marché commun peut être très utile à la France comme àla Belgique pour assurer leur rayonnement en Afrique. Il se montre très ouvert,mais estime, par rapport à l’UEO, qu’il vaut mieux «ne pas trop prononcer ces troislettres dans le proche avenir». Par rapport au sommet, il donne quelquesinformations pratiques supplémentaires quant au mo<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> convocation <strong>de</strong> laconférence et sa programmation. 19Une proposition concrète est lancée lors du premier Conseil <strong>de</strong> ministres <strong>de</strong>sCommunautés européennes auquel participe Maurice Schumann, le 22 juillet 1969.Il suggère, au nom <strong>de</strong> la France, que soit convoqué un sommet européen réunissantles Six. La préparation <strong>de</strong> ce sommet est dévolue aux ministres <strong>de</strong>s Affairesétrangères qui <strong>de</strong>vront se réunir à cet effet en septembre. Schumann précise que latâche principale consistera en l’examen du problème <strong>de</strong> l’élargissement et durenforcement <strong>de</strong> la consultation politique entre partenaires européens.Depuis Rome, où pour <strong>de</strong>s raisons institutionnelles ils avaient emboîté le pas àla France et refusé que l’élargissement soit discuté lors d’un sommet, les Belges18. Compte rendu d’une rencontre entre <strong>de</strong> Lipkowski et Thorn, 14 juillet 1969, transmis au Ministère<strong>de</strong>s Affaires étrangères belge, AMAE, Dossier 18671 I, liasse «Union politique».19. Rothschild à Harmel, 17 juillet 1969, AMAE, Dossier 18671 I, liasse «Union politique».


48Jérôme Wilsonont changé leur fusil d’épaule, sont <strong>de</strong>venus pragmatiques. Ils sont maintenantfavorables à un tel sommet. Mais certains soulignent encore qu’il serait dangereux<strong>de</strong> laisser les institutions communautaires sur le bas-côté <strong>de</strong> la route. Les questionsliées à l’élargissement doivent impliquer la Commission tout autant que les chefsd’Etat ou <strong>de</strong> gouvernement. Par rapport à cette question <strong>de</strong> l’élargissement, lesBelges semblent considérer que la coopération <strong>de</strong> tous les «Grands» - la France,l’Allemagne, l’Italie et la Gran<strong>de</strong>-Bretagne – est à terme indispensable, mais quedans un esprit pragmatique, si la question <strong>de</strong> l’élargissement est momentanémentsuspendue, il ne faut pas pour autant arrêter l’appr<strong>of</strong>ondissement. Enfin, à leursyeux, le «noyau soli<strong>de</strong>» <strong>de</strong> cette Europe doit être le Traité <strong>de</strong> Rome. Il n’est pasquestion <strong>de</strong> créer <strong>de</strong> nouvelles institutions.Comme convenu, les ministres <strong>de</strong>s Affaires étrangères se réunissent le 15 septembreà Bruxelles. Chacun a l’intention d’être constructif, mais la tension <strong>de</strong>meure vive. LesBelges apparaissent à partir <strong>de</strong> ce moment jouer véritablement un rôle. Ils sont traitésavec beaucoup d’égards. D’un côté, Schumann les rassure. La proposition <strong>de</strong> sommetne vise pas à créer une nouvelle institution rassemblant les chefs d’Etat et <strong>de</strong>gouvernement. De l’autre, Brandt indique que lui et Schumann se sont mis d’accordpour <strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong>r à Harmel une mission <strong>de</strong> bons <strong>of</strong>fices par rapport à l’UEO. Harmel,Luns et Schumann sont les plus âgés; ils sont tous les trois nés en 1911. Harmel, qui estd’une courte tête l’aîné, inspire davantage confiance tant à Brandt qu’à Schumann queLuns dont le caractère paraît trop tranché. C’est à lui que l’on confie le travaild’«ombudsman». Comme le rappelle Robert Rothschild,«après la disparition du général <strong>de</strong> Gaulle, grâce à un don naturel <strong>de</strong> conciliation, il[Harmel] a été un <strong>de</strong>s principaux acteurs <strong>de</strong> ces négociations, placées, selon laformule <strong>de</strong> Pompidou sous le signe <strong>de</strong> l’élargissement, <strong>de</strong> l’achèvement et <strong>de</strong>l’appr<strong>of</strong>ondissement». 20Le plus difficile paraît d’établir un agenda. D’abord, les Français sontallergiques à toute programmation définitive. Ensuite toute décision est impossibleavant les élections en Allemagne, prévues pour le 21 octobre. Enfin, le sommet est<strong>de</strong>stiné à permettre aux plus hautes autorités <strong>de</strong>s Six <strong>de</strong> trouver un accord, danstous les domaines, sur la direction que doit prendre l’action communautaire future.Il est donc hasar<strong>de</strong>ux <strong>de</strong> vouloir d’ores et déjà se limiter.Mais ne pas avoir d’agenda, c’est prendre le risque d’un échec – notamment parrapport à l’élargissement. Les débats du déjeuner se concentrent donc sur ce point.Pour Harmel, le sommet doit <strong>of</strong>frir l’opportunité aux Six d’affirmer leur volonté <strong>de</strong>procé<strong>de</strong>r à l’élargissement, et, en concertation avec les candidats, leur permettre <strong>de</strong>dresser l’inventaire <strong>de</strong>s problèmes que cela pose. Il <strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong> également que laquestion <strong>de</strong> l’UEO soit réglée préalablement, et souligne, en accord avec Brandt,que c’est sur le caractère politique qu’il convient d’insister. Les Néerlandais et lesAllemands se montrent plus cassants que les Belges au sujet <strong>de</strong> l’élargissement: pasquestion <strong>de</strong> se limiter, à La Haye, à une déclaration d’intention. Il faut un calendrier20. R. ROTHSCHILD, op.cit., p.83.


Négocier la relance européenne: les Belges et le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye 49(ce dont la France ne veut pas). 21 Harmel se range à leur avis en se montrantfavorable à l’introduction au moins d’une indication <strong>de</strong> temps. Cette interventionsuscite une réaction très vive <strong>de</strong> Schumann: «si l’on ne veut pas <strong>de</strong> sommet, onn’en fait pas». Ce <strong>de</strong>rnier finit néanmoins par se dire prêt «à envisager uneformulation dans le sens <strong>de</strong> ce que M. Harmel avait dit». 22 Schumann ayant dès ledépart confirmé que la France acceptait la participation <strong>de</strong> la Commission, unaccord intervient pour organiser le sommet à La Haye les 17-18 novembre. Il estpar ailleurs prévu un second ren<strong>de</strong>z-vous <strong>de</strong>s ministres <strong>de</strong>s Affaires étrangères les17-18 octobre.Début novembre, alors que Willy Brandt a été élu et est <strong>de</strong>venu chancelier, il estfinalement décidé <strong>de</strong> reporter le sommet <strong>de</strong> quinze jours. La raison <strong>of</strong>ficielle <strong>de</strong> ceretard est attribuée à la mauvaise santé d’Aldo Moro. Mais en réalité, la discussionsur l’élargissement n’est pas mûre, et les Allemands sont contents <strong>de</strong> pouvoirbénéficier <strong>de</strong> délais supplémentaires, notamment pour négocier le contenu <strong>de</strong>l’agenda <strong>de</strong> La Haye. A cet effet, Walter Scheel, le nouveau ministre <strong>de</strong>s Affairesétrangères allemand qui vient d’avoir une conversation avec Schumann, rencontrePierre Harmel le 10 novembre 1969.La politique agricole commune est dangereusement déstabilisée par laréévaluation du mark intervenue le 24 octobre 1969, qui succè<strong>de</strong> à la dévaluationen août du franc français (le financement <strong>de</strong>vient très favorable à la France, et trèsdéfavorable à l’Allemagne). Il n’est donc pas étonnant que Scheel insiste très fortsur le problème monétaire, qui <strong>de</strong>vient l’un <strong>de</strong>s enjeux majeurs du sommet. Leministre allemand s’affirme par ailleurs opposé aux «solutions techniques»assurant une plus gran<strong>de</strong> marge <strong>de</strong> manœuvre, comme par exemple l’extension <strong>de</strong>sdroits <strong>de</strong> tirage. De tels instruments, s’ils ne sont pas accompagnés d’unecoordination <strong>de</strong>s politiques, ne peuvent qu’aboutir à diminuer la pression politiqueexercée sur les différents pays, naturellement enclins à se préoccuper davantage <strong>de</strong>leur situation interne que <strong>de</strong> l’équilibre général communautaire. Il se prononce dèslors pour la mise en place <strong>de</strong> solutions institutionnelles.Harmel pour sa part estime que la politique monétaire constitue une «prioritéaveuglante». Il considère que le plan Barre constitue une base minimum, et qu’ilserait bon d’aller plus loin si c’est possible. Il se montre optimiste:«M. Harmel pense que cela se fera progressivement. Une monnaie européenne nepeut être créée tant qu’il n’y a pas <strong>de</strong> marché industriel commun et que n’est pasrésolu le problème <strong>de</strong> la livre. Mais il croit la réalité européenne plus fatale que notrevocabulaire élastique». 2321. M.-Th. BITSCH, Le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye. La mise en route <strong>de</strong> la relance <strong>de</strong> 1969, in: W. LOTH(ed.), Crises and Compromises: The European Project 1963-1969, Bruylant, Bruxelles, 2001,p.541.22. Compte rendu du déjeuner du 15 septembre auquel prenaient part MM. Luns, Schumann, Moro,Brandt, Thorn et Harmel – Bruxelles, 16 septembre 1969, AMAE, Dossier 18671 I, liasse «Unionpolitique».23. Compte rendu <strong>de</strong> l’ent<strong>revue</strong> Scheel-Harmel du 10 novembre 1969, 12 novembre 1969, in AMAE,Dossier 6641.


50Jérôme WilsonLa date du sommet approchant rapi<strong>de</strong>ment, tout s’accélère. Le 24 novembre,une délégation ministérielle luxembourgeoise composée <strong>de</strong> Pierre Werner etGaston Thorn se rend à Bruxelles. Le but <strong>de</strong> la réunion consiste en un échange <strong>de</strong>vue entre Belges et Luxembourgeois sur le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye. On s’accor<strong>de</strong> àpousser l’effort d’intégration dans le domaine monétaire au-<strong>de</strong>là du plan Barre. Lesmoyens à mettre en œuvre pour réaliser un système monétaire européen par étapessont discutés. Les ministres conviennent <strong>de</strong> défendre à La Haye les principes. Lasdisciplinaires du Fonds monétaire international, et <strong>de</strong> promouvoir l’expérienceacquise au sein <strong>de</strong> l’Union économique belgo-luxembourgeoise.Les objectifs belges à La HayeAu len<strong>de</strong>main <strong>de</strong> cette rencontre, un schéma présentant la position belge estrédigé. 24 Ce schéma n’est pas signé; l’utilisation qui en a été faite <strong>de</strong>meure floue;son impact et sa représentativité sont difficiles à estimer. Il n’en <strong>de</strong>meure pas moinsqu’il révèle <strong>de</strong> façon très claire la vision idéaliste d’Harmel«qui appartient lui aussi à cette aristocratie <strong>de</strong> l’esprit, pétrie <strong>de</strong> foi chrétienne, quitrouve dans l’enseignement <strong>de</strong> l’Eglise romaine l’inspiration d’un humanismetranscendant les idolâtries nationalistes». 25La doctrineDu point <strong>de</strong> vue général, il s’agit <strong>de</strong> se mettre d’accord sur une conceptioncommune <strong>de</strong> la géopolitique. Pour les Belges, le Marché commun est <strong>de</strong>stiné àcréer une Europe dotée d’institutions fortes, tirant les leçons <strong>de</strong> la secon<strong>de</strong> guerremondiale: l’apparition <strong>de</strong> super-puissances et la disparition <strong>de</strong>s empires coloniaux.Il fournit la réponse institutionnelle à l’évolution d’une réalité économique où leséchanges s’accélèrent et les distances se raccourcissent, intégrant ainsi <strong>de</strong> plus enplus les différentes économies européennes. Par ailleurs, le progrès technologiqueréclame <strong>de</strong>s investissements <strong>de</strong> plus en plus conséquents qui ne peuvent êtreréalisés que par un partage <strong>de</strong>s tâches entre les pays membres. Enfin, la sécurité <strong>de</strong>l’Europe comman<strong>de</strong> une collaboration réelle et efficace au niveau international. Enconséquence, il n’y a à terme qu’une issue pour l’Europe, à savoir l’unificationpolitique:«Un processus révolutionnaire a alors commencé: il doit mener à l’unificationpolitique <strong>de</strong> l’Europe. Quelle Europe? Celle qui regroupe selon leurs affinitésidéologiques, l’i<strong>de</strong>ntité <strong>de</strong> leurs conceptions démocratiques et la communauté <strong>de</strong>leurs aspirations, les Etats qui sont liés par l’interdépendance physique etéconomique, mais aussi par une solidarité fondamentale. La Belgique entend24. Schéma <strong>de</strong> la position belge pour le Sommet, Bruxelles, 27 novembre 1969, AMAE, Dossier18671 I, liasse «Union politique».25. R. ROTHSCHILD, op.cit., p.83.


Négocier la relance européenne: les Belges et le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye 51opiniâtrement rester fidèle à cette vocation politique <strong>de</strong> l’Europe. Les Traités <strong>de</strong>Rome et <strong>de</strong> Paris ne <strong>de</strong>vraient être que les premières étapes sur la voie <strong>de</strong> l’union.Pour un ensemble <strong>de</strong> circonstances, les événements ne se sont pas déroulés tout à faitcomme les auteurs <strong>de</strong>s Traités l’avaient conçu. L’on constate que l’unification n’estpas née <strong>de</strong> la recherche en commun <strong>de</strong> la solution <strong>de</strong>s problèmes techniques. Il fautdès lors dire et redire que sans une conception politique commune du but à atteindre,il est difficile <strong>de</strong> surmonter les oppositions inévitables nées <strong>de</strong>s intérêts parfoiscontradictoires <strong>de</strong>s Etats membres. En effet, qu’il s’agisse d’accueillir un nouvelEtat ou <strong>de</strong> conclure un nouveau règlement agricole financier, chaque problèmeeuropéen se traite soit sur ses mérites propres; en ce cas, chaque Etat analyse lasolution proposée uniquement en fonction <strong>de</strong>s avantages qu’il peut y trouver: et alorson ne progresse pas très loin; ou bien on traite ce problème dans le contexte et dansla perspective d’une politique d’ensemble: à ce moment, chaque Etat analysera lecompromis proposé non en fonction <strong>de</strong> ses seuls intérêts, mais également par rapportà l’objectif communautaire. Et voilà ce qu’il faut faire apparaître à nouveau»! 26Dans cette note, il apparaît également fondamental au regard <strong>de</strong>s Belges qu’unedoctrine cohérente soit définie par rapport au rôle dévolu à l’Europe dans le mon<strong>de</strong>.Il faut mobiliser l’opinion publique, et surtout les jeunes. Sinon, «l’institutioneuropéenne risque d’être contestée au même titre que les institutions nationales».Les objectifsEn pratique, le principe d’une déclaration commune à la fin du Sommet sembleincontournable. Les Belges atten<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>de</strong> La Haye que toute une série <strong>de</strong> décisionssoient prises pour mettre en place <strong>de</strong>s procédures aptes à répondre aux différentsobjectifs que l’on se donne. Ils sont au nombre <strong>de</strong> trois.Celui sur lequel toute l’attention se concentre est l’union politique. A cet égard,il est indispensable <strong>de</strong> réaffirmer la finalité politique <strong>de</strong> l’action communautaire, 27et <strong>de</strong> «fixer les éléments fondamentaux du développement <strong>de</strong> la Communauté». Lasolidarité entre les membres doit être totale, et comprise comme telle. L’intégrationsectorielle n’avait d’autre but que <strong>de</strong> manifester une volonté globale <strong>de</strong>collaboration. Dès lors, s’il y a une politique agricole commune, on ne peut hésiterà pratiquer une politique technologique et industrielle commune; si le charbon etl’acier sont gérés collégialement, une politique énergétique commune ne <strong>de</strong>vraitsusciter aucune opposition. Mais surtout, si les pays se lient par le Traité <strong>de</strong> Rome,ils ne peuvent conserver leur indépendance sur le plan <strong>de</strong> la politique extérieure.Fort <strong>de</strong> ces arguments, il est envisagé d’obtenir au sommet une remise en route <strong>de</strong>26. Schéma <strong>de</strong> la position belge pour le Sommet, op.cit.27. Cette finalité sera énoncée comme l’un <strong>de</strong>s piliers, au même titre que l’achèvement, l’appr<strong>of</strong>ondissementou l’élargissement par Pierre Harmel. Voir V. DUJARDIN, La politique étrangère <strong>de</strong> laBelgique et l’intégration européenne sous l’ère Harmel, 1965-1973, in: La Belgique et l’Europedu XX e au XXI e siècle. Le rôle <strong>de</strong> la Belgique et <strong>de</strong>s petits Etats dans la construction européenne,Actes du colloque international tenu à Louvain-la-Neuve les 24, 25, 26 avril 2002, Peter Lang,Bruxelles (à paraître).


52Jérôme Wilsonl’union politique à travers la mise en place d’un mécanisme permettant lacoordination <strong>de</strong>s politiques étrangères.Concrètement, il n’est pas prévu <strong>de</strong> préciser davantage le mo<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> consultationsenvisagées (UEO, plan Fouchet II, etc.), mais bien <strong>de</strong> réunir les ministres <strong>de</strong>sAffaires étrangères dans un délai <strong>de</strong> trois mois après le sommet pour répondre auxquestions suivantes: quelles sont les conditions à réunir pour initier activementl’étape finale <strong>de</strong> l’unification politique; qui doit être invité à participer à cette étu<strong>de</strong>(les Six, les Sept, les Dix); quel timing peut-on prévoir pour régler ces problèmes,et éventuellement convoquer un nouveau sommet. Ensuite, la question <strong>de</strong>l’élargissement est appelée à être réglée une fois pour toutes. L’article 237 du TraitéCEE doit s’appliquer aux quatre candidats, <strong>de</strong> façon à lancer irrémédiablement leprocessus. Enfin, les problèmes institutionnels du Marché commun ne peuventrester en suspens. Il faut régler la question du financement propre <strong>de</strong> laCommunauté, et du contrôle <strong>de</strong> ses ressources. Le rôle du Parlement européen et lerenforcement <strong>de</strong> ses pouvoirs est à l’ordre du jour; mais comment organiser cetteévolution par rapport à l’Assemblée <strong>de</strong> l’UEO, ou au Conseil parlementaire <strong>de</strong>sSix? L’inflation <strong>de</strong>s compétences – et donc <strong>de</strong>s décisions – force également leConseil à une plus gran<strong>de</strong> efficacité qui passe par une révision <strong>de</strong>s règles <strong>de</strong>procédure.Les options privilégiées au sein du triptyquePar rapport à l’achèvement, il est pris acte <strong>de</strong> la décision <strong>de</strong> passer à la pério<strong>de</strong>définitive le 31 décembre. Cependant, il est prévu d’obtenir l’assentiment généralsur la signification d’un «règlement financier définitif»: dans le cadre <strong>de</strong>l’élargissement, celui-ci ne peut qu’être «temporairement» (<strong>de</strong>ux ou trois ans)définitif. Par rapport à l’évolution <strong>de</strong>s responsabilités parlementaires, le schémaprévoit <strong>de</strong>ux options. La première est véritablement révolutionnaire. Elle consiste àinverser le rapport <strong>de</strong> force entre les différents niveaux <strong>de</strong> représentations. Un«Parlement européen» se verrait confier <strong>de</strong>s compétences actuellement détenuespar <strong>de</strong>s «assemblées parlementaires nationales». La secon<strong>de</strong> est plus souple. Ellene nécessite pas <strong>de</strong> réforme du Traité. Il s’agit <strong>de</strong> renforcer le recours obligatoire àla consultation <strong>de</strong> l’Assemblée parlementaire européenne, qui serait élue ausuffrage universel, et serait appelée à <strong>de</strong>venir le futur Parlement européen.En ce qui concerne l’appr<strong>of</strong>ondissement, l’enjeu essentiel paraît être une véritableunion économique, qui ne serait plus limitée au charbon, à l’acier, à l’agriculture ou àl’union douanière, mais s’exercerait dans tous les domaines. Ainsi, cinq secteursd’action sont envisagés: l’adaptation <strong>de</strong> la politique agricole, la politique monétaire, lapolitique technologique, la fusion <strong>de</strong>s exécutifs, les universités.Le troisième pilier du triptyque, l’élargissement, suscite une position claire,conforme à la fidélité aux principes <strong>de</strong> base <strong>de</strong> la Communauté. S’il faut examinerles candidatures <strong>de</strong> nouveaux entrants, ce n’est pas par souci cosmétique. Il faut lefaire par respect <strong>de</strong>s obligations inscrites dans le Traité à l’article 237. Pratiquement,cette extension remet en cause la nature <strong>de</strong> la pratique communautaire,


Négocier la relance européenne: les Belges et le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye 53mais cela doit constituer un incitant <strong>de</strong> plus pour renforcer les valeurs fondamentalesédictées à Rome. S’il est primordial que le Marché commun s’ouvre, il importeégalement que les futurs Etats membres acceptent les finalités politiques <strong>de</strong>s Traités,et le droit dérivé (l’acquis communautaire). Sur cette base, les négociations nepeuvent porter que sur la nature et la durée <strong>de</strong>s pério<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> transition à prévoir pourfaciliter l’intégration <strong>de</strong> nouvelles nations. Elles doivent mettre en présence laCommunauté d’une part, les Etats-candidats d’autre part. Pour ce faire, il estrecommandé d’accepter la suggestion <strong>de</strong> la Commission: celle-ci, en tant queporte-parole du Conseil, entrerait en première ligne dans les discussions, quiseraient ensuite poursuivies par les gouvernements. Enfin, on insiste sur la nécessitéimpérieuse <strong>de</strong> prévoir <strong>de</strong>s échéances fixes pour la conduite <strong>de</strong> ces discussions.4. Les questions monétairesLes premières propositions concrètes en matière monétaire sont remises au goût du jourau moment même <strong>de</strong> la crise <strong>de</strong> l’UEO et <strong>de</strong> l’affaire Soames, en février 1969. LaCommission européenne publie une communication qui <strong>de</strong>vient rapi<strong>de</strong>ment le «planBarre» du nom <strong>de</strong> son inspirateur. Au moment du sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye, la Commissionest ravie <strong>de</strong> voir que les chefs d’Etat et <strong>de</strong> gouvernement ont décidé <strong>de</strong> lui <strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong>pousser activement à <strong>de</strong> nouveaux développements dans l’intégration. Sur ce plan, lacoopération monétaire constitue le domaine où la réflexion est la plus aboutie, et doncle premier à être mis en avant par la Commission.Le plan Barre explore trois pistes <strong>de</strong> réformes. Premièrement, il préconisel’adoption d’objectifs communs <strong>de</strong> politique économique à moyen terme (mesurésen termes <strong>de</strong> taux <strong>de</strong> croissance, <strong>de</strong> taux <strong>de</strong> productivité, du taux <strong>de</strong> chômage, <strong>de</strong>sindices <strong>de</strong>s prix, <strong>de</strong> la balance commerciale, …). Pour le volet court terme, ilprévoit la mise en place <strong>de</strong> consultations préalables à toute décision majeure, ausein <strong>de</strong>s différents comités communautaires permanents (Comité monétaire,Comité <strong>de</strong> politique conjoncturelle et Comité <strong>de</strong> la politique budgétaire). Enfin,innovation principale, il propose la mise en œuvre d’un double soutien financier:l’un automatique à court terme pour fournir <strong>de</strong>s crédits <strong>de</strong> maximum trois mois,l’autre à moyen terme servant <strong>de</strong> relais au premier, et accordé par le Conseil surrecommandation <strong>de</strong> la Commission et après avis du Comité monétaire.Ce schéma condamne par contre toute une série <strong>de</strong> pistes ouvertes notammentpar le Comité d’Action pour les Etats-Unis d’Europe. Raymond Barre est en effetsceptique par rapport à la faisabilité immédiate d’une union monétaire, à la mise enplace d’un système fédéral <strong>de</strong> banques centrales, par rapport au Fonds <strong>de</strong> réserveeuropéen, à la «fusion <strong>de</strong>s quotas <strong>de</strong>s Six au sein du FMI». 2828. Voir R. PERRON, Le discret projet <strong>de</strong> l’intégration monétaire européenne (1963-1969), in: W.LOTH (ed.), Crises and Compromises …, op.cit., pp.364-365.


54Jérôme WilsonLe principe <strong>de</strong>s consultations est adopté par le Conseil le 17 juillet 1969. En cequi concerne la coopération à court terme, certaines réserves apparaissent, surtoutdu côté néerlandais et italien. A l’initiative du ministre <strong>de</strong>s Finances belge, le baronJean-Charles Snoy, il est prévu <strong>de</strong> confier la conception technique <strong>de</strong> l’ai<strong>de</strong> à courtterme aux banques centrales. A cet effet, une étu<strong>de</strong> préalable est commandée auComité <strong>de</strong>s Gouverneurs <strong>de</strong>s Banques centrales qui s’est engagé à présenter unrapport au cours <strong>de</strong> l’automne suivant. Il est également prévu que le Comitémonétaire se penche sur ces questions, notamment par rapport aux modalitéspratiques d’exécution d’un soutien monétaire à moyen terme, et que laCommission poursuive ses travaux dans le domaine <strong>de</strong> la coordination <strong>de</strong>spolitiques économiques à moyen terme.Dès la publication du plan Barre, le Comité d’Action pour les Etats-Unisd’Europe ressort <strong>de</strong> ses cartons le projet Triffin <strong>de</strong> Fonds <strong>de</strong> réserve européen déjàmis sur la table à plusieurs reprises entre 1957 et 1965. Ce plan, qui prévoit la miseen commun d’une partie <strong>de</strong>s réserves <strong>de</strong>s Etats participants, rencontrel’assentiment <strong>de</strong> Valéry Giscard d’Estaing en juin 1969 qui estime que «lacoordination <strong>de</strong>s politiques économiques et monétaires est indispensable et qu’elledoit être complétée à terme d’une union monétaire». 29Parallèlement, la Ligue européenne <strong>de</strong> Coopération économique réunit, les 25juin et 23 octobre à Bruxelles un panel chargé <strong>de</strong> «procé<strong>de</strong>r à certaines étu<strong>de</strong>s et <strong>de</strong>faire <strong>de</strong>s propositions en matière d’intégration monétaire <strong>de</strong>s Six». 30 Ce panel,présidé par Luc Wauters, prési<strong>de</strong>nt du Comité <strong>de</strong> Direction <strong>de</strong> la Kredietbank,examine trois notes: l’une alleman<strong>de</strong> qui propose une métho<strong>de</strong> d’action pour mettreen action le plan Barre; une autre belgo-néerlandaise sur la fixité <strong>de</strong>s taux <strong>de</strong>change, et une troisième française qui traite du recours à une unité <strong>de</strong> comptesemblable à celle développée au sein <strong>de</strong> l’Union Européenne <strong>de</strong>s Paiements(UEP). 31 Sur base <strong>de</strong> ces travaux, une déclaration <strong>de</strong> la Ligue appelant résolument àl’intégration monétaire <strong>de</strong> l’Europe est adoptée à Kronberg (Francfort) le 29novembre 1969 et transmise aux gouvernements <strong>de</strong>s Six «en vue <strong>de</strong> la Conférenceau Sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye». 32 Le baron Snoy salue le travail accompli:29. Agence Europe, éditorial, 24 juin 1969. Sur l’action du Comité et le plan Triffin dans le cadre <strong>de</strong>La Haye, voir G. BOSSUAT, Monnet et l’i<strong>de</strong>ntité monétaire européenne”, in: G. BOSSUAT et A.WILKENS (dir.), Jean Monnet, l’Europe et les chemins <strong>de</strong> la Paix, Publications <strong>de</strong> la Sorbonne,Paris, 1999, pp.375-382.30. LIGUE EUROPÉENNE DE COOPÉRATION ÉCONOMIQUE (LECE), Un programme d’intégrationmonétaire pour la C.E.E. Etu<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>s possibilités et propositions quant aux mesures à prendre,Bruxelles, février 1970, p.3.31. L’UEP, prévoyant la substitution <strong>de</strong>s accords bilatéraux <strong>de</strong> paiements par la mise en place d’unsystème <strong>de</strong> compensations multilatérales, représente la première tentative, après 1945, <strong>de</strong> mettreen place une concertation monétaire européenne. A noter que le concepteur principal <strong>de</strong> cette unité<strong>de</strong> compte est Robert Triffin. Marie-Thérèse Bitsch et Gérard Bossuat soulignent également les similitu<strong>de</strong>sentre les programmes du Comité d’Action pour les Etats-Unis d’Europe et <strong>de</strong> la Ligueeuropéenne <strong>de</strong> Coopération économique. Voir M.-Th. BITSCH, Le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye …, op.cit.pp.554 et G. BOSSUAT, Monnet et l’i<strong>de</strong>ntité monétaire européenne, op.cit., pp.369-382.32. LECE, Un programme d’intégration monétaire …, op.cit., p.71.


Négocier la relance européenne: les Belges et le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye 55«Je voudrais saisir cette occasion pour remercier la Ligue européenne <strong>de</strong>Coopération économique d’avoir étudié le problème monétaire <strong>de</strong> l’Europe d’unefaçon appr<strong>of</strong>ondie. […] Beaucoup <strong>de</strong>s solutions qu’elle a trouvées, qu’elle aarrêtées, qu’elle a proposées, sont celles qui sont en partie acceptées par les gouvernementset viendront sur la table au moment où les Ministres <strong>de</strong>s Finances aurontà exécuter le mandat qui leur a été donné à La Haye». 33Du côté gouvernemental, les esprits sont occupés par leurs décisions <strong>de</strong>dévaluation et <strong>de</strong> réévaluation. La question monétaire est très sensible, et <strong>de</strong>nombreux clivages apparaissent. En France, Pompidou est favorable à unappr<strong>of</strong>ondissement, mais il ne croit pas à une monnaie unique, alors que ValéryGiscard d’Estaing est beaucoup plus enthousiaste. 34 En Allemagne, il faudraattendre les élections d’octobre 1969 pour que Willy Brandt définisse (et impose)une position claire, inspirée du plan <strong>de</strong> Robert Triffin. Aux Pays-Bas, la doctrinechange énormément. Alors que traditionnellement on défendait l’idée qu’il fallaitune convergence <strong>de</strong>s économies avant toute intégration monétaire,«le gouvernement était disposé, à l’époque <strong>de</strong> la conférence au sommet <strong>de</strong> La Hayeen décembre 1969, à hâter le processus d’évolution vers une Union économique etmonétaire complète et à l’accepter comme un point concret à l’ordre du jour et unobjectif politique à moyen terme». 35En Italie, la politique dans ce domaine est soumise à Guido Carli, supporter <strong>de</strong>staux <strong>de</strong> change flottants organisés, du moins dans un premier temps. La priorité <strong>de</strong>sItaliens consiste à ne rien faire qui puisse faire obstacle à l’adhésion britannique. Ilsse montrent donc pru<strong>de</strong>nts sur le plan <strong>de</strong> l’intégration monétaire. 36 Quant à laBelgique, les propositions <strong>de</strong> coopération monétaire dans le cadre du plan Barresemblent, jusqu’en juillet 1969, avoir fait l’objet d’un moratoire conclu en accordavec ses partenaires du Benelux. 37 Mais l’évolution <strong>de</strong> la situation (dévaluationfrançaise puis réévaluation alleman<strong>de</strong>) sont suivies par une remise en cause <strong>de</strong> cetteattitu<strong>de</strong>. Les Belges ayant un moment songé (fin octobre) à accompagner lesAllemands dans leur mouvement <strong>de</strong> réévaluation, 38 abandonnent ce projet maiss’impliquent plus dans la mise au point <strong>de</strong> projets dans ce domaine.Les positions du Comité d’Action sont reprises par les démocrates-chrétiensbelges. Le 26 novembre, Robert Houben, prési<strong>de</strong>nt du CVP (ChristelijkeVolkspartij), au nom du CVP et du PSC (Parti social chrétien) adresse une lettre à J.Van <strong>de</strong>r Meulen, le représentant permanent <strong>de</strong> la Belgique auprès <strong>de</strong>sCommunautés européennes, reprenant une motion commune aux <strong>de</strong>ux partis, qui33. LECE, Extraits d’un discours prononcé à la Ligue Européenne <strong>de</strong> Coopération Economique par leBaron Snoy d’Oppuers, Ministre <strong>de</strong>s Finances <strong>de</strong> Belgique le 4 décembre 1969 à Bruxelles, p.3.34. Voir G. BOSSUAT, Monnet et l’i<strong>de</strong>ntité monétaire européenne, op.cit., pp.379-381 et M.-Th.BITSCH, Le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye …, op.cit., p.548.35. W. BROUWER et A.G. HARRYVAN, op.cit., p.107.36. Voir L. SEGRETO, L’Italie et le plan Werner, in: Comité pour l’histoire économique et financière<strong>de</strong> la France (ed.),Le rôle <strong>de</strong>s ministères <strong>de</strong>s Finances …, op.cit., pp.43-44 et G. BOSSUAT, Monnetet l’i<strong>de</strong>ntité monétaire européenne, op.cit., p.377.37. J.W. BROUWER et A.G. HARRYVAN, op.cit., p.92.38. Voir la contribution <strong>de</strong> A.G. HARRYVAN et J. VAN DER HARST dans le présent numéro.


56Jérôme Wilsonconsidèrent que la création d’un Fonds <strong>de</strong> réserve européen représente un stricteminimum à atteindre au sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye:La création d’un Fonds <strong>de</strong> réserve européen semble <strong>de</strong>voir être considérécomme un objectif minimum dans un avenir proche. S’ajoutant aux mesures prisesdans le cadre d’une orientation vers une économie coordonnée, ce Fonds rendraitpossible la suppression définitive <strong>de</strong>s modifications et fluctuations <strong>de</strong>s cours <strong>de</strong>change. En conséquence, les suggestions contenues dans le rapport du pr<strong>of</strong>esseurTriffin exposé lors <strong>de</strong> la <strong>de</strong>rnière réunion du Comité Monnet <strong>de</strong>vraient être prisesen considération. 39Ces préoccupations monétaires ne rentrent cependant en force dans lesdiscussions politiques qu’après les remous monétaires et le dénouement <strong>de</strong>sélections alleman<strong>de</strong>s. Deux enseignements sont alors tirés <strong>de</strong> ces événements. Toutd’abord on reçoit une confirmation éclatante <strong>de</strong> ce que l’on avait commencé àcraindre en 1968: la politique agricole commune ne suffit pas à assurer laconvergence <strong>de</strong>s politiques économiques, et à empêcher les différents pays <strong>de</strong>procé<strong>de</strong>r à <strong>de</strong>s ajustements <strong>de</strong> parités significatifs. Cet échec fragilise la PAC,fortement perturbée par ces mouvements, et génère <strong>de</strong>s troubles intérieurs enprovenance du secteur agricole dans les pays à monnaie forte (Allemagne). Lecénacle du Groupe <strong>de</strong>s Dix, (qui compte également parmi ses membres laGran<strong>de</strong>-Bretagne et les Etats-Unis) où le débat était enfermé jusque-là, n’a pas étésuffisamment efficace. Plus grave, le Conseil a été ridiculisé. A peine un mois aprèssa décision <strong>de</strong> procé<strong>de</strong>r à <strong>de</strong>s consultations dans le domaine <strong>de</strong> la politiquemonétaire, la France dévalue sans crier gare. L’Allemagne fait <strong>de</strong> même le 24octobre. Il est évi<strong>de</strong>nt que l’action communautaire ne va pas assez loin dans cedomaine.Après la visite <strong>de</strong> Walter Scheel à Pierre Harmel, le 10 novembre 1969, on voitla Belgique construire véritablement une position sur les questions monétaires. Onressort le mémorandum présenté par la Commission en février (le plan Barre) quin’avait probablement pas fait l’objet d’un examen attentif au moment <strong>de</strong> sapublication. 40 Les documents préparés lors du Conseil qui a adopté ce plan enjuillet 1969 réapparaissent, et l’on en fait un commentaire détaillé. Le 21novembre, un «plan <strong>de</strong> solidarité monétaire européenne en trois étapes –1971-1977», 41 préparé par le baron Snoy, est communiqué à Harmel. Si ce plan vaplus loin que les propositions Barre, il ne s’oppose pas à ces <strong>de</strong>rnières. Aucontraire, il y a eu <strong>de</strong>s contacts entre Snoy et Barre à ce sujet, 42 et Jean Rey affirmelors d’une conférence fin octobre 1969 que «la crise monétaire est aussi politique.Le plan Barre qui existe, pourra améliorer la situation mais ce ne sera pas suffisant.39. Houben à Van <strong>de</strong>r Meulen, Bruxelles, 26 novembre 1969, AMAE, Dossier 18671.II.40. De la même façon que le gouvernement néerlandais n’étudie le plan Barre qu’à l’été 1969. VoirJ.W. BROUWER et A.G. HARRYVAN, op.cit., p.92.41. La Libre Belgique, 5 décembre 1969.42. I. MAES, J. SMETS, J. MICHIELSEN, L’approche <strong>de</strong> l’UEM en Belgique, in: Comité d’histoireéconomique et financière <strong>de</strong> la France, Milieux économiques et intégration européenne au XXe siècle,op.cit., Communications <strong>de</strong>s intervenants <strong>de</strong> la première année 2001-2002, p.177.


Négocier la relance européenne: les Belges et le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye 57Il faudra aller plus loin». 43 Ce plan belge sera présenté à La Haye par le Premierministre, Gaston Eyskens. Son parcours se poursuivra ensuite <strong>de</strong>vant la Ligueeuropéenne <strong>de</strong> Coopération économique (présenté par le baron Snoy le 4décembre), et enfin diffusé par La Libre Belgique le 5 décembre, avant <strong>de</strong> servir <strong>de</strong>base à la proposition <strong>of</strong>ficielle (27 janvier 1970). Ce plan prévoit trois phases.La phase initiale, dont la réalisation est prévue entre 1971 et 1973, reprend troispropositions du plan Barre. La première concerne la coordination <strong>de</strong>s politiqueséconomiques à court et moyen termes. Elle insiste sur l’harmonisation <strong>de</strong>sprésentations <strong>de</strong>s budgets nationaux et sur la norme déjà mise en œuvre par leBenelux. La <strong>de</strong>uxième propose l’application du concours mutuel automatique. Latroisième assure un relais au crédit à court terme via une décision à la majoritéqualifiée par le Conseil <strong>de</strong> ministres. Parallèlement, trois mesures complémentairesviennent s’ajouter à ces trois redites du mémorandum <strong>de</strong> février 1969. D’une partles Belges envisagent la mise en vigueur d’une autre règle Benelux: celle quin’admet un réajustement <strong>de</strong> parité qu’après accord <strong>de</strong>s autres membres <strong>de</strong> laCommunauté. D’autre part, les marges <strong>de</strong> fluctuations entre <strong>de</strong>ux monnaiescommunautaires sont réduites à 0,5%. Enfin, il est suggéré que le Conseil définisse,à la majorité qualifiée, chaque fois que besoin est, une position communautaireunique dans le cadre <strong>de</strong> discussions au sein <strong>de</strong>s organismes monétairesinternationaux (notamment le Fonds Monétaire International).L’étape suivante, entre 1973 et 1975, doit manifester une convergence continue(dont l’observation est confiée à la Commission) <strong>de</strong>s politiques économiquessuivies à court et moyen terme par les partenaires du Marché commun. Les marges<strong>de</strong> fluctuations <strong>de</strong> 0,5% sont supprimées. Il est également prévu que toutes lesmonnaies nationales puissent s’exprimer en une unité <strong>de</strong> compte européenne selon<strong>de</strong>s parités définitivement fixées.La <strong>de</strong>rnière phase consiste en la mise en place d’une «union monétaireeuropéenne». La politique économique commune à court et moyen terme seraitdéfinie par le Conseil. Plus aucun ajustement <strong>de</strong> parités ne serait alors possible; lerisque <strong>de</strong> change est donc éliminé pour les transactions intra-communautaires.Enfin, la politique d’octroi <strong>de</strong> crédits aux pouvoirs publics, et la gestion <strong>de</strong>s tauxd’intérêts seraient confiées à un système fédéral <strong>de</strong> réserve regroupant les banquescentrales <strong>de</strong>s pays membres, agissant sous le contrôle du Conseil <strong>de</strong> ministresdécidant à la majorité qualifiée. Cette <strong>de</strong>rnière proposition va clairement beaucoupplus loin que le plan Barre (qui rejette cette idée <strong>de</strong> système fédéral). Selon Snoy, ils’inspire <strong>de</strong>s travaux <strong>de</strong> la LECE (Ligue Européenne <strong>de</strong> Coopération Economique):«Sur ces bases, nous pourrions un jour arriver alors à la troisième étape où nousn’aurions plus qu’une politique unique et un «Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Reserve Board» comme celuiqui existe aux Etats-Unis. Cette idée a été acceptée pour le dossier <strong>de</strong>s Ministres <strong>de</strong>sFinances; vous y retrouvez le pillage <strong>de</strong> quelques-unes <strong>de</strong> vos propres idées, Monsieurle Prési<strong>de</strong>nt, et <strong>de</strong> celles qui ont été élaborées par la Ligue». 4443. Clôture <strong>de</strong> la quinzaine européenne <strong>de</strong> Mons, in: La Libre Belgique, 28 octobre 1969.44. LECE, Extraits d’un discours…, op.cit., p.6.


58Jérôme Wilson5. Le rôle <strong>de</strong>s Belges à La HayeLes Britanniques semblent juger le rôle joué par les Belges comme très mineur, etcertainement pas comme celui <strong>de</strong> champion <strong>de</strong> la défense <strong>de</strong>s petits pays contrel’ogre français. Un représentant <strong>of</strong>ficiel rapporte que«The Belgian Prime Minister’s statement makes no mention <strong>of</strong> Belgian interests inrelation to the agricultural finance agreement nor in respect <strong>of</strong> discussions by the Sixon political unification <strong>de</strong>spite the fact the Communiqué itself did so. The Belgianrole at the Summit appears to have been weaker than that <strong>of</strong> any other communitygovernment, even weaker than that <strong>of</strong> Luxembourg». 45On remarque à l’inverse que les Néerlandais soulignent combien le plan Snoy amobilisé les débats, notamment durant les sessions plénières. 46La presse belge, bien informée, livre une juste interprétation <strong>de</strong>s faits. La LibreBelgique affirme que dans son intervention inaugurale, Gaston Eyskens a mis enexergue la finalité politique <strong>de</strong> l’Europe. Selon le quotidien, le Premier ministres’est montré favorable au règlement du volet financier <strong>de</strong> la politique agricolepréalable à l’examen <strong>de</strong> la candidature britannique, et a affirmé que cettecandidature <strong>de</strong>vrait être précédée <strong>de</strong> «quelques rencontres entre ministères <strong>de</strong>sAffaires étrangères <strong>de</strong>s Six». Par rapport à l’appr<strong>of</strong>ondissement, il est reporté quele chef <strong>de</strong> gouvernement a insisté sur «l’absolue nécessité <strong>de</strong> ne jamais diluer leMarché commun dans une zone <strong>de</strong> libre-échange». 47 Les archives françaisesconfirment cette version <strong>de</strong>s faits:«M. Eyskens a plutôt mis l’accent sur le développement intérieur <strong>de</strong> la Communauté.Il a souligné le bilan positif <strong>de</strong> son action. Il convenait <strong>de</strong> réaffirmer sa finalitépolitique, <strong>de</strong> régler en priorité les problèmes en suspens […]. Tout cela <strong>de</strong>vait confirmerla volonté d’unification politique et d’intégration économique et écarter le‘spectre <strong>de</strong> la zone <strong>de</strong> libre-échange’. Le Premier Ministre belge a souligné l’importance<strong>de</strong> la coordination <strong>de</strong>s politiques économiques et monétaires, déclarant que sonGouvernement voulait aller au-<strong>de</strong>là du Plan Barre, limiter les fluctuations <strong>de</strong>s paritésentre les monnaies <strong>de</strong>s Etats membres et ensuite créer une sorte <strong>de</strong> banque centrale<strong>de</strong> réserve».Quant à l’élargissement, il s’en est déclaré «honnêtement partisan», dans lerespect <strong>de</strong> l’article 237, insistant sur la nécessité pour les candidats d’accepter leTraité, ses finalités politiques et les décisions prises. Les négociations qui <strong>de</strong>vraientcommencer le plus tôt possible porteraient sur la durée et les modalités <strong>de</strong>spério<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> transition. Pour ces négociations, le Conseil serait responsable et laCommission serait son porte-parole. 4845. Commentaire <strong>de</strong> J.A. Robinson, 5 décembre 1969 in FCO, 30/272 – document transmis par le Pr<strong>of</strong>.Alan Milward.46. Voir la contribution <strong>de</strong> A.G. HARRYVAN et J. VAN DER HARST dans le présent numéro.47. La Libre Belgique, 2 décembre 1969, p.4.48. Note «Conférence au Sommet, 1-2 décembre 1969» <strong>de</strong> la Direction <strong>de</strong>s Affaires économiques etfinancières, Ministère (français) <strong>de</strong>s Affaires étrangères, 6 décembre 1969, pp.4-5, in: ArchivesNationales Contemporaines, SGCI, versement 900568, article 386 (documents communiqués parP. Ludlow).


Négocier la relance européenne: les Belges et le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye 59Gaston Eyskens se montrera en réalité durant toute la conférence particulièrementfavorable aux thèses françaises, 49 et ses propos seront systématiquement amplifiés parceux <strong>de</strong> Pierre Werner, montrant que Belges et Luxembourgeois sont sur la mêmelongueur d’on<strong>de</strong>s (et quasiment à l’opposé <strong>de</strong>s Néerlandais). Ils souligneront tous les<strong>de</strong>ux l’absolue nécessité <strong>de</strong> l’achèvement et du renforcement <strong>de</strong>s Communautés, pourensuite mieux rebondir sur le thème <strong>de</strong> l’intégration monétaire. Dans une partie <strong>de</strong>discours où l’on <strong>de</strong>vine la plume <strong>de</strong> Snoy, le Premier ministre se déclare:«D’accord avec les suggestions du Prési<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>de</strong> la République dans le domaine <strong>de</strong> lacoopération économique et monétaire indiquant qu’il fallait envisager pour laprochaine décennie la réalisation d’une union monétaire avec unité commune etBanque d’émission communautaire. Si les perspectives étaient ainsi clairementdéfinies, les disciplines que <strong>de</strong>vront s’imposer les Gouvernements, les Parlements etles partenaires sociaux seraient plus aisément respectées». 50Les Belges s’attirent ainsi la bienveillance française, et inscrivent leurspropositions monétaires dans la lignée <strong>de</strong> celles <strong>de</strong> Pompidou. 51 La rai<strong>de</strong>urnéerlandaise qui voulait imposer coûte que coûte une date pour l’élargissementsemble paradoxalement avoir facilité la mise au point d’un compromis sur lacoopération monétaire dont la rédaction <strong>de</strong> la résolution finale (paragraphe 8) seraconfiée aux Allemands, 52 qui y associeront les objectifs du plan Barre à l’institutiond’un Fonds <strong>de</strong> réserve européen. L’axe Eyskens-Werner semble avoir été décisif àcet égard.ConclusionsA La Haye, les pays du Marché commun se mettront d’accord sur les trois branchesdu triptyque. L’achèvement <strong>de</strong> la Communauté est définitivement acquis; la porteest ouverte à l’élargissement (aucune date n’est fixée dans le communiqué finalpour le début <strong>de</strong>s négociations, mais le gouvernement français a donné son accordpour que celles-ci commencent avant le 1er juillet 1970); 53 l’appr<strong>of</strong>ondissement<strong>de</strong>vient plus concret avec la mise sur l’établi <strong>de</strong> plans pour l’union économique etmonétaire. Selon l’expression employée par Emanuele Gazzo, 54 les Six ont atteintun consensus sur une «série d’objectifs raisonnables mais révolutionnaires». Cemot résume bien l’attitu<strong>de</strong> belge, et l’on retrouve <strong>de</strong>s interprétations similaires dans49. Pour une analyse <strong>de</strong>s autres motivations potentielles <strong>de</strong>s Belges pour soutenir les Français, voir V.DUJARDIN, op.cit.50. Direction <strong>de</strong>s Affaires économiques et financières, Ministère (français) <strong>de</strong>s Affaires étrangères,op.cit., pp.13-14.51. A noter que d’après le Financial Times, le Fonds <strong>de</strong> réserve européen constitue une proposition <strong>de</strong>Pompidou. Voir European Political Union plan, in: The Financial Times, 12 décembre 1969.52. Ibid., p.3.53. Voir J.W. BROUWER et A.G. HARRYVAN, op.cit., p.97 et M.-Th. BITSCH, Le sommet <strong>de</strong> LaHaye …, op.cit., p.558.54. Bulletin quotidien <strong>de</strong> l’Agence Europe, n.463, 3 décembre 1969.


60Jérôme Wilsonla presse belge. La Libre Belgique juge «qu’avec un réalisme habile, M. Rey aconstaté qu’il était vraiment inutile <strong>de</strong> s’énerver en ce qui concerne le parallélismeentre l’élargissement et l’appr<strong>of</strong>ondissement». 55 Le même <strong>journal</strong> salue l’action <strong>de</strong>la délégation belge qui «a joué un rôle d’autant plus efficace qu’il fut réalistementmo<strong>de</strong>ste». Au cours <strong>de</strong>s premiers mois <strong>de</strong> 1970, le nouvel étage <strong>de</strong> la «fusée»européenne est commandé par la Belgique qui assure la prési<strong>de</strong>nce en ces premiersmois <strong>de</strong> l’année 1970. On y retrouvera une action axée avant tout sur unetraditionnelle vocation conciliatrice, plus soucieuse <strong>de</strong> dégager le meilleur <strong>de</strong>spositions alleman<strong>de</strong> et française que <strong>de</strong> «piquer un sprint» à la façon hollandaise. 56Au nom <strong>de</strong> la Commission, Jean Rey assure la prési<strong>de</strong>nce d’une Commission dontla signification politique s’est affirmée à La Haye. Au sommet, Rey est arrivé seul,en voiture, et n’a bénéficié d’aucune réception <strong>of</strong>ficielle. La Commission nebénéficie d’aucune place dans le protocole, mais il est acquis qu’elle a son mot àdire à la table <strong>de</strong>s grands.Au niveau <strong>de</strong>s gouvernements, le baron Snoy prési<strong>de</strong> le Conseil <strong>de</strong>s ministres<strong>de</strong>s Finances. C’est à lui qu’incombera la responsabilité <strong>de</strong> trouver un Luxembourgeoissusceptible d’assurer l’équilibre <strong>de</strong>s nationalités dans le groupe ad hocsur la politique monétaire. Il fera coup double en proposant Pierre Werner commeprési<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>de</strong> ce groupe. Quant à Pierre Harmel, il mène le jeu aux Affairesétrangères, et à ce titre est investi <strong>de</strong> la ru<strong>de</strong> tâche <strong>de</strong> rendre effective l’union politique.L’accent mis sur la finalité politique <strong>de</strong> la Communauté, sur laquelle Brandtinsiste dans son discours d’ouverture, 57 contente particulièrement les Belges. Ilss’engouffreront dans cette voie, et le paragraphe 15 du communiqué final <strong>de</strong> laConférence servira <strong>de</strong> point <strong>de</strong> départ pour les travaux d’un groupe longtempsprésidé par Etienne Davignon. 58 A défaut d’accord sur un plan par étapes commepour l’union économique et monétaire, Harmel et Davignon lanceront <strong>de</strong>s consultationsrégulières <strong>de</strong>s ministères <strong>de</strong>s Affaires étrangères qui s’avéreront être un succédanéutile.Les déclarations d’intentions sont nombreuses. Les résolutions concrètes sontcependant encore vagues, comme en témoigne l’épiso<strong>de</strong> monétaire. L’imageproposée ici reflète plutôt une pr<strong>of</strong>usion désorganisée d’initiatives, tant <strong>de</strong> la part<strong>de</strong>s gouvernements (trois plans nationaux majeurs d’intégration monétaire sontdiscutés) que <strong>de</strong>s groupes <strong>de</strong> pression (Comité d’Action pour les Etats-Unisd’Europe, Ligue européenne <strong>de</strong> Coopération économique, …). La réalité est sansdoute différente. La cohérence <strong>de</strong> toutes ces propositions se fait par l’entremise <strong>de</strong>scontacts interpersonnels (entre Pompidou et Brandt; entre Scheel, Schumann etHarmel; entre Snoy et Barre).Les Belges n’ont certes pas eu la volonté ni l’ambition d’être les moteurs dusuccès à La Haye. Mais, comme le montre La Libre Belgique, entre les géants55. La Libre Belgique, 3 décembre 1969, p.6.56. Ibid.57. Voir A. WILKENS, Westpolitik, Ostpolitik and the Project <strong>of</strong> the Economic and Monetary Union,in: Journal <strong>of</strong> European Integration History, 1(1999), p.80.58. V. DUJARDIN, op.cit.


Négocier la relance européenne: les Belges et le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye 61allemand et français, ils ont su se tailler un rôle <strong>de</strong> «poisson-pilote» à leur mesure.La Belgique se distingue <strong>de</strong> son voisin hollandais auquel Pompidou reproche <strong>de</strong> se«gargarise[r] avec le vocabulaire européen à la manière démo-chrétienne» pourensuite faire «tout autre chose, [agir] tout autrement» 59 et joue davantage la carteluxembourgeoise (l’information circule bien entre les <strong>de</strong>ux chancelleries, et lanomination <strong>de</strong> Werner sur proposition <strong>de</strong> Snoy est significative à cet égard).Humbles mais ambitieux, cherchant résolument à rétablir un équilibre en soutenantla France mise en minorité, peut-être aux dépens <strong>de</strong> leurs intérêts propres et <strong>de</strong> leurpuissance <strong>de</strong> négociation, les Belges ont su gagner la confiance <strong>de</strong> leurs partenaires(et perdu un peu <strong>de</strong> crédibilité aux yeux <strong>de</strong>s Britanniques). Ils ont contribuémaintes fois à maintenir le navire à flots, en servant d’intermédiaire, voire d’arbitre,et permis ainsi le développement d’une démarche d’intégration résolue maiscoopérative qui fut l’une <strong>de</strong>s clés nécessaires du succès en <strong>de</strong>mi-teinte et laborieuxmais réel <strong>de</strong> La Haye.59. «En Hollan<strong>de</strong>, on se gargarise avec le vocabulaire européen à la manière démo-chrétienne, puis onfait tout autre chose, on agit tout autrement”. Voir Déjeuner Elysée – 15.12.1970 – Discours <strong>de</strong>Georges Pompidou, in: Archives Robert Marjolin, Fondation Jean Monnet (Lausanne), ARM 25/1/28. Voir également O. MAUNOURY, La conférence <strong>de</strong> La Haye et les relations entre la Franceet les Pays-Bas, in: M. DUMOULIN et G. DUCHENNE (Textes réunis par), Les petits Etats et laconstruction européenne. Actes <strong>de</strong> la VIIe Chaire Glaverbel d'étu<strong>de</strong>s européennes, P.I.E.-PeterLang, Bruxelles, 2002.


Dr. Orietta Angelucci von BogdandyZur Ökologieeiner europäischen I<strong>de</strong>ntitätSoziale Repräsentationen von Europa und <strong>de</strong>m Europäer-Seinin Deutschland und ItalienDie Dynamik <strong>de</strong>r politischen Integration Europas stellt die Europäer vor neueHerausfor<strong>de</strong>rungen: die politische Vertiefung und die anstehen<strong>de</strong> Erweiterung<strong>de</strong>r Europäischen Union. Die politischen Entscheidungen und die Verschiebung<strong>de</strong>r geografischen Grenzen <strong>de</strong>r Europäischen Union könnten dieschon <strong>de</strong>rzeit uneinheitliche psychologische Grenzziehung <strong>de</strong>r Kategorien»Europa« und »Europäer-Sein« in Europa noch stärker in Frage stellen.In diesem Buch wird die europäische I<strong>de</strong>ntitätsbildung aus einer sozialpsychologischenPerspektive betrachtet. Sozialpsychologische Theorie und Empiriehaben hervorgehoben, dass soziale I<strong>de</strong>ntitäten keine festen mentalen Strukturendarstellen: Sie sind als Resultat eines dynamischen Prozesses zwischen<strong>de</strong>m Subjekt und <strong>de</strong>r sozialen Wirklichkeit zu verstehen. Soziale I<strong>de</strong>ntitätensind als Ergebnis eines sozialkonstruktivistischen Prozesses zu verstehen. Diesersozialkonstruktivistische Prozess ist wie<strong>de</strong>rum an bestimmte Kommunikationsformenund -inhalte gebun<strong>de</strong>n. Gesellschaftlich produzierte sozialeRepräsentationen liefern <strong>de</strong>m Prozess <strong>de</strong>r sozialen I<strong>de</strong>ntifikation spezifischeInhalte, Be<strong>de</strong>utungen und Grenzziehungen.Es wird eine empirische Untersuchung über die gesellschaftliche Konstruktion<strong>de</strong>r Kategorien »Europa« und »Europäer-Sein« in Deutschland und Italiendurchgeführt. Anhand <strong>de</strong>r empirischen Ergebnisse wer<strong>de</strong>n mögliche Implikationenfür eine europäische I<strong>de</strong>ntitätsbildung diskutiert.2003, 212 S., brosch., 44,– €, ISBN 3-8329-0286-4(Regieren in Europa, Bd. 6)Nomos


63In Search <strong>of</strong> the Greatest Common Denominator.Germany and the Hague Summit Conference 1969Claudia HiepelThe a<strong>de</strong>pt diplomacy <strong>of</strong> Willy Brandt and, in particular, his ability to readjust theFranco-German axis are wi<strong>de</strong>ly held to have paved the way for the success <strong>of</strong> theHeads <strong>of</strong> State and Government conference in The Hague on 1 and 2 December1969. Brandt used a skilful mixture <strong>of</strong> <strong>de</strong>mands and concessions to help persua<strong>de</strong>the French presi<strong>de</strong>nt Georges Pompidou to yield on the all-<strong>de</strong>cisive issue <strong>of</strong> theenlargement <strong>of</strong> the European Community (EC), a question that had poisoned theatmosphere <strong>of</strong> European cooperation in 1969. Brandt is regar<strong>de</strong>d as having beenresponsible for the success <strong>of</strong> a conference that broke the impasse on enlargementand opened the door for re-launching Europe.Although this view has been generally accepted, the change <strong>of</strong> government inGermany in October 1969 nonetheless had an impact on the European policy <strong>of</strong> theFe<strong>de</strong>ral Republic in general and on the preparations for the conference inparticular. Though initially having been a strong and self-confi<strong>de</strong>nt Foreignminister, Willy Brandt was ultimately bound by the German Chancellor’s policy‘gui<strong>de</strong>lines’ in the ‘Grand Coalition’, in which the Social Democrats served asjunior partners. The disputes about responsibilities between Kurt-Georg Kiesinger,the Christian-Democratic Chancellor, and Brandt, most <strong>of</strong> which took place behindthe scenes, arose from their different views on German foreign policy towards theEast. Although they were able to discuss the issue <strong>of</strong> European <strong>integration</strong> in arelatively harmonious manner, they had different views on how far France shouldbe “pushed” to solve Europe’s problems and on whether Germany should adopt aconciliatory stance. Even more forcefully than Kiesinger, Brandt plea<strong>de</strong>d forGerman “in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nce and impartiality” towards Paris in European policy. 1The establishment <strong>of</strong> the ‘Small Coalition’ <strong>of</strong> Social Democrats and LiberalDemocrats permitted the new elected Chancellor Willy Brandt to realise his foreignpolicy i<strong>de</strong>als. European policy and the coming Hague summit became the toppriority for the short-term political agenda. In his first government statement in theGerman Bun<strong>de</strong>stag on 28 October 1969, Brandt announced:“At the conference in The Hague, the fe<strong>de</strong>ral government will work towardsintroducing effective measures for <strong>de</strong>epening and enlarging the Community andstrengthening political cooperation”. 21. Willy-Brandt-Archiv [WBA] im Archiv <strong>de</strong>r sozialen Demokratie <strong>de</strong>r Friedrich-Ebert-StiftungBonn [AsD], Bestand Bun<strong>de</strong>sminister <strong>de</strong>s Auswärtigen und Vizekanzler 18, Notizen und Stichwortefür Erklärung über <strong>de</strong>utsche Außenpolitik vor Botschafterkonferenz in Viña <strong>de</strong>l Mar,13.10.1968.2. Bun<strong>de</strong>skanzler Brandt. Re<strong>de</strong>n und Interviews, H<strong>of</strong>fmann und Campe, Hamburg, 1971, pp.11-35,here: p.34.


64Claudia HiepelOn this occasion, Brandt claimed that the “Franco-German agreement can be<strong>de</strong>cisive”, 3 as far as European questions were concerned.This article will closely examine the role <strong>of</strong> the Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Republic’s diplomacy.It will focus on Brandt’s balancing act in which he sought, on the one hand, tomaintain the special relationship between Germany and France (which has <strong>of</strong>tenbeen <strong>de</strong>scribed as the driving force behind European <strong>integration</strong>) and, on the otherhand, to consult regularly with the four other member states. This essay will alsoun<strong>de</strong>rscore the central role played by Brandt in the European policy and willexamine his own i<strong>de</strong>as concerning the project <strong>of</strong> European <strong>integration</strong>.Reactions to the French initiativeKurt-Georg Kiesinger first claimed that he initially had proposed a summitconference. In a conversation with Nixon in August 1969, he somewhat dubiouslyasserted:“France has now accepted the proposal <strong>of</strong> a summit <strong>of</strong> the Six that I myself hadpushed through after a hard struggle with the Dutch in 1967 [at the Rome summitconference, C.H.]”. 4Regardless <strong>of</strong> the truth <strong>of</strong> this assertion, the German government’s initial responseto Pompidou’s suggestion to hold regular consultations <strong>of</strong> the Heads <strong>of</strong> State andGovernment, established in an electoral speech in Mülhausen on 6 June, 5 was quitepositive. Just two days after Pompidou’s speech, Kiesinger publicly agreed to a summit<strong>of</strong> the Six. 6 One month later, on July 4th, in his first face-to-face conversation withpresi<strong>de</strong>nt Pompidou, Brandt – who called such a conference in cautious diplomaticterms “useful” – un<strong>de</strong>rlined Kiesinger’s attitu<strong>de</strong> to welcome the conference initiative“in an especially strong way”. 7 Presumably, the differences in opinion betweenKiesinger and Brandt remained unknown to Pompidou. What is certain however, is thatthe Chancellor’s immediate and unreserved agreement to the French initiative leftBrandt vulnerable in certain respects. It was after all the German Foreign minister whohad suggested an “ad-hoc-summit” <strong>of</strong> the Seven on the occasion <strong>of</strong> the WesternEuropean Union (WEU) Council in Brussels on 5 June, only one day beforePompidou’s speech. 8 Brandt’s proposal was one in a number <strong>of</strong> attempts to bring GreatBritain closer to European cooperation outsi<strong>de</strong> the EC institutions. Surely, Pompidou’s3. Ibid., p.33.4. Akten zur Auswärtigen Politik <strong>de</strong>r Bun<strong>de</strong>srepublik Deutschland [AAPD], 1969, vol.II, Ol<strong>de</strong>nbourg,München, 2000, document no.257, pp.887-898, here: p.888.5. The wording <strong>of</strong> the paragraph concerning the summit proposal, in: AAPD 1969, vol.II, documentno.221, footnote 10, citing a report <strong>of</strong> the German ambassador in Paris, Freiherr von Braun, 10June 1969.6. M.-T. BITSCH, Le sommet <strong>de</strong> la Haye. La mise en route <strong>de</strong> la relance en 1969, in: W. LOTH (ed.),Crises and Compromises: The European Project 1963-69, Nomos, Ba<strong>de</strong>n-Ba<strong>de</strong>n, pp.539-65, here:p.541.7. AAPD, 1969, vol.II, document no.221, pp.774-780, here: p.776.


In Search <strong>of</strong> the Greatest Common Denominator 65proposal was aiming at impeding this Brandt initiative. Although he still supported asummit <strong>of</strong> the Seven, Brandt hinted to the French presi<strong>de</strong>nt that it would help toimprove the atmosphere <strong>of</strong> cooperation within the EC if he were to make a suggestionconcerning the procedure <strong>of</strong> the proposed conference <strong>of</strong> the Six.Furthermore, the German government was interested in learning about thepositions <strong>of</strong> the recently inaugurated French government. Willy Brandt’s first visitto Paris after the French elections had been arranged for this purpose. It wasexpected that the French would insist on renewing the existing ruling on financingthe agricultural market for the <strong>de</strong>finite period <strong>of</strong> the Common Market which was tobe established in the beginning <strong>of</strong> 1970. 9 Brandt thus not only allu<strong>de</strong>d to thesummit proposal, but also openly discussed the <strong>de</strong>licate problem <strong>of</strong> justifying thecosts <strong>of</strong> the Community’s surplus production to the German public. Although hereassured the French presi<strong>de</strong>nt that the German government would in any caserefrain from discussing pecuniary arguments in public, Brandt insisted on a moreequitable and long-term solution to agricultural problems. Thus, a more extensivereform <strong>of</strong> the agricultural market was, according to the German position, necessaryand unavoidable. Pompidou implied vaguely that he was ready for a “mo<strong>de</strong>rateattitu<strong>de</strong>” but at the same time reiterated that it was France that, <strong>de</strong>spite priorpressure from the French agricultural sector, had plea<strong>de</strong>d for lower prices in theCommon Market. 10 Referring to the establishment <strong>of</strong> the first common agriculturalmarket regime in 1962, he openly allu<strong>de</strong>d to Germany’s inability to argue against aruling that Germany itself had helped to introduce. As far as the enlargement issuewas concerned, Pompidou outlined that the completion <strong>of</strong> the Common Marketwould be a French préalable before working on a “doctrine <strong>of</strong> the methodology <strong>of</strong>enlargement” 11 that would allow the EC to enter into negotiations with GreatBritain and other applicant states.When France presented the i<strong>de</strong>a <strong>of</strong> a summit à Six - at Pompidou’s pressconference on 10 July and subsequently on the occasion <strong>of</strong> the Brussels Council <strong>of</strong>ministers meeting <strong>of</strong> 22 July - Willy Brandt was the only Foreign minister whogave his consent to this initiative without hesitation. The other four opted to consulttheir respective governments or hinted at their reservations concerning thesuggested procedure that did not foresee an agenda or specific preparations for thesummit meeting. They were all disturbed to find out that the French wished to holdregular meetings <strong>of</strong> the Heads <strong>of</strong> State and Government in the future. 128. Fernschreiben Botschafter, Den Haag, an das Auswärtige Amt, 09.06.1969, in: AAPD, 1969, vol.I,document no.194, pp.693-695.9. AsD, Depositum Helmut Schmidt 5523, Der innere Ausbau <strong>de</strong>r Europäischen Gemeinschaft, undatednote <strong>of</strong> the Auswärtiges Amt; ibid., Vorschlag zur Gesprächsführung für AußenministerBrandt anlässlich <strong>de</strong>r Gespräche in Paris am 4. Juli, undated note <strong>of</strong> the Auswärtiges Amt.10. For the establishment <strong>of</strong> the CAP see for instance: A.-C. LAURING KNUDSEN, Creating theCommon Agricultural Policy. Story <strong>of</strong> Cereals Prices, in: W. LOTH (ed.), Crises and Compromises…, op.cit., pp.131-154.11. Brandt to Pompidou in the conversation on 4 July, in: AAPD, 1969, vol.II, p.777.12. According to the ,Aufzeichnung <strong>de</strong>s Ministerialdirigenten von Sta<strong>de</strong>n, 01.08.1969’, in: AAPD,1969, vol.II, document no.253, pp.873-876.


66Claudia HiepelWhile the German Foreign minister did agree to the French initiative, he and hisadministration nonetheless continued to analyse it critically. First <strong>of</strong> all, they sawthe French proposal as a means to integrate the French presi<strong>de</strong>nt into theCommunity’s <strong>de</strong>cision-making process at a time they were about to begin planningfor the future. 13 They also asked why it did not provi<strong>de</strong> a special agenda. Why werepreparations not clearly outlined in the Council and by the Foreign ministers? Andwhy did the French government want regular summits at this stage? All those itemswere regar<strong>de</strong>d as “vehicles <strong>of</strong> a tactic” to prevent a possible summit <strong>of</strong> the Sevenand to play for time until the British elections had taken place in early summer. Theproposal to hold regular meetings on a senior level was reminiscent <strong>of</strong> the Fouchetplans <strong>of</strong> the early Sixties and would thus be unacceptable to the small memberstates <strong>of</strong> the EC in particular. Brandt’s senior <strong>of</strong>ficial in charge <strong>of</strong> European affairs,Berndt von Sta<strong>de</strong>n, thus recommen<strong>de</strong>d that he should react “carefully butpositively”. By protecting both German interests and those <strong>of</strong> the small states,Brandt should insist on the preparation by the Foreign ministers and not assent toany institutionalisation <strong>of</strong> summit conferences or at best, connect the possiblerepetition <strong>of</strong> a summit with the success <strong>of</strong> the one envisaged. The EuropeanCommission should in any case be inclu<strong>de</strong>d in the preparation process for theconference as far as Community matters were concerned. 14Until the next Council <strong>of</strong> ministers meeting on 15 September, Willy Brandtembarked on a tour to the member states’ capitals to get a feel for the attitu<strong>de</strong> <strong>of</strong> theothers and to make up his mind about a German vision for European <strong>integration</strong>. 15He was firmly convinced that, although it was absolutely necessary for theEuropean unification process to progress, he should un<strong>de</strong>r no circumstances givethe impression that Germany wanted to take the lead in the EC. German initiativesshould “not attack the prestige or the sensitivity <strong>of</strong> others” 16 – which meant bothFrance as well as the small member states. Brandt’s European policy concepts, inthe first place, aimed at enlarging the Community as soon as possible and at<strong>de</strong>fining the relations to the other European Free Tra<strong>de</strong> Association (EFTA)member states. On the institutional level the strengthening <strong>of</strong> the competence <strong>of</strong> theEC’s parliament and its direct elections were <strong>of</strong> high priority. Political cooperationand the establishment <strong>of</strong> the Economic Union roun<strong>de</strong>d <strong>of</strong>f the list <strong>of</strong> urgentactivities. 177 With regard to the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) the Germanadministration still had no i<strong>de</strong>as ready. Willy Brandt only planned to make13. Ibid. The French presi<strong>de</strong>nt was, for technical reasons, not a member <strong>of</strong> the French government. Aconference with Georges Pompidou as participant could hence not be <strong>de</strong>scribed as a Councilmeeting but only as a Summit meeting <strong>of</strong> the EC member states. This procedure ten<strong>de</strong>d toun<strong>de</strong>rmine the Community institutions as argued a paper <strong>of</strong> the German Foreign Minister:Politisches Archiv <strong>de</strong>s Auswärtigen Amtes [PAAA], Ref. I A 1, 736, Vermerk über institutionelleFragen <strong>de</strong>r Sechser-Gipfelkonferenz, 24.07.1969.14. Ibid.15. PAAA, B 150, vol.160, pp.4782 ff., Fernschreiben aus <strong>de</strong>m Auswärtigen Amt an die Vertretungenin <strong>de</strong>n europäischen Hauptstädten, 02.09.1969.16. WBA, Bestand Publizistische Äußerungen 313, Konferenz <strong>de</strong>r westeuropäischen Botschafter <strong>de</strong>rBun<strong>de</strong>srepublik, 30.06.1969.


In Search <strong>of</strong> the Greatest Common Denominator 67concessions and claimed that Germany was willing to make sacrifices once theirpurpose was clear. As a gui<strong>de</strong>line to the German ambassadors in Western Europeancapitals Willy Brandt claimed:“We must have our proposals ready and constantly be in search <strong>of</strong> the greatestcommon <strong>de</strong>nominator in or<strong>de</strong>r to prove that we are ready and able to take the nextpossible step”. 18On 8 July, Willy Brandt first stopped at The Hague to meet Dutch Foreignminister Joseph Luns. Only four days after his Paris visit, Brandt was not entirelyoptimistic. What struck him most, was the less i<strong>de</strong>ological attitu<strong>de</strong> <strong>of</strong> the newFrench presi<strong>de</strong>nt and a “more harmonised presentation” <strong>of</strong> Pompidou and MauriceSchumann. 19 A new aspect <strong>of</strong> the discussion seemed to be that the French realisedthat they could not get around the resumption <strong>of</strong> enlargement negotiations if theysought to break the current impasse. Brandt now took on the role <strong>of</strong> conciliatorbetween France and the other four EC member states, striving to fosterun<strong>de</strong>rstanding and patience. Schumann’s warning not to exercise any pressure onFrance, was not explicitly directed at Germany but at “minor governments and lessimportant countries”. 20 Consequently, Brandt advised Luns not to push the Frenchtoo much. He thus tried to prevent him from discussing direct elections and thequestion <strong>of</strong> responsibilities <strong>of</strong> the European Parliament (EP) at his forthcomingvisit in Paris. On the other hand, sharing the goals <strong>of</strong> the Dutch ‘<strong>de</strong>claration <strong>of</strong>intent’ that proposed 1 January 1970 as the date <strong>of</strong> opening enlargementnegotiations, 21 Brandt agreed that Luns submit this proposal to Pompidou. At thesame time, he ma<strong>de</strong> it clear that he would not comment on this point in public, toavoid duping the French so briefly after his own conversations in Paris. Brandtclearly saw that France feared that its own negotiating position would be weakenedunless the ruling <strong>of</strong> the Common Market was <strong>de</strong>finitely fixed before entering intonegotiations with the applicant states. 22Late August/early September, Brandt met the Italian Foreign minister AldoMoro in Rome, 23 and subsequently discussed the matter in Brussels with theBelgian Foreign minister Pierre Harmel. 24 As expected, Moro rejected “anexclusive political cooperation <strong>of</strong> the Six that was expressed in summit17. Ibid. See also the earlier pro-European statements <strong>of</strong> Willy Brandt in the Foreign PolicyAssociation in New York (1964), in Rome (1965) and on the Congress <strong>of</strong> European SocialistParties (1966): WBA, Bestand Publizistische Äußerungen 180, 211, 243.18. Ibid.19. Botschafter Arnold, Den Haag, an das Auswärtige Amt, betr.: Gespräch Außenministers mitnie<strong>de</strong>rländischem Außenminister Luns, 08.07.1969, in: AAPD, 1969, vol.II, document no.229,pp.802-805.20. As Schumann said to Brandt in their conversation on 4 July in Paris, in: AAPD, 1969, vol.II,document no.220, p.773.21. See the article <strong>of</strong> Harryvan and Van <strong>de</strong>r Harst in this volume.22. Brandt to Luns, op. cit., pp.803 ff.23. Reported in: PAAA, B 150, vol.160, pp.4782 ff., Fernschreiben aus <strong>de</strong>m Auswärtigen Amt an dieVertretungen in <strong>de</strong>n europäischen Hauptstädten, 02.09.1969.24. A copy <strong>of</strong> the records, in: WBA, Bestand Außenminister und Vizekanzler 29.


68Claudia Hiepelconferences”. The Belgian government at this stage also shared the opinion that theapplicants should join the summit negotiations. The muted enthusiasm in the ECmember states about a conference on the one hand and the compelling <strong>de</strong>mand forenlargement on the other was threatening to reinforce the French position onagricultural questions, in particular, for which Germany urged a solution. As aresult, the regularly held Franco-German summit conference on 8 and 9 September<strong>de</strong>alt to a large extent with European questions. 25 The outcome <strong>of</strong> this conferencewas clear: Pompidou would, un<strong>de</strong>r no circumstances, relent on the French position<strong>of</strong> insisting on completion as a prerequisite for opening enlargement negotiations.Should Great Britain fail to enter into negotiations, the Six could, at least, fall backon the Common Market, as Pompidou argued. This perspective was specificallyaimed at clearing the Dutch position, as he was not sure if the Dutch would beready for completion and <strong>de</strong>epening in the case <strong>of</strong> a British retreat. On thisoccasion Willy Brandt was warned against carrying his seesaw policy too far.Pompidou had taken note <strong>of</strong> the fact that during his conversation in Paris on 4 Julythe German Foreign minister had avoi<strong>de</strong>d mentioning a connection betweencompletion and enlargement whereas he had given a completely differentimpression in Rome. 26In answering Kiesinger’s question whether the enlargement question would bean issue at the conference, Pompidou stressed that this was precisely the reason forconvening the summit. 27 Perhaps encouraged by this statement, after the series <strong>of</strong>bilateral conversations, 28 Brandt ma<strong>de</strong> a final attempt to push the enlargementissue. He sent a message via his senior <strong>of</strong>ficial, Paul Frank, to suggest to the Frenchambassador François Seydoux that they should promise the applicant states, evenbefore the coming Council <strong>of</strong> ministers meeting, that the negotiations would beginin February/March 1970. Seydoux suspected that this was more <strong>of</strong> an Italian andDutch suggestion than a German one, but he promised to pass it on directly to theQuai d’Orsay. 29 As expected, this démarche was a failure. The French ma<strong>de</strong> nosuch promise.Preparations for the ConferenceThe <strong>de</strong>cisive agreements on a summit conference and the gui<strong>de</strong>lines for it werearrived at during informal working lunch meetings <strong>of</strong> the Foreign ministers – a25. AAPD, 1969, vol.II, document no.279, pp.962-973.26. Ibid., Pompidou to Kiesinger, p.971.27. „Staatspräsi<strong>de</strong>nt Pompidou erwi<strong>de</strong>rte, wenn er sagen wolle, dass dies nicht möglich sei, müsseman sich fragen, wozu eine solche Konferenz überhaupt einberufen wer<strong>de</strong>“. In: AAPD, 1969,vol.II, document no.282, pp.981-989, quotation: p.888.28. A meeting with the Luxembourg government is not bequeathed. A further meeting with Luns musthave taken place in Bonn on 11 and 12 September.29. Aufzeichnung <strong>de</strong>s Ministerialdirektors Frank, 12.09.1969, in: AAPD, 1969, vol.II, documentno.285, pp.994 ff.


In Search <strong>of</strong> the Greatest Common Denominator 69procedure harshly criticised by the Commission and its presi<strong>de</strong>nt Jean Rey. 30 Thefirst encounter in such a setting took place on 15 September during the Council <strong>of</strong>ministers meeting in Brussels. There, Brandt was equipped with a paper that ma<strong>de</strong>the enlargement issue the most prominent on the agenda. As this paper ma<strong>de</strong> clear,the German government was eager to <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong> on a starting date for enlargementnegotiations in or<strong>de</strong>r to achieve the first successes. The paper partially attracted theFrench, by suggesting an agreement between the Six on this issue before startingnegotiations with the potential applicants. It clearly stipulated that all other issuesshould be subordinate to the question <strong>of</strong> enlargement. Completion, which <strong>de</strong>altwith linking the financing <strong>of</strong> agriculture to the reform <strong>of</strong> agricultural policy, was tooccupy second place, while <strong>de</strong>epening, which according to German terminologyreferred to the establishment <strong>of</strong> an economic union in particular, took third place. 31The enlargement question did not appear on the agenda <strong>of</strong> the <strong>of</strong>ficial Councilmeeting since the Commission had not yet submitted a formal statement. Butduring an informal meeting <strong>of</strong> the Foreign ministers, the issue <strong>of</strong> British entry wasdiscussed. 32 As opposed to his Benelux colleagues, Willy Brandt procee<strong>de</strong>d verycarefully. Whereas those, Joseph Luns in particular, clearly insisted on fixing a datefor starting negotiations with the applicants, only the German Foreign minister waspleased to point out the readiness <strong>of</strong> the French to discuss the British entry after all.He mentioned the importance <strong>of</strong> a timetable that would indicate how many monthsthe EC member states would need “to make contact with the applicants”. 33Furthermore, he obviously supported finding a solution to the WEU crisis, but atthe same time suggested that discussing political questions should go beyond apossible “regularisation” <strong>of</strong> the WEU. 34 The enlargement question was not the onlyhighly controversial issue up for discussion. The Benelux member states, inparticular, expressed their scepticism towards the French refusal to accept a linkagebetween completion and enlargement. Brandt did not mention this sensitive issue atall, but he left Luns’ assumption unchallenged that the Five would accept “a sort <strong>of</strong>parallelism”. The meeting finally resulted in a date and place <strong>of</strong> the summitconference being fixed as well as the topics for discussion: the famous triptych <strong>of</strong>completion, <strong>de</strong>epening and enlargement. The Commission was <strong>de</strong>signated toparticipate in the conference and the sensitive issue <strong>of</strong> enlargement postponed untilthe publication <strong>of</strong> the Commission report on this issue. This was quite adisappointing result compared to the maximum <strong>de</strong>mand <strong>of</strong> linkage and a fixed datefor entering into negotiations. But it was at the same time a good result for a30. See the complaints <strong>of</strong> Rey on the occasion <strong>of</strong> the third meeting, AAPD, 1969, vol.II, documentno.356, p.1258.31. WBA, Bestand Publizistische Äußerungen 322, Vorschläge zu Verfahren und Themen <strong>de</strong>r geplantenEWG-Gipfelkonferenz in Den Haag, 15.09.1969, draft <strong>of</strong> 1 September 1969.32. Aufzeichnung <strong>de</strong>s Staatssekretärs Harkort, 18.09.1969, betr. Arbeitsessen <strong>de</strong>r EWG-Außenministerin Brüssel am 15.09.1969, in: AAPD, 1969, vol.II, document no.294, pp.1025-1030.33. Ibid.34. „Mögl[iche] Au[ßenpolitische] Zus[ammen]arbeit + Konsultation, Mehr als NormalisierungWEU“, WBA, Bestand Außenminister und Vizekanzler 18, Handschriftliche Notizen anl. SitzungEWG-Ministerrat in Brüssel am 15.09.1969.


70Claudia Hiepelmeeting that had obviously started in a strained atmosphere, when Schumanncomplained about the ingratitu<strong>de</strong> towards a suggestion that he regar<strong>de</strong>d as a Frenchconcession.The September Council <strong>of</strong> ministers meeting thus served to clarify the variouspoints <strong>of</strong> view without coming to a real agreement. A stocktaking <strong>of</strong> Germanforeign policies, written by Brandt’s close staff member and confidant Egon Bahr,clearly <strong>de</strong>monstrated the dilemma <strong>of</strong> German European policy. 35 It presumed thatthe French would not hin<strong>de</strong>r enlargement à la longue but that the applicants’ entrymight not be expected before the end <strong>of</strong> the next German legislative period, whichwould then take place at the end <strong>of</strong> 1973. The Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Republic could thereforechoose between two alternatives. Firstly, it could continue its existing policies <strong>of</strong>flexibility: acting in consensus with all six members and in so doing trying toprogress step-by-step in the process <strong>of</strong> European <strong>integration</strong>. The advantages <strong>of</strong>this alternative were seen in Germany’s partnership, <strong>de</strong>monstrating its espritcommunautaire. This option implied a refusal <strong>of</strong> power politics and was regar<strong>de</strong>das a pro<strong>of</strong> for the credibility <strong>of</strong> German foreign policy. The disadvantages werereflected in the emergence <strong>of</strong> a seesaw policy, with France ultimately setting thepace. Secondly, the Germans could put their national interests in the foreground byinsisting on a linkage between completion and enlargement. It seemed absurd, andnot only to Bahr, that the basic and ultimate goals <strong>of</strong> the Common Market would beestablished only to be modified again in the enlargement negotiations. It washowever clear, that such an attitu<strong>de</strong> put Germany in danger <strong>of</strong> becoming alienatedfrom its French ally and, should the enlargement negotiations fail, from its Britishally as well, on whose good will it <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>d for the success <strong>of</strong> the Ostpolitikenvisaged by Brandt and Bahr. In addition, this course <strong>of</strong> confrontation would nothave promoted the European <strong>integration</strong> process at all. 36The <strong>de</strong>valuation <strong>of</strong> the French Franc in August only exacerbated these alreadycomplicated matters. The <strong>de</strong>finite regulation <strong>of</strong> the CAP seemed unattainable.Consequently, the enlargement negotiations were jeopardised which could finallylead into disintegrating Europe. This was a scenario that was seriously expected inthe German Foreign Office in the following 12 or 18 months. Once more, Franceseemed to be blocking the European Community, not politically as un<strong>de</strong>r Charles<strong>de</strong> Gaulle but economically. 37 The second working lunch meeting that took placeon 17 October in Luxembourg, with the absence <strong>of</strong> the German Foreign minister,did not lead to a way out <strong>of</strong> the European impasse. Schumann rejected a linkagebetween enlargement and completion, the other five member states insisted that thesummit conference should give a date for the start <strong>of</strong> negotiations. 388When the new government took over its <strong>of</strong>ficial duties in October 1969, theGerman attitu<strong>de</strong> towards the European <strong>integration</strong> process in general and towards35. Überlegungen zur Außenpolitik einer künftigen Bun<strong>de</strong>sregierung. Aufzeichnung <strong>de</strong>sMinisterialdirektors Bahr, 21.09.1969, in: AAPD, 1969, vol.II, document no.296, pp.1047-1057.36. Ibid., pp.1056 ff.37. Aufzeichnung <strong>de</strong>s Ministerialdirektors Frank, 26.08.1969, betr.: Europäische Politik, in: AAPD,1969, vol.II, document no.267, pp.929 ff.


In Search <strong>of</strong> the Greatest Common Denominator 71France in particular changed remarkably. Brandt now held an <strong>of</strong>fice that allowedhim to set the gui<strong>de</strong>lines for European policy. He no longer restricted himself to apolicy <strong>of</strong> reconciliation, but tried to play a more active role to move the European<strong>integration</strong> process forward. When Brandt assumed the chancellor’s position,several <strong>of</strong>ficials <strong>of</strong> the Foreign Office moved into the Kanzleramt. 39 Among themwas the head <strong>of</strong> the Planning Department Egon Bahr, who became state secretary.At the same time, Brandt appointed Katharina Focke as parliamentary secretaryresponsible for European affairs. This newly established <strong>of</strong>fice <strong>de</strong>monstrated theimportance the Chancellor attached to European policy, which became ‘a matterfor the boss’. This was more than a tactical shift, but a signal for a new approach inforeign and European affairs which Brandt wanted to realise on his own initiativeand that can be characterised as the attempt to renew the Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Republic’sinternational role. The former émigré and antifascist Brandt consi<strong>de</strong>red himself asthe representative not <strong>of</strong> a conquered but <strong>of</strong> a liberated Germany, as he <strong>of</strong>ten statedin public. 40 This justified a more self-confi<strong>de</strong>nt attitu<strong>de</strong> towards the Allies. TheFrench government likewise expected Brandt to pursue a more active Europeanpolicy than his pre<strong>de</strong>cessor Kiesinger and tried to prepare for it. “We will take thatinto account” - mentioned the French ambassador Seydoux in a conversation withEgon Bahr on 8 October. 41 After that, Bahr had the impression that a Germangovernment un<strong>de</strong>r Willy Brandt would assume a stronger position towards France,which expected greater pressure on the main issue <strong>of</strong> British entry into the EC.Bahr <strong>de</strong>scribed the French present attitu<strong>de</strong> as “unsure, observant and open forcompromises”. 42 He advised the German government to grasp this opportunity,bearing in mind that it would probably only last for a short time.Several concepts were established in the German administration that modifiedthe German policy towards France. 43 France and Germany alone could solve thearray <strong>of</strong> challenges that were be<strong>de</strong>villing the Community. The Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Republicwould need to temper the “egoistic interests” <strong>of</strong> France with a full-fledgedconception <strong>of</strong> European unity. Interestingly enough, these German concepts wouldbe based on France’s weaknesses. They argued that France had become uncertainabout its central role as world power and its standing in European affairs, havingseen its economic power in the industrial sector fall behind that <strong>of</strong> Germany. Untilthe industrial reforms planned by Pompidou achieved some <strong>de</strong>gree <strong>of</strong> success, theFrench inten<strong>de</strong>d to maintain an economic balance with Germany in the agricultural38. PAAA, B 150, vol.163, Arbeitsfrühstück <strong>de</strong>r EWG-Außenminister zur Vorbereitung <strong>de</strong>rGipfelkonferenz, Luxemburg, 17.10.1969. The German Foreign Minister was represented by hisstates secretary Harkort.39. See J. LODGE, The Organization and Control <strong>of</strong> European Integration in the Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Republic <strong>of</strong>Germany, in: Parliamentary Affairs, 28(1974/75), pp.416-430.40. For instance on a press conference for American <strong>journal</strong>ists in October 1969, cited in: D. BINDER,The other German. Willy Brandt’s life and times, New Republic Book, Washington, 1975, p.256.41. AAPD, 1969, vol.II, document no.310, pp.1103-1106.42. Ibid., p.1104.43. Notes <strong>of</strong> the head <strong>of</strong> ministry <strong>de</strong>partment Frank from 21 and 22 October 1969, in: AAPD, 1969,vol.II, document no.319, pp.1127-1143 and document no.320, pp.1143-1147.


72Claudia Hiepelsector. And so the Brandt administration argued that the Germans were welladvised to treat the French with care. The <strong>de</strong>gree <strong>of</strong> German esprit communautairewould serve as a mo<strong>de</strong>l for French commitment to the EC. Consequently, Germanywould be ready to renounce sovereignty especially in the area <strong>of</strong> monetary policyand to give France the impression that she held a major political position in spite <strong>of</strong>its limited economic power.Bilateral <strong>de</strong>als between France and Germany were already being consi<strong>de</strong>red byKiesinger who, on the occasion <strong>of</strong> the Franco-German summit in early September1969, had proposed the establishment <strong>of</strong> a bilateral working group to <strong>de</strong>al withtechnical problems <strong>of</strong> the CAP, such as “surplus production” and “units <strong>of</strong>account”. Pompidou hesitated a bit, but finally agreed un<strong>de</strong>r the condition that theworking group should work discretely, so as not to irritate the other EC members. 44Apparently, this i<strong>de</strong>a <strong>of</strong> <strong>de</strong>aling with the question within the framework <strong>of</strong> theFranco-German treaty <strong>of</strong> friendship had been put asi<strong>de</strong> in the final phase <strong>of</strong> theelection campaign and during the change <strong>of</strong> government in the Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Republic. 45It was then up to the French to make the first move towards closer bilateralco-operation. Seydoux, in his conversation with Bahr on 8 October proposed theestablishment <strong>of</strong> a Franco-German contact on a “high but discrete level” before thesummit. 46 Seydoux repeated his i<strong>de</strong>a in early November after having reasserted hisposition at the French ministry <strong>of</strong> Foreign affairs. The Quai d’Orsay and the Elyséehad no objections to a personal correspon<strong>de</strong>nce – personal in the sense that eventhe existence <strong>of</strong> an exchange <strong>of</strong> letters would not be ma<strong>de</strong> known to a third party.Brandt as the ‘younger in government’ was expected to initiate the exchange. 47From November the preparation for the conference was then in full swing. On 7November Carlo Schmid, the recently inaugurated coordinator for theFranco-German relationship, went to Paris to meet the presi<strong>de</strong>nt. Pompidouexpressed his changed attitu<strong>de</strong> in no uncertain terms to Schmid. He felt that he andBrandt were <strong>de</strong>stined to succeed:“Il faut aller à La Haye avec la volonté <strong>de</strong> réussir. Nous sommes condamnés àréussir. Le désir pr<strong>of</strong>ond du Gouvernement allemand, c’est que la possibilité soitdonnée d’ouvrir <strong>de</strong>s négociations avec la Gran<strong>de</strong>-Bretagne. Je dis tout <strong>de</strong> suite quenous n’y ferons pas obstacle. Après avoir obtenu ce que nous souhaitons, nous necréerons pas <strong>de</strong> nouvelles difficultés. Vous pouvez le dire au Chancelier: nous seronsouverts, coopératifs, mais nous voulons l'achèvement du Marché Commun et lerèglement financier”. 48Schmid answered lapidary: “Le Chancelier le sait et est d’accord”. 4944. Ibid., document no.279, p.971.45. See the note <strong>of</strong> state secretary Harkort, 31 October, alluding to the difficulties <strong>of</strong> such a bilateralwork group in view <strong>of</strong> the fact that Germany did not have a conception yet, PAAA, BüroStaatssekretäre 168.46. AAPD, 1969, vol.II, document no.310, pp.1103-1106.47. Note from 13 November 1969, AsD, Depositum Bahr, 343.48. Archives Nationales [AN] 5 AG 2, 104.49. Ibid.


In Search <strong>of</strong> the Greatest Common Denominator 73Only two days later, in a conversation with the new German Foreign ministerWalter Scheel, Schumann substantiated the French view and even <strong>of</strong>fered Germanya solution to the problem <strong>of</strong> surplus production. 500 Two inci<strong>de</strong>nts may have beenresponsible for this change <strong>of</strong> mind on the part <strong>of</strong> France. Firstly, the revaluation <strong>of</strong>the German Mark on 24 October coming on the heels <strong>of</strong> the French <strong>de</strong>valuation inAugust posed another threat to the CAP, showing a lack <strong>of</strong> esprit communautaire.Secondly, Scheel, in a provocative remark in the German Bun<strong>de</strong>stag on 6November, had claimed that the Common Market had dispersed. As a result <strong>of</strong> theunilateral monetary <strong>de</strong>cisions <strong>of</strong> the French and German governments, Francehence was strictly speaking no longer a member <strong>of</strong> the Common Market, whereasGermany remained a member by virtue <strong>of</strong> its complicated system <strong>of</strong> monetarycompensation for German farmers. The Common Market as the core <strong>of</strong> European<strong>integration</strong> was only kept alive by “technical manipulations”. 51 Whether or not itwas a calculated attack to bring France out <strong>of</strong> her shell, the fact remains thatSchumann reacted immediately. Deeply worried, he initially consulted CarloSchmid 52 and then referred to the Scheel speech in his conversation with theGerman Foreign minister. Schumann <strong>de</strong>nied Scheel’s interpretation and stressedfirmly that to him and the French, the CAP would mark “the most unifyingelement” <strong>of</strong> the Community. 53Scheel and Brandt did not hesitate to make the French reorientation known tothe other partners. 54 The third foreign ministers’ preparatory working lunchmeeting on 10 November thus took place in a more harmonious and constructivemanner. According to German records it was Schumann who seemed to dominatethe discussions. He insisted on realising completion as the absolute Frenchpréalable, the fulfilment <strong>of</strong> which would <strong>de</strong>termine France’s future membership inthe Common Market. Modifications should only be accepted unanimously and ifnecessary, later on in the course <strong>of</strong> enlargement negotiations. These terms weregenerally well received. Only Luns and Scheel insisted on a sort <strong>of</strong> linkage, addingthat the summit should avoid giving the impression that the negotiations oncompletion would have to be finished before other problems such as agrarianpolicy and enlargement could be discussed. 5550. AAPD, 1969, vol.II, document no.352, pp.1237-1246.51. Verhandlungen <strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>utschen Bun<strong>de</strong>stages. Stenographische Berichte, vol.71, Bonn 1969, p.281.52. See the note <strong>of</strong> German ambassador Freiherr von Braun, 7 November 1969, mentioned in: AAPD,1969, vol.II, document no.352, p.1240.53. Ibid.54. Scheel to Harmel in Brussels on 10 November, in: AAPD, 1969, vol.II, document no.353,pp.1247-1250 and one day later Brandt to the Italian ambassador Luciolli, in: AAPD, 1969, vol.II,document no.358, p.1263-1268.55. AAPD, 1969, vol.II, document no.356, pp.1258-1260.


74Claudia HiepelIn search <strong>of</strong> an agendaThe active diplomatic exchange after Pompidou’s summit proposal had been ma<strong>de</strong>public stood in sharp contrast to the lack <strong>of</strong> i<strong>de</strong>as about the <strong>de</strong>tailed technicalarrangements. While a common <strong>de</strong>nominator had been found in the form <strong>of</strong> thetriptych, it was not absolutely clear how to bring it to life. It was inconceivable toall persons involved in the preparation that a Heads <strong>of</strong> State and Governmentconference should <strong>de</strong>al with technical <strong>de</strong>tails about completion, for instance. Itshould rather give a political gui<strong>de</strong>line for the future <strong>of</strong> the EC. But even thereforms <strong>of</strong> the Common Market or the envisaged establishment <strong>of</strong> the Economicand Monetary Union (EMU) notwithstanding, the German administrations had noclear concept on hand. Certainly, the change <strong>of</strong> government had disrupted theadministration’s working routine. 56 Nonetheless, it is interesting to note that theGerman government did not have any alternative suggestions that went beyond thesceptically judged Mansholt plan. 57 Should they be asked by their partners, theGerman <strong>de</strong>legates would not even be in a position to contribute any i<strong>de</strong>as to theissue <strong>of</strong> the agricultural reforms. 58 In<strong>de</strong>ed, the German ministry <strong>of</strong> Agricultureseemed to be the one most lagging behind. In early November, though theconference was to take place on 17 and 18 November, it confessed that it couldonly discuss some incomplete i<strong>de</strong>as which were still at the stage <strong>of</strong> clearly being<strong>de</strong>fined. The fe<strong>de</strong>ral ministry <strong>of</strong> Economic affairs announced that it would present anote, as soon as possible, regarding the EMU. It should go beyond the plan <strong>of</strong> theCommission’s vice-presi<strong>de</strong>nt, Raymond Barre, a plan that was regar<strong>de</strong>d asinsufficient. 59 The Italian request to postpone the summit conference to earlyDecember 60 thus fit in with the German plans. It allowed the work on the ultimatepreparation to be pushed ahead.56. As Harkort argued in a conversation with the high French <strong>of</strong>ficial Brunet, PAAA, Referat I A 2,1438.57. S. MANSHOLT, Memorandum zur Reform <strong>de</strong>r Landwirtschaft in <strong>de</strong>r Europäischen Wirtschaftsgemeinschaft,in: Bulletin <strong>de</strong>r Europäischen Gemeinschaften, 1/1969, Son<strong>de</strong>rbeilage. See for criticism<strong>of</strong> the Mansholt plan: AAPD, 1969, vol.II, document no.306, pp.1093 ff.58. PAAA, B 150, vol.163, pp.591 ff., Aufzeichnung, betr. Regelung <strong>de</strong>r Agrarfinanzierung in <strong>de</strong>rEndphase, Vorbereitung <strong>de</strong>r Gipfelkonferenz.59. Bun<strong>de</strong>sarchiv Koblenz [BAK], Bun<strong>de</strong>sministerium für Wirtschaft 61710, Nie<strong>de</strong>rschrift über dieSitzung <strong>de</strong>r Staatssekretäre für Europafragen am 6. November 1969, im Bun<strong>de</strong>sministerium fürWirtschaft, Sekretariat <strong>de</strong>s Staatssekretärausschusses für Europafragen, 09.12.1969; see R. BAR-RE, Memorandum über die Koordinierung <strong>de</strong>r Wirtschaftspolitik und die Zusammenarbeit inWährungsfragen innerhalb <strong>de</strong>r Gemeinschaft, in: Bulletin <strong>de</strong>r Europäischen Gemeinschaften, 1/1969, Son<strong>de</strong>rbeilage. According to the German minister <strong>of</strong> Economics, this so-called Barre planfocused too much on the monetary cooperation instead <strong>of</strong> short- and long-term means for harmonisation<strong>of</strong> a common economic policy.60. First indication in a note from 6 November, mentioning a conflict that became apparent in a conversationbetween French Foreign minister Schumann and the Italian ambassador, which had intensifiedthe Italian wish to postpone the summit, PAAA, Referat I A 1, 1438, Leiter <strong>de</strong>r AbteilungI, Vermerk.


In Search <strong>of</strong> the Greatest Common Denominator 75At this stage, Willy Brandt inclu<strong>de</strong>d the European father figure Jean Monnet inthe preparations for the Conference. Monnet exerted a rather strong influence onthe German Chancellor on the eve <strong>of</strong> the Hague Summit. 61 As head <strong>of</strong> the ‘ActionCommittee for the United States <strong>of</strong> Europe’, which was joined by Willy Brandt inthe mid-sixties, Monnet tried to use his close contact with the now Head <strong>of</strong>government to intervene directly in the preparations for the conference. Just priorto the summit, he wrote two letters to Brandt, encouraging him to promote the oldAction Committee’s <strong>de</strong>mands, which inclu<strong>de</strong>d the enlargement issue and theestablishment <strong>of</strong> the EMU. For that end, he proposed the installation <strong>of</strong> a EuropeanReserve Fund in which Germany would contribute a part <strong>of</strong> its currency reserves asan “instrument <strong>de</strong> la solidarité monétaire <strong>de</strong>s pays <strong>de</strong> la Communauté”. 62In a personal meeting on 7 November, Monnet outlined his views, to whichBrandt showed a certain reserve due to the fact that the German minister <strong>of</strong>Economic affairs, Karl Schiller, had rejected these i<strong>de</strong>as. Schiller insisted on an‘economic’ approach <strong>of</strong> monetary matters, requiring the harmonisation <strong>of</strong> theEuropean economies as a first and most important step. 63 However, Brandt did notgive up on his plan. It seems as if he was convinced <strong>of</strong> having found a means <strong>of</strong>expressing Germany’s solidarity within the union. More interested in the politicalimplications <strong>of</strong> such a project, he did not really consi<strong>de</strong>r the un<strong>de</strong>rlying economicconcept. Therefore, he gave the task to Focke and Bahr in the Kanzleramt, toexamine the Monnet proposals with the aim <strong>of</strong> presenting them as his own i<strong>de</strong>as onthe Summit Conference. 64Already on 13 November, during an inter-ministerial meeting at theKanzleramt, the German positions for the summit conference had begun to takeshape. 65 The German agreement on completion became linked to certain conditionsin other areas, such as fixing a limit <strong>of</strong> costs for the Common Market, passing a<strong>de</strong>claration <strong>of</strong> intent concerning the regulation <strong>of</strong> surplus production, full financing<strong>of</strong> the Community from its own resources in close connection with strengtheningEP’s competencies and, last but not least, a French concession on startingenlargement negotiations. With some flexibility, the German starting point wouldbe 1 April. All those present at the meeting welcomed a Foreign Office’s proposalthat was seen as a means <strong>of</strong> arriving at a solution on the sensitive enlargement issueand the reform <strong>of</strong> agricultural market rules. According to this proposal, the granting61. See G. BOSSUAT, Drei Wege nach <strong>de</strong>m Gipfel von Den Haag. Monnet, Brandt, Pompidou unddas Europa <strong>de</strong>r 70er Jahre, in: A. WILKENS (ed.), Interessen verbin<strong>de</strong>n. Jean Monnet und dieeuropäische Integration <strong>de</strong>r Bun<strong>de</strong>srepublik Deutschland, Bouvier, Bonn, 1999, pp.353-386. K.FOCKE, Erinnerungen an Jean Monnet, ibid., pp.23-30.62. Jean Monnet to Chancellor Willy Brandt, 21 and 31 October 1969, German translation, in: WBA,Bestand Bun<strong>de</strong>skanzler und Bun<strong>de</strong>sregierung 14.63. BAK, Bun<strong>de</strong>skanzleramt 6417, Vermerk über ein Gespräch <strong>de</strong>s Herrn Bun<strong>de</strong>skanzlers mit <strong>de</strong>mPräsi<strong>de</strong>nten <strong>de</strong>s Aktionskomitees Jean Monnet am 07.10.1969.64. WBA, Bestand Bun<strong>de</strong>skanzler und Bun<strong>de</strong>sregierung 91, Vermerk betr. EWG-Gipfelkonferenz am02.12.1969, handwritten note <strong>of</strong> Brandt from 9 November 1969.65. PAAA, Referat I A 1, 1439, Interministerielle Besprechung unter Vorsitz Sts Bahr, Bun<strong>de</strong>skanzleramt,am 13.11.1969.


76Claudia Hiepel<strong>of</strong> own resources to the EC as a way <strong>of</strong> financing the agricultural market, ma<strong>de</strong>ratification by the German Bun<strong>de</strong>stag necessary, which could only be expected ifenlargement were to take place and a reduction <strong>of</strong> surplus production wereguaranteed. 66 The minister <strong>of</strong> Economic affairs’ memorandum was regar<strong>de</strong>d as agood basis on which Germany could make a <strong>de</strong>cisive contribution on <strong>de</strong>epening –the third element <strong>of</strong> the triptych. 67 At this stage, European Political Cooperation(EPC) did not play any role in the discussion.The last bilateral conversation before the Conference took place betweenBrandt and Luns on 25 November. 68 Furthermore, the German ambassadors hadthe task <strong>of</strong> informing the member states about the stance Germany was expected totake. 69 Concerning the pivotal agreement on the enlargement issue, the Fe<strong>de</strong>ralRepublic introduced the i<strong>de</strong>a <strong>of</strong> not mentioning a fixed date in the communiqué ifthat would help the French to yield. It promised to draft proposals concerning theharmonisation <strong>of</strong> economic and monetary policies and even ma<strong>de</strong> known its intentto use the necessary ratification in the Bun<strong>de</strong>stag to reach an agreement on CAPreforms and enlargement negotiations. At the same time, the ambassadors wouldpresent this proposal as Germany’s last concession to France. 70 The hierarchy <strong>of</strong>the German triptych hence became clear: enlargement, <strong>de</strong>epening, completion.Finally, on 27 November, Brandt sent a letter to the French presi<strong>de</strong>nt confirmingthat he had un<strong>de</strong>rstood the Seydoux message mentioned above, and un<strong>de</strong>rliningonce more the pivotal role <strong>of</strong> a Franco-German agreement. Brandt signalled hisconsent to the French préalable and the German willingness to make financialsacrifices. At the same time, by giving a vivid account <strong>of</strong> the possible effects <strong>of</strong> anoverly costly CAP on German internal politics, such as a feared “nationalistexplosion”, he strove to clarify why he would have to insist on reforms <strong>of</strong> the CAP.The much-nee<strong>de</strong>d <strong>de</strong>cision on enlargement was only mentioned in one paragraph.Brandt then came to the presentation <strong>of</strong> his favourite i<strong>de</strong>a <strong>of</strong> a European ReserveFund that should be established after having agreed upon some convergencecriteria <strong>of</strong> economic policies – the latter an additional i<strong>de</strong>a, which may have beeninstigated by his minister <strong>of</strong> Economic affairs. Brandt lau<strong>de</strong>d this Fund for makinga contribution to the solidarity and stability <strong>of</strong> the Community and thereby hoped toconvince the French presi<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>of</strong> the German esprit communautaire. 71 On the eve66. Ibid. This i<strong>de</strong>a had been consi<strong>de</strong>red carefully and had been discussed controversially in the GermanForeign Office already in the beginning <strong>of</strong> October. See the notes from 30 and 31 October1969, PAAA, B 150, 163, pp.5918 ff. and 5954 ff.67. BAK, Bun<strong>de</strong>sministerium für Wirtschaft 93456, Deutsches Memorandum zur Frage <strong>de</strong>r Wirtschafts-und Währungsunion auf <strong>de</strong>r Konferenz <strong>de</strong>r Staats- und Regierungschefs <strong>de</strong>r EWG. VonHerrn Minister gebilligte Fassung.68. PAAA, Referat I A 1, 1439, Gespräch <strong>de</strong>s Herrn Bun<strong>de</strong>sminister <strong>de</strong>s Auswärtigen mit <strong>de</strong>m nie<strong>de</strong>rländischenAußenminister Luns in Den Haag am 25.11.1969, hier: Deutsche Vorstellungen zurBehandlung <strong>de</strong>r Gemeinschaftsfragen auf <strong>de</strong>r bevorstehen<strong>de</strong>n Gipfelkonferenz.69. See the telegrams to the ambassadors in the member states’ capitals from 25 November, PAAA,Referat I A 1, 1440.70. Ibid.71. Brandt to Pompidou, 27 November 1969, in: AN 5 AG 2, 103.


In Search <strong>of</strong> the Greatest Common Denominator 77<strong>of</strong> the summit, Germany had put its cards on the table. Pompidou did not hesitate toanswer, only one day later, in a more informal note in which he did not only stressthe importance <strong>of</strong> the Franco-German relationship but also referred to the necessity<strong>of</strong> good personal relations between him and Brandt which could help to solveEurope’s problems. Concerning the enlargement question he asserted to be openfor a solution but he refused to fix a date for starting negotiations. He welcomed acloser economic and monetary cooperation and promised to think about the project<strong>of</strong> a European Reserve Fund. 72 The last bilateral contact between Brandt andPompidou before the conference confirmed the recently discovered compromisesand served to improve the climate between the two partners. Both were spared toexperience any real surprise on the summit in The Hague.The ConferenceDutch Prime minister Piet <strong>de</strong> Jong started the conference <strong>of</strong>f by discussing theenlargement issue, which also stood at the centre <strong>of</strong> Willy Brandt’s speech in thefirst session. 73 Brandt presented an ambitious European action program, whereasPompidou, as previous speaker, <strong>de</strong>livered more <strong>of</strong> a summary <strong>of</strong> the status <strong>of</strong>European <strong>integration</strong> and avoi<strong>de</strong>d referring to the enlargement issue. Brandt and <strong>de</strong>Jong succee<strong>de</strong>d in circumventing Pompidou’s obvious tactic <strong>of</strong> marginalizing theenlargement issue at the Conference. Referring to German public opinion and theBun<strong>de</strong>stag, Brandt clearly stated that he was expected not to leave the conferencewithout a concrete outcome on the enlargement issue. In addition, he surprisinglyopenly cited Germany’s dominant economic position:“Whoever fears that the economic power <strong>of</strong> the Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Republic would bedisadvantageous for the balance within the Community, should for that reason be infavour <strong>of</strong> the enlargement”. 74This argument allu<strong>de</strong>d to France’s fear <strong>of</strong> German economy and, in<strong>de</strong>ed, theFrench took note <strong>of</strong> it. 75 Brandt also mentioned the European PoliticalCooperation, which he did not consi<strong>de</strong>r the most important topic <strong>of</strong> theConference, but at least the Foreign ministers would be instructed to discuss it “inthe hypothesis” <strong>of</strong> enlargement. 76 Only in the afternoon, did Brandt speak aboutcompletion. He un<strong>de</strong>rscored the German consent to a <strong>de</strong>finite financing <strong>of</strong>72. Unsigned note <strong>of</strong> Pompidou from 28 November, in: AsD, Depositum Egon Bahr 441/1. A “projet<strong>de</strong> réponse” from 29 November mentioned in: M.-T. BITSCH, Le sommet …, op.cit., p.558.73. The German records <strong>of</strong> the Summit Conference, in: PAAA, Ministerbüro 334. The Brandt text waspublished on the whole, in: Bulletin <strong>de</strong>s Presse- und Informationsamtes <strong>de</strong>r Bun<strong>de</strong>sregierung 146,2 December 1969, pp.1241-1243.74. Ibid., p.1241.75. «Il a même évoqué le contre-poids qu’<strong>of</strong>friraient les Britanniques a ceux qui pouvaient craindre lapuissance économique alleman<strong>de</strong>!». Quotation from the French records <strong>of</strong> the Conference in theSGCI archive, 900568, Art. 386, pp. 250 ff. (kindly ma<strong>de</strong> available by Piers Ludlow).76. Bulletin <strong>de</strong>s Presse- und Informationsamtes <strong>de</strong>r Bun<strong>de</strong>sregierung, op.cit., p.1242.


78Claudia Hiepelagriculture un<strong>de</strong>r the well-known conditions <strong>of</strong> surplus regulation and enlargement.“Only in so doing, would the Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Government be in a position to recommendthe legislative power to give their consent to the financing rulings”. 77 The ForeignOffice’s suggestion to use the Bun<strong>de</strong>stag as a means <strong>of</strong> exerting pressure waspresented in a more diplomatic and cautious manner.On the second day, Brandt presented his i<strong>de</strong>a <strong>of</strong> a reserve fund in connectionwith the suggestion to establish the EMU step-by-step. More importantly, however,may have been his introductory statement, not mentioned in the published text, thatthe German <strong>de</strong>legation would put its trust in Pompidou’s explanation about theFrench <strong>de</strong>sire to start enlargement negotiations and on a fixed schedule. 78 Behindthese somewhat cryptic utterances lay the all-<strong>de</strong>cisive agreement on enlargement,which is said to have been achieved by Pompidou and Brandt during the dinnerhosted by Queen Juliana in the evening. 79 According to Brandt, it was there that hepushed Pompidou to agree finally on initiating the enlargement negotiations“during the course <strong>of</strong> the next year”, a <strong>de</strong>al which was confirmed by Pompidou’sword <strong>of</strong> honour to the Belgian and Luxembourg Prime ministers Gaston Eyskensand Pierre Werner who had followed the discussion quite closely. 80 Even if theinformal agreement between Brandt and Pompidou at this evening had played apivotal role and Brandt was therefore praised in some German press reports, 81 theorigins <strong>of</strong> the i<strong>de</strong>a were to be found within the Italian government. In aconversation with the Italian ambassador Mario Luciolli on 11 November WillyBrandt spoke highly <strong>of</strong> an i<strong>de</strong>a that had obviously been put forward in an Italiannote to which Brandt referred on this occasion. This note mentioned the possibility<strong>of</strong> coming to an internal agreement on the starting date for the summit, whichwould not necessarily have to appear in the <strong>of</strong>ficial communiqué. Brandt adoptedthis formulation, in addition to his i<strong>de</strong>a <strong>of</strong> relying on a personal statement fromPompidou. 82With that, the enlargement issue came to a close. As promised, Pompidousuggested a solution to the issue <strong>of</strong> agricultural surplus production. In return, theGerman concessions were, as previously arranged, a <strong>de</strong>finite regulation onfinancing agriculture and the transition to the final period on 1 January 1970.However, France rejected Brandt’s persistent <strong>de</strong>mand for “drastic reforms <strong>of</strong>agricultural market rules”. 8377. Ibid., p.1243.78. See the German records, op.cit., p.21.79. This is according to the memories <strong>of</strong> the German Chancellor. See W. BRANDT, Begegnungen undEinsichten. Die Jahre 1960-1975, H<strong>of</strong>fmann und Campe, Hamburg, 1976, pp.321 ff.80. Ibid.81. See for instance DER SPIEGEL, EWG-Gipfel. Datum genannt, 50(1969), pp.28 ff. The author wassurprisingly well informed about the events in The Hague’s palace Huis ten Bosch.82. AAPD, 1969, vol.II, document no.358, pp.1263-1268.83. See the French records, op.cit., pp.265 ff.


In Search <strong>of</strong> the Greatest Common Denominator 79Results <strong>of</strong> the ConferenceIn comparison to the German draft communiqué, the final communiqué <strong>of</strong> theconference was, on some crucial points, based on German proposals. However, theGerman <strong>de</strong>legation had inten<strong>de</strong>d to prioritise issues differently. In the Germanview, the enlargement issue should have taken a more prominent role, followed byEPC, EMU and then finally the issue <strong>of</strong> financing the agricultural market. 844Despite that, a <strong>de</strong>tailed first analysis <strong>of</strong> the outcomes <strong>of</strong> the conference written bythe Foreign Office and the ministry <strong>of</strong> Economic affairs was generally positive. TheFrench position was regar<strong>de</strong>d as having been constructive on the whole. The mainGerman goals had been accepted. Hard negotiations on the <strong>de</strong>tails were expected totake place in the future Council <strong>of</strong> ministers meetings, but the problems would nolonger be insurmountable, owing to the results <strong>of</strong> the summit. 85Paragraph 5 <strong>of</strong> the final communiqué concerning the completion <strong>of</strong> theCommunity was, according to the same analysis, based on proposals ma<strong>de</strong> byGermany. One little <strong>de</strong>tail appeared <strong>de</strong>cisive: the plural <strong>of</strong> financing regulations,meaning the regulations for financing agriculture as well as the overall financing <strong>of</strong>the Community by its own resources in the final phase <strong>of</strong> the Common Market. TheGerman <strong>de</strong>legation had used a ‘back door’ route to establish the linkage betweencompletion and reform issues, which had been so harshly contested by France. Itwas consi<strong>de</strong>red an important step that for the first time the French had agreed on awi<strong>de</strong>ning <strong>of</strong> the budgetary competencies <strong>of</strong> the EP. Un<strong>de</strong>r the given circumstances,now that the French had rejected direct elections, it was consi<strong>de</strong>red a real increasein EP’s authority. 86 The ministry <strong>of</strong> Economic affairs was certainly veryenthusiastic about paragraph 8 concerning the EMU, which was based precisely onits own draft. It was consi<strong>de</strong>red essential to build a Community <strong>of</strong> stability an<strong>de</strong>conomic growth and to give priority to the harmonisation <strong>of</strong> the economic policiesbefore moving to monetary cooperation. It was also quite clear that only the Dutch<strong>de</strong>legation shared this position, whereas the other governments focussed on aparallel <strong>de</strong>velopment or even adopted a more ‘monetary approach’. 87 The wording<strong>of</strong> paragraph 15 concerning political cooperation was seen as a simple means <strong>of</strong>arriving at a formulation that would break through the ‘vicious circle’ <strong>of</strong> thedispute concerning the participants <strong>of</strong> such cooperation. It was a welcome reliefthat the Foreign ministers would be in charge <strong>of</strong> establishing the gui<strong>de</strong>lines. Owingto the linkage <strong>of</strong> political co-operation to the enlargement issue it was anticipatedthat the new members would be inclu<strong>de</strong>d. 8884. PAAA, Ministerbüro, 334, Entwurf eines Kommuniqués für die Gipfelkonferenz, 27.11.1969.85. BAK, Bun<strong>de</strong>sministerium für Wirtschaft, 93456, Note from 3 January 1970; PAAA, Referat I A1, 1441, Aufzeichnung betr. Sitzung <strong>de</strong>s Auswärtigen Ausschusses. Kommentar zu operativenPunkten (5-15) <strong>de</strong>s Kommuniqués.86. Ibid., Note <strong>of</strong> the ministry <strong>of</strong> Economic affairs.87. Ibid.88. Note <strong>of</strong> the Foreign Office, op.cit.


80Claudia HiepelThe Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Government enthusiastically hailed the Summit as a <strong>de</strong>cisive steptowards a common European future. For Willy Brandt, it marked the mostimportant event <strong>of</strong> his recently inaugurated government. 89 The reactions <strong>of</strong> theGerman public to this first political action <strong>of</strong> the Brandt government in the area <strong>of</strong>foreign policy were on the whole positive and even enthusiastic. Most <strong>of</strong> the pressreports pointed out Brandt’s significant role in helping to break down the Frenchresistance to enlargement. 90 What was striking to the majority <strong>of</strong> observers at theconference was the very positive atmosphere, in which it, however, took place. 91This ‘spirit <strong>of</strong> The Hague’ seems to have been durable and it also characterised thefollowing Council <strong>of</strong> ministers negotiations that had the summit’s <strong>de</strong>cisions torealise. The atmosphere and the tone had improved tremendously. According totelegrams from members <strong>of</strong> the German <strong>de</strong>legation, the meetings werecharacterised by matter-<strong>of</strong>-factness, an open attitu<strong>de</strong> towards the positions <strong>of</strong>others, mutual consi<strong>de</strong>ration and even amicability. 92As the <strong>de</strong>tailed reconstruction <strong>of</strong> the preparations has shown, most <strong>of</strong> thenegotiation positions had been clarified before the conference and the agreementson the sensitive issues had been outlined. A summit would be the i<strong>de</strong>al occasion toconfirm and reinforce the recent solutions at the highest possible level. The Hagueconference thus served to forge commitments, which were required by Pompidou,on the one hand, to justify his European policy towards the French Gaullists, andby the other member states’ governments on the other, to make the Frenchpresi<strong>de</strong>nt hold true to his promises. In fact, the Conference had broken theEuropean impasse by opening the door to the applicant states. There was no reasonto doubt Pompidou’s word <strong>of</strong> honour. The Hague summit itself did not <strong>de</strong>liver anyreal surprise. It served to stage the compromise for the public. Brandt’s role in thisscenario was to <strong>of</strong>fer Pompidou a face-saving solution to the enlargement issue.The <strong>de</strong>cisive change, however, happened in the French administration beforethe conference. First indications for Pompidou’s willingness to give up the negativeGaullist position regarding British entry turned out during the election campaign.Further evi<strong>de</strong>nce for Pompidou’s change <strong>of</strong> mind will be provi<strong>de</strong>d by Frenchfiles. 93 But it is true, that the French presi<strong>de</strong>nt’s attitu<strong>de</strong> towards European<strong>integration</strong> policy finally appeared in the Franco-German bilateral contacts.89. See the exposé for a lecture <strong>of</strong> parliamentary secretary Focke, in: AsD, Depositum KatharinaFocke 191, Die europäische Situation nach Den Haag in <strong>de</strong>r Sicht <strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong>utschen Regierung; M.-T.BITSCH, Le sommet …, op.cit., p.562.90. According to the carefully reported German press reactions in the archives <strong>of</strong> the British ForeignOffice (kindly ma<strong>de</strong> available by Alan S. Milward). See also DER SPIEGEL, op.cit.91. See, for instance, the interim report <strong>of</strong> Focke about the second day <strong>of</strong> the conference, in: AAPD,1969, vol.II, document no.385, pp.1357-1359.92. AsD, Depositum Katharina Focke 199, Fernschreiben aus Brüssel, 09.02.1970, betr.: 102. Tagung<strong>de</strong>s Rates <strong>de</strong>r Europäischen Gemeinschaften am 05/06/07. Februar 1970.93. M.-T. Bitsch mentions two ‘Conseils <strong>de</strong>s ministres restreints’ on 21 October and on 17 November,in which Pompidou admitted that the French position had become “intenable” and - in case <strong>of</strong>maintaining the French position - the Common Market would disappear (M.-T. BITSCH, Lesommet …, op.cit., p.548).


In Search <strong>of</strong> the Greatest Common Denominator 81Undoubtedly, it was the clear stance <strong>of</strong> Brandt in favour <strong>of</strong> the enlargement issuethat encouraged Pompidou to yield at that point in time. The chancellor clearlyexerted greater pressure on France than his pre<strong>de</strong>cessor Kiesinger had done. Sincethe beginning <strong>of</strong> July the still Foreign minister openly discussed the sensitive issue<strong>of</strong> surplus production and – in doing so – subtly left Pompidou in doubt as to theGerman assent to the <strong>de</strong>finite ruling <strong>of</strong> financing the agricultural market.Furthermore, acting as a conciliator between the extreme attitu<strong>de</strong>s <strong>of</strong> France on theone hand and the Benelux on the other, Brandt clearly <strong>de</strong>monstrated his espritcommunautaire and thus gave his policy high credibility. In doing so, he succee<strong>de</strong>din taking German national interests into consi<strong>de</strong>ration without jeopardising therelationship to the French and British allies.If there were any conceptions about the long-term effects <strong>of</strong> the conference,they certainly were not completely outlined at this stage. Though the EMU hadplayed a prominent role in the German drafts, its future <strong>de</strong>velopment and failure inthe early Seventies were not foreseeable. It is true <strong>of</strong> course, that the Germanadministration was a bit naive in assuming that Germany would follow through onits ‘economist’ approach as opposed to the ‘monetary’ approach which Pompidouand several other member states had adopted.The European Political Cooperation, however, would emerge with a promisingfuture, although it took a marginal position on <strong>de</strong>cisions regarding the preparationsfor the conference. It was “a few lines tucked away” in the final communiqué. 94However, the Davignon report <strong>of</strong> October 1970 established the framework for acommon foreign policy with the European Political Cooperation (EPC). It was asort <strong>of</strong> alternative route (“zweiten Gleises”) outsi<strong>de</strong> <strong>of</strong> the Rome Treaties that,together with the entry <strong>of</strong> Great Britain, Denmark and Ireland, helped in setting the<strong>de</strong>cisive course for further <strong>de</strong>velopment <strong>of</strong> Western European co-operation in theSeventies. 95Finally, the Hague summit had set a prece<strong>de</strong>nt for the European Council, whichwould convene regularly from 1975, in helping to institutionalise the summitconferences which had initially been rejected. But obviously, the Hague summitwas a success worth repeating. It facilitated the work <strong>of</strong> EC institutions such as theCommittee <strong>of</strong> Permanent Representatives, which had been blocked in 1969 for lack<strong>of</strong> political gui<strong>de</strong>lines by their governments. 96 In the case <strong>of</strong> the Hague summit,Brandt’s search for the greatest common <strong>de</strong>nominator had resulted in a <strong>de</strong>cisivestep forward in the European <strong>integration</strong> process, a procedure which normallymoves at a snail’s pace.94. C. HILL, K.E. SMITH, European Foreign Policy: key documents, Routledge, London/New York,2000, p.72.95. K. D. BRACHER, W. JÄGER, W. LINK, Republik im Wan<strong>de</strong>l 1969-1974. Die Ära Brandt, DVA/Brockhaus, Stuttgart/Mannheim, 1986, p.243.96. PAAA, Referat I A 1, 1440, Bericht <strong>de</strong>s Ausschusses <strong>de</strong>r Ständigen Vertreter, 24.11.1969 and thecommentary statement <strong>of</strong> the German Foreign Office from 26 November.


Dr. Klemens H. FischerKonvent zur Zukunft EuropasTexte und Kommentar mit einem Geleitwort von Dr. Benita Ferrero-Waldnereinschließlich Begleit-CD-ROM mit GesamtdokumentationIm Juni 2003 wur<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>r Entwurf für einen Verfassungsvertrag <strong>de</strong>r EuropäischenUnion durch <strong>de</strong>n Konvent zur Zukunft Europas beschlossen. Das Werkvon Fischer erläutert die gefun<strong>de</strong>nen Ergebnisse für die Rechtspraxis:Der erste Teil• dokumentiert <strong>de</strong>n Weg <strong>de</strong>r Konventsarbeiten vom Dezember 2000 (EuropäischerRat von Nizza) bis zur Vorlage <strong>de</strong>s Abschlussdokuments• stellt die Positionen <strong>de</strong>r Mitgliedstaaten, <strong>de</strong>s Europäischen Parlaments und<strong>de</strong>r Beitrittslän<strong>de</strong>r dar und• erläutert <strong>de</strong>n Verlauf <strong>de</strong>r Verhandlungen im Konvent.Der zweite Teil• präsentiert <strong>de</strong>n Entwurf für einen Verfassungsvertrag und• analysiert erstmals dieses Vertragswerk für die Praxis.Der beson<strong>de</strong>re Vorteil:Die Arbeiten <strong>de</strong>s Konvents umfassten eine große Anzahl von Beiträgen, Entwürfenund Dokumenten. Um <strong>de</strong>m Leser die Möglichkeit zu geben, die Arbeitenin ihrem vollem Umfang nachzuvollziehen, ist diesem Buch eine CD-ROM angeschlossen,die eine Gesamtdokumentation <strong>de</strong>r Konventsarbeiten beinhaltet.Fazit: Ein Muss für je<strong>de</strong>n Europa- und Verfassungsrechtler in Wissenschaftund Praxis.2003, 542 S., brosch. mit CD, 69,– €, ISBN 3-8329-0171-XNomos


83Le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye.L’initiative française, ses finalités et ses limitesMarie-Thérèse BitschSeule la France qui s’était opposée dans les années 1960 à l’entrée du RoyaumeUni dans la CEE pouvait mettre fin au blocage qui frappait la Communauté <strong>de</strong>puisle <strong>de</strong>uxième veto du général <strong>de</strong> Gaulle, en novembre 1967. Après la démission <strong>de</strong>ce <strong>de</strong>rnier, en avril 1969, il revient à Georges Pompidou, son successeur à laprési<strong>de</strong>nce <strong>de</strong> la République, <strong>de</strong> prendre une initiative pour sortir la constructioneuropéenne <strong>de</strong> l’impasse. Il le fait rapi<strong>de</strong>ment, dès juin-juillet 1969, en proposantune métho<strong>de</strong> (une tactique): la réunion d’une conférence au sommet <strong>de</strong>s chefsd’Etat et <strong>de</strong> gouvernement <strong>de</strong>s Six et un objectif (une stratégie) précisé par lecélèbre triptyque: achèvement, appr<strong>of</strong>ondissement, élargissement. Mais sa marge<strong>de</strong> manœuvre est étroite en raison <strong>de</strong> la situation intérieure française et du climatinternational, notamment <strong>de</strong>s relations sérieusement détériorées entre la France etses partenaires européens.En s’appuyant sur <strong>de</strong>s archives françaises et européennes, 1 cette étu<strong>de</strong> cherche àanalyser le processus qui conduit les autorités françaises, <strong>de</strong> l’électionprési<strong>de</strong>ntielle en juin 1969 au sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye en décembre 1969, à initier unerelance dont l’importance est souvent comparée à celle <strong>de</strong> Messine en 1955, mêmesi ses modalités et ses conséquences sont sensiblement différentes. 2 Cet articleessaie <strong>de</strong> répondre à quelques questions en se plaçant d’un point <strong>de</strong> vue français.Pourquoi la France veut-elle une relance (I)? Pourquoi la faire au moyen d’unsommet (II)? Comment – sur la base <strong>de</strong> quelles priorités – la réaliser (III)?1. Sources consultées: dossiers du Fonds Pompidou, Archives nationales, Paris, série 5AG2(désignés désormais, en abrégé, 5AG2); Archives du Quai d’Orsay, Ministère <strong>de</strong>s Affairesétrangères, Paris (par la suite, MAE) notamment la série Questions internationales européennes,1966-1970, dossiers n˚ 2724 et 2725 ainsi que la série Secrétariat général, entretiens et messages,dossiers n˚ 37, 39 et 40; les Archives <strong>de</strong>s Communautés européennes à Bruxelles, celles <strong>de</strong> laCommission et du Conseil. Le Bulletin quotidien <strong>de</strong> l’Agence Europe (ci-<strong>de</strong>ssous, Europe) fournitégalement beaucoup d’informations.2. Sur la relance <strong>de</strong> 1969 et une esquisse <strong>de</strong> comparaison entre La Haye et Messine, voir M.-Th.BITSCH, Le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye. La mise en route <strong>de</strong> la relance <strong>de</strong> 1969, in: W. LOTH (dir.),Crises and Compromises: The European Project, 1963-1969, Nomos Verlag, Ba<strong>de</strong>n-Ba<strong>de</strong>n, 2001,pp.539-565. A la différence <strong>de</strong> ce premier article qui analysait la préparation du sommet <strong>de</strong> LaHaye en montrant le rôle <strong>de</strong> l’ensemble <strong>de</strong>s acteurs (gouvernements <strong>de</strong>s Six, institutionseuropéennes, organisations <strong>de</strong> la société civile), la présente étu<strong>de</strong> se focalise sur l’attitu<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> Paris,en essayant <strong>de</strong> voir dans quelle mesure le gouvernement français tient plus ou moins compte <strong>de</strong>spositions <strong>de</strong> ses interlocuteurs. Ce <strong>de</strong>uxième article prend en compte les archives du Quai d’Orsayqui n’étaient pas encore accessibles en 1969, lors du colloque organisé par Wilfried Loth.


84Marie-Thérèse BitschI. La relance: une nécessité pour la politique française?Pour les historiens, <strong>de</strong> même que pour les observateurs contemporains, la fin <strong>de</strong>sannées 1960 apparaît comme une phase <strong>de</strong> stagnation <strong>de</strong> la constructioneuropéenne, en dépit <strong>de</strong> certains succès <strong>de</strong> l’intégration économique, tels que lamise en route <strong>de</strong> la politique agricole commune avec l’organisation du marché <strong>de</strong>scéréales en 1966-1967, l’achèvement <strong>de</strong> l’union douanière réalisée dès le 1 er juillet1968 avec dix-huit mois d’avance sur le calendrier initialement prévu, ou encore lamise en application <strong>de</strong>s décisions du Kennedy Round concernant les réductions <strong>de</strong>sdroits du tarif extérieur commun aux Six. Mais <strong>de</strong>s tensions entre la France et lesCinq, déjà sensibles au sujet <strong>de</strong> l’Europe politique en 1962 et <strong>de</strong> la premièrecandidature britannique en 1963, sont aiguisées par la crise <strong>de</strong> la chaise vi<strong>de</strong> en1965 et sérieusement aggravées en 1967 par le second veto du général <strong>de</strong> Gaulle. 3Désormais la France est condamnée à un certain isolement encore accentué avecles remous politiques et sociaux <strong>de</strong> l’année 1968, le boycott du conseil <strong>de</strong> l’UEOpar le gouvernement français qui provoque une autre crise <strong>de</strong> la chaise vi<strong>de</strong> etl’affaire Soames qui éclate en février 1969, lorsque l’initiative <strong>de</strong> Paris en faveurd’un rapprochement franco-britannique ravive la méfiance <strong>de</strong> l’ensemble <strong>de</strong> sespartenaires. 4 Au moment <strong>de</strong> la démission <strong>de</strong> Charles <strong>de</strong> Gaulle, pour <strong>de</strong>s raisons <strong>de</strong>politiques intérieures, suite à la victoire du «non» au referendum du 27 avril 1969,la politique européenne <strong>de</strong> la France est dans l’impasse et la Communauté plus oumoins paralysée, malgré diverses initiatives, notamment belges et alleman<strong>de</strong>s, pourréactiver les coopérations entre les Six et entre l’Angleterre et les Six.Les attentes <strong>de</strong>s partenaires <strong>de</strong> la FranceLe départ du général <strong>de</strong> Gaulle suscite aussitôt certaines attentes chez lespartenaires <strong>de</strong> la France qui parient sur un assouplissement <strong>de</strong> sa position, unréexamen <strong>de</strong> la candidature britannique et une relance <strong>de</strong> l’idée européenne. 5 Ainsi,le Corriere <strong>de</strong>lla Sera souhaite, dès fin avril, que «la France reprenne sa gran<strong>de</strong>mission historique et retrouve en Europe occi<strong>de</strong>ntale le lea<strong>de</strong>rship qui lui revient <strong>de</strong>3. Sur la politique européenne du général <strong>de</strong> Gaulle, voir Institut Charles <strong>de</strong> Gaulle, De Gaulle en sonsiècle, t.5, L’Europe, La Documentation française, Paris, 1992. Sur la crise <strong>de</strong> la chaise vi<strong>de</strong>, voirles travaux <strong>de</strong> W. LOTH, notamment Les implications du conflit Hallstein - <strong>de</strong> Gaulle en 1965, in:M.-Th. BITSCH, W. LOTH, R. POIDEVIN (dir.), Institutions européennes et I<strong>de</strong>ntitéseuropéennes, Bruylant, Bruxelles, 1998, pp.401-418; du même auteur, Français et Allemands dansla crise institutionnelle <strong>de</strong> 1965, in: M.-Th. BITSCH (dir.), Le couple France-Allemagne et lesinstitutions européennes, Bruylant, Bruxelles, 2001, pp.229-243.4. Sur les tensions <strong>de</strong> la fin <strong>de</strong> l’ère <strong>de</strong> Gaulle, voir G. BOSSUAT, De Gaulle et la secon<strong>de</strong>candidature britannique aux Communautés européennes (1966-1969), in: W. LOTH (dir.), Crisesand Compromises …, op.cit., pp.511-538.5. Voir par exemple, les télégrammes envoyés à Paris, <strong>de</strong> Londres, 30 avril 1969, ou <strong>de</strong> Bonn, 12 juin1969, MAE, 2725.


Le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye 85droit». 6 Certains considèrent alors que la France pouvait mettre ses partenaires aupied du mur, que l’heure <strong>de</strong> vérité était arrivée pour les Six qui <strong>de</strong>vront prendre <strong>de</strong>sdécisions et ne plus s’abriter <strong>de</strong>rrière la rhétorique du général. 7 Mais dans unpremier temps, les espoirs restent modérés: on veut se gar<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong> toute illusion, ons’attend à beaucoup <strong>de</strong> réserves sur l’élargissement, on estime que le prochaingouvernement maintiendra certaines positions qui correspon<strong>de</strong>nt aux intérêts <strong>de</strong> laFrance. 8 Et d’ailleurs, Michel Debré, le ministre <strong>de</strong>s Affaires étrangères dugouvernement qui reste en place jusqu’à l’élection du nouveau prési<strong>de</strong>nt, met engar<strong>de</strong> contre <strong>de</strong>s attentes excessives. Selon lui, le futur gouvernement français, quelqu’il soit, sera attaché à la politique agricole commune et, n’ayant pas au départl’autorité du général <strong>de</strong> Gaulle, il sera plus dur dans ce domaine; or, aucungouvernement britannique n’ayant jamais accepté la PAC, parler d’adhésion dansces conditions lui paraît théorique. 9Les Cinq ont-ils envisagé <strong>de</strong> faire pression plus ou moins discrètement sur laFrance pendant la campagne électorale? Dans une interview publiée par le Spiegel,Willy Brandt, alors ministre <strong>de</strong>s Affaires étrangères du gouvernement <strong>de</strong> gran<strong>de</strong>coalition, 10 déclare qu’il serait intéressant que la France donne un signe sur ce quisemble possible mais que «l’Allemagne doit éviter <strong>de</strong> donner le sentiment d’unepression, ou d’une immixtion ou d’une humiliation du partenaire français». 11 Lesgroupes politiques du Parlement européen s’expriment également. Les socialistes,par exemple, estiment que les événements en France <strong>de</strong>vraient permettre unnouveau développement <strong>de</strong> l’intégration. Ils souhaitent une ouverture, dès quepossible, <strong>de</strong> nouvelles négociations en vue <strong>de</strong> l’élargissement et une décisionrapi<strong>de</strong> sur l’élection directe du Parlement européen et sur le renforcement <strong>de</strong> sespouvoirs. 12Au len<strong>de</strong>main du premier tour <strong>de</strong>s élections prési<strong>de</strong>ntielles, 13 le 5 juin, unconseil <strong>de</strong> l’UEO se tient à La Haye, toujours sans la France qui prolonge lapolitique <strong>de</strong> la chaise vi<strong>de</strong>. A cette occasion, Joseph Luns, le ministre néerlandais<strong>de</strong>s Affaires étrangères, suggère que les Six <strong>de</strong> la CEE adoptent prochainement unedéclaration d’intention au sujet <strong>de</strong> l’élargissement. 14 Celle-ci pourrait avoir valeur<strong>de</strong> test sur les dispositions du nouveau gouvernement français. Le même jour, Willy6. Rome à Paris, 30 avril 1969, MAE, 2725.7. Ibid., et Bonn à Paris, 12 juin, ainsi que La Haye à Paris, 11 juin 1969, MAE, 2725.8. Voir Rome à Paris, 30 avril, Bonn à Paris , 13 mai et 12 juin, MAE, 2725.9. Procès-verbal (PV) <strong>de</strong> la réunion du Conseil Affaires générales tenue à Bruxelles le 12 mai 1969,MAE, 39.10. Cette coalition CDU/CSU-SPD, dirigée par le chancelier Kurt-Georg Kiesinger (1966-1969) seraremplacée par un gouvernement SPD-FDP dirigé par Willy Brandt en octobre 1969.11. Bonn à Paris, 13 mai 1969, MAE, 2725.12. Europe, 2 juin 1969 (Une réunion du groupe socialiste du Parlement européen s’est tenue à Hambourg,les 29 et 30 mai 1969).13. Le premier tour a lieu le 1 er juin, le second le 15 juin. Restent en lice pour le second tour, AlainPoher et Georges Pompidou qui est le mieux placé avec 44,5% <strong>de</strong>s suffrages exprimés.14. La Haye à Paris, 11 juin 1969, MAE, 2725. Joseph Luns renouvelle sa <strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong> le 17 juin, <strong>de</strong>vantl’Assemblée <strong>de</strong> l’UEO, à Paris (Europe, 18 juin 1969).


86Marie-Thérèse BitschBrandt, tout en rappelant son souci <strong>de</strong> ménager l’opinion française, préconisel’organisation, à l’automne, d’une réunion <strong>de</strong>s chefs d’Etat et <strong>de</strong> gouvernement <strong>de</strong>ssept pays <strong>de</strong> l’UEO pour définir un «programme européen <strong>de</strong> travail», fairel’inventaire <strong>de</strong>s problèmes posés par l’adhésion <strong>de</strong> l’Angleterre au Marchécommun et déterminer la procédure, le calendrier ainsi que les points-clés <strong>de</strong> lanégociation d’élargissement. 15L’une et l’autre <strong>de</strong> ces propositions sont accueillies avec d’importantes réserves.La France est opposée à une «déclaration d’intention» qu’elle perçoit comme un«procès d’intention», juste au moment où elle annonce sa volonté d’ouverture. 16Plusieurs gouvernements s’efforcent d’écarter ce sujet d’irritation potentielle entrela France et les Cinq. La Belgique fait savoir qu’elle ne s’associe pas à l’initiative<strong>de</strong> Joseph Luns qui ne parle pas dans cette affaire au nom du Benelux et ellepropose d’user <strong>de</strong> son influence pour que le gouvernement néerlandais renonce àson projet. 17 De son coté, Willy Brandt désavoue également les «initiativesverbales». 18 Luns revient encore à la charge, le 17 juillet, lors d’un entretien à Parisavec le nouveau premier ministre français, Jacques Chaban-Delmas, 19 mais legouvernement néerlandais finit par renoncer à son idée. 20 Quant à la proposition <strong>de</strong>Willy Brandt, elle est considérée comme répondant, dans une certaine mesure, à<strong>de</strong>s préoccupations électorales du lea<strong>de</strong>r du SPD. 21 Elle est jugée assez sévèrementpar les ministres du Benelux qui trouvent que l’UEO doit s’en tenir à la coopérationpolitique et que la question <strong>de</strong> l’élargissement doit être traitée à Bruxelles, dans lecadre communautaire et avec la participation <strong>de</strong> la Commission. 22 Willy Brandt,qui ne semble pas vraiment soutenu sur ce point par le chancelier, insiste d’autantmoins que la France lance le len<strong>de</strong>main une initiative concurrente.Les raisons du revirement françaisEn effet, déjà pendant la campagne électorale, Georges Pompidou annoncecertaines orientations <strong>de</strong> sa future politique européenne. Dès le 14 mai, il déclareque la Communauté doit s’élargir et le 20 mai, à Orléans, il se dit prêt à reprendreles discussions avec l’Angleterre, pourvu que celle-ci fasse preuve d’une ambition15. Europe, 5 juin 1969, et La Haye à Paris, 11 juin 1969, MAE, 2725.16. Entretien entre Maurice Schumann et l’ambassa<strong>de</strong>ur <strong>de</strong> Belgique, 16 juillet, MAE, 2725 et entretienentre Jacques Chaban-Delmas et Joseph Luns, 17 juillet, MAE, 37.17. Entretien entre Maurice Schumann et l’ambassa<strong>de</strong>ur <strong>de</strong> Belgique, 16 juillet 1969, MAE, 2725.18. Entretiens <strong>de</strong> Willy Brandt avec les nouveaux dirigeants français, à Paris, le 4 juillet, 5AG2, 104.19. Compte rendu <strong>de</strong> l’entretien, MAE, 37.20. Il semble qu’il y ait renoncé dès le Conseil du 22 juillet qu’il prési<strong>de</strong> et où la question n’est plusabordée. Voir La Haye à Paris, 23 juillet et Bruxelles (Jean-Marc Boegner, représentant permanent<strong>de</strong> la France auprès <strong>de</strong>s Communautés européennes) à Paris, 23 juillet, MAE, 2724.21. Les élections pour le renouvellement du Bun<strong>de</strong>stag doivent avoir lieu le 28 septembre 1969.22. Europe, 5 et 9 juin 1969.


Le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye 87sincèrement européenne. 23 Le 6 juin, entre les <strong>de</strong>ux tours, le len<strong>de</strong>main du jour oùWilly Brandt a proposé un sommet à Sept, il lance l’idée d’une conférence <strong>de</strong>schefs d’Etat et <strong>de</strong> gouvernement <strong>de</strong>s Six. L’ensemble <strong>de</strong> ses propositions sontexplicitées, peu après son élection, le 10 juillet, à l’occasion <strong>de</strong> sa premièreconférence <strong>de</strong> presse. Georges Pompidou renouvelle alors sa proposition <strong>de</strong>sommet et précise les problèmes qui <strong>de</strong>vraient y être abordés. Il rappelle qu’il n’apas d’objection <strong>de</strong> principe à l’entrée <strong>de</strong> la Gran<strong>de</strong>-Bretagne mais que les Sixdoivent d’abord se mettre d’accord sur les conditions d’adhésion. Ils doivent aussiachever la phase transitoire et appr<strong>of</strong>ondir l’action communautaire dans lesdomaines, notamment, <strong>de</strong> la technologie, <strong>de</strong>s transports, <strong>de</strong> la politique monétaire…. 24 Le projet <strong>de</strong> Georges Pompidou implique, par conséquent, un infléchissementimportant <strong>de</strong> la politique européenne <strong>de</strong> la France, puisqu’il se dit prêt, nonseulement à achever la phase transitoire et à appr<strong>of</strong>ondir la coopération entre lesSix, mais aussi à envisager l’élargissement à l’Angleterre qui attend <strong>de</strong>puis huit ansaux portes <strong>de</strong> la Communauté. Comment expliquer ce revirement <strong>de</strong> la politiqueeuropéenne <strong>de</strong> la France? Quelles sont les motivations pr<strong>of</strong>on<strong>de</strong>s du nouveauprési<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>de</strong> la République?Cette réorientation s’impose d’abord pour d’urgentes raisons <strong>de</strong> politiqueintérieure française et, en particulier, <strong>de</strong>s préoccupations électorales. Face à sonprincipal concurrent dans la course à l’Elysée, le très européiste prési<strong>de</strong>nt du Sénatet prési<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>de</strong> la République par intérim, Alain Poher, le gaulliste GeorgesPompidou n’est assuré <strong>de</strong> l’emporter qu’en élargissant sa base électorale auxrépublicains indépendants regroupés <strong>de</strong>rrière Valéry Giscard d’Estaing et à unefraction <strong>de</strong>s centristes autour <strong>de</strong> Jacques Duhamel. Il importe donc <strong>de</strong> donner <strong>de</strong>sgages à ces <strong>de</strong>ux forces d’appoint attachées à l’intégration communautaire etsoucieuses <strong>de</strong> relance européenne. 25Mais cette relance exige une reprise <strong>de</strong> la coopération avec les Cinq,conditionnée elle-même par une ouverture vers l’Angleterre. Pompidou déclarelui-même que le refus <strong>de</strong> discuter avec l’Angleterre est <strong>de</strong>venu «intenable» et que,«si la France maintenait son refus systématique, on irait vers la mort du Marchécommun». 26 D’après le témoignage d’Alain Peyrefitte, le prési<strong>de</strong>nt avaitconscience, <strong>de</strong> manière aiguë, <strong>de</strong> l’impossibilité <strong>de</strong> continuer à s’opposer aux Cinq,comme l’avait fait <strong>de</strong> Gaulle, à la fois sur le problème <strong>de</strong> l’adhésion <strong>de</strong> l’Angleterreet sur la question <strong>de</strong>s institutions communautaires. 27 Comme il était attaché à«l’Europe <strong>de</strong>s Etats», c’est-à-dire à un fonctionnement intergouvernemental <strong>de</strong>s23. D. JOHNSON, La politique européenne <strong>de</strong> Georges Pompidou, vue <strong>de</strong> Gran<strong>de</strong>-Bretagne, in: AssociationGeorges Pompidou, Georges Pompidou et l’Europe, Complexe, Bruxelles, 1995, p.221.24. Texte <strong>de</strong> la conférence <strong>de</strong> presse dans 5AG2, 632.25. J.-R. BERNARD, L’élargissement <strong>de</strong> la Communauté, vu <strong>de</strong> Paris, in: Association Georges Pompidou,op.cit., p.238.26. PV du conseil restreint, Paris, 21 octobre 1969, 5AG2, 52.27. A. PEYREFITTE, témoignage, in: Association Georges Pompidou, op.cit., pp.253-255.


88Marie-Thérèse Bitschinstitutions, 28 il <strong>de</strong>vait lâcher du lest sur l’élargissement, ce qui pouvait en fin <strong>de</strong>compte s’avérer doublement avantageux, car, une fois entrée dans la CEE,l’Angleterre aurait à cœur, comme la France, <strong>de</strong> s’opposer à une évolutionsupranationale <strong>de</strong> la Communauté.S’engager vers l’élargissement <strong>de</strong>vait débloquer la coopération entre les Six enattendant les nouveaux membres et permettre non seulement une sortie <strong>de</strong> crisemais un renforcement du Marché commun sincèrement souhaité par Pompidou. 29Féru d’économie et soucieux d’efficacité, ce saint-simonien passé par la banqueRothschild et par Matignon (premier ministre <strong>de</strong> 1962 à 1968) sait que la puissance<strong>de</strong> la France passe par une mo<strong>de</strong>rnisation possible dans le cadre <strong>de</strong> la CEE etindispensable à un moment où il faut éviter <strong>de</strong> se laisser distancer par le voisinallemand <strong>de</strong>venu un géant économique.Un argument supplémentaire est parfois invoqué: Pompidou aurait voulul’élargissement pour faire <strong>de</strong> l’Angleterre un contrepoids à l’Allemagne au sein <strong>de</strong>la Communauté. Force est <strong>de</strong> constater que cette thèse n’apparaît pas dans lediscours <strong>de</strong>s Français. Ni, bien sûr, dans les déclarations publiques ou <strong>of</strong>ficielles, cequi se comprend aisément, les Français souhaitant préserver l’image d’une«relation exemplaire» avec l’Allemagne. 30 Ni dans les discussions internes etconfi<strong>de</strong>ntielles où certaines motivations sont pourtant exposées <strong>de</strong> manière assezdirecte. 31 Par ailleurs, Willy Brandt cherche à démonter cette argumentation qu’ilprésente comme inutile et peu percutante. Selon lui, la notion <strong>de</strong> contrepoids n’estplus <strong>de</strong> mise puisque l’Allemagne ne veut pas dominer le continent et que tout lemon<strong>de</strong> sait bien qu’en Europe occi<strong>de</strong>ntale aucun problème ne peut avoir <strong>de</strong>solution sans l’Allemagne. 32 Enfin, à contre-courant d’une légen<strong>de</strong> tenace, lesdocuments d’archives 33 et les travaux récents <strong>de</strong>s historiens 34 montrent quel’absence d’affinités personnelles n’empêche pas une étroite coopération politiqueentre Pompidou et Brandt, notamment en faveur <strong>de</strong> la relance en 1969.28. Voir P. GERBET, Georges Pompidou et les institutions européennes, op.cit., pp.55-83, et Leprési<strong>de</strong>nt Georges Pompidou et les institutions européennes, in: M.-Th. BITSCH (dir.), Le coupleFrance-Allemagne … op.cit., pp.355-375.29. M. VAISSE, Changement et continuité dans la politique européenne <strong>de</strong> la France, in: AssociationGeorges Pompidou, op.cit., pp.29-43.30. Formule utilisée d’abord par Pompidou et répétée par Brandt qui déclare la prendre très volontiersà son compte. Voir PV <strong>de</strong> l’entretien du 4 juillet 1969, 5AG2, 104.31. Voir par exemple les PV <strong>de</strong>s conseils restreints, 5 AG2, 52 et 53.32. Bonn à Paris, 13 mai et 22 mai 1969, MAE, 2725.33. Voir notamment, dans 5AG2, les PV <strong>de</strong>s sommets bilatéraux franco-allemands et lacorrespondance entre Pompidou et Brandt.34. Notamment, G.-H. SOUTOU, L’attitu<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> Georges Pompidou face à l’Allemagne, in:Association Georges Pompidou, op.cit., pp.267-313; A. WILKENS, Relance et réalités. WillyBrandt, la politique européenne et les institutions européennes, in: M.-Th. BITSCH (dir.), Lecouple France-Allemagne …, op.cit., pp.377-418; et Mémoire (non encore publié) présenté en vue<strong>de</strong> l’Habilitation à diriger <strong>de</strong>s recherches et soutenu le 15 décembre 2001, Université <strong>de</strong> Paris III.


Le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye 89II. Le sommet: une dérive intergouvernementale <strong>de</strong> la Communauté?Si les motivations pour la relance sont multiples, la métho<strong>de</strong> envisagée, unerencontre au sommet, s’inscrit dans la plus pure tradition gaulliste. Avant 1969, lessommets <strong>de</strong>s Six étaient restés exceptionnels. L’idée en avait été avancée par leprési<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>de</strong> Gaulle, dans sa conférence <strong>de</strong> presse du 5 septembre 1960 où ilpréconisait la mise en route d’une Europe politique sur la base <strong>de</strong> décisions prisespar le «concert» européen, au niveau <strong>de</strong>s chefs d’Etat et <strong>de</strong> gouvernement. Puis,dans la phase d’élaboration du projet, <strong>de</strong>ux sommets s’étaient effectivement tenus,l’un à Paris en février, l’autre à Bonn en juillet 1961. Après l’échec <strong>de</strong> ce planFouchet, la notion <strong>de</strong> sommet est restée entachée d’une double connotationgaullienne et anticommunautaire. Par la suite, une seule conférence <strong>de</strong>s chefsd’Etat et <strong>de</strong> gouvernement a encore été organisée, en 1967, dans la capitaleitalienne, à l’occasion du dixième anniversaire <strong>de</strong>s traités <strong>de</strong> Rome. Cettemanifestation solennelle, essentiellement commémorative et sans réelle portéepolitique, avait cependant retenu, malgré les réticences <strong>de</strong>s Néerlandais, l’idée d’unautre sommet qui pourrait se réunir à La Haye.La proposition françaiseC’est cette pratique du sommet que Georges Pompidou veut remettre à l’honneurpour promouvoir la relance. Dans sa conférence <strong>de</strong> presse du 10 juillet, il estime«qu’il serait utile que dans un terme pas trop lointain et <strong>de</strong> préférence à intervallesrelativement rapprochés, les principaux responsables, chefs d’Etat ou <strong>de</strong>gouvernement, se rencontrent, sans ordre du jour, très librement, pour faire le tour<strong>de</strong>s questions et pour faire avancer à la fois, dans l’immédiat, l’achèvement <strong>de</strong> laCommunauté telle qu’elle existe, et ensuite réaliser <strong>de</strong>s progrès dans les autresdomaines». 35Cette proposition rappelée aussi par le premier ministre, JacquesChaban-Delmas, 36 dans son discours d’investiture, le 29 juin, est présentéeformellement aux partenaires <strong>de</strong> la France, par le ministre <strong>de</strong>s Affaires étrangères,Maurice Schumann, 37 lors du Conseil tenu à Bruxelles, le 22 juillet. Il suggèred’organiser une réunion, «à une date aussi proche que possible, selon <strong>de</strong>s modalitésqui conviennent à tous et qui pourront être fixées selon la voie appropriée» afin queles chefs d’Etat et <strong>de</strong> gouvernement «échangent leurs vues, sans limitation ni ordre35. Texte <strong>de</strong> la conférence <strong>de</strong> presse dans 5AG2, 632.36. Europe, 30 juin 1969. La personnalité du premier ministre et ses prises <strong>de</strong> position semblentaccueillies assez favorablement chez les Cinq.37. Maurice Schumann a une image <strong>de</strong> gaulliste favorable à la Communauté européenne. Il a été la«voix» <strong>de</strong> la France libre, à Londres, pendant la secon<strong>de</strong> guerre mondiale. Membre du MRP (Partidémocrate-chrétien) sous la IV e République, il s’est rallié à <strong>de</strong> Gaulle en 1958, mais a démissionnédu gouvernement, avec 4 autres ministres, en mai 1962, après l’échec du plan Fouchet et laconférence <strong>de</strong> presse où le général <strong>de</strong> Gaulle s’en prenait à l’Europe supranationale.


90Marie-Thérèse Bitschdu jour préétabli». Cette conférence pourrait se tenir à La Haye, comme envisagélors du sommet <strong>de</strong> Rome, et avant la fin <strong>de</strong> la prési<strong>de</strong>nce néerlandaise <strong>de</strong> laCommunauté qui vient <strong>de</strong> commencer le 1er juillet. 38Paris souhaite donc la tenue d’un sommet à échéance <strong>de</strong> quelques mois, avant lafin <strong>de</strong> l’année 1969 - qui correspond à la fin <strong>de</strong> la pério<strong>de</strong> transitoire <strong>de</strong> douze ansprévue par le traité CEE - peut-être en novembre, en tout cas après les élections quidoivent avoir lieu en RFA, à l’automne. 39 Cette conférence pourrait être la premièred’une série <strong>de</strong> rencontres périodiques organisées au plus haut niveau pour faireavancer l’Europe. 40 Elle <strong>de</strong>vrait permettre <strong>de</strong> «frapper un grand coup» et <strong>de</strong> sortird’un processus routinier «pour aller vers le haut». 41 Elle serait indépendante <strong>de</strong>sorganismes communautaires 42 tout en se préoccupant <strong>de</strong> l’avenir <strong>de</strong> laCommunauté. Il s’agirait d’une réunion informelle, relativement «intime», en«petit comité» pour une conversation «au coin du feu», 43 sans ordre du jour précis,mais qui, sans entrer dans les détails, <strong>de</strong>vrait évoquer la coopération entre les Sixainsi que les problèmes posés par l’élargissement. 44La solution <strong>de</strong> compromisLa perspective d’un sommet est accueillie fraîchement par les partenaires <strong>de</strong> laFrance, notamment en Italie et au Benelux. Par contre, à Bonn, le chancelierKurt-Georg Kiesinger apporte son soutien à l’idée, dès le 8 juin, avant même le<strong>de</strong>uxième tour <strong>de</strong> l’élection prési<strong>de</strong>ntielle 45 et Willy Brandt s’y rallie assezrapi<strong>de</strong>ment – c’est fait lors <strong>de</strong> sa visite à Paris le 4 juillet – tout en insistant pourque le sommet soit préparé soigneusement et qu’il ne <strong>de</strong>vienne pas un prétexte pourdifférer les décisions susceptibles d’être prises par le Conseil, dès septembre. 46Dans la pratique, le principe d’un sommet avant la fin <strong>de</strong> l’année est implicitementaccepté dès le Conseil du 22 juillet, malgré les réticences surtout italiennes et bienque la décision <strong>of</strong>ficielle soit différée jusqu’en septembre. 47 Selon la formule38. PV du Conseil Affaires générales du 22 juillet, Archives du Conseil, Bruxelles.39. Note sur un entretien entre Hervé Alphand, secrétaire général du Quai d’Orsay et <strong>de</strong>uxpersonnalités américaines, 8 juillet 1969, AME, 2725.40. Cette proposition <strong>de</strong> sommets périodiques, sans ordre du jour précis, sera reprise par Pompidou en1973, à la <strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong> également <strong>de</strong> Jean Monnet. Elle finira par aboutir en 1974 àl’institutionnalisation <strong>de</strong>s sommets sous le nom <strong>de</strong> Conseil européen. Voir M.-Th. BITSCH, JeanMonnet et la création du Conseil européen, in: G. BOSSUAT et A. WILKENS, Jean Monnet,l’Europe et les chemins <strong>de</strong> la paix, Publications <strong>de</strong> la Sorbonne, Paris, 1999, pp.399-410.41. PV <strong>de</strong> l’entretien entre Jacques Chaban-Delmas et Joseph Luns, 17 juillet 1969, MAE, 37.42. Voir document cité en note 39.43. Selon <strong>de</strong>s formulations souvent utilisées.44. Voir document cité en note 17.45. Europe, 9 juin 1969.46. Bruxelles à Paris, 23 juillet 1969, MAE, 2724.47. PV du Conseil du 22 juillet, Archives du Conseil, Bruxelles. Voir aussi Bruxelles à Paris etLondres à Paris, 23 juillet 1969 ainsi que Rome à Paris, 30 juillet 1969, MAE, 2724.


Le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye 91souvent répétée, le projet <strong>de</strong> sommet bénéficie d’un «préjugé favorable». Mais laFrance doit faire face aux assauts <strong>de</strong> ses partenaires et à ceux <strong>de</strong> la Commission quiredoutent la mise en place d’un nouvel organe qui viendrait affaiblir les institutionsexistantes et ferait dériver le système communautaire vers une «Europe <strong>de</strong>sPatries». 48Pour écarter ce danger, <strong>de</strong>ux para<strong>de</strong>s sont imaginées. Il s’agit d’abord <strong>de</strong> limiterle rôle du sommet, en refusant l’idée <strong>de</strong> rencontres régulières qui impliquerait uneinstitutionnalisation déguisée et en lui déniant la possibilité <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>venir un organe<strong>de</strong> la CEE, voire une instance d’appel susceptible <strong>de</strong> mettre en cause les décisionsdu Conseil. 49 Sur ces points, Paris se montre volontiers rassurant. 50 L’autre para<strong>de</strong>consiste à associer la Commission <strong>de</strong> Bruxelles aux travaux du sommet. Leprési<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>de</strong> la Commission, Jean Rey, monte au créneau pour manifester savolonté d’y participer. Il s’exprime en ce sens au sein du Conseil dès le 22 juillet etobtient immédiatement le soutien <strong>de</strong>s Cinq. 51 Il intervient aussi, quelques joursplus tard, à Paris, auprès <strong>de</strong> Maurice Schumann. Mais le gouvernement français semontre très réticent, rappelle que la Commission n’avait pas été admise à Rome en1967 et qu’il ne voit aucune raison <strong>de</strong> procé<strong>de</strong>r autrement. 52 Il cherche à trouverune solution permettant <strong>de</strong> donner une satisfaction partielle aux champions <strong>de</strong>sinstitutions communautaires tout en reléguant la Commission à l’arrière-plan.Selon le prési<strong>de</strong>nt Pompidou, il convient <strong>de</strong> donner l’impression que laCommission est traitée avec égard mais qu’elle est «un instrument <strong>de</strong>sgouvernements et non un organe indépendant». 53 Après avoir envisagé pour elle unstatut d’observateur, 54 Paris propose <strong>de</strong> l’inviter à l’une <strong>de</strong>s trois séances dusommet, en fait à la <strong>de</strong>uxième, qui doit s’occuper <strong>de</strong>s dossiers communautaires,tandis que la première séance sera consacrée à un échange <strong>de</strong> vues général et la<strong>de</strong>rnière à l’établissement <strong>de</strong>s conclusions. 55 De fait, Jean Rey participera à laséance du mardi 2 décembre au matin, accompagné d’un autre membre <strong>de</strong> laCommission, Edoardo Martino, et <strong>de</strong> quatre fonctionnaires mais non <strong>de</strong> l’ensemble<strong>de</strong>s vice-prési<strong>de</strong>nts comme il avait été proposé.Cependant, même si la Commission n’obtient qu’un strapontin au sommet <strong>de</strong>La Haye, elle est associée indirectement à la préparation <strong>de</strong> la conférence. LeConseil lui <strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong>, en effet, une mise à jour <strong>de</strong> l’avis formulé en 1967 sur les<strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong>s d’adhésion <strong>de</strong>s candidats et, en venant présenter le nouvel avis <strong>de</strong>vant leConseil le 17 octobre, Jean Rey ne se prive pas d’exposer son point <strong>de</strong> vue surl’élargissement et, du coup, sur les modalités d’une relance dans son ensemble. 5648. La Haye à Paris, 23 juillet 1969, MAE, 2724.49. La Haye à Paris, 23 juillet, Bruxelles à Paris, 23 juillet, Rome à Paris, 30 juillet et 16 septembre1969, MAE, 2724.50. Note du 31 juillet 1969 (réponse à un questionnaire allemand), MAE, 2724.51. PV du Conseil du 22 juillet, Archives du Conseil, Bruxelles.52. Note <strong>de</strong> la sous-direction Europe occi<strong>de</strong>ntale, 28 août 1969, MAE, 2724.53. Note <strong>de</strong> Pompidou, sans date, 5AG2, 1006.54. Note pour le prési<strong>de</strong>nt, 1 er août, 5AG2, 1010.55. Bruxelles à Paris, 16 septembre et 11 novembre 1969, MAE, 2724.56. PV du Conseil du 17 octobre, Archives du Conseil, Bruxelles.


92Marie-Thérèse BitschPar ailleurs, peu avant le sommet, la Commission déci<strong>de</strong> d’adresser unai<strong>de</strong>-mémoire aux chefs d’Etat et <strong>de</strong> gouvernement pour exposer sa propre visionsur le triptyque «achèvement, appr<strong>of</strong>ondissement, élargissement» 57 ce qui permet<strong>de</strong> souligner que le débat essentiel ne porte pas sur la procédure mais sur lesobjectifs <strong>de</strong> la relance.III. Des objectifs réalistes:achèvement, (appr<strong>of</strong>ondissement), élargissement?Au cours <strong>de</strong> l’été et <strong>de</strong> l’automne 1969, la France précise son programme d’actionimmédiate. Au-<strong>de</strong>là <strong>de</strong>s déclarations du prési<strong>de</strong>nt Georges Pompidou le 10 juillet et <strong>de</strong>son ministre <strong>de</strong>s Affaires étrangères, le 22 juillet, Paris indique ses intentions àl’occasion <strong>de</strong> nombreuses rencontres bilatérales avec les dirigeants <strong>de</strong>s Cinq,notamment avec les dirigeants allemands (visite <strong>de</strong> Willy Brandt à Paris dès le 4 juillet,quelques jours avant la conférence <strong>de</strong> presse <strong>de</strong> Pompidou; sommet bilatéralfranco-allemand à Bonn, dans le cadre <strong>de</strong>s rencontres régulières prévues par le traité <strong>de</strong>l’Elysée, les 8 et 9 septembre). Surtout, le gouvernement français met au point sastratégie, lors <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>ux conseils restreints tenus, le 21 octobre et le 17 novembre, sous laprési<strong>de</strong>nce <strong>de</strong> Pompidou, avec la participation <strong>de</strong>s proches conseillers du prési<strong>de</strong>nt et<strong>de</strong>s principaux ministres concernés: Jacques Chaban-Delmas accompagné <strong>de</strong>Jean-René Bernard, secrétaire général du SGCI, Maurice Schumann (Affairesétrangères), Valéry Giscard d’Estaing (Economie et Finances), Jacques Duhamel(Agriculture), François-Xavier Ortoli (Développement industriel et recherchescientifique). 58La tonalité générale du programme est donnée par Georges Pompidou. Selonlui, «l’image <strong>de</strong> marque <strong>de</strong> la France, dans les années à venir, doit être celle d’unpays réaliste et qui ne se paie pas <strong>de</strong> mots. Cela signifie que nous ne <strong>de</strong>vonsproposer et accepter que ce qui peut être réalisé rapi<strong>de</strong>ment». 59 Il convient <strong>de</strong> ne«pas donner l’impression que l’absence <strong>de</strong> veto contre l’Angleterre est <strong>de</strong> pureforme et que la France veut soulever d’énormes obstacles en se frottant lesmains». 60 De son coté, le premier ministre, Jacques Chaban-Delmas, insiste pourque la France fasse <strong>de</strong>s propositions «dynamiques», «communautaires»,«concrètes», comme elle l’a fait par le passé. 6157. Archives <strong>de</strong> la Commission, Bac 79/1982, 221. Sur les positions <strong>de</strong> la Commission, voir l’articlecité en note 2 ainsi que l’article <strong>de</strong> N. P. LUDLOW, dans le présent volume.58. Ce <strong>de</strong>rnier est absent le 17 novembre.59. PV conseil restreint du 17 novembre 1969, 5AG2, 53.60. Ibid.61. Ibid.


Le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye 93AchèvementL’achèvement est pour Paris une priorité et un préalable. Achever le Marchécommun signifie achever le marché commun agricole et donc adopter avant la fin<strong>de</strong> la phase transitoire, c’est-à-dire avant la fin <strong>de</strong> l’année 1969, un règlementfinancier pour la pério<strong>de</strong> définitive, fondé sur <strong>de</strong>s ressources propres. Il s’agit <strong>de</strong>faire en sorte que la politique agricole commune, considérée comme vitale, soitirréversible. Du point <strong>de</strong> vue du gouvernement français, cette décision n’exigeaitpas un sommet. C’est une obligation inscrite dans le traité. C’est un «test <strong>de</strong>l’Europe voulue et vécue» 62 qui s’impose avant l’élargissement. C’est «unecondition préalable à l’ouverture <strong>de</strong>s négociations» avec l’Angleterre. 63 Sur cepoint, Paris ne veut accepter aucune concession. Pompidou donne lui-même laconsigne: il faut éviter <strong>de</strong> se mettre en position <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong>ur mais laisser entendreque nous sommes absolument <strong>de</strong> roc sur la question <strong>de</strong> l’achèvement «dût-on allerà l’échec <strong>de</strong> la conférence au sommet». 64Dans un premier temps, cet objectif semble inaccessible tant la réticence <strong>de</strong>spartenaires est gran<strong>de</strong> et le délai très court. 65 Mais à partir d’octobre, le principe durèglement financier, qui paraissait d’abord hors <strong>de</strong> portée, est accepté par tous, 66sans mettre fin pour autant aux discussions concernant les modalités et lescontreparties. Joseph Luns, <strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> mener parallèlement les travaux surl’achèvement et les étu<strong>de</strong>s sur l’élargissement. 67 L’Italie souhaite l’organisation <strong>de</strong>smarchés pour les vins, les tabacs, les fruits. 68 L’Allemagne, tout en soulignantqu’elle n’a pas d’objections au règlement financier, pose la question <strong>de</strong> la maîtrise<strong>de</strong>s productions agricoles. 69 Willy Brandt se défend <strong>de</strong> vouloir reprendre à soncompte les critiques apparues dans la presse alleman<strong>de</strong> contre la PAC trop coûteusemais il estime qu’il faut éviter les surproductions déraisonnables et se gar<strong>de</strong>r lapossibilité d’importer <strong>de</strong>s produits agricoles d’Amérique latine, d’Asie,d’Afrique. 70 La <strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong> alleman<strong>de</strong> en faveur <strong>de</strong> la maîtrise <strong>de</strong> certainesproductions, constamment renouvelée, tend même à se durcir à la veille du sommet- d’autant plus que la RFA est contrainte, fin novembre, à une réévaluation du<strong>de</strong>utschemark qui désorganise le marché agricole 71 - et le chancelier Willy Brandtrevient encore sur cette question dans une lettre adressée au prési<strong>de</strong>nt Pompidou, le27 novembre. 7262. Entretien entre Maurice Schumann et Aldo Moro, 26 novembre 1969, MAE, 40.63. Bruxelles à Paris, 11 novembre 1969, MAE, 2724.64. PV du conseil restreint du 21 octobre 1969, 5AG2, 52.65. Voir par exemple, Bonn à Paris, 11 septembre 1969, MAE, 2724.66. Voir document cité en note 64.67. Entretien entre Chaban-Delmas et Luns, 17 juillet 1969, MAE, 37.68. Voir document cité en note 62.69. Bonn (note pour l’ambassa<strong>de</strong>ur), 3 juillet 1969, 5AG2, 104.70. PV <strong>de</strong>s entretiens <strong>de</strong> Willy Brandt avec les dirigeants français, Paris, 4 juillet 1969, 5AG2, 104.71. Bonn à Paris 22 novembre et 29 novembre 1969, MAE, 2724.72. Brandt à Pompidou, 27 novembre 1969, 5AG2, 1009.


94Marie-Thérèse BitschSi la France se dit d’accord pour modérer les prix et éviter les surproductions,mais sans fixer <strong>de</strong>s plafonnements, elle estime que «la mise au point du règlementfinancier est indépendante <strong>de</strong> la solution du problème <strong>de</strong>s excé<strong>de</strong>nts». 73 Elle ad’ailleurs beau jeu <strong>de</strong> rappeler que ce n’est pas elle qui a poussé à <strong>de</strong>s prix aussiélevés 74 et Pompidou laisse entendre qu’une politique agricole plus libérale auraitété plus bénéfique pour la France. 75 Le débat porte aussi sur la nature <strong>de</strong>sressources propres. L’Italie insiste pour un partage équitable <strong>de</strong>s charges. LesPays-Bas et la Belgique hésitent à y intégrer les droits <strong>de</strong> douane alors que laFrance se montre satisfaite <strong>de</strong>s propositions <strong>de</strong> la Commission. Le Quai d’Orsay vajusqu’à déclarer:«Nous sommes d’accord avec la Commission pour créer <strong>de</strong>s ressources propres etaffecter à la Communauté, outre les prélèvements agricoles, les droits <strong>de</strong> douane.Quand <strong>de</strong>s progrès auront été réalisés en matière d’harmonisation fiscale – et lesrécentes décisions <strong>de</strong>s gouvernements belge et italien <strong>de</strong> retar<strong>de</strong>r l’application <strong>de</strong> laTVA ne les favoriseront pas – nous pourrons examiner si d’autres ressources propres,d’origine fiscale, doivent être décidées». 76Enfin, se pose la question <strong>de</strong> savoir dans quelle mesure le règlement financier«définitif» sera révisable après l’élargissement <strong>de</strong> la Communauté. Si la Francerécuse l’idée d’un règlement «provisoire», elle accepte qu’il pourra faire l’objetd’adaptations qui <strong>de</strong>vront être décidées à l’unanimité et ne pas remettre en causeles principes essentiels <strong>de</strong> la PAC. 77Les discussions budgétaires ne manquent pas <strong>de</strong> soulever aussi <strong>de</strong>s questionssur l’évolution <strong>de</strong>s institutions, le rôle budgétaire du Parlement européen et sonélection au suffrage universel direct. L’Italie, en particulier, voudrait faire durenforcement du Parlement un préalable à l’adoption du règlement financier. 78Certains ministres français (Schumann et Duhamel) comprennent la nécessitéd’aménagements limités, au moins après 1974, lorsque les ressources propresauront remplacé les contributions nationales, mais Pompidou souhaite préserverl’équilibre <strong>de</strong>s pouvoirs et ne pas se laisser entraîner dans <strong>de</strong>s discussions sur lesinstitutions. 79 Il lance, par contre, l’idée qu’une Cour <strong>de</strong>s Comptes <strong>de</strong>vrait contrôlerle budget <strong>de</strong> la Communauté mais sans en faire une exigence dans l’immédiat. 8073. Télégramme adressé aux ambassa<strong>de</strong>s auprès <strong>de</strong>s gouvernements <strong>de</strong>s Cinq, 25 novembre 1969,MAE, 2724.74. PV <strong>de</strong> l’entretien Pompidou-Brandt, 4 juillet 1969, 5AG2, 104 (allusion aux négociations <strong>de</strong> 1964où le chancelier Ludwig Erhard a <strong>de</strong>mandé <strong>de</strong>s prix plus élevés que ceux proposés initialement parla Commission).75. PV <strong>de</strong>s entretiens au sommet franco-allemand <strong>de</strong> Bonn, 8-9 septembre 1969, 5AG2, 104 et PV duconseil restreint du 21 octobre 1969, 5AG2, 52.76. Voir document cité en note 73.77. Ibid.78. Document cité en note 59.79. Document cité en note 64.80. Document cité en note 59.


Le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye 95Appr<strong>of</strong>ondissement/élargissementSi l’achèvement est la première exigence du prési<strong>de</strong>nt Pompidou, la question <strong>de</strong>l’élargissement est <strong>de</strong> toute évi<strong>de</strong>nce la priorité <strong>de</strong>s Cinq, alors qu’elle n’est citéequ’en troisième position, après l’achèvement et, aussi, après l’appr<strong>of</strong>ondissement,dans le triptyque français. Cependant, il apparaît très vite, pour la France commepour ses partenaires, que les <strong>de</strong>ux <strong>de</strong>rniers volets doivent être liés.C’est Willy Brandt qui, le premier, exprime très nettement sa détermination àmener <strong>de</strong> front les progrès dans ces <strong>de</strong>ux domaines. Le 22 juillet, à Bruxelles, auConseil Affaires générales, il intervient, immédiatement après Maurice Schumannqui vient <strong>de</strong> présenter la proposition du gouvernement français, pour soulignerqu’il y a une interdépendance entre le renforcement et l’élargissement <strong>de</strong> laCommunauté, qu’à défaut <strong>de</strong> lien juridique il existe une relation politique et qu’ilconvient donc d’obtenir <strong>de</strong>s progrès parallèles dans ces <strong>de</strong>ux domaines. 81 Cettethèse du lien politique entre les <strong>de</strong>ux objectifs à poursuivre simultanément est, parla suite, constamment appuyée et développée par les ministres <strong>de</strong>s Affairesétrangères, par la Commission et par Pompidou lui-même qui ne fait pas <strong>de</strong>l’appr<strong>of</strong>ondissement un préalable à l’élargissement. 82 C’est le mot d’ordre qu’ildonne à ses collaborateurs lors du conseil restreint du 21 octobre où il déclare qu’iln’est pas raisonnable <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong>r que l’ouverture <strong>de</strong>s négociations soitsubordonnée à l’appr<strong>of</strong>ondissement et qu’il faut accepter le parallélisme entreappr<strong>of</strong>ondissement et élargissement. 83Dans la pratique, l’appr<strong>of</strong>ondissement passe à l’arrière plan. Il estsymptomatique que le triptyque allemand présenté à la presse le 2 juillet«achèvement, élargissement, Europe politique» 84 ne retienne pas cette expression.Les dirigeants et les diplomates français doivent se rendre à l’évi<strong>de</strong>nce: leurspartenaires ont peu d’intérêt pour l’appr<strong>of</strong>ondissement. 85 A Paris, on envisage uncertain nombre <strong>de</strong> coopérations souhaitables dans les domaines comme la monnaie,la technologie, les transports, l’énergie, le pétrole, etc. 86 Mais seul le dossiermonétaire est évoqué assez longuement dans l’un <strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>ux conseils restreints, le 17novembre, par Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, sans d’ailleurs qu’une position françaiseunanime parvienne à se dégager. 87 Cette question monétaire n’est pas non plus81. PV du Conseil du 22 juillet 1969, Archives du Conseil, Bruxelles.82. Formule reprise par Maurice Schumann. Voir PV <strong>de</strong> l’entretien entre le ministre français <strong>de</strong>sAffaires étrangères et Sigismund von Braun, ambassa<strong>de</strong>ur <strong>de</strong> la RFA à Paris, 16 octobre 1969,5AG2, 104.83. Document cité en note 64.84. Note <strong>de</strong> l’Ambassa<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> France à Bonn, 3 juillet 1969, 5AG2, 104.85. Document cité en note 64.86. Il y a aussi <strong>de</strong>s projets plus ponctuels. Par exemple, Pompidou parle <strong>de</strong> la société <strong>de</strong> droit européendont la réalisation représenterait un grand progrès pour le développement <strong>de</strong> l’Europe. PV <strong>de</strong>l’entretien entre Georges Pompidou et le prési<strong>de</strong>nt Gustav Heinemann, lors du sommetfranco-allemand <strong>de</strong> Bonn, 8 septembre 1969, 5AG2, 104.87. Document cité en note 59.


96Marie-Thérèse Bitschcreusée, avant le sommet, entre les Six et c’est très tardivement que Willy Brandtpropose la création d’un Fonds <strong>de</strong> réserve. 88Sur le terrain <strong>de</strong> l’appr<strong>of</strong>ondissement, la question la plus discutée – avec lepartenaire allemand et à sa <strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong> – est celle <strong>de</strong> l’Europe politique. C’est lechancelier Kurt-Georg Kiesinger, beaucoup plus que Willy Brandt, qui y attachealors une gran<strong>de</strong> importance. Il abor<strong>de</strong> le problème lors du sommet bilatéral, àBonn, avec le premier ministre, Jacques Chaban-Delmas, et surtout avec leprési<strong>de</strong>nt Pompidou, dans les <strong>de</strong>ux entretiens du 8 et du 9 septembre. Le chancelier<strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong> avec insistance le renforcement <strong>de</strong> la coopération politique indispensablepour assurer la sécurité <strong>de</strong> l’Europe si les Etats-Unis venaient un jour à retirer leurstroupes du vieux continent. Il voudrait au moins poser <strong>de</strong>s jalons et, en évitant cequi rappelle le plan Fouchet, <strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong>r au comité <strong>de</strong>s directeurs politiques <strong>de</strong>commencer à réfléchir à la question. Mais Pompidou ne se montre guèreenthousiaste. S’il reconnaît la nécessité <strong>de</strong> «faire naître une conscience politiqueeuropéenne», il déclare que la priorité, dans l’immédiat, c’est la phase définitive duMarché commun, qu’il n’est pas possible d’aller à l’union politique sans baseéconomique soli<strong>de</strong> et qu’il a «l’impression que c’est par l’Europe économique quel’on débouchera forcément sur l’Europe politique». 89 Quant à Willy Brandt, assezréservé sur ce projet à ce moment-là, il le reprendra à son compte une fois <strong>de</strong>venuchancelier.Pour la France, la <strong>de</strong>uxième priorité après l’achèvement – et avantl’appr<strong>of</strong>ondissement – est donc bien l’élargissement <strong>de</strong> la Communauté àl’Angleterre et aux autres candidats. Mais cet élargissement ne doit pas provoquerun affaiblissement <strong>de</strong> la Communauté. L’Angleterre doit accepter l’acquiscommunautaire. Elle <strong>de</strong>vra dire «si elle peut adhérer sans tout briser». 90 La Franceveut <strong>de</strong>s garanties: l’élargissement doit être subordonné à <strong>de</strong>ux conditions. Ellen’exige pas seulement l’adoption par les Six d’un règlement financier définitifavant fin 1969, elle veut aussi une entente préalable, à Six, sur les conditionsd’admission qui doivent donc être définies avant l’ouverture <strong>de</strong> toute négociationavec l’Angleterre. Le dossier est donc délicat à gérer.Les dirigeants français (Pompidou lui-même, Schumann, Chaban-Delmas)doivent convaincre leurs partenaires <strong>de</strong> la sincérité <strong>de</strong> leur volonté d’ouverture, cequi est d’autant plus difficile que le projet <strong>de</strong> sommet est souvent perçu comme uneprocédure dilatoire, chez les Cinq et en Angleterre. 91 Ils doivent répéterinlassablement que la France ne met plus <strong>de</strong> veto, qu’elle veut éliminer l’irritationnée du problème anglais, qu’elle ne veut pas pratiquer la fuite en avant, qu’elle est<strong>de</strong> bonne foi, qu’elle accepte <strong>de</strong> faire <strong>de</strong> l’élargissement un sujet <strong>de</strong> discussion aufutur sommet. Au chancelier Kiesinger qui lui <strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong> si la question pourra être88. Lettre <strong>de</strong> Willy Brandt à Georges Pompidou, 27 novembre 1969, 5AG2, 1009.89. PV <strong>de</strong>s entretiens, 5AG2, 104.90. Ibid. Entretien du 9 septembre entre Pompidou et le chancelier Kiesinger.91. Londres à Paris, 23 juillet 1969, MAE, 2724.


Le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye 97abordée à La Haye, Pompidou répond: «si je disais qu’il ne faut pas en parler, je nevois pas comment on pourrait réunir les Six». 92Mais les partenaires <strong>de</strong> la France qui ne rejettent pas l’idée d’une préentente àSix sur les conditions d’adhésion - le principe en est accepté par Willy Brandt dèsle 4 juillet - mènent une <strong>of</strong>fensive afin d’arracher à la France une date, la plusrapprochée possible, pour l’ouverture <strong>de</strong>s négociations avec l’Angleterre. Cettequestion du calendrier est au centre <strong>de</strong> la discussion entre les six ministres <strong>de</strong>sAffaires étrangères, lors <strong>de</strong> la réunion du 15 septembre qui doit déci<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong> la tenueeffective du sommet. Les Cinq voudraient au moins la promesse qu’une date serafixée par la conférence <strong>de</strong> La Haye et le prési<strong>de</strong>nt en exercice, Joseph Luns, semontre très incisif. 93 Quant à l’Italie, elle n’hésite pas à brandir la menace <strong>de</strong>boycotter le sommet si aucun engagement n’est pris à ce sujet. 94 Mais sur ce pointaussi les Français restent très fermes. Ils affirment qu’ils n’ont pas l’intention <strong>de</strong>faire traîner mais qu’ils ne veulent pas être prisonniers d’une échéance. Ilspréten<strong>de</strong>nt que la fixation d’une date pour l’ouverture <strong>de</strong>s négociations est un fauxproblème, la vraie question étant <strong>de</strong> savoir à quel moment les Six seront prêts ànégocier, ce qui suppose un accord sur les préalables, c’est-à-dire l’adoption durèglement financier définitif et l’entente entre les Six sur les conditionsd’admission. 95 La position française consiste à dire que, si la volonté d’aboutirexiste, les travaux préparatoires seront relativement rapi<strong>de</strong>s et l’ouverture <strong>de</strong>snégociations assez rapprochée. Fin novembre les Cinq renoncent à une date précisemoyennant un accord sur une «déclaration interprétative» qui laisse entrevoir <strong>de</strong>snégociations à l’issue du premier semestre 1970. Le communiqué final du sommet<strong>de</strong> La Haye ne fixe pas <strong>de</strong> date. Mais le premier ministre néerlandais, Piet <strong>de</strong> Jong,qui a présidé la conférence, est autorisé à faire une déclaration orale pour dire queles six délégations estiment que les travaux préparatoires seront réglés au cours dupremier semestre <strong>de</strong> l’année 1970 et que les négociations avec les candidatss’ouvriront aussitôt après. 96Un autre élément, encourageant pour tous dans la préparation <strong>de</strong>l’élargissement, vient du rôle joué par la Commission. Son avis sur la <strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong>d’adhésion <strong>de</strong> l’Angleterre, remis au Conseil et aux gouvernements à lami-octobre, est bien accueilli à Paris. Bien qu’il soit perçu comme plus favorable àla cause britannique que l’avis <strong>de</strong> 1967, il est considéré comme une baseindispensable et bien documentée sur les problèmes posés aux Communautés parl’élargissement. Les Français savent gré à la Commission <strong>de</strong> reconnaître quel’élargissement pourrait présenter <strong>de</strong>s risques d’affaiblissement et <strong>de</strong> recomman<strong>de</strong>rla vigilance afin <strong>de</strong> faire accepter, pour l’essentiel, la Communauté telle qu’elleexiste. 97 De plus, Paris est d’accord pour que la Communauté s’exprime d’une92. Document cité en note 90.93. Bruxelles à Paris, 16 septembre 1969, MAE, 2724.94. Paris à Bruxelles, 11 septembre 1969, MAE, 2724.95. Document cité en note 73.96. Rapport du gouvernement néerlandais, Cahiers <strong>de</strong> la documentation européenne, pp.46-50.97. Note sur l’avis <strong>de</strong> la Commission, relatif à l’élargissement, 5AG2, 52.


98Marie-Thérèse Bitschseule voix pendant la négociation et envisage par conséquent que soit adopté unmandat comparable à celui qui avait été décidé pour le Kennedy Round où JeanRey, commissaire chargé <strong>de</strong>s relations commerciales extérieures, a négocié au nom<strong>de</strong> la Communauté sur la base d’un mandat donné par le Conseil.En conclusionA la veille <strong>de</strong> la conférence entre les chefs d’Etat et <strong>de</strong> gouvernement, plusieurspoints d’accord entre les Six sont donc déjà acquis, même si le succès <strong>de</strong> larencontre n’est pas garanti d’avance. Mais le terrain semble déblayé après leConseil Affaires générales du 11 novembre. 98 Le gouvernement italien, le plusintransigeant dans la <strong>de</strong>rnière ligne droite, renonce lui-aussi à certainesrevendications, sur les questions budgétaires et institutionnelles, après la rencontreentre Maurice Schumann et Aldo Moro, à Rome, fin novembre. 99 La conviction queles Six sont «condamnés à réussir» 100 a incité les gouvernements, y compris lesdirigeants français, à faire preuve d’une relative souplesse. Ainsi, Paris a renoncé –en tout cas <strong>of</strong>ficiellement et pour le moment – à faire du sommet <strong>de</strong> la Haye lapremière étape vers une institutionnalisation <strong>de</strong> ces conférences qui pouvaitrenforcer la coopération intergouvernementale au détriment <strong>de</strong>s institutionscommunautaires. Le prési<strong>de</strong>nt Pompidou a aussi accepté la perspective d’uneouverture <strong>de</strong>s négociations avec l’Angleterre, à relativement brève échéance, mêmes’il continue <strong>de</strong> refuser catégoriquement une date-butoir précise clairementannoncée. Il a évité également <strong>de</strong> multiplier les préalables, pour s’en tenir aux <strong>de</strong>uxexigences essentielles, considérées comme vitales et absolument incontournables.Il n’a pas cherché à multiplier les coopérations économiques qui pouvaient alourdirl’acquis communautaire à la veille <strong>de</strong>s négociations avec l’Angleterre et fairedouter <strong>de</strong> sa bonne foi et <strong>de</strong> sa bonne volonté sur le dossier <strong>de</strong> l’élargissement.Moyennant ces quelques concessions, la France parvient à faire <strong>de</strong> laconférence <strong>de</strong> La Haye un réel succès pour sa politique, même si elle se gar<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>tout triomphalisme. 101 La tenue effective d’un sommet, dont elle a pris l’initiative,est en elle-même une gran<strong>de</strong> satisfaction et illustre l’influence que la France peutencore exercer sur le développement <strong>de</strong> la Communauté pour peu qu’elle ne laparalyse pas complètement. En l’occurrence, le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye, qui permet lareprise <strong>de</strong>s activités <strong>de</strong>s Six, <strong>de</strong>vient le point <strong>de</strong> départ et le symbole d’une relancecertes indispensable en raison du blocage français mais rendue possible grâce à98. Bruxelles (Boegner) à Paris, 11 novembre 1969, MAE, 2724.99. Rome à Paris, 27 novembre 1969, MAE, 2724.100. Selon la déclaration <strong>de</strong> Pompidou à Carlo Schmid, le coordinateur <strong>de</strong>s relations franco-alleman<strong>de</strong>s,nommé par Willy Brandt après son arrivée à la chancellerie et venu rencontrer le prési<strong>de</strong>nt français.Voir le PV <strong>de</strong> l’entretien, 7 novembre 1969, 5AG2, 104.101. Télégramme-circulaire du ministère <strong>de</strong>s Affaires étrangères à tous les postes diplomatiques, 3décembre 1969, MAE, 2724.


Le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye 99l’impulsion <strong>de</strong> Pompidou qui en détermine aussi les modalités. Sur la base d’unprogramme d’action qu’il voulait réaliste, il oriente la Communauté dans unedirection qui lui paraît conforme aux intérêts <strong>de</strong> la France. Il obtient <strong>de</strong>s garantiespour la politique agricole commune qui lui tient à cœur mais, en même temps, lepassage à la phase définitive rend la Communauté juridiquement irréversible etl’adoption <strong>de</strong>s ressources propres lui confère une certaine autonomie par rapportaux Etats membres. Il accepte l’élargissement à certaines conditions – ententepréalable à Six et maintien <strong>de</strong> l’essentiel <strong>de</strong> l’acquis communautaire – qui endéfinitive ne freinent pas tellement les négociations avec l’Angleterre. Sans faire leforcing en faveur <strong>de</strong> l’appr<strong>of</strong>ondissement, le sommet pose <strong>de</strong>s jalons vers lacoopération monétaire rendue nécessaire par l’instabilité internationale et vers lacoopération politique, vieux rêve <strong>de</strong> beaucoup d’Européens, notamment <strong>de</strong>sgaullistes. Il annonce, enfin, une évolution institutionnelle en douceur. Alors quel’élection du Parlement européen au suffrage universel direct n’est pas encore mis àl’ordre du jour, que la Commission est autorisée à jouer un rôle tout en<strong>de</strong>mi-teintes, cette première réunion <strong>de</strong>s chefs d’Etat et <strong>de</strong> gouvernement vraimentefficace plai<strong>de</strong> en faveur <strong>de</strong>s sommets, acceptés par la suite avec <strong>de</strong>s réserves <strong>de</strong>moins en moins fortes, jusqu’à leur institutionnalisation en décembre 1974.Au total, le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye permet à la France <strong>de</strong> désembourber lapolitique européenne, <strong>de</strong> restaurer au moins partiellement la confiance entre lesSix, <strong>de</strong> redresser son image <strong>de</strong> marque à l’intérieur <strong>de</strong> la Communauté et chez lescandidats, y compris auprès <strong>de</strong> la société civile qui, dans les <strong>de</strong>rniers jours avant larencontre, s’est assez largement mobilisée en faveur <strong>de</strong> la relance européenne,comme le montrent <strong>de</strong> nombreuses lettres, déclarations et autres mémorandumsadressées aux différentes institutions européennes. 102102. Voir article cité en note 2.


Isol<strong>de</strong> Burr und Pr<strong>of</strong>. Dr. Gertrud Gréciano (Hrsg.)Europa: Sprache und Recht •La construction européenne:aspects linguistiques et juridiquesAufbauend auf <strong>de</strong>r Erkenntnis und Erfahrung, dass die Mehrsprachigkeit <strong>de</strong>sRechts <strong>de</strong>r Europäischen Gemeinschaft einen prägen<strong>de</strong>n Bestandteil <strong>de</strong>r sichausbil<strong>de</strong>n<strong>de</strong>n Rechtskultur bil<strong>de</strong>t, stellen sich spezifische Fragestellungen kontrastiverTextproduktion und Textrezeption im Kontext von Sprachenrecht undRechtssprache. Der Sammelband vereint die <strong>de</strong>utschen und französischen Beiträge,die LinguistInnen und JuristInnen von Universität und EU-Institutionen anlässlicheines internationalen Kolloquiums zum Ausklang <strong>de</strong>s Jahres <strong>de</strong>rMehrsprachigkeit in Saverne/Elsaß, Dezember 2001 gehalten haben. Sprach-,Kommunikations-, Kultur- und Übersetzungswissenschaft wer<strong>de</strong>n als Instrumentverstan<strong>de</strong>n für die bestmögliche Entwicklung und Verwirklichung <strong>de</strong>rEuropai<strong>de</strong>e im Einverständnis mit <strong>de</strong>m Europabürger. Schlüsselthemen sind hierdas Gemeinschafts-, Völker-, Grund-, Menschen-, Min<strong>de</strong>rheiten-, VerfassungsundVerwaltungsrecht. Fallbeispiele aus <strong>de</strong>n EuGH-Urteilen, EU-Verträgen,EU/EG-Konventionen, -Richtlinien und -Debatten <strong>de</strong>monstrieren sowohl die Gefahrenquelle<strong>de</strong>s Missverständnisses beim Sprachenvergleich in Rechtstexten,weisen aber ebenso auf eine Weiterführung von Auslegungsmetho<strong>de</strong>n imRahmen einer Entwicklung <strong>de</strong>r Rechtsprechung.2003, 237 S., geb., 54,– €, ISBN 3-8329-0340-2(Schriften <strong>de</strong>s Zentrum für Europäische Integrationsforschung (ZEI), Bd. 52)Nomos


101Italy and the Hague Conference <strong>of</strong> December 1969Maria Eleonora GuasconiIn spite <strong>of</strong> an i<strong>de</strong>alistic reference to Europeanism, the Italian position in post-warEuropean <strong>integration</strong> may be stereotyped as the somewhat passive witness <strong>of</strong>initiatives taken by other countries. 1 Apart from such renowned names as Alci<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>Gasperi, Altiero Spinelli, Emilio Colombo, Ugo La Malfa and Aldo Moro, Italianparticipation has been characterised by long <strong>de</strong>lays in implementing EC regulationsin national law and the lack <strong>of</strong> interest shown towards the Brussels institutions bypolitical lea<strong>de</strong>rs, as is illustrated best by Franco Maria Malfatti's <strong>de</strong>cision to resignfrom the presi<strong>de</strong>ncy <strong>of</strong> the Commission, in or<strong>de</strong>r to take part in the domesticpolitical elections held in 1972. 2This stereotype persisted also among the other European countries, where Italy,due to its instability, was seen as the weak link <strong>of</strong> the Western chain. 3 «The Italiansin Brussels generally are not good at chairing meetings; and at ministerial levelthere is a continual risk <strong>of</strong> changes», wrote John Robinson, sir Con O'Neill'sassistant, in a minute, which explained the reasons why Great Britain should endthe enlargement negotiations before July 1971, when Italy assumed the presi<strong>de</strong>ncy<strong>of</strong> the Council <strong>of</strong> ministers. 4The negative image <strong>of</strong> Italy as a ‘weak negotiator’, unable to <strong>de</strong>fend its nationalinterests, was exemplified by the country's inability to pursue its interest in the field<strong>of</strong> the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), where Italian political lea<strong>de</strong>rs agreed toset up a mechanism which was disadvantageous to their agriculture; 5 by the1. The author would like to thank Carlo Scarascia Mugnozza for his help and advice during the research,Alan S. Milward, Piers Ludlow and Jan van <strong>de</strong>r Harst for sending some interesting documentsrelated to the Hague Conference, Jean Marie Palayret and Andrea Becherucci for their kindco-operation at the Historical Archives <strong>of</strong> the European Communities (HAEC) in Florence and AnnabelleLeach for English corrections.2. See: M. NERI GUALDESI, L'Italia e il processo di integrazione europea, and A. VARSORI,L'europeismo nella politica estera italiana, in: L. TOSI (ed.), L'Italia e le organizzazioni internazionali,CEDAM, Padova, 1999, pp.341-389 and 391-415; A. VARSORI, L'Italia nelle relazioniinternazionali dal 1943 al 1992, Laterza, Roma-Bari, 1998; I<strong>de</strong>m. (ed.), L'Italia e il processo diintegrazione europea: prospettive di ricerca e revisione storiografica, in: Storia <strong>de</strong>lle RelazioniInternazionali, XIII(1998), XIV(1999); I<strong>de</strong>m., La questione europea nella politica italiana, in:Studi Storici, IV(2002), pp.955-971.3. A. VARSORI, L'allargamento <strong>de</strong>lla Cee, in E. DI NOLFO (ed.), La politica estera italiana neglianni Ottanta, Piero Lacaita Editore, Manduria, 2003, p.189.4. The document is quoted by C. O'NEILL, Britain's Entry into the European Community. Report bySir Con O'Neill, Whitehall History Publishing, London, 2000, pp.373-378.5. In 1962, when the <strong>de</strong>cisions related to the European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund(EAGGF) were taken, Italy exported its agricultural products, two years later it imported the sameproducts, especially those which were coming from non-EC countries. On this question see: R.GALLI and S. TORCASIO, La partecipazione italiana alla politica agricola comunitaria, IlMulino, Bologna 1976, and G. LASCHI, L'agricoltura italiana e l'integrazione europea, PeterLang, Brussels 1999.


102Maria Eleonora Guasconibackwardness and ina<strong>de</strong>quacy <strong>of</strong> its bureaucratic administration; and by thecountry's domestic political instability, which seriously affected its capability to<strong>de</strong>velop a long-term policy towards the Community. An interesting documentdrawn up in 1970 for the presi<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>of</strong> the Commission, Franco Maria Malfatti,stated that the gap existing between Italy’s European stance and the difficulty <strong>of</strong>applying the rules and regulations <strong>of</strong> European institutions in everyday life was atypical Italian characteristic. The real difficulty lay in Italy’s bureaucracy, whichwas highly disrespectful <strong>of</strong> the European Community and in the obstacles posed bythe administrative establishment towards any change <strong>of</strong> administrative procedure. 6In spite <strong>of</strong> this stereotype, we argue here that, although not comparable toFrance and Germany, Italy did not play a secondary role in the <strong>integration</strong> process.The EC represented a useful tool, through which the country could pursue nationalgoals, such as <strong>de</strong>veloping a mo<strong>de</strong>rn industry, providing new employmentopportunities for migrants, creating a large market for low-cost exports, expandingcapital investments in the un<strong>de</strong>r<strong>de</strong>veloped Mezzogiorno and, from the Seventies on,realising a monetary and fiscal check on a political system which was clearlytending towards <strong>de</strong>ficit and inflation. 7The policies pursued by Italy during and after the Hague conference <strong>of</strong> 1-2December 1969 are an interesting example <strong>of</strong> its Europeanism, which puts in aright perspective its presumed ‘anomaly’, illustrating the political interestsun<strong>de</strong>rlying its initiatives. This paper aims at answering the question <strong>of</strong> whether theimage <strong>of</strong> a ‘weak negotiator’ can also be applied to the policy pursued by Italyduring and after the Hague conference <strong>of</strong> 1969. The documents <strong>de</strong>monstrate howthe Italian government, <strong>de</strong>spite serious domestic instability and the emerging threat<strong>of</strong> terrorism, tried to find a space among its European partners, in particular Franceand Germany, by supporting Great Britain's admission in the EC, promoting acommon policy on the question <strong>of</strong> employment and re-launching the project forEuropean political co-operation. These goals were inten<strong>de</strong>d as countermeasures,meant to s<strong>of</strong>ten the negative consequences <strong>of</strong> the completion <strong>of</strong> the CAP and theintroduction <strong>of</strong> the Value Ad<strong>de</strong>d Tax (VAT) for the Italian economy. 8Italy and Pompidou's tripletAt the end <strong>of</strong> the Sixties, the political instability, represented by the fall <strong>of</strong> threeconsecutive governments led by the Christian Democrat Mariano Rumor, from6. See HAEC, Emile Noël Papers (EN), Fol<strong>de</strong>r 1509, Unione monetaria, Note worked out for the visit<strong>of</strong> Malfatti in Italy, November 13-14 th 1970.7. Fe<strong>de</strong>rico Romero has stressed that Italian participation to the EEC had influenced the nation-buildingprocess. See F. ROMERO, L'Europa come strumento di nation-building: storia e storici<strong>de</strong>ll'Italia repubblicana, in: Passato e Presente, XIII, 36(1995), pp.19-32; I<strong>de</strong>m., Emigrazione eintegrazione europea 1945-1973, Edizioni Lavoro, Roma, 1991.8. See A. VARSORI, La questione europea nella politica italiana, op.cit., pp.957-961.


Italy and the Hague Conference <strong>of</strong> December 1969 103December 1968 to July 1970, 9 the strong opposition from the left-wing parties aswell as the troubled economic and social situation strongly affected Italianparticipation in the EC. Italian political instability caused serious worries amongother European governments, which feared the unstoppable rise <strong>of</strong> the CommunistParty, whose presence in the government could no longer be exclu<strong>de</strong>d. 10 From aneconomic point <strong>of</strong> view, if until 1969 Italy was the European country with thelowest inflation, the 'hot autumn' 11 and the strengthening <strong>of</strong> the tra<strong>de</strong> unions'political leverage, marked the end <strong>of</strong> the Italian economic miracle and thebeginning <strong>of</strong> the industrial salaries increase <strong>of</strong> 18,3% in 1970, 9,8% in 1971, 9% in1972, with serious consequences for inflation. 12 The violent uprisings after 1969,which took place in various towns <strong>of</strong> the South, such as Avola, Battipaglia and,more important, Reggio Calabria, where the <strong>de</strong>cision to move the regionaladministrative centre to Catanzaro was followed by an impressive series <strong>of</strong> socialprotests, the Piazza Fontana tragedy <strong>of</strong> December 1969, which paved the way to aserious terrorist threat, during the so-called anni di piombo - all these events forcedthe government to give priority to domestic problems, leaving only a ‘low pr<strong>of</strong>ile’approach for foreign policy affairs.Despite the priority given to the domestic situation, Italy did not wait long inreacting to the French-inspired triplet ‘completion, <strong>de</strong>epening and enlargement’, 13outlining a clear-cut policy, un<strong>de</strong>r the guidance <strong>of</strong> its Foreign minister, Aldo Moro,who, since August 1969, was in charge <strong>of</strong> the Ministero <strong>de</strong>gli Esteri. Althoughlukeworm Italy supported the European re-launch, consi<strong>de</strong>ring the three goals <strong>of</strong>the triplet, as strictly linked together. 14From a diplomatic viewpoint, the European relaunch represented an occasion toexploit for Italy. Since the Czech crisis <strong>of</strong> 1968, most Italian diplomats, as for examplethe ambassador in Bonn, Mario Luciolli, called for a relaunch <strong>of</strong> the process <strong>of</strong>9. Rumor I Government: December 12 th 1968 - July 5 th 1969; Rumor II Government August 5 th 1969- February 17 th 1970; Rumor III Government March 27 th 1970 - July 6 th 1970. On the difficultItalian domestic situation see: P. IGNAZI, I partiti e la politica dal 1963 al 1992, in: G.SABBATUCCI and V. VIDOTTO (eds.), Storia d'Italia. L'Italia contemporanea, Laterza,Roma-Bari, 1999, pp.101-232; N. TRANFAGLIA, La mo<strong>de</strong>rnità squilibrata. Dalla crisi <strong>de</strong>lcentrismo al «compromesso storico», in: F. BARBAGALLO (ed.), Storia <strong>de</strong>ll'Italia repubblicana.La trasformazione <strong>de</strong>ll'Italia: sviluppo e equilibri,Giulio Einaudi Editore, Torino, 1995, pp.7-150.10. See: B. OLIVI, L'Italia nella CEE <strong>de</strong>gli anni '70: problemi e prospettive, in: N. RONZITTI (ed.),La politica estera italiana. Autonomia, interdipen<strong>de</strong>nza, integrazione e sicurezza, EdizioniComunità, Roma, 1977, pp.202-222; M. REVELLI, Movimento sociali e spazio politico, in: F.BARBAGALLO (ed.), Storia <strong>de</strong>ll'Italia repubblicana, op.cit., p.458.11. The term 'hot autumn' was used for the first time by Indro Montanelli in a famous article titled Itimori <strong>de</strong>ll'autunno in: Corriere <strong>de</strong>lla Sera, August 29 th 1969.12. L. MECHI, L'Europa di Ugo La Malfa. La via italiana alla mo<strong>de</strong>rnizzazione (1942-1979), FrancoAngeli, Roma, 2003, p.158.13. On Pompidou' s triplet see: E. ROUSSEL, Georges Pompidou, Lattés, Paris, 1994 and Pompidouet l'Europe, Editions Complexe, Paris, 1995.14. European Council <strong>of</strong> Ministers Archives (ECMA), Brussels, Fol<strong>de</strong>r 9826-9833, Extrait du projet<strong>de</strong> procès-verbal <strong>de</strong> la réunion restreinte à l'occasion <strong>de</strong> la 76 ème session du Conseil <strong>de</strong>s 22-23juillet 1969, p.26.


104Maria Eleonora GuasconiEuropean <strong>integration</strong>, in or<strong>de</strong>r to obtain a better balance between US and Europe and toplay a role in the international arena after a series <strong>of</strong> events, which had left the country anarrow space <strong>of</strong> manoeuvre. 15 De Gaulle's foreign policy, based upon close ties whichGermany, had reserved only a junior role to Italy, German Ostpolitik, was by no meansan Italian affair, détente, in general, left Europe outsi<strong>de</strong> the big stream <strong>of</strong>Soviet-American relations and stressed the US diminishing interest towards Europeand, last but not least, the Non Proliferation Treaty put an end to the Italian not so wellhid<strong>de</strong>n hopes to acce<strong>de</strong> to nuclear power.As to the question <strong>of</strong> enlargement, the Italian government had been an enthusiasticsupporter <strong>of</strong> the United Kingdom's admission to the EC, ever since the first applicationin 1961. 16 Although Community enlargement would cause some economic problems tothe country, Italy supported British entry mainly for political reasons, either for thespecial relationship between London and Washington, and because enlargement wouldhelp to counterbalance the prepon<strong>de</strong>rant French-German hegemony in the Community.At a meeting in London held a few days after the resignation <strong>of</strong> the French presi<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>de</strong>Gaulle, the Italian presi<strong>de</strong>nt, Giuseppe Saragat, explained to the British Prime ministerHarold Wilson, that«the presence <strong>of</strong> the UK with her <strong>de</strong>mocratic political traditions would help to<strong>de</strong>fend the <strong>de</strong>mocratic tradition in Italy».The United Kingdom's interest in joining Europe was «said to be economic, butItaly found the general political reasons more weighty». 17Although the political reasons were overwhelming, Italian support to Great Britain'sadmission hid also other, more subtle, domestic goals. On several occasions, during theenlargement negotiations, Italian political lea<strong>de</strong>rs proposed the British to accept theCAP with a gradual period <strong>of</strong> transition and with the aim <strong>of</strong> striving for modificationsafter their entry. From insi<strong>de</strong> the Community and with the Italian support, they shouldask for changes in the sense <strong>of</strong> a fairer distribution <strong>of</strong> bur<strong>de</strong>ns. 18«This was one <strong>of</strong> the unsaid reasons for Italian support <strong>of</strong> the British entry into theCommunity, which would lead to dynamic possibilities for the Community as wellas for Britain»,said the then Prime minister Emilio Colombo to the chancellor <strong>of</strong> the Duchy <strong>of</strong>Lancaster, Ge<strong>of</strong>frey Rippon, during a series <strong>of</strong> conversations, which took place at15. Archivio Storico <strong>de</strong>l Ministero <strong>de</strong>gli Esteri (ASMAE), Rome, Letter by Luciolli to the Foreignminister Medici, September 17 th , 1968, secret. The author thanks Ennio Di Nolfo for the document.16. See P. LUDLOW, Dealing with Britain. The Six and the First United Kingdom Application to theEuropean Economic Community, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997; U. KITZ-INGER, Diplomacy and Persuasion. How Britain Joined the Common Market, Thames & Hudson,London, 1973; A. MILWARD, The Rise and the Fall <strong>of</strong> a National Strategy: the UK and the EEC,Cass, London, 2002; C. O'NEILL, op.cit.17. Public Record Office (PRO), Kew Gar<strong>de</strong>ns, PREM 13/2738, Record <strong>of</strong> a meeting held at theItalian embassy on Thursday 24 th April 1969 at 7.00 p.m.18. See for example PRO, PREM 13/3542, Record <strong>of</strong> a conversation between the Chancellor <strong>of</strong> theDuchy <strong>of</strong> Lancaster and the Italian minister <strong>of</strong> the Treasury, present: G. Thomson, C. O'Neill, C.Tickell, J. A. Stern, E. Colombo, A. Manzini, V.G. Stammati, May, 18 th 1970 at 5.00 p.m., confi<strong>de</strong>ntial.


Italy and the Hague Conference <strong>of</strong> December 1969 105Palazzo Chigi, in Rome, at the end <strong>of</strong> March 1971, explaining that Italy hoped thatthe UK, once in the EC, would support a revision <strong>of</strong> the CAP system that wouldthus become more advantageous to Italian and British interests. 19 Furthermore,Italy hoped that Great Britain would promote the shaping <strong>of</strong> a European regionalpolicy, with particular attention to un<strong>de</strong>r<strong>de</strong>veloped areas, as the Mezzogiorno, andthe implementation <strong>of</strong> Community institutions, as the European Investment Bank,the European Social Fund and the European Agricultural Guidance and GuaranteeFund (EAGGF) in sustaining the <strong>de</strong>velopment <strong>of</strong> these regions. 20Italy’s reaction to the other two goals <strong>of</strong> the triplet was not so enthusiastic. Theadoption <strong>of</strong> a <strong>de</strong>finite regulation for financing agriculture in Europe, envisaged byFrance as the preliminary condition before starting negotiations with the UnitedKingdom, posed a series <strong>of</strong> problems to Italian agriculture:a) Italy’s CAP contribution was particularly high, the country having the highestlevel <strong>of</strong> agricultural imports within the Community;b) Italian products faced strong competition from Mediterranean countries, suchas Greece, which had signed an association agreement with the EC in 1961;c) the EC had failed to proceed to a structural <strong>de</strong>velopment <strong>of</strong> Italian agriculture,which still employed the highest percentage <strong>of</strong> labour in Europe; 21d) the introduction <strong>of</strong> the Value Ad<strong>de</strong>d Tax, as a first step in co-ordinating the fiscalsystems <strong>of</strong> the ‘Six’, would be particularly troublesome for Italy, both for politicalreasons and because <strong>of</strong> the country’s administrative inefficiency. It was anticipatedthat the introduction <strong>of</strong> VAT in Italy would meet with long <strong>de</strong>lays causing severestrains with the other European countries, particularly France. 22As to the question <strong>of</strong> the EEC’s <strong>de</strong>epening, the Italian government approved theestablishment <strong>of</strong> an Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), although it appearedlukewarm towards the creation <strong>of</strong> a system <strong>of</strong> fixed parities proposed by the PlanBarre <strong>of</strong> February 1969. 23 Repeatedly, the governor <strong>of</strong> the Bank <strong>of</strong> Italy, GuidoCarli, and his close collaborator, Rinaldo Ossola, criticised the project <strong>of</strong> a19. PRO, PREM 15/370, Record <strong>of</strong> a conversation between the Chancellor <strong>of</strong> the Duchy <strong>of</strong> Lancasterand the Italian Prime Minister, Palazzo Chigi, March 29 th 1971, at 10.00 a.m., confi<strong>de</strong>ntial.20. These proposals were ma<strong>de</strong> by Emilio Colombo at the eve <strong>of</strong> the Italian presi<strong>de</strong>ncy <strong>of</strong> the Council<strong>of</strong> ministers in June 1971. Sir Alec Douglas-Home, the British Foreign secretary, agreed and said:“He thought that regional policy would be very important for the future <strong>de</strong>velopment <strong>of</strong> the Community,and hoped that it would be possible to arrange informal talks between the British and Italiangovernments on this subject, because their problems had much in common”, PRO, PREM 15/500, Record <strong>of</strong> a Meeting between the Prime Minister and the Foreign and Commonwealth Secretaryand Colombo and Moro, held at Chequers on monday June 28 th 1971, at 10.00 a.m., secret.21. HAEC, EN, Fol<strong>de</strong>r 1509, Note <strong>of</strong> November 4 th 1970 on Italian Agriculture.22. See HAEC, Franco M. Malfatti Papers (FMM), Fol<strong>de</strong>r 18, Visit to Paris, September 23-24 th 1970.23. See G. BOSSUAT, Le prési<strong>de</strong>nt Georges Pompidou et les tentatives d'Union économique etmonétaire and R. FRANK, Pompidou le franc et l’Europe, in: Georges Pompidou et l'Europe,op.cit. pp.407-408 and 339-369; P. WERNER, Union économique et monétaire. Les avatars durapport Werner, Editions Saint Paul, Luxembourg, 1991 and H. ZIMMERMANN, The Fall <strong>of</strong>Bretton Woods and the first Attempt to Construct a European Monetary Or<strong>de</strong>r, in: B. STRATH(ed.), From the Werner Plan to the EMU, Peter Lang, Bruxelles, 2001, pp.49-72.


106Maria Eleonora Guasconimonetary union with fixed exchange rates, whose aim was to make Europein<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt from the dollar's instability, for its negative consequences in therelations with the United States and for the weakness <strong>of</strong> the Italian structuralsystem. 24 Carli did not oppose the EMU project, but the attempt to use it as aninstrument <strong>of</strong> European «monetary self-sufficiency», as for him «Europe'sstrengthening should be realised without breaking the ties with the UnitedStates». 25In 1968, Jean Monnet asked Carli to work out a blueprint <strong>of</strong> the future EMU.His project, outlining a transitory evolution towards a system <strong>of</strong> fixed parities,proposed to link the European currencies through a series <strong>of</strong> ‘crawling pegs’ inor<strong>de</strong>r to facilitate the admission <strong>of</strong> the pound sterling into the EC. The project wascarefully analysed and then rejected by Monnet, who preferred the establishment <strong>of</strong>a European Reserve Fund, according to a plan worked out by Robert Triffin andsupported by the German chancellor Willy Brandt. 26 The Italian monetaryapproach would gradually change in 1969, as a consequence <strong>of</strong> the pressures on thelira provoked by international monetary disturbances, the strengthening <strong>of</strong> theItalian tra<strong>de</strong> unions' political leverage after the violent protests which had takenplace in autumn, the industrial salaries' growth and a continuous capital drain. 27Emilio Colombo, minister <strong>of</strong> the Treasury, adopted a s<strong>of</strong>ter approach than theBank <strong>of</strong> Italy, which he <strong>de</strong>fined «pragmatic, seeking a gradual solution forproblems affecting the member countries' economies». 28 He supported theestablishment <strong>of</strong> a fixed parities system, proposed by the Plan Barre, but expressedthe government’s fears <strong>of</strong> the regional and international consequences <strong>of</strong> the EMUand stressed the need for the Six to coordinate their economies before achieving the24. See E. APEL, European Monetary Integration 1958-2002, Routledge, London-New York, 1998;H. JAMES, International Monetary Cooperation since Bretton Woods, Oxford University Press,New York-Oxford, 1996; L. SEGRETO, L'Italie et le Plan Werner, in: COMITÉ POUR L’HIS-TOIRE ÉCONOMIQUE ET FINANCIÈRE DE LA FRANCE, Le rôle <strong>de</strong>s ministères <strong>de</strong>s Financeset <strong>de</strong> l'Economie dans la construction européenne (1957-1978), Ministère <strong>de</strong> l’Économie <strong>de</strong>sFinances et <strong>de</strong> l’Industrie, Paris, 2002, pp.27-51.25. G. CARLI, Cinquant'anni di vita italiana, Laterza, Roma-Bari, 1993, p.230.26. Ibid., pp.226-230.27. See S. ROSSI, La politica economica italiana 1968-1998, Laterza, Roma-Bari, 1998, p.14; M.SALVATI, Dal miracolo economico alla moneta unica europea, in: G. SABBATUCCI and V. VI-DOTTO (eds.), Storia d'Italia, op.cit., pp.358-359; S. TURONE, Storia <strong>de</strong>l sindacato in Italia dal1943 al crollo <strong>de</strong>l comunismo, Laterza, Roma-Bari, 1998, pp.403-405.28. PRO, PREM 13/3542, Notes <strong>of</strong> talks between the Italian minister <strong>of</strong> the Treasury, Colombo andthe Chancellor <strong>of</strong> the Exchequer, London, May 18 th 1970, confi<strong>de</strong>ntial.The difference between the Treasury and the Bank <strong>of</strong> Italy's approaches is well <strong>de</strong>scribed in a document<strong>of</strong> the Commission: HAEC, EN, Fol<strong>de</strong>r 1509, Note on Monetary Issues, withouth a date andin a letter sent from Jacques van Helmont, secretary <strong>of</strong> Jean Monnet, to Robert Triffin on the WernerCommittee: «Il semble que» -wrote van Helmont- «la possibilité d'un accord entre les tendancesopposées se trouve dans la direction esquissée à Venise par M. Colombo. M. Ossola, sur instruction<strong>de</strong> M. Carli avait critiqué la création d'un Fonds <strong>de</strong> stabilisation; M. Colombo a été plus nuancé»,in: HAEC, Robert Triffin Papers (RT), Micr<strong>of</strong>iche 18, Letter by J. Van Helmont to R. Triffin,Paris, June 5 th 1970.


Italy and the Hague Conference <strong>of</strong> December 1969 107monetary union. 29 The Treasury feared that the EMU could result in a capitaloutflow towards the more <strong>de</strong>veloped European countries and accentuate the alreadyexisting regional disparities, in less <strong>de</strong>veloped areas <strong>of</strong> the Community, as theMezzogiorno. Rome stressed the need to link the EMU project to the promotioneither <strong>of</strong> a common regional policy or <strong>of</strong> a concerted employment policy, bothinten<strong>de</strong>d as countermeasures to the negative consequences <strong>of</strong> the economic andmonetary union.Since the creation <strong>of</strong> the ECSC, in fact, Italy had come to see the Europeanmarket as a tool to solve the problem <strong>of</strong> unemployment, which was particularlyhigh in the South, and sought to use the right <strong>of</strong> free access to the labour markets <strong>of</strong>the other five countries as a means to alleviate its domestic problems. In themid-term Italy's policy had proved completely unrealistic, as the other fivecountries managed to keep full sovereignty over recruitment policies, preferring tosign bilateral agreement instead <strong>of</strong> initiating a common policy on employment.Italian Diplomatic Games before the Hague SummitItalian diplomacy was particularly active before the Hague conference, trying toexploit the European relaunch and to build an alliance with the other Europeanpartners, in or<strong>de</strong>r to exit from the peripheral role, in which it was banished at theend <strong>of</strong> the Sixties, and to <strong>of</strong>fset French proposals related to the CAP.In October and November 1969, the ambassador in Bonn, Mario Luciolli, metseveral times with German <strong>of</strong>ficials, among whom the Foreign minister WalterScheel, with the purpose <strong>of</strong> outlining a common Italian-German strategy for theconference. The Italian goals aimed at postponing the CAP’s financial settlementuntil the end <strong>of</strong> the negotiations with the UK. In particular, the ambassador askedthe German Foreign minister to focus the <strong>de</strong>bate on the questions <strong>of</strong> Euratom, theEuropean Social Fund's reorganisation, the <strong>de</strong>velopment <strong>of</strong> a common policy insocial and commercial fields and, last but not the least, the <strong>de</strong>velopment <strong>of</strong> politicalco-operation, consi<strong>de</strong>red by Rome as «the backbone <strong>of</strong> economic unification». 30This initiative, which remin<strong>de</strong>d <strong>of</strong> De Gasperi's proposal to <strong>de</strong>velop a EuropeanPolitical Community during the negotiations on the European Defence Community(EDC), was an attempt to reconcile Italy’s Europeanism stance with the negativeconsequences <strong>of</strong> the <strong>integration</strong> process for the country’s domestic policy. As to thequestion <strong>of</strong> the United Kingdom’s admission to the EC, Italy urged to start thenegotiations in the first months <strong>of</strong> 1970 and to mention the date explicitly in theHague’s final communiqué.29. Ibid.30. Politisches Archiv <strong>de</strong>s Auswärtigen Amts (PA-AA), Bonn/Berlin, IA2, Vol.1438, Meeting betweenLuciolli and the State Secretary Harcort, November 7 th 1969 and Meeting between Luciolliand Scheel, November 5 th 1969. The author thanks Hubert Zimmermann for the document.


108Maria Eleonora GuasconiThe German government too consi<strong>de</strong>red the three goals ‘completion,<strong>de</strong>epening, enlargement’ strictly linked together and, from a political point <strong>of</strong> view,had a particular interest in the success <strong>of</strong> the summit, as Brandt’s Ostpolitik nee<strong>de</strong>da strong alliance between the Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Republic and its European partners, in or<strong>de</strong>rto s<strong>of</strong>ten the fears raised by its new freedom <strong>of</strong> manoeuvre towards EasternEurope. 31 Although the Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Government shared most <strong>of</strong> the Italian goals, suchas support to the UK’s admission, and the necessity <strong>of</strong> CAP reform, with particularattention to the surplus problem, Bonn consi<strong>de</strong>red the request to postpone CAP'scompletion until the end <strong>of</strong> the negotiations with Great Britain as illusory.Germany was more interested in the <strong>de</strong>velopment <strong>of</strong> an economic and monetaryunion as a necessary tool to resolve the monetary crisis threatening the GermanMark and the Bretton Woods system. The revaluation <strong>of</strong> the Deutschmark <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>dby Brandt a few days after his election in October 1969, as well as the <strong>de</strong>valuation<strong>of</strong> the French Franc in August, led only, however, to a temporary settlement <strong>of</strong> themonetary system. A central issue for Brandt was the creation <strong>of</strong> a EuropeanMonetary Union, capable <strong>of</strong> maintaining exchange rate stability and <strong>of</strong> coping withcrisis which might threaten the international monetary system as a whole. At thesame time, the project to establish an EMU was also highly important to France,since it would help Georges Pompidou to secure the feasibility <strong>of</strong> the CAP. 32French inflexibility in <strong>de</strong>fending its own position thwarted the unrealistic Italianhopes <strong>of</strong> building a ‘special relationship’ with the FRG. Despite numerous Italianmanoeuvres, there was little room for diplomacy and the European re-launchpromoted by Pompidou turned out to be mainly <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt upon an ‘entente’ withBrandt. 33 Three days before the summit, the chancellor sent a letter to Pompidou inwhich he proposed one concession, one condition and one proposition: the FRGwas to accept the adoption <strong>of</strong> a <strong>de</strong>finite financial agreement concerning agricultureand, in return, obtain concessions on the entry <strong>of</strong> the UK as well as on theestablishment <strong>of</strong> a European Reserve Fund. As Andreas Wilkens pointed out:31. On the question <strong>of</strong> German Ostpolitik see: T. BANCHOFF, The German Problem Transformed:Institutions, Politics and Foreign Policy 1945-1995, University <strong>of</strong> Michigan Press, Ann Arbor,1999; W. BRANDT, Erinnerungen, Propyläen, Zürich, 1989; W. GRIFFITH, The Ostpolitik <strong>of</strong> theFe<strong>de</strong>ral Republic <strong>of</strong> Germany, Cambridge MIT Press, Cambridge, 1978; G. NIEDHART, Ostpolitik:the Role <strong>of</strong> the Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Republic <strong>of</strong> Germany in the Process <strong>of</strong> Détente, in: C. FINK, P. GAS-SERT and D. JUNKER (eds.), 1968: the World Transformed, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,1998; I<strong>de</strong>m., The Fe<strong>de</strong>ral Republic’s Ostpolitik and the United States: Initiatives andConstraints, in: K. BURK and M. STOKES, The United States and the European Alliance since1945, pp.289-311; A. WILKENS, L’Europe en suspens. Willy Brandt et l’orientation <strong>de</strong> la politiqueeuropéenne <strong>de</strong> l’Allemagne fédérale 1966-1969, in W. LOTH (ed.), Crises and Compromises:the European Project 1963-1969, Nomos, Ba<strong>de</strong>n Ba<strong>de</strong>n-Bruxelles, 2001, pp.323-343.32. See A. MORAVCSIK, A Choice for Europe. Social Purpose & State Power from Messina toMaastricht, Cornell University Press, New York, 1998; A. WILKENS, Westpolitik, Ostpolitik andthe Project <strong>of</strong> the Economic and Monetary Union Germany’s European Policy in the Brandt Era,in: Journal <strong>of</strong> European Integration History, Nomos, Ba<strong>de</strong>n-Ba<strong>de</strong>n, 1(1999), pp.73-102.33. See M.-T. BITSCH, Le sommet <strong>de</strong> la Haye. La mise en route <strong>de</strong> la relance <strong>de</strong> 1969, in: W. LOTH(ed.), Crises and Compromises…, op.cit. pp.539-565.


Italy and the Hague Conference <strong>of</strong> December 1969 109«The latter was meant to be an important factor <strong>of</strong> solidarity and stability in theframework <strong>of</strong> the European Community which had experienced unfavourablemovements in economic and monetary matters since the November crisis <strong>of</strong> 1968». 34The failure <strong>of</strong> the Italian strategy forced the government to change its positionon the CAP. On 17 November, during a meeting at the Elysée, the French Foreignminister Maurice Schumann informed Georges Pompidou that Italy wouldprobably s<strong>of</strong>ten its opposition to a <strong>de</strong>finite financial regulation and renounce to itsrequest <strong>of</strong> inserting the opening date <strong>of</strong> negotiations in the final communiqué. 35This <strong>de</strong>cision to change position over CAP was in<strong>de</strong>ed taken after a long and tough<strong>de</strong>bate in the Italian cabinet. The Italian ambassador in Paris, Francesco Malfatti,informed the German ambassador, that:«the <strong>de</strong>cision to accept the CAP's completion had not been an easy one. His only allyhad been Moro. Rumor had appeared uncertain, and Colombo, although a convincedEuropean, was against, as well as all the General Secretaries and Directors at theForeign Ministry». 36During an animated meeting the Italian ambassador, Malfatti, stressed that, byopposing French goals, Italy was running the risk <strong>of</strong> loosing its industrial exports toFrance. The government hoped that Moro would find a solution, as the CAP wasthoroughly unpopular in Italy and the left-wing parties were expected to criticisestrongly the government’s change <strong>of</strong> position.The Hague SummitItaly’s strategy to build an ‘entente’ with Germany before the Hague summitproved to be unrealistic and failed. This was the outcome <strong>of</strong> the way France hadstrongly <strong>de</strong>fen<strong>de</strong>d its main policy goal by securing a <strong>de</strong>finite regulation forfinancing agriculture in Europe before starting negotiations with the UK. As aresult <strong>of</strong> their limited diplomatic leverage, Italian <strong>of</strong>ficials were not only forced toaccept both the completion <strong>of</strong> CAP and the introduction <strong>of</strong> VAT but also thecontroversial monetary union.The summit, originally scheduled for 17 and 18 November was postponed due,at least <strong>of</strong>ficially, to an illness <strong>of</strong> Aldo Moro, but more probably because <strong>of</strong> thegeneral political situation in Italy. It finally took place in The Hague on 1 and 234. Akten zur Auswärtigen Politik <strong>de</strong>r Bun<strong>de</strong>srepublik Deutschland, 1969, pp.1346-1347; the Brandtletter is quoted in M.-T. BITSCH, op.cit., p.557, and A. WILKENS, Westpolitik …, op.cit., p.80.35. Archives Nationales (AN), Paris, Georges Pompidou Papers (GP), Dossier 5 AG/127, Fol<strong>de</strong>r 1042,Projet du compte rendu du conseil restreint du lundi 17 novembre à 15 heures et 30 sur la préparation<strong>de</strong> la Conférence <strong>de</strong> la Haye, and Fol<strong>de</strong>r 5 AG/ 1036, Note written by Schumann to Pompidou,Ouverture <strong>de</strong>s négociations sur l'élargissement, November 25 th 1969.36. PA-AA, BI50/1969, Telegram n.3028 from Paris to Bonn, November 26 th 1969, Secret. It seemsworth stressing that Francesco Malfatti, Italian ambassador in Paris, and the presi<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>of</strong> the Commission,Franco Maria Malfatti, were not the same person.


110Maria Eleonora GuasconiDecember 1969. The Italian <strong>de</strong>legation was composed <strong>of</strong> Prime minister MarianoRumor, Foreign minister Aldo Moro and the un<strong>de</strong>rsecretary <strong>of</strong> Foreign affairs,Mario Pedini.On the eve <strong>of</strong> the conference, Moro outlined some <strong>of</strong> his government's goals:the need to emphasise the link between the <strong>de</strong>epening and the enlargement <strong>of</strong> theEC; the strengthening <strong>of</strong> Euratom and other European institutions, in particular theEuropean Parliament, through the direct election <strong>of</strong> its members; and the creation<strong>of</strong> a European University Institute in Italy. 37 The Italian Foreign minister thoughtthat the Six had:«reached the limit <strong>of</strong> their economic <strong>integration</strong>; beyond that limit a simpleeconomic co-ordination was not sufficient, as it was necessary to reach a realcommon economic policy. Only a radical shift in the distribution <strong>of</strong> EC <strong>de</strong>cisionpower and the consequent strengthening <strong>of</strong> the European institution can reconcilethe <strong>de</strong>mand <strong>of</strong> strong expansion with a planned European <strong>de</strong>velopment». 38Although the freedom <strong>of</strong> manoeuvre for ‘minor’ partners, such as Italy, wasnarrow, it seems restrictive to affirm that the only outcome <strong>of</strong> the Hague summitwas the French-German <strong>de</strong>al. Consi<strong>de</strong>red «rather vague and confused» 39 by theFrench Foreign minister, Maurice Schumann, Rumor’s speech at the conference,did however, elicit Italian objectives. Stressing the need to consi<strong>de</strong>r the triplet as aunique political goal, the Italian Prime minister continued by saying that Italy wasready to accept a financial regulation for agriculture,«provi<strong>de</strong>d that it ma<strong>de</strong> for an equitable distribution <strong>of</strong> bur<strong>de</strong>ns, weighing on theeconomies <strong>of</strong> member states, with common prices and market systems for sectorslike wine and tobacco which did not have them at present». 40Rumor ad<strong>de</strong>d that the solution for the financial regulation <strong>of</strong> the CAP couldonly be consi<strong>de</strong>red as temporary and the distribution <strong>of</strong> bur<strong>de</strong>ns between nationaleconomies should be «reasonable». He requested that the Italian contribution to theEAGGF be fixed at a maximum <strong>of</strong> 23 %. 41On the second day, Rumor agreed with the French and German proposals,suggesting an intensification <strong>of</strong> monetary and economic co-operation and also withthe proposal for regular meetings <strong>of</strong> the economic and financial ministers. TheItalian Prime minister strongly supported both the i<strong>de</strong>a <strong>of</strong> harmonising existing37. HAEC, Carlo Scarascia Mugnozza Papers (CSM), Letter by Moro to Scarascia Mugnozza, RomeDecember 1 st 1969. Since 1958 the Italian government had proposed to establish the EuropeanUniversity in Florence. See J. M. PALAYRET, Un'università per l'Europa. Le origini <strong>de</strong>ll'IstitutoUniversitario Europeo, Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca <strong>de</strong>llo Stato, Roma, 1996.38. HAEC, CSM, Letter by Moro to Scarascia Mugnozza, Rome December 1 st 1969; see also: A.MORO, Discorsi Parlamentari (1963-1977), Camera <strong>de</strong>i Deputati, Roma, 1996 pp.1411-1429.39. AN, GP, Note by Schumann on the Hague Conference, December 6 th 1969.40. PRO, FCO30/272, Telegram n.607 from The Hague to London, European Summit Conference,December 1 st 1969, unclassified. Kindly ma<strong>de</strong> available by Alan S. Milward.41. PRO, FCO30/272, Telegram n.609 from The Hague to London, European Summit Conference,December 1 st 1969, confi<strong>de</strong>ntial, and European Commission Archives (ECA), Brussels, Fol<strong>de</strong>r1888, Conférence au Sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye, European Community Bulletin, pp.50-55.


Italy and the Hague Conference <strong>of</strong> December 1969 111methods which, through the reform <strong>of</strong> the European Social Fund, <strong>de</strong>alt with socialpolicy and with the introduction <strong>of</strong> direct elections <strong>of</strong> the European Parliament. 42After the first day it was still uncertain if the summit would be successful or notand it was only after the meeting between Brandt and Pompidou that the atmospherechanged completely. The chancellor reassured the French presi<strong>de</strong>nt that the financing<strong>of</strong> the CAP was not in danger and, subsequently, the French-German ‘entente’ wasable to work out a satisfying agreement on an economic and monetary union.Pompidou gave his word <strong>of</strong> honour that negotiations for Great Britain’s entry wouldstart in 1970 and Brandt reassured the presi<strong>de</strong>nt that the Bun<strong>de</strong>stag would ratify theFrench proposals concerning agricultural financial regulation, on condition that thenegotiations would start in July. 43In spite <strong>of</strong> that French-German <strong>de</strong>al, Italy tried right up to the end <strong>of</strong> theconference to postpone the completion <strong>of</strong> CAP after 1969 and also to introduce thenotion <strong>of</strong> an 'equal share <strong>of</strong> bur<strong>de</strong>ns' among EC member states in the finalcommuniqué. Unfortunately, the final draft communiqué reflected France's«nitpicking attitu<strong>de</strong>»: 44 the French <strong>de</strong>legation argued minutely over the <strong>de</strong>tailedwording <strong>of</strong> the communiqué itself, clearly evincing the domestic leverage exertedon Pompidou's foreign policy by the farmers on one si<strong>de</strong> and the Gaullists on theother. The French government firmly rejected Italian suggestions concerning theCAP and <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d to replace them with a vague formula, capable <strong>of</strong> «taking account<strong>of</strong> all the interests at stake». 45Rumor presented a text for the establishment <strong>of</strong> a European social policy, whichwas subsequently diluted by France. Paragraph 12 <strong>of</strong> the final communiqué onlyagreed to hint at the possibility <strong>of</strong> reforming the European Social Fund. As to thequestion <strong>of</strong> enlargement, notwithstanding Italian, Dutch and German pressure,Pompidou refused, in the final communiqué, to commit himself to an opening datefor the negotiations. He accepted only a press statement, ma<strong>de</strong> by the Dutch Primeminister Piet De Jong, <strong>de</strong>claring that the preparatory work for opening negotiationswith Great Britain, Ireland, Denmark and Norway should be finished by 30 June1970 and the negotiations themselves would start immediately afterwards. Thequestion <strong>of</strong> foreign policy co-operation, another Italian goal, did not receive muchattention either and the final communiqué <strong>de</strong>dicated only a few words to this issue.It charged European foreign ministers to study first the best way to promote42. PRO, FCO30/272, Telegram n.624 from The Hague to London, European Summit ConferenceSecond Day, December 3 rd 1969.43. W. BRANDT, op.cit., p.369 and PRO, PREM 13/ 2671, Record <strong>of</strong> Conversation between thePrime Minister and Dr. Frank <strong>of</strong> the German Foreign <strong>of</strong>fice, December 3 rd 1969, confi<strong>de</strong>ntial andPREM 15/397, Record <strong>of</strong> the Prime Minister’s private meeting with the Chancellor <strong>of</strong> the Fe<strong>de</strong>ralRepublic, April 5 th 1971, 10.00 a.m., confi<strong>de</strong>ntial. On this occasion Brandt explained to Heath that,during the private discussion with Pompidou at the Hague, he had played the agricultural card.44. PRO, FCO30/272, Telegram n.626 from The Hague to London, European Summit Conference,December 3 rd 1969, Confi<strong>de</strong>ntial.45. PRO, FCO30/272, Telegram n.625 from The Hague to London, European Summit Conference,December 3 rd 1969, Confi<strong>de</strong>ntial.


112Maria Eleonora Guasconipolitical co-operation in the context <strong>of</strong> enlargement and then to present theirproposals during the month <strong>of</strong> July 1970.After the ConferenceThe comments <strong>of</strong> the European lea<strong>de</strong>rs who took part in the summit were, althoughnot enthusiastic, characterised by a cautious optimism. The summit had not given lifeto a spectacular re-launching <strong>of</strong> European construction, but had generated a new climateamong the European partners. The impasse which the Community had reachedin the Sixties was overcome and the final communiqué indicated the ways to followon the road <strong>of</strong> <strong>integration</strong>. The binomial <strong>de</strong>epening-enlargement announced for thefirst time in the French triplet, would become the railroad line along which the European<strong>integration</strong> process would run forward. Even if during the Seventies some radicalchanges in the international system would inevitably influence the life <strong>of</strong> theCommunity, and would alternate between periods <strong>of</strong> serious crisis and staticmoments in the <strong>integration</strong> process (such as the end <strong>of</strong> the Bretton Woods System inAugust 1971 or the oil crisis following the Yom Kippur War <strong>of</strong> October 1973), some<strong>of</strong> the projects launched at The Hague were to become more important only in themid or long term. All this is <strong>de</strong>monstrated by, for example, the first enlargement <strong>of</strong>the EC, the similarities between the Werner Plan and the Delors Reports <strong>of</strong> 1989, 46the strengthening <strong>of</strong> European institutions through the autonomous <strong>de</strong>termination <strong>of</strong>budget resources and the first reform <strong>of</strong> the Social Fund.Georges Pompidou had paid great attention not to damage his country’s owninterests when <strong>de</strong>termining the position to be taken in the process <strong>of</strong> <strong>integration</strong>both before and during the conference. In this complex game <strong>of</strong> do ut <strong>de</strong>s WillyBrandt also played a central role. In fact, he carried out a difficult mediationbetween German objectives on one hand, and the French goal <strong>of</strong> <strong>de</strong>fining thefinancing <strong>of</strong> the CAP before the entry <strong>of</strong> the UK, on the other. The chancellor hadmeasured with extreme attention the requirements and the concessions to make. He<strong>de</strong>veloped an in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt political action in the more general picture <strong>of</strong> theOstpolitik towards Eastern Europe and had been careful not to arouse alarm amongEuropean countries. In this context the space for manoeuvre left for other 'minorpartners', such as Italy, was narrowed down and the Italian <strong>de</strong>legation was obligedto accept French conditions.Prime minister Rumor appeared cautious and went not further than <strong>de</strong>fining as«positive» the outcome <strong>of</strong> the summit. An article published in the Sole 24 Ore on 4December pointed out that the <strong>de</strong>al which had emerged during the summit was notparticularly advantageous for Italian agriculture. Important sectors such as wine,46. See A. VERDUN, The Political Economy <strong>of</strong> the Werner and Delors Reports: Continuity amidstChange or Change amidst Continuity, in P. MAGNUSSON and B. STRATH (eds.), From theWerner Plan to the EMU. In Search <strong>of</strong> a Political Economy for Europe, Peter Lang, Brussels,2001, pp.73-82.


Italy and the Hague Conference <strong>of</strong> December 1969 113tobacco, fruit and vegetables were still waiting for European regulations. TheItalian Communist Party strongly criticised the outcome <strong>of</strong> the conference. ACommunist spokesman, Silvio Leonardi, ma<strong>de</strong> a negative speech in the <strong>de</strong>bate heldin the European Parliament on 11 December 1969 in which he stressed that the EClacked <strong>de</strong>mocratic control. In spite <strong>of</strong> these negative remarks Italy did try, after theHague summit, to tone down the negative consequences <strong>of</strong> the completion <strong>of</strong> CAP,as well as the fears generated for its economy in relation to the establishment <strong>of</strong> theEMU. It was not an easy task, as it was well <strong>de</strong>scribed by the general director at theFarnesina, Roberto Ducci, in a note addressed to Moro:«we do not have the instruments to limit or change French foreign policy. […] Allour efforts should be focused on Great Britain's negotiations and as to the question <strong>of</strong>the Community <strong>de</strong>epening we should pursue a strategy aimed at do ut <strong>de</strong>s». 47The do ut <strong>de</strong>s strategy led Rome to condition its <strong>de</strong>finitive agreement on thecompletion <strong>of</strong> the CAP concerning the question <strong>of</strong> wine and tobacco in thecommon market system. This request, accepted by the Community in June 1970,was to cause severe strains with France, especially over wine. Moreover, during thework <strong>of</strong> the Werner Committee, Italian <strong>de</strong>legates put great pressure on the otherpartners in or<strong>de</strong>r to convince them <strong>of</strong> the seriousness <strong>of</strong> the problem <strong>of</strong> regionaldisparities within the EC, particularly evi<strong>de</strong>nt in the area <strong>of</strong> the Mezzogiorno.In a conversation, which took place in Rome in November 1970, between AldoMoro and the presi<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>of</strong> the Commission, Franco Maria Malfatti, the ItalianForeign minister expressed the opinion that the EMU project should be linked withother sectoral policies, such as regional, agricultural and social ones, because«various common policies are conditioned by the <strong>de</strong>cisions taken in the monetaryfield, which is such a binding goal». 48In this context, Italy exerted strong pressure on the other partners, so as topromote a concerted policy on employment. Rome was one <strong>of</strong> the promoters <strong>of</strong> thefirst tripartite conference on employment, which took place in Luxembourg in April1970. 49 During the conference the six Labour ministers, the Commission and therepresentatives <strong>of</strong> the tra<strong>de</strong> unions and employers discussed the pending issue <strong>of</strong>unemployment. The Italian Labour minister, Carlo Donat Cattin, played a centralrole in the proceedings <strong>of</strong> the conference, by trying to promote the <strong>de</strong>velopment <strong>of</strong>a concerted policy on employment through the establishment <strong>of</strong> a standingCommittee on Employment and the reorganisation <strong>of</strong> the European Social Fund. Itseems worth stressing that on this occasion Italy closely co-operated with otherEuropean tra<strong>de</strong> unions, sharing both their objectives and projects. 50 This47. HAEC, CSM, Note by Ducci to Moro, June 17 th 1970.48. HAEC, FMM, Fol<strong>de</strong>r 17, Visit to Rome, Meeting between Malfatti and Moro, November 13 th1970.49. ECMA, Fol<strong>de</strong>r 30566, Tripartite Conference on Employment, Minutes <strong>of</strong> the Conferenceproceedings, Luxembourg April 27-28, 1970.50. See A. CIAMPANI, La CISL tra integrazione europea e mondializzazione, Ed. Lavoro, Roma,2000; J.E. DØLVIK, An Emerging Island? ETUC, Social Dialogue and the Europeanization <strong>of</strong> theTra<strong>de</strong> Unions in the 1990s, ETUI, Brussels, 1999.


114Maria Eleonora Guasconico-operation was not only instrumental to the <strong>de</strong>velopment <strong>of</strong> a concerted policy onemployment, but reflected, on one hand, the greater role played by the tra<strong>de</strong> unionsin the Italian political system. On the other hand, a more sustained dialoguebetween some sections <strong>of</strong> the Christian Democrat Party with the Labour movementwas inten<strong>de</strong>d as a countermeasure against the serious social and economicproblems <strong>of</strong> the country. A consolidated Italian network was emerging insi<strong>de</strong> theEuropean Labour movement, illustrated by the appointment <strong>of</strong> Carlo Savoini, 51 aCISL (Confe<strong>de</strong>razione Italiana Sindacati Lavoratori) unionist, as general secretary<strong>of</strong> the European Confe<strong>de</strong>ration <strong>of</strong> Free Tra<strong>de</strong> Unions from 1969 to 1972 and BrunoStorti, general secretary <strong>of</strong> the CISL, as presi<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>of</strong> the InternationalConfe<strong>de</strong>ration <strong>of</strong> Free Tra<strong>de</strong> Unions (ICFTU), from 1965 to 1972. In June 1971 theItalian government presented the Council <strong>of</strong> ministers with an importantmemorandum entitled La politica <strong>de</strong>ll'impiego nella Comunità, 52 which paved theway to a wi<strong>de</strong>spread <strong>de</strong>bate in the EC institutions on the need to <strong>de</strong>velop a commonsocial policy favouring free circulation <strong>of</strong> manpower and <strong>de</strong>aling with the less<strong>de</strong>veloped areas such as the South <strong>of</strong> Italy. 53 As a consequence, in 1972 the Council<strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>d to establish a Fund for regional <strong>de</strong>velopment and to use the resourcesallocated to the EAGGF in or<strong>de</strong>r to finance initiatives for the <strong>de</strong>velopment <strong>of</strong> theMezzogiorno.In spite <strong>of</strong> Italian and German efforts, the Davignon Report, 54 drawn up inOctober 1970, concerning the question <strong>of</strong> political co-operation, wasdisappointing. The mechanism set up was extremely simple: the Foreign ministerswould meet twice a year, un<strong>de</strong>r the chairmanship <strong>of</strong> the Foreign minister <strong>of</strong> thecountry holding the Community presi<strong>de</strong>ncy. Ministerial meetings would beprepared by a committee composed by the directors <strong>of</strong> political affairs, who were tomeet four times a year. Any references to <strong>de</strong>fence or security issues were exclu<strong>de</strong>d;the Italian request to strengthen the role <strong>of</strong> European institutions was rejected; therewere no new institutions at all and the Commission was given only a «foot in thedoor», given that it had been invited to ren<strong>de</strong>r views public should the work <strong>of</strong> theministers have any effect on the activities <strong>of</strong> the EC. 55 Aldo Moro seemed critical:51. Carlo Savoini would later become Director <strong>of</strong> the DG V <strong>of</strong>fice for social dialogue.52. ECMA, Fol<strong>de</strong>r 30541, Memorandum <strong>of</strong> the Italian government on Community employmentpolicy.53. See M.E. GUASCONI, Paving the Way for a European Social Dialogue. Italy, the Tra<strong>de</strong> Unionsand the Shaping <strong>of</strong> a European Social Policy after the Hague Conference <strong>of</strong> 1969, in: Journal <strong>of</strong>European Integration History, 1(2003), pp.87-111.54. On the Davignon report see: D. ALLEN, R. RUMMEL and W. WESSELS, European PoliticalCooperation: towards a Foreign Policy for Western Europe, Butterworth Scientific, London,1982; C. HILL (ed.), National Foreign Policies and European Political Cooperation, George Allen& Unwin, London, 1983; P. IFESTOS, European Political Cooperation. Towards a Framework<strong>of</strong> Supranational Diplomacy?, Al<strong>de</strong>rshot, Avebury, 1987, p.148; S.J. NUTTAL, EuropeanPolitical Co-operation, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1992, pp.46-47.55. PRO, PREM, 15/62, Memorandum, Political Unification, The Davignon Report, without dateConfi<strong>de</strong>ntial.


Italy and the Hague Conference <strong>of</strong> December 1969 115«The report is extremely disappointing, especially on the question <strong>of</strong> European politicalconsultation, if compared to the Hague outcome. It will disappoint our publicopinion. There is nothing which points to political <strong>de</strong>cision making: only two meetings<strong>of</strong> political talks», 56and Altiero Spinelli wrote that the Committee <strong>of</strong> the Political Directors hadproduced the «mouses» <strong>of</strong> the political concertation. 57In the mid term, Italian attempts to play a role in European re-launching wouldbe most affected by its serious domestic economic, political and social situation.Since 1972, the government had to face growing opposition from the left wingparties, a difficult economic situation and a social crisis which forced Italy to adopta 'low pr<strong>of</strong>ile' approach in the Community. This was <strong>de</strong>monstrated by the fact thatthe reference to the <strong>de</strong>velopment <strong>of</strong> a European social policy ma<strong>de</strong> in the final<strong>de</strong>claration <strong>of</strong> the Paris summit <strong>of</strong> October 1972, was a German initiative, and bythe <strong>de</strong>cision to leave the “snake” in February 1973.ConclusionsThe Hague conference <strong>of</strong> 1969 certainly represented an important turning point inthe <strong>integration</strong> process at the end <strong>of</strong> the Sixties. 58 Although the French-German<strong>de</strong>al played a central role during the conference, it seems restrictive to affirm thatthe outcome <strong>of</strong> the Hague summit was only a compromise answering to French andGerman conditions. The so-called minor partners, like Holland and Italy, alsoplayed an active role; they exerted pressure for negotiations on Great Britain's entryto begin at the earliest possible date and tried to pursue specific national interests;among these were the reform <strong>of</strong> the European Social Fund, the <strong>de</strong>velopment <strong>of</strong> anembryonic European social policy or the re-launching <strong>of</strong> the project <strong>of</strong> politicalco-operation, in the Italian case.Italy was forced to accept Pompidou's triplet, in particular the CAP completionà la française, the introduction <strong>of</strong> VAT and the EMU, through a system <strong>of</strong> fixedparities, fearing the negative consequences for its economy. Italy’s diplomaticgames before the summit, in particular its unrealistic attempt to build an ententewith Germany to <strong>of</strong>fset French goals, clearly showed the limits <strong>of</strong> its diplomaticleverage, and confirmed the image <strong>of</strong> a weak negotiator. Furthermore, in the longterm Italian domestic political instability seriously affected its capability to pursuethe goals <strong>de</strong>veloped at The Hague, forced the country to adopt a 'low pr<strong>of</strong>ile'56. HAEC, CSM, Minutes <strong>of</strong> the Bagnaia Meeting, May 29 th 1970, secret.57. HAEC, CSM, Letter by Spinelli to Scarascia Mugnozza, September 22 nd 1970.58. Derek Urwin’s statement that “with the exception perhaps <strong>of</strong> <strong>de</strong> Gaulle's dramatic press conferencevetoes <strong>of</strong> British entry, the Hague summit was the most significant event within the Communitysince its inception” is acceptable, only if taking account <strong>of</strong> the long term consequences <strong>of</strong> theHague Conference. See D. URWIN, The Community <strong>of</strong> Europe. A History <strong>of</strong> European Integrationsince 1945, Longman, London, 1995, p.128.


116Maria Eleonora Guasconiapproach in the Community. Nonetheless, Italy was not a passive witness <strong>of</strong> othercountries' initiatives. The European choice continued to be an important facet <strong>of</strong>Italian foreign policy, a useful instrument which allowed the peninsula to maintaina strong link with its neighbouring European countries during a troublesomedomestic period.Italy was able to achieve some <strong>of</strong> its national goals, as shown by the effort toalleviate the negative consequences <strong>of</strong> CAP regulations, the introduction <strong>of</strong> VATand the troublesome monetary union, through both the promotion <strong>of</strong> a commonpolicy on employment and by focusing the other partners’ attention on Europeanregional disparities. The inability <strong>of</strong> Italy to influence the French-German <strong>de</strong>alexplains Rome's favouring the first enlargement: Great Britain's entry in the ECwas consi<strong>de</strong>red necessary to counterbalance the overwhelming relationshipbetween Paris and Bonn. As Willy Brandt said realistically to Mariano Rumor in aprivate conversation in Rome:«It is <strong>of</strong> Italian and German interest to support Pompidou and Chaban Delmas, as theFrench presi<strong>de</strong>nt will achieve the enlargement goal». 59In spite <strong>of</strong> Italian efforts the hope to find a counterbalance in London to theFrench-German hegemony in the Community proved to be illusory, as GreatBritain turned out to be a weak actor on the European scene and, ever since itsadmission, <strong>de</strong>veloped a critical attitu<strong>de</strong> towards the EC. Paradoxically, during thetroublesome 1970s, the European pillar <strong>of</strong> Italian policy would be strengthenedmore by domestic factors than by foreign policy <strong>de</strong>cisions.In June 1969, during the Moscow conference <strong>of</strong> the Communist parties, EnricoBerlinguer, then <strong>de</strong>puty secretary general <strong>of</strong> the party, openly supported the theory<strong>of</strong> 'national ways' to Socialism, which implied potential dissent from Moscow; thiscould be consi<strong>de</strong>red as the first step toward the <strong>de</strong>velopment <strong>of</strong> Eurocommunism.The radical change <strong>of</strong> the Italian Communist Party and the communist tra<strong>de</strong> union's(CGIL) approach towards the Community, which passed from the very criticalattitu<strong>de</strong> <strong>of</strong> consi<strong>de</strong>ring the EC as a tool <strong>of</strong> American imperialism, towards a morepositive stance, represented a real turning point in Italian post-war domestic policy,for the influence they exerted on the Italian public opinion. 6059. Akten zur Auswärtigen Politik <strong>de</strong>r Bun<strong>de</strong>srepublik Deutschland, 1970, Doc. n.307, Note <strong>of</strong> theTalks between Brandt and Rumor, Rome, July 14 th 1970.60. On the PCI and European <strong>integration</strong> see: M. MAGGIORANI, L'Europa <strong>de</strong>gli altri. Comunistiitaliani e integrazione europea, Carocci, Roma, 1998.


The Hague Conference <strong>of</strong> 1969 and the United Kingdom’sAccession to the European Economic Community117Alan S. MilwardOne purpose dominated the British government’s attitu<strong>de</strong> to the conference <strong>of</strong> thepolitical lea<strong>de</strong>rs <strong>of</strong> the six EEC member-states at The Hague in December 1969,that it should set a date for the opening <strong>of</strong> negotiations with the United Kingdom onits application for membership. That application, ma<strong>de</strong> in 1967, had not beenwithdrawn nor had its terms been altered in the face <strong>of</strong> French resistance to it.While the Netherlands, Germany and Italy asserted their support for Britishmembership more strongly after France’s refusal to open negotiations than they hadbefore, their interests lay as much in the ‘<strong>de</strong>epening’ and ‘completion’ <strong>of</strong> theCommunity as in its expansion. Their experience <strong>of</strong> the Fifth French Republic’sattitu<strong>de</strong> to the Community had shown them how limited and entirely instrumentalwas the role which France allocated to it. The ten<strong>de</strong>ncy in Paris after the signing <strong>of</strong>the Treaty <strong>of</strong> Rome to be attracted to the i<strong>de</strong>a <strong>of</strong> some larger economic association,better suited to the more global scope <strong>of</strong> French tra<strong>de</strong>, investment and foreignpolicy, had grown stronger un<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong> Gaulle’s regime and France’s attitu<strong>de</strong> to itsfellow Community member-states more masterful, more wayward and moredisdainful.‘Wi<strong>de</strong>ning’ <strong>of</strong> the Community to inclu<strong>de</strong> the United Kingdom, Ireland and theScandinavian applicants might prove one avenue <strong>of</strong> escape from the constraintswhich France exercised over it, but only if at the same time the financial andadministrative basis <strong>of</strong> the Community was permanently established and someprogramme for future integrative <strong>de</strong>velopments was agreed. The newapplicant-states did not seem inspired by visions <strong>of</strong> an ever-closer political union,nor by visions <strong>of</strong> a fe<strong>de</strong>ral structure for the continent. Rather, the language theyspoke was more that <strong>of</strong> the market-place. This increased the anxiety <strong>of</strong> the existingstates to find some integrative policy, such as monetary union, which would holdmore firmly in place the structure they had built and which France had threatenedto reduce in importance. The other five member-states, in bringing such strongpressure on France for ‘wi<strong>de</strong>ning’ the Community, were at the same time writing arole for Britain to play in ‘completing’ and ‘<strong>de</strong>epening’ the Community as part <strong>of</strong>the terms <strong>of</strong> its accession. If France could not resist the pressure for Britishaccession, it would have to join in writing such a role as a way <strong>of</strong> safeguarding itsown prime place in the Community structure.In negotiating and implementing the Treaty <strong>of</strong> Rome France had <strong>de</strong>vised amethod <strong>of</strong> linking the provision <strong>of</strong> the Community’s ‘own resources’, the financialprovision which had to be ma<strong>de</strong> for the administration by the in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>ntexecutive <strong>of</strong> the Community <strong>of</strong> common Community policies, to the protection andsubsidisation <strong>of</strong> French agriculture within the common market. This link was ma<strong>de</strong>through Financial Regulation No.25, drafted and imposed during the United


118Alan S. MilwardKingdom’s first unsuccessful negotiations for membership in 1961-3. An additionalpurpose <strong>of</strong> that Regulation was, in<strong>de</strong>ed, at the time, to <strong>de</strong>ter Britain from pursuingits application. Financial Regulation No.25 foresaw the main body <strong>of</strong> ‘ownresources’ being drawn from the frontier levies which were to be used for thepurpose <strong>of</strong> gradually equalising the prices <strong>of</strong> agricultural products moving withinthe common market. The clear implication <strong>of</strong> this policy was that once prices wereequalised ‘own resources’ would then be <strong>de</strong>rived by transferring to the EuropeanCommission the income from the Common External Tariff <strong>of</strong> the Community.Those member-states which were the greatest food importers once the levies werein place would pay the greatest part <strong>of</strong> the Community’s expenses. Within the Sixthe biggest volume importer was Germany, although had the British application formembership not failed the United Kingdom would have run Germany close as chiefpaymaster. The exact circumstances in which Germany accepted this Regulationafter summer 1962 have never been fully explained. 1 However, it was accepted inthe first place only for three years and there followed a prolonged struggle throughthe1960s by France to make this system <strong>of</strong> financing the Community permanent. 2Since by far the greatest part <strong>of</strong> Community expenditure was on the CommonAgricultural Policy (CAP) and since the United Kingdom was certain to receive aproportionately smaller share <strong>of</strong> the benefits from that policy than Germany,Financial Regulation No.25 might well have led to Britain breaking <strong>of</strong>f itsnegotiations for entry in 1963 had <strong>de</strong> Gaulle not pronounced his veto. Germany,with its large agricultural sector, was guaranteed a large return from the CommonAgricultural Policy, although by no means one commensurate with its outlays.The Financial Regulation remained a subject <strong>of</strong> persistent inter-ministerialcontroversy in Germany with the result that it was accepted only as a temporaryregulation. At the time <strong>of</strong> Britain’s second application for membership in 1967 itwas scheduled for final consi<strong>de</strong>ration, in December 1969 in what France treated asan ultimatum. As far as France was concerned, ‘completion’ meant that Germanymust permanently accept as a permanent solution what it had signed in 1963. Afterthat, and only after that, if ‘wi<strong>de</strong>ning’ was to follow, the United Kingdom must dothe same. What had been set out in Financial Regulation No.25 in 1962 was anacquis français to be cemented into place as an acquis communautaire.The problem which this posed for British membership went <strong>de</strong>eper than thedisproportionate cost <strong>of</strong> the Community budget which Britain must meet. A largevolume <strong>of</strong> food imports from Commonwealth countries at prices much lower thanthose prevailing in Europe would have to be partly substituted, to conform with theprinciple <strong>of</strong> European preferences and the gradual alignment with the CommonExternal Tariff <strong>of</strong> the Community, by more expensive imports from theCommunity. The impact <strong>of</strong> this change on reducing the outflow <strong>of</strong> transfers fromBritain to ‘own resources’ was not easily calculable. The immediate impact <strong>of</strong>1. A.S. MILWARD, The United Kingdom and the European Community, vol.1: The Rise and Fall <strong>of</strong>a National Strategy 1945-1963, Whitehall History Publishing, London, 2002, p.386.2. A.-C. LAURING KNUDSEN, Defining the Policies <strong>of</strong> the Common Agricultural Policy. A HistoricalStudy, PhD thesis, European University Institute, 2001.


The Hague Conference <strong>of</strong> 1969 and the United Kingdom’s Accession 119more expensive food imports on the cost-<strong>of</strong>-living was more predictable. Someestimates foresaw it to be between 12 and 15 per cent over the first two to threeyears <strong>of</strong> membership. That something <strong>of</strong> this or<strong>de</strong>r <strong>of</strong> magnitu<strong>de</strong> would occur waslargely expected by the public and the inflationary impulse which it would give tothe economy was an undisguiseable political problem when inflationary trendswere once again becoming a matter <strong>of</strong> domestic political concern.The Common Agricultural Policy thus posed a two-pronged threat. One prongwas the ammunition which its inflationary consequences would give to LabourParty opponents <strong>of</strong> entry. The other, which disturbed Harold Wilson and hisministers more, was its consequences for the balance <strong>of</strong> payments. From themoment early in 1966 that serious thought was given to making a secondapplication for Community membership <strong>of</strong>ficials were adamant that it could notsucceed if Britain questioned in any fundamental way the principle <strong>of</strong> the methodby which the Community’s ‘own resources’ were to be provi<strong>de</strong>d, for that would beto question also the principle <strong>of</strong> the CAP itself. The question the government had toanswer therefore was not whether it was ready to pay the excessive share <strong>of</strong> theCommunity’s running-costs which would be <strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong>d, but the more realistic onein the circumstances <strong>of</strong> whether it could do so. This may seem paradoxical in view<strong>of</strong> the elimination <strong>of</strong> alternative possible international frameworks by ministerialcommittees between 1963 and 1966. Persisting with EFTA; enlarging EFTA;<strong>de</strong>veloping the Commonwealth tra<strong>de</strong> preferences into a programme morespecifically aimed at stimulating an improvement in the overall export performance<strong>of</strong> British manufacturing; a North American Free Tra<strong>de</strong> Area (which mighteventually embrace EFTA); all these were ruled out as substitutes for EECmembership or even for persevering with the status quo after <strong>de</strong> Gaulle’s veto.But the conclusion that Britain had to try to join had no validity if joining wouldmake its economic situation still weaker. The <strong>de</strong>cision to apply a second time inMay 1967 for membership, followed logically by the <strong>de</strong>cision not to withdraw thatapplication in the event <strong>of</strong> its rejection, has to be seen in the context that thestrength, thought to be <strong>de</strong>clining, <strong>of</strong> the economy could only be restored byincreases in sales and an improvement in total factor productivity by themanufacturing sector and that this in turn could only be achieved by an increase inexports from that sector. The ultimate purpose was to reverse what the governments<strong>of</strong> the 1960s saw as a <strong>de</strong>cline in British political influence in Europe, largelyattributable to exclusion from the Community, whose consequence would surely bealso a <strong>de</strong>cline in British influence in Washington. But the restoration <strong>of</strong> Britishinfluence was very closely linked in the collective mind <strong>of</strong> the Labour Party, whichgoverned for most <strong>of</strong> the <strong>de</strong>ca<strong>de</strong>, with restoring the fortunes <strong>of</strong> the manufacturingsector. It was from that sector that their main source <strong>of</strong> political support was drawn.They had before their eyes the clear evi<strong>de</strong>nce <strong>of</strong> the way in which the commonmarket was promoting the growth <strong>of</strong> manufactured exports from all <strong>of</strong> itsmember-states through the mechanism <strong>of</strong> the European preference system andbelieved that it would exercise a similarly dynamic effect on British industries. Itwas, already, the most rapidly growing market for them.


120Alan S. MilwardThis conclusion was not reached in comfortable circumstances, but against thebackground <strong>of</strong> a weakening balance <strong>of</strong> payments position and repeated speculativeattacks on the sterling exchange rate, leading to <strong>de</strong>valuation in November 1967 andto heavy borrowing from the International Monetary Fund. ‘Rescuing’ the balance<strong>of</strong> payments was thought to <strong>de</strong>pend primarily on ‘rescuing’ the manufacturingsector and thus on entry into the Common Market. Neither the complex nature <strong>of</strong>the interactions between the service sector and manufacturing were foreseen, northat so high a share <strong>of</strong> employment in the service sector would in effect be in andfor the manufacturing sector itself, in the sense that the volume and value <strong>of</strong> sales<strong>of</strong> manufactures and perhaps their competitive advantage would <strong>de</strong>pend on theservices provi<strong>de</strong>d by that share. In<strong>de</strong>ed, service sector employment wasdiscriminated against fiscally. The mo<strong>de</strong>l was Germany with its dominant andsuccessful manufacturing sector. Entry into the Community was inten<strong>de</strong>d toreplicate the German experience.It was ironic that what stood in the way <strong>of</strong> these hopes from accession was theCommunity’s agricultural sector with its need for heavy subsidisation. In Britainitself agriculture employed no more than 3.5 per cent <strong>of</strong> the active labour force andcontributed a smaller percentage <strong>of</strong> GNP. The dynamic effects to be expected <strong>of</strong>accession on manufacturing would be <strong>de</strong>layed until British industry had adjusted toits new opportunities. Meanwhile the United Kingdom would have immediately topay its entry charges to the Community and immediately have to face the problem<strong>of</strong> paying ‘own resources’ to subsidise agriculture in France, Germany and Italywhich would become its main industrial competitors. Worse, a substantial share <strong>of</strong>the subsidies that went to French agriculture would be to exports, an increasingtotal volume <strong>of</strong> which would be to the United Kingdom at inflationary prices. Thismight also lead to the loss <strong>of</strong> preferences for British manufactured exports inCommonwealth countries. For several years after entry into the Community theeffect on the United Kingdom’s balance <strong>of</strong> payments must therefore be to worsenits problem. Would the balance <strong>of</strong> payments survive the cure?When at the start <strong>of</strong> 1966 prime minister Harold Wilson began his energeticpush to organise a second application for membership while holding his partytogether, it had become the prevailing view insi<strong>de</strong> the Foreign Office that Britain’spersistence in trying to negotiate special terms in 1961-2 for the entry <strong>of</strong>Commonwealth foodstuffs into the United Kingdom for some time after entry intothe common market had played into the hands <strong>of</strong> the French government byallowing it to spin out the entry negotiations until <strong>de</strong> Gaulle had felt sufficientlysafely in power to impose his unilateral veto. Officials were keen to avoid anythingwhich would again imply that the United Kingdom was still calling into questionthe principles <strong>of</strong> the Common Agricultural Policy and Financial Regulation No.25.They wished to modify the effect <strong>of</strong> these principles on the British economy by apragmatic negotiation rather than a prior statement <strong>of</strong> disagreement with them.Their hope was, that by not raising issues <strong>of</strong> principle the United Kingdom couldobtain membership in time to be present at the attempt to negotiate the permanentrules for the provision <strong>of</strong> ‘own resources’ by December 1969. It was the existence


The Hague Conference <strong>of</strong> 1969 and the United Kingdom’s Accession 121<strong>of</strong> that <strong>de</strong>adline which was the main reason why the Hague summit was eventuallyheld in that month. Foreign Office hopes strayed even further however. Theyenvisaged that even if Britain had not become a member-state by then it would havetravelled sufficiently far towards that goal that it would be allowed some say inwhat the final settlement <strong>of</strong> the Community’s dispute over own resources would be.Sir Con O’Neill, who had served for three years as ambassador to theCommunity and had ma<strong>de</strong> several reasoned criticisms <strong>of</strong> the United Kingdom’searlier negotiating tactics told a Benelux committee luncheon at The Hague inJanuary 1966,“I hold that the Common Market agricultural policy is difficult to be adopted byBritain, but I do not say that it could never be adopted. In fact, we accepted it inprinciple three or four years ago”. 3His remark brought a speedy rebuke from Thomas Balogh, Wilson’s economicadviser, and an opponent <strong>of</strong> Britain’s attempted entry into the Community. In ahand-written note Wilson commented,“I think this is very unfortunate esp[ecially] the reference to ‘accepting’ agriculturalpolicy. I never have: we attacked it, on import not farm grounds. There would be nomore speeches now”. 4There seems to be no evi<strong>de</strong>nce that Wilson changed his mind about this. Ratherit appears to be the case that he persisted in thinking that to enter the Communitywith no modification <strong>of</strong> Britain’s expected contribution to the Community budgetmight be a risky venture, was certainly not to be un<strong>de</strong>rtaken without very carefulthought, and that every effort should be ma<strong>de</strong> to plot a negotiating procedurethrough which that contribution could be modified.When he initiated on 21 March 1967 what was in reality a series <strong>of</strong> Cabinetmeetings on the subject <strong>of</strong> a second application and its nature and objectives,although the cabinet secretary did not keep written notes <strong>of</strong> them as was the normalpractice, the first meeting called for a list <strong>of</strong> further submissions on the likelyposition <strong>of</strong> British agriculture in the Community, including one which shouldattempt to show the probable impact on the balance <strong>of</strong> payments <strong>of</strong> the CAP, itsprobable impact on agricultural production, and its probable impact onCommonwealth agriculture. These were to allow some <strong>de</strong>termination <strong>of</strong> how farthe CAP could be modified if all these “impacts” were to be ma<strong>de</strong> “tolerable”. 5 Aparliamentary Select Committee on Agriculture sought the same information. “Itwas”, so the <strong>of</strong>ficials servicing the unscripted Cabinet meetings recor<strong>de</strong>d, “fullyrecognized that we could not hope to abolish the C.A.P., but, if we had entered theEEC by 1968, we might be in a position to modify its operation when it came to berenegotiated in 1969”. 63. PRO, PREM 13/893, Note <strong>of</strong> Sir Con O’Neill’s remarks.4. Ibid., Note by Wilson, 19 January 1966.5. PRO, CAB 130/316, MISC 143(67) 1 st meeting. ‘Cabinet. Europe.’ Minutes <strong>of</strong> a Meeting <strong>of</strong> Officialsheld 2 March 1967.6. PRO, CAB 130/316, MISC 143(67) 2 nd meeting. ‘Cabinet. Europe’, 3 April 1967.


122Alan S. MilwardAn inter<strong>de</strong>partmentally agreed memorandum on agriculture insi<strong>de</strong> the CommonMarket was produced by early April, but a statement ma<strong>de</strong> by the presi<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>of</strong> theBoard <strong>of</strong> Tra<strong>de</strong>, Douglas Jay, a strong opponent <strong>of</strong> entry into the Community, metwith attempts by the prime minister to <strong>de</strong>lay its presentation. Richard Crossman,the lea<strong>de</strong>r <strong>of</strong> the House <strong>of</strong> Commons, did keep notes and tells us,“Before very long the P.M. [prime minister] ma<strong>de</strong> a very important interventionwhich no doubt shortened the discussion. It had been suggested, he said, that weshould seek for transitional arrangements only but it was clear that if we accepted theC.A.P. as it stands we should be compelled to pay an outrageously big proportion <strong>of</strong>the levies. So we couldn’t just discuss transitional arrangements in any negotiation.We had to get some firm un<strong>de</strong>rstanding about the long-term policy. As stated in theCabinet minutes, this is a very important reservation which runs, ‘We should reserveour freedom to seek adjustments in agriculture going beyond transitionalarrangements’”. 7As for the report on the balance <strong>of</strong> payments, <strong>of</strong>ficials had to agree with one <strong>of</strong>Douglas Jay’s criticisms <strong>of</strong> it; it had quantified the disadvantageous effects <strong>of</strong> entryinto the Community with reasonable precision but its statement about thecountervailing advantages relied very heavily on unquantified and perhapsunquantifiable dynamic gains. Its assumptions about those gains were heavilyinfluenced by the dynamic gains from intra-tra<strong>de</strong> within the Common Market overthe twenty previous years. A substantial proportion <strong>of</strong> those gains was thought,partly on a basis <strong>of</strong> fact but more on a basis <strong>of</strong> economic reasoning, to have arisenfrom tra<strong>de</strong>-induced improvements in total factor productivity in manufacturing andconcomitant reductions in costs. On the assumption that Britain, after entry, wouldhave the same experience, and un<strong>de</strong>r another assumption that Britain’s entry wouldbegin with a transitional period starting with the year 1970, it would not be until1972 or 1973 that an annual balance <strong>of</strong> payments surplus greater than the oneenvisaged by the current economic policies would be required. No-one, includingthe critics <strong>of</strong> these assumptions, assumed instead that the high growth rates <strong>of</strong> tra<strong>de</strong>and GNP which had prevailed since 1945 would end and that 1972 would be, as itwas in reality to prove, a year <strong>of</strong> fundamental adjustment to lower long-termgrowth rates both <strong>of</strong> tra<strong>de</strong> and income. Nevertheless, in view <strong>of</strong> the risky vaguenessinherent in quantifying the future, the Treasury un<strong>de</strong>r-secretary for Finance, SirRobert Armstrong, gave it as his view that it would be impru<strong>de</strong>nt to join theCommunity un<strong>de</strong>r terms which would have a practical effect on the economybefore 1970. 8 This, <strong>of</strong> course, could only emphasise more clearly the importance <strong>of</strong>the link between ‘own resources’ and the CAP. “It would”, <strong>of</strong>ficials recommen<strong>de</strong>d,“for example, be in our interest to play a part in the negotiations regarding thefinancial arrangements for the CAP due to take place in 1969”. 97. R. CROSSMAN, The Diaries <strong>of</strong> a Cabinet Minister, vol.2, Hamish Hamilton and Jonathan Cape,London, 1976, p.318. Crossman records this meeting as taking place on 18 April 1967.8. PRO, CAB 130/316, MISC (67) 4, ‘The Effect <strong>of</strong> Entry into the EEC on the Economy and Balance<strong>of</strong> Payments <strong>of</strong> the United Kingdom’, 27 April 1967.9. PRO, CAB 130/316, MISC 143 (67) 5 th Meeting, 21 April 1967.


The Hague Conference <strong>of</strong> 1969 and the United Kingdom’s Accession 123The excessively ambitious nature <strong>of</strong> that comment, although it was at onceadopted by the Foreign secretary as the <strong>de</strong>sirable timetable and policy, needs nocomment here, for the application was soon to be vetoed by <strong>de</strong> Gaulle’s rejection <strong>of</strong>any negotiations. Even without that veto, French policy would not have veeredfrom its course <strong>of</strong> reaching agreement directly with Germany on the long-termprovision <strong>of</strong> ‘own resources’ based on the preservation <strong>of</strong> France’s already wonacquis. After <strong>de</strong> Gaulle’s <strong>de</strong>parture this was for Georges Pompidou a pre-requisiteto any agreement on Community expansion at the Hague summit. He said so in hisopening address to the summit. 10 The position as far as Britain was concerned,remained that the potential financial impact <strong>of</strong> that acquis on the United Kingdom’sbalance <strong>of</strong> payments must be adjusted in the entry negotiations on which they wereinsisting and for which a date must be set at the Hague summit. Any i<strong>de</strong>a thatBritain could itself be represented at the summit was swept asi<strong>de</strong> by France. If the<strong>de</strong>sired date was to be accor<strong>de</strong>d, it would have to be won through the agency <strong>of</strong> theNetherlands or Germany, with Italian support.During the first morning <strong>of</strong> the conference, so Gaston Thorn the Luxembourgprime minister reported, the Dutch foreign minister, Joseph Luns, who had beenexplicit in earlier talks with the British that his position was the reverse <strong>of</strong>Pompidou’s and that he would <strong>de</strong>mand a date for negotiations in return for hisagreement to ‘completion’, engaged in a vehement quarrel with the French foreignminister, Maurice Schumann; “ils s’engeulaient comme <strong>de</strong>s poissons pourris”. 11 Inthe ensuing break, Luns who had been explicit in earlier talks with the French that adate was essential to any agreement, wanted, according to Thorn, to break <strong>of</strong>f thesummit. He was, so Thorn thought, <strong>de</strong>manding a capitulation from Pompidou,when what was nee<strong>de</strong>d was to find a way in which the new French presi<strong>de</strong>nt did notlose too much face in front <strong>of</strong> his <strong>of</strong>ficials. After the summit was over, anotherBritish <strong>of</strong>ficial found himself sitting next to Luns on the TEE train from The Hagueto Brussels. Luns said that he had told the French that ratification <strong>of</strong> the agriculturalfinancial regulation had to be linked to starting the negotiations with Britain andthat this had forced Pompidou to accept that outcome. 12This may have been too self-satisfied a view. The <strong>de</strong>puty un<strong>de</strong>r-secretary forEuropean affairs <strong>of</strong> the German Foreign ministry, Dr. Frank, whom Foreignminister Willy Brandt sent to London immediately after the summit to reinforce hisown letter about what had happened there, agreed that the summit had been near tobreakdown by the end <strong>of</strong> the first day. He thought that it was the Germans in twoprivate conversations between Willy Brandt and Pompidou who had rescued it fromLuns’s intemperate behaviour. While refusing to accept Pompidou’s word <strong>of</strong>honour that negotiations with Britain would begin during 1970, because, as heclaimed, he could not go back to Bonn without a <strong>de</strong>finite date, Brandt <strong>of</strong>fered himthe way out by accepting the French proposals for the financial regulation <strong>of</strong> ‘own10. PRO, FCO 30/272, Telegramme 614, The Hague embassy to FCO, 1 December 1969.11. PRO, FCO 30/272, D.A. Malcolm to J.A. Robinson, 10 December 1969.12. Ibid., D. Cook to C. O’Neill, 3 December 1969.


124Alan S. Milwardresources’ on condition that the Bun<strong>de</strong>stag would ratify them only if the date fornegotiations, which could be named by the French after the summit, allowed thosenegotiations to start within six months after its close. 13 The same six months werethus the maximum time allowed for agreement on ‘completion’. But in return forthis agreement, Germany had been forced to accept that France should have a vetoon any subsequent alteration <strong>of</strong> the financial regulation <strong>of</strong> the CommonAgricultural Policy. It was, Frank said, the price that had to be paid for satisfactoryresults on other points, namely the opening <strong>of</strong> negotiations with Britain within thattime limit for its accession to the Community. Brandt, he ad<strong>de</strong>d, had ma<strong>de</strong> it clearthat the Bun<strong>de</strong>stag would not ratify the financial agreement unless <strong>de</strong>velopmentson other points agreed at the summit were satisfactory. 14There had been discussion between Pompidou and Brandt over the <strong>de</strong>fects <strong>of</strong>the Common Agricultural Policy. The British view <strong>of</strong> what had happened was thatBrandt had been swayed by the i<strong>de</strong>a that France was finding its acquis lesssatisfactory in terms <strong>of</strong> the whole economy than it had originally hoped. The CAPwas creating rigidities in French agriculture through maldistribution <strong>of</strong> its rewards.The ‘thank-you’ letter to Brandt, composed by the UK Foreign andCommonwealth Office was <strong>de</strong>layed for more than a week by Wilson, who wantedto write into it as far as was possible the ways in which the CAP might be changed.He also altered the Foreign Office phrase that the outcome <strong>of</strong> the summit was“encouraging” to “reasonably encouraging”. The discussions in the <strong>of</strong>ficialsessions <strong>of</strong> the summit were in<strong>de</strong>fatigably reported to London in numeroustelegrams each day by the embassy in The Hague and British <strong>of</strong>ficials, Wilson aswell, knew that the Dutch had argued throughout that the financial regulation foragriculture should be changeable if the Community was enlarged. Brandt’spressure for change had evi<strong>de</strong>ntly been less strong. Little or nothing emerged interms <strong>of</strong> domestic policy in France from Pompidou’s own musings on the CAP’s<strong>de</strong>fects.To what extent any early or substantial change in the operations <strong>of</strong> the CAP wasrealistic in French or German politics is not a question which has received muchanalysis up to the present. The disgruntled view <strong>of</strong> the Brandt-Pompidou <strong>de</strong>al takenby the Foreign and Commonwealth Office and by Wilson himself is probably bettertestimony to their anxieties about what for the most part were political realitieswhich it had never been within British power or influence to alter than to anyduplicity on Brandt’s part. It was Brandt who had won for them what they had mostwanted from the start <strong>of</strong> 1966, negotiations for entry. Frank saw Wilson after hismeeting with the Foreign secretary and was treated to the prime minister’s owncritical views on the CAP followed by a plea for more financial returns from it for13. Ibid., Record <strong>of</strong> a Conversation between the Foreign and Commonwealth Secretary and the <strong>de</strong>putyun<strong>de</strong>r-secretary for European affairs <strong>of</strong> the Foreign ministry <strong>of</strong> the FRG at No.1 Carlton Gar<strong>de</strong>nsat 9.15 a.m., 3 December 1969.14. Ibid.


The Hague Conference <strong>of</strong> 1969 and the United Kingdom’s Accession 125Britain. 15 The day after, John Robinson <strong>of</strong> the European Integration Department <strong>of</strong>the Foreign Office wrote to the embassy in Bonn that he had asked Frank directlyabout the precise nature <strong>of</strong> Germany’s threat not to ratify the Financial Regulationand that Frank’s answer was “disappointing”, because it seemed to indicate thatratification could be well un<strong>de</strong>r way in the Bun<strong>de</strong>stag by the middle <strong>of</strong> the year andcould go through so long as the negotiations with Britain had been started. 166 Itwould not be related to the outcome <strong>of</strong> these negotiations.The response to the <strong>de</strong>cisions taken at The Hague was not to change the Britishgovernment’s objections to what it saw as the economically dangerous injustice <strong>of</strong>the way ‘own resources’ would be financed, but only to shape its negotiating tacticsin such a fashion as to avoid until the last possible moment any reproach that it ha<strong>de</strong>ntered those negotiations with objections <strong>of</strong> principle to what had been reaffirmedat The Hague.Meeting on 5 May 1970 the Official Committee on the Approach to Europe,whose task was to gui<strong>de</strong> ministers in drawing up a negotiating brief, listened to theargument that the arrangements for financing Community expenditure wouldaccount for the largest part <strong>of</strong> the estimate <strong>of</strong> the possible cost <strong>of</strong> entry to thebalance <strong>of</strong> payments, as well as to the argument that agricultural surpluses in theCommunity were the result <strong>of</strong> mistakes in operating the CAP and that Britaintherefore would be in a strong position in arguing that it should not pay for thosemistakes. 17 The draft negotiating brief on those issues which the Committee drewup was <strong>de</strong>scribed as “extremely sensitive” and “only to be disclosed in the course<strong>of</strong> the forthcoming negotiations”. By 8 June, when the revision <strong>of</strong> that brief in thelight <strong>of</strong> that discussion was complete, the brief read,“but the figures in the preceding paragraphs are so large, and this element in thebalance <strong>of</strong> payments picture is so much the most important, that we shall clearlyhave to say to the Six that such a potential contribution is neither supportable norequitable”. 18The May meeting had in fact listened to suggestions that the word “equitable”should not be used to make a case in the negotiations and that it should be replacedby “tolerable”, but it had evi<strong>de</strong>ntly not accepted that suggestion.“No country” – the brief stated – “can be expected to carry a regular bur<strong>de</strong>n on itsbalance <strong>of</strong> payments <strong>of</strong> the or<strong>de</strong>r <strong>of</strong> £430 million per annum for the purpose <strong>of</strong>financing Community activities. Certainly none <strong>of</strong> the Six would have countenancedit for themselves when the Community was being set up, nor would any <strong>of</strong> them nowbe prepared for a moment to accept Community measures which could affect themin this way”.15. Ibid., Record <strong>of</strong> Conversation between the prime minister and Dr. Frank <strong>of</strong> the German Foreignministry at 12.30 p.m. on 3 December 1969.16. Ibid., J.A. Robinson (FCO) to F. Brooks Richards (Bonn embassy), 4 December 1969.17. PRO, CAB 134/2826, EURO (70), (3 rd Meeting), 25 May 1970.18. Ibid., EURO (70) 9 Revise, Negotiating Brief on Community Finance, 8 June 1970.


126Alan S. MilwardTo accept the cost bur<strong>de</strong>n and adapt the economy to meet it, the brief argued,would in fact increase the cost in resources above the amount <strong>of</strong> the transfer itselfand would“greatly minimise the prospect <strong>of</strong> securing the ‘dynamic’ advantages hoped for fromentry”. 19What could be done? Britain was likely to be asked at an early stage in thenegotiations whether it accepted the Financial Regulation which the Communityhad adopted. To succeed in gaining entry it would have to go as far as possible in itsreply to indicate its acceptance <strong>of</strong> it. After that, in the course <strong>of</strong> the negotiation, thetactics should be, the brief suggested, to insist that Britain’s contribution would belimited for “a very long period”. This was envisaged as a transitional period <strong>of</strong> fiveto six years followed by a further period <strong>of</strong> seven years over which Britain’scontribution from levies, duties, and taxes would be governed by a ‘corrective’. Thecorrective would be a stated limit to the amount by which Britain’s proportionatecontribution could rise above its basic key contribution. After those twelve tothirteen years there would have to be a review <strong>of</strong> the system <strong>of</strong> financing ‘ownresources’. 20 The implication <strong>of</strong> these negotiating tactics was that the UnitedKingdom would permanently escape from paying the bur<strong>de</strong>n which France hadsought to impose on it and which it would not, up to that point, have paid.This tactical approach to the negotiation was inherited by Edward Heath and theConservative Party after their narrow and unpredicted victory in the generalelection <strong>of</strong> 18 June 1970. The tone <strong>of</strong> Heath’s first serious cabinet discussion <strong>of</strong>negotiating procedures, held on 10 December 1970, reveals a government which,whatever the difference <strong>of</strong> personal attitu<strong>de</strong> <strong>of</strong> its lea<strong>de</strong>r towards the Community,was by that date still basing its tactics on the <strong>of</strong>ficial negotiating briefs drawn up forthe Wilson government. New Zealand’s export position and the provision <strong>of</strong>markets for colonial sugar producers were clouds <strong>of</strong> anxiety bigger than a man’shand, but the central and dominating issue remained the link between the CAP and‘own resources’. Heath’s ministers came to the same conclusions as Wilson’s aboutthe unreliableness <strong>of</strong> calculations <strong>of</strong> future advantage based on dynamic gains.Ge<strong>of</strong>frey Ripon, the chancellor <strong>of</strong> the Duchy <strong>of</strong> Lancaster, who was to be the head<strong>of</strong> the negotiating team, emphasised the need to insist on the right “at every point”to a review <strong>of</strong> Britain’s payments to the Community. Others thought a review at anypoint was an insufficient safeguard. The costs <strong>of</strong> entry, unless ameliorated, werevariously <strong>de</strong>scribed as requiring “drastic” or “severe” measures. 21 Twelve monthsafter the Hague summit the United Kingdom’s road to accession to the EuropeanCommunity, although the initial barrier to it had been opened, was strewn with asmany obstacles as in 1966.19. Ibid.20. Ibid.21. Cabinet secretary’s notebooks [Sir Burke Trend], 10 December 1970.


127Book reviews – Comptes rendus – BuchbesprechungenAlexandre WATTIN - Die <strong>de</strong>utsch-französischen Gipfeltreffen im Zeitraum 1991–2002,Europa-Union Verlag, Bonn, 2003, 224 p. – ISBN 3-7713-0615-9 – 23,50 €.Les fonctions d’Alexandre Wattin, prési<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>de</strong> l’Observatoire <strong>de</strong>s relations franco-alleman<strong>de</strong>spour la construction européenne, donnent déjà une indication sur la perspective <strong>de</strong> son livre. Sansnégliger et oublier la dimension bilatérale, la relation franco-alleman<strong>de</strong> constitue pour lui, et àjuste titre, un laboratoire <strong>de</strong> la construction européenne. C’est dans ce cadre que le livre <strong>de</strong> Wattins’intéresse aux sommets franco-allemands ayant eu lieu après la réunification alleman<strong>de</strong>, le 3octobre 1990.Après la préface <strong>de</strong> Karl-Heinz Ben<strong>de</strong>r (Université <strong>de</strong> Trèves) et l’introduction, retraçant– parfois <strong>de</strong> façon hasar<strong>de</strong>use – presque dix siècles <strong>de</strong> relations franco-alleman<strong>de</strong>s, unpremier chapitre est consacré au traité <strong>de</strong> l’Elysée <strong>de</strong> 1963. Ce <strong>de</strong>rnier comprend le texte dutraité et un commentaire <strong>de</strong> celui-ci. Dans un <strong>de</strong>uxième chapitre, l’auteur propose quelqueslignes intéressantes sur le déroulement concret <strong>de</strong>s sommets franco-allemands, après avoirtenté quelques considérations générales sur les sommets. On ne saurait toutefois le suivredans son cheminement qui conclue à l’absence <strong>de</strong> «concurrence» <strong>de</strong>s sommetsfranco-britanniques ou franco-espagnols pour les sommets franco-allemands. Les rapportsfranco-allemands, pour privilégiés qu’ils doivent être, ne sauraient prétendre au monopole età une pratique concurrentielle <strong>de</strong>s rapports diplomatiques.Les chapitres suivants nous font entrer dans le vif du sujet. Cependant, ils ne parviennentpas à se dégager d’une analyse linéaire et fastidieuse, sommet par sommet. Le cœur du livre- moins <strong>de</strong> cent pages - consiste en effet à présenter pour chaque sommet <strong>de</strong> la pério<strong>de</strong>considérée une courte analyse (rarement plus <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>ux ou trois pages). Celle-ci se fait selon<strong>de</strong>s rubriques définies et i<strong>de</strong>ntiques: contexte, questions d’actualités, questions européennes,thèmes bilatéraux et résumé. Pour éviter <strong>de</strong>s paragraphes trop maigres, les questionsd’actualités sont parfois regroupées avec les questions européennes. Ce découpage, pourcommo<strong>de</strong> qu’il paraisse, n’évite cependant pas les redites et donne souvent au propos unecertaine confusion. Cette métho<strong>de</strong> a certes l’avantage <strong>de</strong> procurer au lecteur une sorte <strong>de</strong>brève fiche sur chaque sommet et fait en quelque sorte <strong>de</strong> ce livre un outil <strong>de</strong> travail. Maistrop souvent son intérêt s’arrête à cette fonction. On recherche en vain l’analyse transversale<strong>de</strong>s sommets <strong>de</strong> cette pério<strong>de</strong> ou encore une hiérarchisation <strong>de</strong> ceux-ci. Quels ont-été, sur lapério<strong>de</strong> 1991 - 2002, les sommets ou les thèmes marquants? Le lecteur doit lui-même puiserdans sa mémoire et dans les quelques indications factuelles surgissant au fil <strong>de</strong> la lecturepour reconstruire cette histoire immédiate. Le détail <strong>de</strong>s résolutions, <strong>de</strong>s avancées ou <strong>de</strong>sexplications sur un élément important d’un sommet se retrouvent <strong>de</strong> surcroît très souventdans <strong>de</strong> longues notes regroupées en fin d’ouvrage – ce qui en rend la lecture difficile. Onest ainsi étonné <strong>de</strong> retrouver développé dans une note, un élément aussi important que ladécision <strong>de</strong> fon<strong>de</strong>r l’Eurocorps, prise au sommet <strong>de</strong> La Rochelle en mai 1992! Par ailleurs,certains points auraient mérité que l’on s’y attar<strong>de</strong> d’avantage. C’est par exemple le cas pourla mo<strong>de</strong>rnisation <strong>de</strong> l’organisation <strong>de</strong>s sommets décidée au sommet <strong>de</strong> Toulouse en mai1999. L’assouplissement <strong>de</strong> l’ordre du jour présente-t-elle l’unique mesure <strong>de</strong>mo<strong>de</strong>rnisation? Plus important pour la dimension européenne, le sommet <strong>de</strong> Vittel, ennovembre 2000, reste lui aussi sans relief particulier dans l’analyse. Sa présentation ici nepermet que trop peu <strong>de</strong> comprendre l’échec et les divergences franco-alleman<strong>de</strong>s lors dusommet européen <strong>de</strong> Nice. Plus globalement, si cet ensemble <strong>de</strong> fiches permet <strong>de</strong> suivresommet par sommet la température <strong>de</strong>s relations franco-alleman<strong>de</strong>s et d’en recenser lespoints discordants (la réforme <strong>de</strong> la PAC et plus largement du budget <strong>de</strong> l’Union, le


128Book reviews – Comptes rendus – Buchbesprechungenfédéralisme et les problèmes liés à l’élargissement), le livre n’essaye que trop peu <strong>de</strong> lesexpliquer ou <strong>de</strong> les ordonner en divergences conjoncturelles ou fondamentales. Ainsi, larupture <strong>de</strong> la fin 1995 dont l’auteur se sert pour organiser cet ensemble en <strong>de</strong>ux chapitres estinsuffisamment justifiée et paraît quelque peu artificielle. Certes, l’Allemagne a après lemilieu <strong>de</strong>s années 1990 pris <strong>de</strong> l’assurance et la spécificité <strong>de</strong> la relation franco-alleman<strong>de</strong>est peut-être posée. Mais cette date est-elle vraiment opératoire? Est-ce une rupture à longterme? A-t-on aujourd’hui déjà les clés pour l’affirmer? Enfin, approximation <strong>de</strong> traductionou formulation maladroite, on regrettera, à la page 75, la phrase: «Pour la première fois<strong>de</strong>puis 50 ans <strong>de</strong>s soldats allemands défilèrent sur les Champs-Elysées» à propos <strong>de</strong>l’invitation <strong>de</strong>s troupes alleman<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> l’Eurocorps à participer au défilé du 14 juillet 1994.Hormis ces faiblesses, le livre <strong>de</strong> Wattin permet cependant <strong>de</strong> revenir sur un peu plusd’une décennie <strong>de</strong> relations franco-alleman<strong>de</strong>s. Que la culture, la jeunesse et l’éducationaient souvent été <strong>de</strong>s moteurs importants du couple se trouve ici attesté une nouvelle fois.Néanmoins, la progression sommet par sommet montre combien ces acquis, qui paraissentsimples et consensuels, sont parfois longs et difficiles à obtenir, comme par exemplel’obtention du baccalauréat français couplée à celle <strong>de</strong> l’Abitur allemand. Mais ici aussicette lenteur n’est que trop peu expliquée. Certainement, l’opposition <strong>de</strong>s systèmesd’organisation administratifs (centralisme jacobin contre fédéralisme) explique-t-il icibeaucoup <strong>de</strong> choses. Comment finaliser rapi<strong>de</strong>ment <strong>de</strong>s accords dans les domaines <strong>de</strong>l’éducation et <strong>de</strong> la culture alors que l’on doit faire face à une compétence <strong>de</strong>s Etats fédérés?L’élément important <strong>de</strong> ces sommets <strong>de</strong>puis 1991 rési<strong>de</strong> cependant non seulement dansle fait qu’on a poursuivi le rapprochement <strong>de</strong>s déci<strong>de</strong>urs politiques, mais également que l’ona entamé un rapprochement <strong>de</strong>s diplomaties dans leur ensemble, c’est-à-dire aussi <strong>de</strong>sadministrations diplomatiques. Les programmes d’échanges <strong>de</strong> fonctionnaires, d’apprentissagerenforcé <strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>ux langues dans les administrations diplomatiques, la délégation aupartenaire <strong>de</strong> compétences en matière <strong>de</strong> représentation ou <strong>de</strong> délivrance <strong>de</strong> visas dans certainspays: tout cela symbolise, au <strong>de</strong>là du franco-allemand, l’union <strong>de</strong> vue qu’il existe entreles <strong>de</strong>ux pays sur le renforcement nécessaire <strong>de</strong> la PESC. Le livre permet enfin <strong>de</strong> rappelerque les sommets <strong>de</strong> cette <strong>de</strong>rnière décennie ont aussi tenté d’ouvrir <strong>de</strong> nouvelles voies durapprochement, moins connues mais essentielles au rapprochement <strong>de</strong>s sociétés: la luttecontre le racisme et la xénophobie, la possibilité <strong>de</strong> faire son service civil dans l’un <strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>uxpays ou la réflexion sur une coordination du droit pénal.Somme toute, il s’agit ici d’un livre posant les jalons d’une histoire immédiate encore àécrire. Celle-ci est fondamentale pour apporter aux déci<strong>de</strong>urs le recul nécessaire qui leurpermettrait d’aller encore plus loin. Les lecteurs non germanophones <strong>de</strong>vraient trouver dans10 ans <strong>de</strong> sommets franco-allemands 1990-2000 édité à Nice en 2002 aux éditions Alandisun ouvrage comparable sinon i<strong>de</strong>ntique.Bernard LudwigUniversités <strong>de</strong> Paris I et <strong>de</strong> Cergy-PontoiseJulien JORDA, Le pouvoir exécutif <strong>de</strong> l’Union européenne, Presses Universitairesd’Aix-Marseille, Aix-Marseille, 2001, 687 p. – ISBN 2-7314-0231-8 – 220,00 Frs. français.Does a genuine executive power <strong>of</strong> the European Union exist? And if it exists, does it evolvein a <strong>de</strong>mocratic context in the sense <strong>of</strong> Montesquieu’s theory? It is this issue that JulienJorda sets out to explore. The book has been submitted in 2001 to the faculty <strong>of</strong> law andpolitical science at the University <strong>of</strong> Aix-Marseille as a doctoral thesis. The preface iswritten by Pr<strong>of</strong>essor Philippe Manin <strong>of</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Paris I.


Book reviews – Comptes rendus – Buchbesprechungen 129The author begins with an historical overview <strong>of</strong> the notion <strong>of</strong> executive power. Hefocuses on Montesquieu’s theory and especially on the i<strong>de</strong>a <strong>of</strong> “check and balance”. This isfollowed by an attempt to find a <strong>de</strong>finition <strong>of</strong> “executive power” through the observation <strong>of</strong>the executives <strong>of</strong> the Member States <strong>of</strong> the Union. Jorda argues that it is possible to i<strong>de</strong>ntifyan executive function stricto sensu, which corresponds to administrative activity, and awi<strong>de</strong>r function, which would be more normative and governmental. He therefore poses thequestion whether such an executive power exists at the European level.He divi<strong>de</strong>s his analysis in two parts. In the first part, the author highlights that the firstcharacteristic <strong>of</strong> the Union’s executive power is its double split-up among Europeaninstitutions on one hand (section I) and between European institutions and Member Stateson the other (section II). Chapter I <strong>of</strong> section I provi<strong>de</strong>s an in-<strong>de</strong>pth analysis <strong>of</strong> comitologyand particularly <strong>of</strong> the new comitology <strong>de</strong>cision <strong>of</strong> 1999, while chapter II <strong>de</strong>als with theadministrative execution, making a distinction between “external” and “internal”community administration, the former consisting namely <strong>of</strong> EC competition law, the lattermostly concerning staff matters. Jorda argues that the essence <strong>of</strong> the Union’s executivepower can only be un<strong>de</strong>rstood through comitology. Not only does it show the variablecharacter <strong>of</strong> this power, but it also highlights its transnational quality. Section II puts theaccent on this particular issue. In the first chapter <strong>of</strong> this section the author focuses on thenature <strong>of</strong> national authorities’ executive power in the context <strong>of</strong> EC law. Particular attentionis paid to the principle <strong>of</strong> co-operation between Member States and the EC established inarticle 10 ECT. Chapter II <strong>of</strong> section II highlights the difficulties which Member Statesencounter in executing European law. Jorda’s analysis shows that Member States’ executivepowers are residual, <strong>de</strong>pend, however, on the legislative instruments ma<strong>de</strong> by the Europeaninstitutions. He conclu<strong>de</strong>s the first part <strong>of</strong> the book arguing that the executive power <strong>of</strong> theUnion varies greatly and can belong to the European institutions, the national authoritiesand, in certain cases, also to some local authorities.The second part <strong>of</strong> the book is based on the view that the tasks which are assigned to theUnion at present are not sufficient to create a genuine Union’s executive power, neitherstricto senso nor in its broa<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong>finition. Jorda bases his analysis on two main arguments.First, he argues that the Union has an insufficient monitoring on its powers (section I).Chapter I concentrates on the imperfections <strong>of</strong> the political monitoring, focusing on theroles played by the European and national parliaments. Chapter II discusses the juridicalmonitoring, which the author consi<strong>de</strong>rs to be incomplete. Jorda’s second argument refers tothe pillar structure <strong>of</strong> the Union. He argues that the Union’s executive function is stillunachieved because <strong>of</strong> its heterogeneity. He i<strong>de</strong>ntifies three main areas where thisphenomenon is particularly clear: the economical and monetary field, the second and thirdpillars and the external action <strong>of</strong> the Union. A <strong>de</strong>tailed analysis <strong>of</strong> the role played by eachinstitution and the Member States in those areas follows. In the third chapter Jorda claimsthat the difficulties connected to the <strong>de</strong>limitation <strong>of</strong> competencies between Union andMember States and the absence <strong>of</strong> a clear distinction in the Treaty between legislative an<strong>de</strong>xecutive instruments are a clear <strong>de</strong>ficiency <strong>of</strong> executive power. He conclu<strong>de</strong>s his analysisby restating his un<strong>de</strong>rlying theme, namely that the executive power <strong>of</strong> the Union isunachieved, and by suggesting that if this is due to the specific nature <strong>of</strong> the Union the<strong>de</strong>velopment <strong>of</strong> this concept will <strong>de</strong>pend on the European evolution.On the whole this book constitutes a valuable reference for rea<strong>de</strong>rs interested in this quitecomplicated topic. The law practitioners should not be too intimidated by the longtheoretical introduction. The core part <strong>of</strong> the book is well-structured and the author analysesin <strong>de</strong>tail many aspects <strong>of</strong> European institutional law. His analysis is interesting andintelligent but the speed at which European law evolves make some arguments soundalready obsolete. The work <strong>of</strong> the Convention will perhaps bring more precision to the


130Book reviews – Comptes rendus – Buchbesprechungendistribution <strong>of</strong> executive functions between the Union and its members (see articles 10 IIand 36 <strong>of</strong> Part I <strong>of</strong> the Draft Constitution).Nevertheless, on the whole, the book has the merit <strong>of</strong> making a contribution to the betterun<strong>de</strong>rstanding <strong>of</strong> the interaction between European institutions and Member States at theEuropean level.Roland Bieber and Micaela VaeriniUniversity <strong>of</strong> LausanneMark KLEINMAN – A European Welfare State? European Union social policy in context,Palgrave, Hampshire, 2002, 346 p. – ISBN 0-333-69892-4 – 15,99 £.Pr<strong>of</strong>esseur <strong>de</strong> politique sociale comparée à l’Université <strong>de</strong> Bristol nommé en février <strong>de</strong>rnierà la tête <strong>de</strong> la nouvelle Housing and Homelessness Unit auprès du Maire <strong>de</strong> Londres, MarkKleinman est un théoricien autant qu’un praticien <strong>de</strong>s politiques publiques. Autant dire quela question d’un Etat Provi<strong>de</strong>nce européen ne relève pas à ses yeux d’une quelconquemétaphysique, mais bien du «contexte» économique et institutionnel <strong>de</strong> l’Union européennetelle qu’elle s’intègre et qu’on la construit.La double interrogation au cœur <strong>de</strong> son ouvrage – le «modèle social européen»existe-t-il? Un Etat Provi<strong>de</strong>nce européen peut-il l’incarner? – est ainsi, naturellement, à lacroisée <strong>de</strong>s analyses positive et normative. Le grand mérite <strong>de</strong> celui-ci est précisément <strong>de</strong> nejamais renoncer à son ambition didactique tout en acceptant <strong>de</strong> prendre le risque <strong>de</strong> lacritique et <strong>de</strong> la proposition.A l’heure où le caractère réel, possible et souhaitable d’un «modèle social européen» estmis au centre <strong>de</strong>s travaux <strong>de</strong> la Commission européenne, le débat ouvert et nourri parKleinman peut être synthétisé sous la forme d’un triangle <strong>de</strong>s compatibilités oud’incompatibilité – selon que l’on souscrive ou non aux vues <strong>de</strong> l’auteur – dont les sommetsseraient formés par les politiques sociales nationales, la politique sociale communautaire etl’intégration économique et institutionnelle <strong>de</strong> l’UE. C’est dans ce cadre que, selon lui, sejouera l’avenir <strong>de</strong>s politiques sociales européennes.Mark Kleinman commence par faire justice <strong>de</strong> la vogue académique du reflux, voire dudéclin, <strong>de</strong> l’Etat Provi<strong>de</strong>nce, désormais sommé <strong>de</strong> rendre les armes <strong>de</strong>vant une «mondialisation»qui paralyserait autant qu’elle uniformiserait. Préalable obligé et réducteur à tant <strong>de</strong>travaux actuels sur l’avenir du «modèle social européen», il obscurcit plus qu’il n’en éclaireles enjeux. Car autant qu’à la supposée mécanique <strong>de</strong> convergence à l’œuvre pendant lesTrente Glorieuses, les Etats Provi<strong>de</strong>nce européens ont résisté à celle qu’induirait la mondialisation.L’argument, repris et développé plus loin dans l’ouvrage, mérité d’être ici appr<strong>of</strong>ondi: l’idéeselon laquelle l’intensification <strong>de</strong>s échanges <strong>de</strong> biens, <strong>de</strong> services, <strong>de</strong> travail et <strong>de</strong> capitalconduirait inexorablement au nivellement par le bas («race to the bottom») <strong>de</strong>s protectionssociales en général et <strong>de</strong> celles dispensées par les Etats Provi<strong>de</strong>nce européens en particulier est <strong>de</strong>même nature que le sophisme protectionniste <strong>de</strong> la «guerre économique mondiale». C’est <strong>de</strong> ladiversité, qui se prolonge en spécialisations mutuellement avantageuses, que naît l’échangelibrement consenti. Il serait donc curieux que l’intensification <strong>de</strong> l’échange aboutisse àl’uniformité contrainte. Le constat empirique est à cet égard d’une singulière netteté en Europe:alors que la mondialisation <strong>de</strong>s économies n’a cessé <strong>de</strong> monter en régime <strong>de</strong>puis <strong>de</strong>ux décennies,les modèles sociaux les plus développés s’y sont maintenus et les plus embryonnaires s’y sont<strong>de</strong>nsifiés. Et pour cause: si la diversité <strong>de</strong>s modèles sociaux a la vie dure sur notre continent, c’estqu’elle résulte <strong>de</strong> la diversité <strong>de</strong>s préférences collectives <strong>de</strong> ses habitants.


Book reviews – Comptes rendus – Buchbesprechungen 131Une fois cette «diversité légitime» – pour reprendre l’expression <strong>de</strong> Fritz. W. Scharpf –mise en lumière, l’auteur s’efforce <strong>de</strong> l’étayer en se pliant à la figure imposée <strong>de</strong> la <strong>revue</strong>typologique <strong>de</strong>s différents «produits» ce qu’il nomme, non sans malice, le «welfaremo<strong>de</strong>lling business». Le souci pédagogique, une fois n’est pas coutume, l’emporte alors surle tranchant <strong>de</strong> l’analyse: l’auteur détaille longuement les critères <strong>de</strong>s quatre modèlessociaux européens repérés dans une littérature abondante tout en résistant vertueusement, ilest vrai, à la tentation d’apporter sa propre contribution à l’édifice.La démonstration reprend par cette affirmation éclairante: compte tenu <strong>de</strong> la diversité <strong>de</strong>sEtats Provi<strong>de</strong>nce européens, toute politique sociale intégrée ne peut avoir pour ambition <strong>de</strong>faire advenir un monolithique «modèle social européen» (dont on aura compris que l’auteurne l’a pas rencontré au cours <strong>de</strong> ses recherches). Comment, dès lors, dans le contexte <strong>de</strong> laphase actuelle <strong>de</strong> mondialisation, concevoir la coexistence pacifique et fécon<strong>de</strong> d’unepolitique sociale communautaire émergente et <strong>de</strong> politiques sociales nationales vivaces?Ce qui confère véritablement à l’ouvrage un avantage comparatif sur ses concurrents,c’est que, pour répondre à cette question, il s’attache en ses <strong>de</strong>rniers chapitres à replacer lapolitique sociale au cœur du «triangle européen». Symptomatique, dans sa laborieuseélaboration, d’une Europe qui hésite toujours à franchir le pas du politique, cette <strong>de</strong>rnière enest également tributaire dans sa mise en œuvre, qui relève du système inédit <strong>de</strong>gouvernement éclaté <strong>de</strong> l’Union européenne. L’auteur rappelle ainsi que si lanon-construction <strong>de</strong> l’Europe sociale, conçue comme un produit dérivé <strong>de</strong> l’intégrationéconomique dans le Traité <strong>de</strong> Rome, était inspirée par le pari néo-fonctionnaliste, cettestratégie est aujourd’hui en échec: la convergence économique s’est accompagnée <strong>de</strong> ladivergence sociale. C’est donc plus que jamais le souci <strong>de</strong> coordination, plutôt qued’harmonisation, qui doit gui<strong>de</strong>r l’action <strong>de</strong>s responsables européens.Si Mark Kleinman a raison d’insister sur l’ambiguïté originelle <strong>de</strong> l’Europe sociale – quin’est, à dire vrai, qu’une déclinaison <strong>de</strong> celle du projet européen tout entier – prétendantréconcilier, comme par enchantement, les exigences <strong>de</strong> compétitivité, d’équité et <strong>de</strong>solidarité, il en omet bizarrement les développements les plus récents. Le sommet <strong>de</strong>Lisbonne (23 et 24 mars 2000), à l’issue duquel l’UE a défini son «nouvel objectifstratégique» («<strong>de</strong>venir l’économie <strong>de</strong> la connaissance la plus compétitive et la plusdynamique du mon<strong>de</strong>, capable d’une croissance économique durable accompagnée d’uneamélioration quantitative et qualitative <strong>de</strong> l’emploi et d’une plus gran<strong>de</strong> cohésion sociale»),affirmé pour l’atteindre son ambition <strong>de</strong> «mo<strong>de</strong>rniser le modèle social européen» et proposépour ce faire «une nouvelle métho<strong>de</strong> ouverte <strong>de</strong> coordination», passe ainsi totalement à latrappe <strong>de</strong> son argumentation (l’ouvrage ayant pourtant été achevé en février 2001). Il s’yintégrerait parfaitement: c’est l’acte <strong>de</strong> naissance <strong>de</strong> la doctrine, au <strong>de</strong>meurant discutable,<strong>de</strong>s instances communautaires visant à «réconcilier l’économique et le social». Cetteambition ne doit d’ailleurs rien au hasard: la monnaie unique portait en germe une nouvelleexigence sociale.L’auteur a en effet raison d’insister sur ce point: avec ou sans projet explicite, l’Europesociale est en marche, dès lors que les Etats membres ont décidé d’adopter l’euro. Mais c’estpour lui, pour l’heure, une Europe sociale par défaut, en creux, qui se construit à laremorque d’une intégration économique dont elle ne fait que subir et répercuter lecontrecoup. Or, l’UE, durablement marquée par le chômage <strong>de</strong> masse et l’exclusion commele montre le chapitre consacré à ces <strong>de</strong>ux fléaux contemporains, ne peut pas se contenter <strong>de</strong>faire, pour ainsi dire, l’économie du social.Ici, sans doute, les risques que fait peser la concurrence fiscalo-sociale – et non,seulement, <strong>de</strong> «dumping social» – sur les moyens et les finalités <strong>de</strong>s modèles européens et,du même coup, leur pluralisme, auraient pu être davantage exposés (les travaux <strong>de</strong> Tiéboutont par exemple été laissés <strong>de</strong> côté). De même, les références classiques aux travaux <strong>de</strong>Balassa et Mun<strong>de</strong>ll, dont le contenu est à juste titre développé à partir <strong>de</strong> sources <strong>de</strong> secon<strong>de</strong>


132Book reviews – Comptes rendus – Buchbesprechungenmain, sont curieusement absentes <strong>de</strong> la bibliographie. Le constat d’ensemble <strong>de</strong>meure:l’Europe sociale, contingente dans ses modalités, est nécessaire dans son principe.Comment alors envisager ses contours futurs? Aux yeux <strong>de</strong> Mark Kleinman, si elle semanifeste aujourd’hui principalement par son pouvoir régulateur, elle <strong>de</strong>vra impérativementrenouer avec l’objectif <strong>de</strong> plein-emploi, périlleusement subordonné aux objectifsintermédiaires d’équilibre <strong>de</strong>s finances publiques et <strong>de</strong> stabilité monétaire <strong>de</strong>puis le Traité<strong>de</strong> Maastricht, en tirant le meilleur parti <strong>de</strong> la gouvernance décentralisée («multilevelgovernance») qui la caractérise.Elle pourrait alors <strong>de</strong>venir le support, en même temps que le vecteur, d’une véritablecitoyenneté européenne, dont les traits <strong>de</strong>meurent bien flous. C’est dans le cadre plus large<strong>de</strong> l’abandon <strong>de</strong> l’utopie néo-fonctionnaliste que l’Europe sociale pourrait <strong>de</strong>venir le socle –le cheval <strong>de</strong> Troie? – <strong>de</strong> l’Europe politique. Les questions <strong>de</strong> responsabilité démocratique,<strong>de</strong> transparence et <strong>de</strong> légitimité <strong>de</strong>viendraient alors naturellement <strong>de</strong> première importance.On se contentera <strong>de</strong> déplorer que les travaux <strong>de</strong> la Convention européenne n’aient permisque peu d’avancées sur ce long et sinueux chemin.L’enjeu <strong>de</strong> l’Europe sociale, finement problématisé par Kleinman, n’en <strong>de</strong>vient que pluscrucial: il conditionne à la fois la nature du projet commun <strong>de</strong>s Etats membres <strong>de</strong> l’Union etsa valeur distinctive dans un mon<strong>de</strong> ouvert et pressant. A condition d’être activé, ilconstituerait, en somme, une amorce <strong>de</strong> réponse concrète à la question fuyante <strong>de</strong> l’i<strong>de</strong>ntitéeuropéenne.Éloi LaurentObservatoire français <strong>de</strong>s conjonctures économiquesInstitut d’étu<strong>de</strong>s politiques <strong>de</strong> ParisBen ROSAMUND - Theories <strong>of</strong> European Integration, Palgrave, Houndsmills, New York2000, 232 p. – ISBN 0-333-64717-3. – 15,99 £.Die theoretische Reflektion über die europäische Integration ist so alt wie diese selbst. DieTheorien <strong>de</strong>r Integration verdanken ihre Anstöße verän<strong>de</strong>rten historischen Kontexten, zumguten Teil folgen sie jedoch inneraka<strong>de</strong>mischen Gesetzmäßigkeiten. Ben Rosamund hat sichmit seiner Übersicht eine wissenssoziologische Aufgabe gestellt. Die Theorien wer<strong>de</strong>n invier Dimensionen vorgestellt – immanent als Diskurs um die Stichhaltigkeit vonGrundannahmen und Argumentationsmustern, als Reflex genereller intellektueller Kontexte,als Verarbeitung beobachtbarer Wirklichkeit und schließlich als normativ aufgela<strong>de</strong>neVorstellungen um die Finalität <strong>de</strong>s europäischen Integrationsprozesses.Lässt man die 50 Jahre Integrationstheorien Revue passieren, dann fällt die Dominanz amerikanischerund britischer Autoren auf, seit gut einem Jahrzehnt ergänzt durch <strong>de</strong>utsche Beiträge.Die Theorien haben sich, ähnlich <strong>de</strong>r Europäischen Gemeinschaft bzw. Union, inkrementalistischentwickelt, wobei <strong>de</strong>r Anspruch auf „Großtheorien“ umso mehr zurückwich, je komplexerdie EU selbst wur<strong>de</strong>. Alle Theorien haben sich, wenn auch mit unterschiedlichen Gewichtungen,drei Fragen gewidmet – <strong>de</strong>n Triebkräften <strong>de</strong>r Integration, <strong>de</strong>r Verallgemeinerbarkeit <strong>de</strong>r Integrationsmodi(also <strong>de</strong>r Theoriefähigkeit <strong>de</strong>r EU) sowie <strong>de</strong>n Merkmalen, Dynamiken und Folgenpolitischer Prozesse innerhalb <strong>de</strong>r Union. Während die Anfänge <strong>de</strong>r Integrationstheorien (Ne<strong>of</strong>unktionalismusund Transaktionstheorie) nach <strong>de</strong>n Voraussetzungen für Frie<strong>de</strong>n durch Integrationfragten haben sich nachfolgen<strong>de</strong> Beiträge auf beobachtbare Prozesse und Akteure kapriziert,weniger auf anonyme Systemeigenschaften o<strong>de</strong>r erstrebte bzw. erwartbare Ergebnisse. Vereinfachtgesprochen lässt sich eine spiralförmige Entwicklung <strong>de</strong>r Integrationstheorien beobachten.Beginnend mit <strong>de</strong>m ökonomischen und zugleich staatskritischen (Neo-)Funktionalismus(Mitrany, Haas, Lindberg) folgt – in Reaktion auf <strong>de</strong> Gaulle – eine Wen<strong>de</strong> zum Inter-


Book reviews – Comptes rendus – Buchbesprechungen 133gouvernementalismus. Eine <strong>de</strong>r Grundfragen <strong>de</strong>r europäischen Integration wird spätestens seitMitte <strong>de</strong>r sechziger Jahre nur noch variiert, ob nämlich die Integration <strong>de</strong>n Intergouvernementalismusbewahrt o<strong>de</strong>r vielmehr zu einem autonomen supranationalen Regierungssystem führt.Bei<strong>de</strong> Ansätze differenzierten sich erheblich aus und reagierten auf Einwän<strong>de</strong> bis eine neue Generationgleichsam „ausstieg“ und das politische System <strong>de</strong>r EU als Phänomen sui generis bzw.im Vergleich zu nationalstaatlichen Politikmodi zu studieren begann – z.B. als „Mehrebenensystem“,„Netzwerk“ o<strong>de</strong>r Konkordanz<strong>de</strong>mokratie. Jüngste Theorieanstrengungen wie<strong>de</strong>rum reflektierendie konstruktivistische Herausfor<strong>de</strong>rung klassischer Denkschulen (vor allem <strong>de</strong>s Neorealismusund Institutionalismus). Die neuen Reflektionsweisen spiegeln die Ergänzung, wennnicht gar Verdrängung <strong>de</strong>r Disziplin „Internationale Beziehungen“ (samt ihrer alten Grabenkämpfe)durch die „Vergleichen<strong>de</strong> Politikwissenschaft“.Einige Theorien wer<strong>de</strong>n von Rosamund reichlich knapp behan<strong>de</strong>lt, so etwa dieFö<strong>de</strong>ralismustheorien o<strong>de</strong>r die Kritik <strong>de</strong>s Neorealismus am Institutionenglauben. An<strong>de</strong>re, soz.B. Karl Deutsch’s „Sicherheitsgemeinschaften“, die Inter<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nztheorien und marxistischeInterpretationen, wer<strong>de</strong>n in<strong>de</strong>ssen zu recht als kontextnahe Beiträge ohne dauerhafteOrganisationskraft vorgestellt. Rosamund neigt einer supranationalen Sicht bzw. <strong>de</strong>m liberalenIntergouvernementalismus (A. Moravcsik) zu, hält sich jedoch mit werten<strong>de</strong>n Urteilenbzw. einer eigenen Position zurück. Er präsentiert Theorien, diskutiert sie immanent undstellt sie in ihren jeweiligen historisch-aka<strong>de</strong>mischen Kontext. Aus <strong>de</strong>r Diskussion wirdfreilich keine eigene Interpretation o<strong>de</strong>r ein Fazit entwickelt – bis auf die Absage an eineeinzige Integrationstheorie. EU-Studien sollten sich als Teil allgemeiner sozialwissenschaftlicherFragestellungen und Metho<strong>de</strong>n begreifen, nicht als Disziplin an und für sich.Im Unterschied zu mancher politikwissenschaftlichen Simplifizierung konkurrieren<strong>de</strong>rAnsätze bietet Rosamund eine <strong>de</strong>taillierte, auf gewissenhafter Lektüre basieren<strong>de</strong> und vorallem faire Zusammenschau. Gegenüber Jungaka<strong>de</strong>mikern, die Pauschalkritik an konkurrieren<strong>de</strong>nAnsätzen bisweilen schon für einen Ausweis <strong>de</strong>r Originalität halten, plädiertRosamund für eine Hinwendung zu <strong>de</strong>n Quellen, und zwar sowohl <strong>de</strong>n theoretischen wie<strong>de</strong>n archivalischen. Grundi<strong>de</strong>en <strong>de</strong>s viel geschmähten Ne<strong>of</strong>unktionalismus fin<strong>de</strong>n sich so(laut Rotermund) selbst in jüngsten Ansätzen wie<strong>de</strong>r, etwa bei <strong>de</strong>r Betonung autonomerinnergesellschaftlicher Akteure, <strong>de</strong>r sektoralen Integration und <strong>de</strong>r Grundi<strong>de</strong>e <strong>de</strong>s„spill-over“.Der Band ergänzt vortrefflich jene zahllosen Darstellungen, die sich auf das politischeSystem <strong>de</strong>r EU konzentrieren. Beson<strong>de</strong>rs für Stu<strong>de</strong>nten im Grund- und Hauptstudium,Praktiker, die nicht nur Bäume, son<strong>de</strong>rn <strong>de</strong>n Wald sehen wollen, und Journalisten ist <strong>de</strong>rBand geeignet, sich mit Argumentationsmustern und <strong>de</strong>ren wechselseitigen Bezugzuverlässig vertraut zu machen.PD Dr. Andreas Heinemann-Grü<strong>de</strong>rLehrbeauftragter an <strong>de</strong>r Universität KölnSenior Researcher am International Center for Conversation, BonnAlbert LEDENT et Philippe BURNY – La politique agricole commune <strong>de</strong>s origines au3ème millénaire, Les Presses Agronomiques <strong>de</strong> Gembloux (Belgique), Gembloux, 2002,600 p. – ISBN 2-87016-066-6 – 30 €.The ambition <strong>of</strong> the authors <strong>of</strong> this 600-page volume is to give an overall view <strong>of</strong> theCommon Agricultural Policy (CAP), its mechanisms and its evolution. They <strong>of</strong>fer anassessment <strong>of</strong> the CAP at the dawn <strong>of</strong> the 3d millennium. Their presentation is based on achronological and thematic approach, which has allowed them to realize a chiefly economicand technical work inten<strong>de</strong>d for informed rea<strong>de</strong>rs. Information given on the <strong>de</strong>velopments


134Book reviews – Comptes rendus – Buchbesprechungen<strong>of</strong> the CAP doesn’t rest on a real historical analysis <strong>of</strong> the main European economic policy,but is most <strong>of</strong>ten restricted to observations or to general consi<strong>de</strong>rations, as is <strong>de</strong>monstratedby the short summary <strong>of</strong> the <strong>history</strong> <strong>of</strong> the CAP (pp.19-24).The relevance <strong>of</strong> their summary reflects their training background as rural economists,but from a point <strong>of</strong> view <strong>of</strong> political science, their study, <strong>de</strong>spite their actual experienceacquired within <strong>of</strong>ficial institutions in Belgium, is not very thorough. In short, the content isrich by the volume <strong>of</strong> information provi<strong>de</strong>d, but remains mainly <strong>de</strong>scriptive. A fundamentalanalysis <strong>of</strong> the evolution <strong>of</strong> the CAP, <strong>of</strong> its working, its achievements and failures, itsreforms, the successive historical choices and the prospects for the future, shows up onlyoccasionally and at the end <strong>of</strong> the work (chapter 9 and conclusions).A more <strong>de</strong>tailed study reveals that nearly a third <strong>of</strong> this book is <strong>de</strong>voted to GATT and tothe repercussions on the CAP <strong>of</strong> the agreement reached with a view to liberalizingagriculture, following the Uruguay round (chapter 5 and 6). Given the disproportionateimportance attached to the external dimension <strong>of</strong> the CAP, it seems as if this Europeanpolicy were in fact only an appendage <strong>of</strong> a world policy for the marketing <strong>of</strong> agriculturalproduce and foodstuffs. The study <strong>of</strong> this question however is very interesting and well<strong>de</strong>veloped. The emphasis is rightly put on the consequences <strong>of</strong> the liberalization <strong>of</strong>agricultural tra<strong>de</strong> that have led at European level, to adjustments <strong>of</strong> the commonorganization <strong>of</strong> the markets (COMs). The authors insist on the episo<strong>de</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the discussion fora growing <strong>integration</strong> <strong>of</strong> the CAP into global tra<strong>de</strong>, an <strong>integration</strong>, which the WorldOrganization <strong>of</strong> Tra<strong>de</strong> (WTO) has to attend to. They give many <strong>de</strong>tails on the process <strong>of</strong>globalization that varies according to the sectors <strong>of</strong> agricultural produce. But they merelypresent the evolution <strong>of</strong> Community support and the protection system towards thirdcountries without assessing its consequences for the European agriculture in the long run.It should be noted that they do absolutely not refer to Pierre Baudin’s 1 work relating tothe COMs and to the works <strong>of</strong> Clau<strong>de</strong> Blumann 2 and Valérie Adam, who have dissected themechanisms <strong>of</strong> Community protection and support from the origins <strong>of</strong> the CAP up to thepresent day. Blumann has analyzed in <strong>de</strong>tail the period <strong>of</strong> 1958-1990 and Adam the periodfollowing the break <strong>of</strong> 1992, trying to investigate the repercussions <strong>of</strong> the <strong>de</strong>cisions reachedfor the future <strong>of</strong> the CAP. One <strong>of</strong> the major weaknesses <strong>of</strong> this work, consi<strong>de</strong>ring itshistorical ambition, is therefore to have neglected the basic works on the CAP, as is shownby the bibliography. And the authors take care not to take a stand as committed economistson the scope <strong>of</strong> the measures scheduled for the coming years.In chapter 7, the prospect for the 3d millennium is touched upon, but the approachremains general and technical and is based on the Commission’s proposal <strong>of</strong> 1997: Agenda2000, that is given a disproportionate attention compared with the <strong>de</strong>cisions reached inBerlin in spring 1999, <strong>de</strong>cisions that will serve as reference for the period 2000-2006 and forthe mid-term review in 2003. It is particularly regrettable that the authors didn’t consi<strong>de</strong>r itrelevant to put the emphasis more clearly on a new <strong>de</strong>al <strong>of</strong> the CAP, following the break <strong>of</strong>1992 (Mac Sharry reform): the <strong>de</strong>cision <strong>of</strong> the council <strong>of</strong> ministers for Agriculture to take aninterest in the second pillar <strong>of</strong> the CAP: the socio-structural pillar, as planned at theintergovernmental agricultural conference <strong>of</strong> Stresa, in July 1958. This completes thecommercial pillar which is ma<strong>de</strong> up <strong>of</strong> two sections, namely an internal section: thecommon agricultural market materialized by the COMs, and an external section based onthe working <strong>of</strong> the Community preference rules and <strong>of</strong> a system <strong>of</strong> import levies and export1. P. BAUDIN, L’Europe face à ses marchés agricoles; <strong>de</strong> la naissance <strong>de</strong> la politique agricole communeà sa réforme, Economica, Paris, 1993.2. Cl. BLUMANN, Politique agricole commune; Droit communautaire agricole et agro-alimentaire,LITEC, Paris, 1996. V. ADAM, La réforme <strong>de</strong> la politique agricole commune <strong>de</strong> l’Union européenneou l’évolutionnisme permanent du droit communautaire, L’Harmattan, Paris, 2001, 2 vol.


Book reviews – Comptes rendus – Buchbesprechungen 135refunds. Their analysis <strong>of</strong> this question (pp.390–408) is too summary and chapter 8 merely<strong>de</strong>als with “measures closely related to the market and price policies”, while the objective <strong>of</strong>the reform for the 3d millennium is, on the basis <strong>of</strong> the principles <strong>of</strong> globalization,transversality and rural socio-structural policy, to replace the CAP by a rural policy <strong>of</strong> whichthe agricultural policy would only be one element.This book must be consi<strong>de</strong>red above all as a dossier, that allows to see whether theevolution <strong>of</strong> the first pillar <strong>of</strong> the CAP in terms <strong>of</strong> results and ina<strong>de</strong>quacy <strong>of</strong> economicobjectives is consistent with the sociopolitical realities. The factual, economic approachminimizes a permanent intergovernmental <strong>de</strong>bate on the choices to make. Especially, thepart <strong>of</strong> the protagonists: <strong>de</strong>cision-makers, i.e. government circles, and pressure groups, i.e.pr<strong>of</strong>essional circles, are passed over in silence. The lack <strong>of</strong> boldness in the writers’comments is regrettable ins<strong>of</strong>ar they have lived through the reported events and could haveshown a more critical attitu<strong>de</strong>, which would have increased the value <strong>of</strong> their work on ahistorical level. The problem is perhaps the title chosen for this work consi<strong>de</strong>ring its content.If A. Le<strong>de</strong>nt and P. Burny tried to give their work a historical dimension, one can’t helpbut notice its <strong>de</strong>ficiencies, as it ignores existing studies carried out on the CAP, its originsand its <strong>de</strong>velopments. 3 Obviously, they haven’t read the studies <strong>of</strong> historians on the project<strong>of</strong> the “Green Pool”. As to its <strong>de</strong>velopments, they ignore a great number <strong>of</strong> reference works.Un<strong>de</strong>r these conditions, they remain prisoners <strong>of</strong> technical and economic interpretations andmake many mistakes over dates or over content and chronology, in particular when speakingabout the Green Pool (chapter 1). This first chapter, in which moreover the protagonists arenot correctly i<strong>de</strong>ntified: J. M. Charpentier instead <strong>of</strong> René Charpentier, J. C. Eccles instead<strong>of</strong> David Eccles, and which doesn’t keep to the chronological or<strong>de</strong>r <strong>of</strong> the Green Pool, mustnot hold our attention.Chapter 2 presents in a classical manner the finalities and the sections <strong>of</strong> the CAP at thebeginning <strong>of</strong> the sixties: marketing and pricing policies, foreign tra<strong>de</strong> policy, structurepolicy and social policy, without emphasizing the fact that these sections had to be<strong>de</strong>veloped concomitantly, and without showing the “political” evolution: choices andpriorities that between 1958 and December 1968 (Mansholt memorandum: “Agriculture1980”) have restricted the field <strong>of</strong> the CAP. Like all good economists, the authors insist onthe other hand on the evolution <strong>of</strong> the principles <strong>of</strong> Community preference and financialsolidarity and on the evolution <strong>of</strong> the objectives <strong>of</strong> the CAP. And, in chapter 3, starting fromthe principle that the CAP and the Common Agricultural Market have to be merged, i.e. thatthe CAP has to be reduced, <strong>de</strong>spite the stipulations <strong>of</strong> article 38 <strong>of</strong> the Treaty <strong>of</strong> Rome andthe Stresa resolution, to an organization <strong>of</strong> agricultural markets for the main agriculturalproduce, they emphasize the commercial approach <strong>of</strong> common prices.On this point, their presentation is pertinent, the way they present the terms <strong>of</strong> internalorganization and the protection and support mechanisms, emphasizing the regulationmechanisms set up gradually according to the evolution <strong>of</strong> the economic situation. But theyremain very reserved on the finalities <strong>of</strong> the CAP that was implemented first out <strong>of</strong> concernover the level <strong>of</strong> income, income parity and preservation <strong>of</strong> family holdings. They merelymention (p.21): “there is a transition from traditional farming to industrial farming”.Chapter 4 is revealing Le<strong>de</strong>nt’s and Burny’s difficulty where to place themselves in thefield <strong>of</strong> <strong>history</strong>. They prevaricate between “the redirecting or the reform <strong>of</strong> the CAP” (p.74),putting on the same level the adaptations <strong>of</strong> the CAP, the adjustments <strong>of</strong> the COMs and thereforms. According to them, the reform <strong>of</strong> 1992 does not represent a historical break. This3. The absence <strong>of</strong> reference to the study <strong>of</strong> the Belgians F. DEHOUSSE and Ph. VINCENT, L’éternelleréforme <strong>de</strong> la politique agricole commune et les limites d’Agenda 2000, published in StudiaDiplomatica (Belgium), No5(1998), is surprising. The same is true for the work <strong>of</strong> G. OLMI, Politiqueagricole commune, Commentaire Mégret, Brussels, 1991.


136Book reviews – Comptes rendus – Buchbesprechungenview is to be un<strong>de</strong>rstood in connection with their technical approach <strong>of</strong> the managementplan for the agricultural common market and its accompanying measures (pp.136-152) thatminimize the study <strong>of</strong> further finalities. From the beginning <strong>of</strong> the 90ies, such finalities arealready consistent with the concept <strong>of</strong> economic and social cohesion and are materialized byagro-environmental consi<strong>de</strong>rations and the introduction <strong>of</strong> new principles, in this case foodquality and safety. Le<strong>de</strong>nt and Burny mention them but are interested above all in theinstruments <strong>of</strong> agricultural production and expenditure control.Only from page 441 onwards, they think it necessary to put the evolution <strong>of</strong> the CAP intocontext with the general economic evolution and analyze the CAP’s <strong>integration</strong> into marketeconomy consi<strong>de</strong>ring the expectations <strong>of</strong> society. They then draw up a table that provi<strong>de</strong>selements to consi<strong>de</strong>r for a <strong>de</strong>bate, in particular on the concept <strong>of</strong> “viable and durable familyholdings”. But they don’t give their view on the “European mo<strong>de</strong>l <strong>of</strong> agriculture” which is centralto the preoccupations <strong>of</strong> the Union <strong>of</strong> the Fifteen at the time <strong>of</strong> the discussions opened at WTOlevel. Moreover, emphasis is put too briefly on an internal view <strong>of</strong> the constitution <strong>of</strong> a “greenEurope”, merely speaking <strong>of</strong> “the rural <strong>de</strong>velopment and/or agricultural <strong>de</strong>velopment”.Thus this book is an interesting contribution to a better knowledge <strong>of</strong> the CAP, above all<strong>of</strong> its commercial pillar. From a scientific point <strong>of</strong> view, it doesn’t replace the work <strong>of</strong> theeconomist Rosemary Fennell, which is based on a more substantiar literature and refers to<strong>of</strong>ficial documents <strong>of</strong> the European institutions, particularly <strong>of</strong> the Commission, aiming fora more historical approach <strong>of</strong> the creation <strong>of</strong> the CAP. 4 Burny’s and Le<strong>de</strong>nt’s approachdoesn’t allow to consi<strong>de</strong>r their publication as a reference work for un<strong>de</strong>rstanding the <strong>history</strong><strong>of</strong> the constitution <strong>of</strong> a European agricultural and rural community.However it is an excellent, well-documented dossier, with boxes and interestingsummaries, which presents the “standard” evolution <strong>of</strong> the CAP without really tackling thebasic problems. It is particularly symptomatic to note that according to its authors, the CAPis not the result either <strong>of</strong> compromise <strong>de</strong>cisions reached in Brussels by a Council <strong>of</strong>ministers, or <strong>of</strong> a power struggle with national and European pressure groups. And, for thehistorian as well as for the political scientist i<strong>de</strong>ntifying the CAP with the constitution <strong>of</strong> acommon agricultural market is greatly outdated ins<strong>of</strong>ar as, for the 3d millennium, theobjective is to create a green Europe, i.e. an agricultural and rural Europe, not a commercialEurope but a Europe <strong>of</strong> economic and social cohesion. The authors neglect the fact that thefuture prospects consi<strong>de</strong>r no longer an agricultural Europe but the <strong>de</strong>velopment <strong>of</strong> ruralterritories for the benefit <strong>of</strong> the whole society and not for agricultural producers alone.Gilbert NoëlUniversity <strong>of</strong> Artois (Arras)Institute for European studies (Louvain-la-Neuve)Daniela PREDA, Guido LEVI (eds.), L’europeismo in Liguria. Dal Risorgimento allanascita <strong>de</strong>ll’Europa comunitaria, Il Mulino, Bologna, 2002, 474 p. - ISBN 88-15-08980-2– 32,59 €.This collection <strong>of</strong> essays, edited from pp.7-237 by Daniela Preda, and from pp.239-473 byGuido Levi, constitutes an account <strong>of</strong> the proceedings <strong>of</strong> a convention <strong>of</strong> studies onEuropeanism, organised at Genoa in October 2001 by the Department <strong>of</strong> European Research<strong>of</strong> the University <strong>of</strong> Genoa in collaboration with the European Pole Jean Monnet, which wassponsored by the Municipality and Provinces <strong>of</strong> Genoa and Liguria and the Centro4. R. FENNELL, The Common Agricultural Policy: Continuity and Change, Clarendon Press, Oxford,1997.


Book reviews – Comptes rendus – Buchbesprechungen 137Regionale Ligure <strong>of</strong> the European Fe<strong>de</strong>ralist Movement. Starting with the nineteenthcentury origins <strong>of</strong> Ligurian Fe<strong>de</strong>ralism, it goes on to analyse the contribution <strong>of</strong> the regionto the construction <strong>of</strong> the Community, both in its governmental and non-governmentalaspects, extending the investigation to some sectors which have hitherto been neglected byhistoriography, such as the attitu<strong>de</strong> <strong>of</strong> the local economic administrations and organisations.Since the first half <strong>of</strong> the nineteenth century Genoa and the Ligurian territory have playedan important role in the spread <strong>of</strong> Europeanism. A city <strong>of</strong> traffic and commerce, a crossroads<strong>of</strong> men and i<strong>de</strong>as, Genoa could not long remain untouched by that national and internationalturmoil which Europe had been plunged into from the early years <strong>of</strong> the nineteenth century,and which in a short time was to result in an arrangement <strong>of</strong> the civil world according to theprinciple <strong>of</strong> nations, as stated by Daniela Preda in her lengthy and well documentedintroduction to this volume.The first essay is by Bianca Montale and is <strong>de</strong>dicated to a concept or i<strong>de</strong>a <strong>of</strong> Europeproposed by a famous Genoese from the nineteenth century, Giuseppe Mazzini, who, ratherthan being a Fe<strong>de</strong>ralist, could better be <strong>de</strong>scribed as being a forerunner <strong>of</strong> Fe<strong>de</strong>ralism.Although there are constant references to European cultural unity in his writings, Mazzini,does not actually mention Fe<strong>de</strong>ralism, but rather Friendship, i<strong>de</strong>ntifying Italy’s mission asthat <strong>of</strong> promoting the moral unity <strong>of</strong> Europe. His Europeanism shuns the juridical ties infavour <strong>of</strong> a supranational character, worried that the former could damage the absolutein<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nce and sovereignty <strong>of</strong> the newly-formed nations. Notwithstanding this, his i<strong>de</strong>asare still relevant today, claims Montale, when he makes precise references to the necessity <strong>of</strong>a close inter<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nce between political unification and economic <strong>integration</strong>.Danilo Veneruso, in his essay entitled “Giuseppe Garibaldi, le nazionalità, la dimensioneeuropea e l’internazionalismo”, studies the <strong>of</strong>ten forgotten internationalistic aspects <strong>of</strong> anotherfamous Genoan, Giuseppe Garibaldi. Veneruso, in fact, shows how in the figure <strong>of</strong> Garibaldi thenational and international aspects which characterised the popular liberation movement <strong>of</strong> themid-nineteenth century were strictly connected, and resulted in a sort <strong>of</strong> structure <strong>of</strong>ever-wi<strong>de</strong>ning concentric circles which were to culminate in “the reform <strong>of</strong> society”.In the period between the two world wars Genoa had an active role in the attempt tocreate a new international or<strong>de</strong>r based on Wilsonian principles. In particular the city playedhost to one <strong>of</strong> the three so-called “Great Diplomatic Conferences” <strong>of</strong> 1922: the EconomicConference, which is <strong>de</strong>alt with in this volume by A<strong>de</strong>le Maiello, tried, along with those <strong>of</strong>Cannes and The Hague, to overcome and remediate the <strong>de</strong>ep fractures <strong>of</strong> the systemresulting from the Treaty <strong>of</strong> Versailles. If, on the one hand, the conference proved to be atotal failure, it was on the other, as A<strong>de</strong>le Maiello claims, the occasion when an importantand innovative experiment in international co-habitation was carried out, in the convictionthat the crises <strong>of</strong> those years could be resolved using politico-diplomatic “weapons”,adopting a system <strong>of</strong> agreements among the great powers.It is precisely in that inter-war period, when it seemed evi<strong>de</strong>nt that the power <strong>of</strong> Europeas the political and economic centre <strong>of</strong> the world was on the wane, that Europeanismabandons many <strong>of</strong> those utopian i<strong>de</strong>als and attitu<strong>de</strong>s which had up to now formed part <strong>of</strong> itscharacter, in or<strong>de</strong>r to prepare itself as a political solution to the crisis <strong>of</strong> the continent.During that period Genoa, in particular, welcomed several important figures who wouldprove to be pr<strong>of</strong>oundly significant for the hamiltonian fe<strong>de</strong>ralist form <strong>of</strong> Europeanism inItaly, which would now be distinguished by its more general attitu<strong>de</strong> in favour <strong>of</strong> the unity<strong>of</strong> the continent in or<strong>de</strong>r to propose precise institutional solutions and clear cultural andtheoretic mo<strong>de</strong>ls <strong>of</strong> reference. Pietro Graglia in his interesting essay “L’europeismo aGenova nel periodo tra le due guerre” draws attention to the early writings <strong>of</strong> Luigi Einaudi,to those <strong>of</strong> his collaborator Attilio Cabiati and <strong>of</strong> Giovanni Agnelli, and also to the birth <strong>of</strong>the <strong>journal</strong> “Pietre” which would count, amongst others, Eugenio Colorni, futurecompanion-in-exile <strong>of</strong> Altiero Spinelli and Ernesto Rossi at Ventotene, as its collaborators.


138Book reviews – Comptes rendus – BuchbesprechungenCinzia Rognoni Vercelli, in her essay “Luciano Bolis, eroe <strong>de</strong>lla resistenza e patriotaeuropeo”, gives us an engaging picture <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> the leading figures <strong>of</strong> the EuropeanFe<strong>de</strong>ralist movement; Milanese by birth but Genoese by adoption, Bolis, who shared manyi<strong>de</strong>as with Altiero Spinelli, was a very charismatic figure, thanks to his brilliant exploits inthe Genoese resistance movement.Guido Levi’s essay “Il movimento fe<strong>de</strong>ralista europeo a Genova e in Liguria(1945-1954)” provi<strong>de</strong>s us with a fascinating account <strong>of</strong> the evolution which the Fe<strong>de</strong>ralistMovement un<strong>de</strong>rwent in the first ten years <strong>of</strong> its activity, the choice it had to make regardingadhesion or non-adhesion to the Marshall Plan - which would involve the launching <strong>of</strong> thereconstruction <strong>of</strong> Europe - which faced the countries <strong>of</strong> Europe, and consequently thedivisions which would be created insi<strong>de</strong> the movement itself. He dwells in particular on thedivisions in Genoa, and more generally on those in Liguria, where the majority <strong>of</strong> theFe<strong>de</strong>ralists had been members <strong>of</strong> the resistance movement.Danila Preda is the author <strong>of</strong> a long and well-informed article entitled “L’Europa di PaoloEmilio Taviani. Dalla resistenza ai trattati di Roma (1944-1957)”. In this work she presents uswith the story <strong>of</strong> another famous Genoese who, in the 1950s, was a protagonist in the activities <strong>of</strong>governmental Europeanism when this was experiencing a period <strong>of</strong> particular fervour un<strong>de</strong>r theguidance <strong>of</strong> the presi<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>of</strong> the council, Alci<strong>de</strong> De Gasperi. Taviani, first as presi<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>of</strong> theItalian <strong>de</strong>legation at the conference <strong>of</strong> the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), then atthe conference <strong>of</strong> European Defence Community (EDC), and later as un<strong>de</strong>r-secretary for Foreignaffairs for De Gasperi’s seventh government, carried out an important part in setting up the twocommunity organisations. It was Taviani who organised the Italo-French summit meeting atSanta Margherita Ligure <strong>of</strong> February 1951 which led to an agreement between those twocountries regarding the EDC and its political implications. And it was at Genoa, in June 1952,where alongsi<strong>de</strong> Taviani, Paul-Henri Spaak, the presi<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>of</strong> the European movement, appearedand that on the eve <strong>of</strong> his journey to Rome, where he would seal his agreement with De Gasperi,anticipating their discussions regarding the issues raised by article 38 <strong>of</strong> the EDC.The local Genoan press, even though little has been written about it - as Daniela Predanotes in her aforementioned introduction - did contribute in some way to divulgeinformation about Europeanism. Giovanni B. Varnier’s essay gives us a richly <strong>de</strong>tailedpicture <strong>of</strong> the Europeanist efforts <strong>of</strong> the editor-in-chief <strong>of</strong> the “Corriere <strong>de</strong>l Pomeriggio”,Lazzaro Maria <strong>de</strong> Bernardis, in the years 1948-1961.Giorgio Grimaldi, in his interesting essay entitled “Europeismo ed economia: Manzitti,Minoletti e la camera di Commercio di Genova (1945-1958)” notes how the GenoeseChamber <strong>of</strong> commerce, through its presi<strong>de</strong>nt and various enlightened collaborators,assumed an important role in the 1950s as an instigator in favour <strong>of</strong> European unity aroundwhich the local Europeanism revolved.In her essay “Giancarlo Piombino, sindaco di Genova e presi<strong>de</strong>nte <strong>de</strong>ll’AICCE”, LaraPiccardo <strong>de</strong>scribes the man who was mayor <strong>of</strong> Genoa from 1971 to 1975 and presi<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>of</strong>the Italian Association for the Council <strong>of</strong> the Municipalities <strong>of</strong> Europe (AICCE) from 1969to 1981 and since 1972 also presi<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>of</strong> the European Conference <strong>of</strong> Local Powers, one <strong>of</strong>the first forms <strong>of</strong> institutionalised representation and participation <strong>of</strong> the local and territorialbodies in the process <strong>of</strong> continental <strong>integration</strong> created by the Council <strong>of</strong> Europe.The last section <strong>of</strong> the book gathers together the testimonies <strong>of</strong> some sixteen people whowere either Genoese or who were connected in some way to the economic, political orcultural world <strong>of</strong> Genoa or Liguria at the end <strong>of</strong> the 1940s or in the early 1950s, who carriedout roles <strong>of</strong> varying importance in the European Fe<strong>de</strong>ralist movement and who, in their ownway, contributed to the <strong>history</strong> <strong>of</strong> the European Union.Anna Be<strong>de</strong>schiUniversità di Padova


Book reviews – Comptes rendus – Buchbesprechungen 139Edouard BONNEFOUS, La construction <strong>de</strong> l’Europe par l’un <strong>de</strong> ses initiateurs, PressesUniversitaires <strong>de</strong> France, Paris, 2002, 205 p. – ISBN 2-13-052467-2 – 15,00 €.Moins connu que les «pères fondateurs» <strong>de</strong> l’Europe qui illustrent la couverture <strong>de</strong> son livre,Edouard Bonnefous est l’un <strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>rniers témoins <strong>de</strong> la fondation <strong>de</strong> l’Europe (p.5). CetteEurope, l’auteur l’a non seulement rêvée mais il s’est efforcé <strong>de</strong> la façonner selon sesconvictions. Dans ce livre d’entretiens avec Pascal Binczak, Pr<strong>of</strong>esseur à l’université <strong>de</strong>Paris VIII, Edouard Bonnefous ne nous livre pas <strong>de</strong>s mémoires au sens classique, maisplutôt son témoignage et ses impressions sur les succès, les échecs, les lacunes et les espoirs<strong>de</strong> la construction européenne. Néanmoins, l’exercice n’exclut pas un certain didactisme,car la narration chronologique <strong>de</strong>s gran<strong>de</strong>s étapes <strong>de</strong> l’intégration communautaire <strong>de</strong> 1945 ànos jours se joint à la réflexion personnelle d’un homme <strong>de</strong> conviction et pr<strong>of</strong>ondémenteuropéen.L’essentiel du livre est consacré aux vingt-cinq premières années <strong>de</strong> la constructioneuropéenne qui sont également celles où Edouard Bonnefous, tour à tour parlementaire etprési<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>de</strong> la Commission <strong>de</strong>s Affaires étrangères <strong>de</strong> l’Assemblée nationale puis ministreet sénateur, peut au mieux influer sur le <strong>de</strong>venir européen. Il est ainsi l’un <strong>de</strong>s premiers àappuyer la proposition faite par Winston Churchill en 1946 <strong>de</strong> constituer les Etats-Unisd’Europe. En vue <strong>de</strong> la réunion du Congrès européen <strong>de</strong> La Haye au printemps 1949, ildépose avec succès à l’Assemblée nationale un projet <strong>de</strong> résolution invitant le gouvernementfrançais à <strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong>r la réunion d’une Assemblée constituante européenne ayant pourmission <strong>de</strong> fon<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong>s institutions européennes (p.20-21). Pour Bonnefous, le Congrès <strong>de</strong> laHaye est d’ailleurs l’évènement le plus symbolique <strong>de</strong> la construction européenne dont iljette les bases concrètes (p.182).Cette Europe, Bonnefous en a une certaine idée. Dès l’origine, il la veut ouverte,notamment à la Gran<strong>de</strong>-Bretagne (p.18), et est, <strong>de</strong> ce fait, hostile à un face-à-facestrictement franco-allemand (p.20). Devant les faibles résultats <strong>de</strong> la coopérationeuropéenne dans le cadre du Conseil <strong>de</strong> l’Europe et <strong>de</strong> l’Organisation Européenne <strong>de</strong>Coopération Economique (OECE), Bonnefous se convertit peu à peu à l’idée défendue parJean Monnet et Robert Schuman d’une intégration européenne sectorielle, supranationale etfonctionnelle. A ses yeux, celle-ci doit en outre être graduelle, c’est-à-dire dans un premiertemps économique, car l’unification économique lui paraît indispensable à la création d’ungrand marché européen (p.38), politique puis, en <strong>de</strong>rnier lieu, militaire. Il estime ainsi leprojet <strong>de</strong> Communauté Européenne <strong>de</strong> Défense (CED) prématuré mais reste un partisandéterminé <strong>de</strong> l’Europe politique (p.77).Pour la pério<strong>de</strong> gaullienne, les réflexions <strong>de</strong> Bonnefous se fon<strong>de</strong>nt principalement sur <strong>de</strong>smémoires, à l’instar <strong>de</strong> celles d’Alain Peyrefitte 1 ou <strong>de</strong> Pierre Messmer, et d’ouvrageshistoriques. Les conceptions européennes du général <strong>de</strong> Gaulle ne correspon<strong>de</strong>nt guère àcelles <strong>de</strong> Bonnefous. Lors <strong>de</strong> la première candidature britannique aux Communautéseuropéennes, celui-ci se prononce en effet en faveur <strong>de</strong> l’adhésion britannique, car il espèreainsi ancrer plus fermement la relation euro-atlantique et contrebalancer le poids <strong>de</strong>l’Allemagne dans le Marché commun (p.120). De même le <strong>de</strong>ssein gaullien d’une Europe<strong>de</strong> l’Atlantique à l’Oural ne le convainc guère car il tient cette Europe géographique pourutopique (p.121). Enfin, Bonnefous admet certes que <strong>de</strong> Gaulle a su conférer à l’ententefranco-alleman<strong>de</strong> une dimension nouvelle, mais que celle-ci ne saurait remplacer unepolitique véritablement européenne (p.110). Au sujet du retrait <strong>de</strong> la France <strong>de</strong>l’Organisation militaire atlantique en mars 1966, Bonnefous cite in extenso une lettre <strong>de</strong>Pierre Messmer, datée <strong>de</strong> 2001, qui illustre les raisons pour lesquelles, selon l’ancien1. A. PEYREFITTE, C’était <strong>de</strong> Gaulle, Ed. du Fallois, Paris, tome I, 1994; tome II, 1997; tome III,2001.


140Book reviews – Comptes rendus – Buchbesprechungenministre <strong>de</strong>s Armées, <strong>de</strong> Gaulle décida, en mars 1966, <strong>de</strong> mettre fin à la participation <strong>de</strong> laFrance à l’OTAN.La <strong>de</strong>rnière partie du livre, qui englobe la pério<strong>de</strong> pompidolienne à nos jours, eststructurée <strong>de</strong> façon plus thématique que la précé<strong>de</strong>nte. Elle traite plus spécifiquement <strong>de</strong>l’achèvement et <strong>de</strong> l’appr<strong>of</strong>ondissement <strong>de</strong> la construction européenne, notamment grâce àl’élection du Parlement européen au suffrage universel direct et à la signature <strong>de</strong>s Traités <strong>de</strong>Maastricht (1992), d’Amsterdam (1997) et <strong>de</strong> Nice (2000), puis <strong>de</strong> ses élargissementssuccessifs qui représentent, selon lui, «un gage unique <strong>de</strong> stabilité pour le continenteuropéen» (p.178).Dans ces entretiens, et sans prétendre à l’exhaustivité, c’est un observateur passionnémais luci<strong>de</strong> qui s’exprime et fait toucher du doigt la complexité et les difficultés <strong>de</strong> laconstruction européenne. Cependant, ce livre ne retrace pas uniquement l’itinérairepersonnel d’un homme, il relate aussi l’histoire collective d’une aventure et d’uneespérance, celle surtout d’un projet encore en <strong>de</strong>venir qui, selon Edouard Bonnefous, «restele grand <strong>de</strong>ssein politique du siècle qui commence» (p.10).Carine GermondUniversité Robert Schuman, Strasbourg IIIUniversität Duisburg-Essen, Standort EssenYvonne KIPP, E<strong>de</strong>n, A<strong>de</strong>nauer und die <strong>de</strong>utsche Frage. Britische Deutschlandpolitik iminternationalen Spannungsfeld 1951-1957, Ferdinand Schöningh Verlag, Pa<strong>de</strong>rborn, 2002,439 p. – 3-506-77525-1 - 51,60 €.La réunification <strong>de</strong> l’Allemagne était-elle un but prioritaire <strong>de</strong> la Gran<strong>de</strong>-Bretagne ou bienétait-elle subordonnée à d’autres priorités politiques (p.9)? En posant cette question, qui sertégalement <strong>de</strong> problématique générale à sa thèse <strong>de</strong> doctorat, Yvonne Kipp présente une analyse<strong>de</strong> la politique britannique vis-à-vis <strong>de</strong> l’Allemagne qui ne s’inscrit pas seulement dansune perspective bilatérale, mais aussi dans le contexte international <strong>de</strong>s années cinquante. Sila figure <strong>de</strong> Churchill a jusqu’alors largement dominé la recherche historique, Kipp se concentreau contraire sur Antony E<strong>de</strong>n qui, <strong>de</strong> 1951 à 1957, occupa successivement les postes<strong>de</strong> ministres <strong>de</strong>s Affaires étrangères et <strong>de</strong> Premier ministre. En particulier, elle expose lesmotivations et les buts <strong>de</strong> la politique alleman<strong>de</strong> d’E<strong>de</strong>n. Selon l’auteur, celle-ci est déterminéeen fonction <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>ux principes cardinaux: d’une part, le maintien <strong>de</strong> l’équilibre <strong>de</strong>s puissancessur le continent européen et d’autre part, la préservation <strong>de</strong>s intérêts britanniques et<strong>de</strong>s possibilités <strong>de</strong> contrôle sur l’Allemagne. Partant <strong>de</strong> ce postulat, l’auteur cherche en outreà mettre en évi<strong>de</strong>nce les éventuelles continuités et ruptures dans la politique alleman<strong>de</strong>d’E<strong>de</strong>n.Kipp fon<strong>de</strong> son étu<strong>de</strong> sur un grand nombre d’archives, en majorité britanniques,complétées par <strong>de</strong>s recherches dans les archives diplomatiques alleman<strong>de</strong>s ainsi que parquelques interviews <strong>de</strong> diplomates allemands et anglais. Ses nombreuses recherchesarchivistiques et bibliographiques assurent à son travail une base extrêmement sérieuse.Bien que la perspective anglaise soit très nettement privilégiée, les accords et lesdivergences politiques entre Bonn et Londres sont également examinés, notamment autravers <strong>de</strong> la relation personnelle entre Konrad A<strong>de</strong>nauer et son homologue britannique.Comme le souligne justement l’auteur, l’Allemagne représente au len<strong>de</strong>main <strong>de</strong> lasecon<strong>de</strong> guerre mondiale pour le Royaume-Uni un double défi, car il s’agit pour lapuissance britannique <strong>de</strong> contrôler le potentiel militaire et économique allemand tout engarantissant la sécurité <strong>de</strong>s zones d’occupations puis plus tard <strong>de</strong> la jeune Républiquefédérale (p.16). Au contraire <strong>de</strong> Churchill dont les grands projets <strong>de</strong> réunions au sommet


Book reviews – Comptes rendus – Buchbesprechungen 141étaient majoritairement rejetés par les diplomates anglais, la politique alleman<strong>de</strong> d’E<strong>de</strong>nrencontrait très largement l’assentiment du Foreign Office qui, <strong>de</strong> fait, relaya avec efficacitéles conceptions <strong>de</strong> son ministre.Si les contemporains d’E<strong>de</strong>n comme les historiens lui ont parfois reproché son manque<strong>de</strong> «grand <strong>de</strong>ssein» politique, celui-ci avait néanmoins une conscience très aiguë <strong>de</strong>l’importance stratégique que l’Allemagne, champs <strong>de</strong> bataille européen par excellence,pouvait représenter pour la sécurité britannique. Partant <strong>de</strong> ce postulat fondamental, E<strong>de</strong>ndétermina les fon<strong>de</strong>ments <strong>de</strong> la politique à tenir vis-à-vis <strong>de</strong> la RFA selon <strong>de</strong>ux optionsprincipales. Il entendait en effet lier et ancrer la RFA à l’Ouest, notamment au travers <strong>de</strong> sonintégration dans les institutions européennes tout en nouant parallèlement <strong>de</strong>s contacts avecl’Union soviétique, il espérait que la détente du climat international qui <strong>de</strong>vait en résulterfavoriserait la résolution <strong>de</strong> la question alleman<strong>de</strong>. Kipp relève que seule la combinaison <strong>de</strong>ces <strong>de</strong>ux options <strong>of</strong>fraient, aux yeux d’E<strong>de</strong>n, la garantie du maintien <strong>de</strong> l’influencebritannique en Allemagne ainsi que son contrôle (p.393). A cet égard, l’étu<strong>de</strong> distincte <strong>de</strong>chacune <strong>de</strong> ces options dans <strong>de</strong>ux parties thématiques distinctes apparaît regrettable, car elleen occulte en partie la complémentarité, donc la spécificité et l’originalité <strong>de</strong> la politiquealleman<strong>de</strong> du ministre britannique.Alors même que l’Angleterre se distance très rapi<strong>de</strong>ment <strong>de</strong>s efforts d’intégrationeuropéenne et refuse <strong>de</strong> participer à la Communauté du charbon et <strong>de</strong> l’acier (CECA) puis laCommunauté européenne <strong>de</strong> défense (CED), E<strong>de</strong>n appuie la participation <strong>de</strong> l’Allemagne àla construction <strong>de</strong> l’Europe. Kipp montre cependant que les motivations pr<strong>of</strong>on<strong>de</strong>s d’E<strong>de</strong>ntiennent moins au respect <strong>de</strong>s obligations incombant au Royaume-Uni en tant que puissancealliée, qu’à la volonté <strong>de</strong> protéger les intérêts <strong>de</strong> son pays en Europe. Néanmoins, E<strong>de</strong>n aégalement rapi<strong>de</strong>ment compris que la coopération active et volontaire <strong>de</strong> l’Allemagneconstitue une condition essentielle à la réussite <strong>de</strong> sa politique (p.67). C’est d’ailleurs pourcette raison que le gouvernement britannique, conscient <strong>de</strong> la signification politique plusque militaire du réarmement allemand, accepte que celui-ci s’effectue dans un cadre, sinoneuropéen, suite à l’échec <strong>de</strong> la CED à laquelle il était favorable, du moins atlantique. SelonKipp, l’adhésion <strong>de</strong> la RFA à l’Union <strong>de</strong> l’Europe occi<strong>de</strong>ntale (UEO) puis à l’Organisationdu Traité <strong>de</strong> l’Atlantique Nord (OTAN) doit d’ailleurs beaucoup aux efforts du ministrebritannique.Kipp met également en évi<strong>de</strong>nce l’importance considérable que E<strong>de</strong>n et, avec lui, leForeign Office, accordaient à la question <strong>de</strong> la neutralité alleman<strong>de</strong>. A leurs yeux, uneAllemagne neutralisée, démilitarisée ou non, représentait une menace directe pour lasécurité britannique. La position anglaise vis-à-vis <strong>de</strong>s initiatives soviétiques <strong>de</strong>s années52-54 découle pour beaucoup <strong>de</strong> ces réflexions. Selon l’auteur, le Foreign Office, bien quesceptique quant à la sincérité et par voie <strong>de</strong> conséquence, à la possible réalisation <strong>de</strong>s <strong>of</strong>fresstaliniennes, suit une double stratégie visant à poursuivre les négociations avec l’Unionsoviétique sans pour autant remettre en cause le principe <strong>de</strong> l’intégration alleman<strong>de</strong> àl’Ouest. Cependant, E<strong>de</strong>n échoue à résoudre le dilemme inhérent à la question alleman<strong>de</strong>, àsavoir comment résoudre le problème <strong>de</strong> la division <strong>de</strong> l’Allemagne sans mettre en danger lasécurité européenne et dans le cas présent, les intérêts anglais, tout en sachant que laperduration du statu quo recelait tout autant <strong>de</strong> dangers (p.228).Dans son étu<strong>de</strong>, Kipp démontre que la politique d’E<strong>de</strong>n vis-à-vis <strong>de</strong> l’Allemagne sefon<strong>de</strong> en majeure partie sur <strong>de</strong>s considérations sécuritaires dont la mise en œuvre s’inspiretrès largement <strong>de</strong> la vielle tradition britannique du «balance <strong>of</strong> power». E<strong>de</strong>n, qui parexpérience nourrissait une certaine méfiance à l’égard <strong>de</strong>s Allemands, redoutait en effet quele maintien indéterminé du statu quo ne pousse les Allemands à s’entendre avec l’Unionsoviétique, comme ils l’avaient déjà fait à plusieurs reprises dans le passé, et il espéraitmettre en échec toute tentative en ce sens en nouant <strong>de</strong>s contacts étroits avec les Soviétiques.Ce «complexe <strong>de</strong> Rapallo» explique également l’attachement d’E<strong>de</strong>n à l’intégration


142Book reviews – Comptes rendus – Buchbesprechungenalleman<strong>de</strong> en Europe occi<strong>de</strong>ntale qu’il concevait comme le meilleur antidote à uneéventuelle dérive alleman<strong>de</strong> à l’Est. Cette politique <strong>de</strong> louvoiement n’était pas sans éveillerun «complexe <strong>de</strong> Versailles» chez le chancelier A<strong>de</strong>nauer qui imaginait déjà un accord <strong>de</strong>squatre alliées sur la question alleman<strong>de</strong> au détriment <strong>de</strong> la RFA.En outre, dès le début <strong>de</strong>s années cinquante, E<strong>de</strong>n était convaincu que l’élaboration et laréalisation d’un système garantissant la sécurité européenne requérait le dialogue avecl’Union soviétique. L’un <strong>de</strong>s objectifs <strong>de</strong> la double tactique d’E<strong>de</strong>n vis-à-vis <strong>de</strong> l’Allemagnevisait également à valoriser la position internationale du Royaume-Uni en lui conférant unrôle d’intermédiaire entre les <strong>de</strong>ux blocs (p.280). Kipp relève cependant que les effortsbritanniques en faveur <strong>de</strong> la détente <strong>de</strong>s relations avec les Soviétiques se heurtèrent à chaquefois aux réticences alleman<strong>de</strong>s. E<strong>de</strong>n lui-même était loin <strong>de</strong> négliger l’influence <strong>de</strong> l’opinionpublique alleman<strong>de</strong>, dont il suivait avec attention l’évolution et dont dépendait en partie lesuccès ou l’échec <strong>de</strong> sa politique alleman<strong>de</strong>. Ses efforts en faveur <strong>de</strong> la détente pesèrentmalgré tout fortement sur les relations anglo-alleman<strong>de</strong>s. En effet, au fil <strong>de</strong>s annéescinquante, les doutes d’A<strong>de</strong>nauer sur la volonté britannique <strong>de</strong> réaliser la réunification setrouvèrent renforcés par le glissement progressif <strong>de</strong> la politique alleman<strong>de</strong> du gouvernementbritannique pour qui la question <strong>de</strong> la réunification alleman<strong>de</strong> passait peu à peu au secondplan au pr<strong>of</strong>it <strong>de</strong> la détente <strong>de</strong>s relations Est-Ouest, et qui, nolens volens, s’arrangeait ainsidu statu quo.La thèse <strong>de</strong> doctorat d’Yvonne Kipp met en lumière nombre <strong>de</strong> nouveaux aspects <strong>de</strong> lapolitique alleman<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> la Gran<strong>de</strong>-Bretagne. Elle analyse les prémisses historiques et lesmotivations politiques, stratégiques et sécuritaires <strong>de</strong> la politique d’Antony E<strong>de</strong>n. Elledémontre que le subtil balancement politique entre intégration <strong>de</strong> l’Allemagne à l’Ouest etpolitique <strong>de</strong> détente à l’Est avait un triple but: éviter un retournement <strong>de</strong>s alliances, gar<strong>de</strong>rl’Allemagne sous contrôle et enfin, éviter que la question alleman<strong>de</strong> ne <strong>de</strong>vienne un jour uncasus belli entre les <strong>de</strong>ux blocs. A cet égard, Kipp estime que les nombreuses déclarationsdu ministre anglais sur les dangers que pouvaient représenter à terme un sentiment nationalallemand inassouvi, ten<strong>de</strong>nt à prouver qu’E<strong>de</strong>n n’envisageait une solution à la questionalleman<strong>de</strong> que dans le cadre d’une Allemagne réunifiée, intégrée à l’Europe <strong>de</strong> l’Ouest etqu’il considérait le statu quo européen comme provisoire (p.356). Malgré un bilan contrasté<strong>de</strong> la politique alleman<strong>de</strong> d’E<strong>de</strong>n, les décennies suivantes montrent la justesse <strong>de</strong> cepostulat.Carine GermondUniversité Robert Schuman, Strasbourg IIIUniversität Duisburg-Essen, Standort EssenBertrand VAYSSIÈRE, Groupes <strong>de</strong> pression en Europe. Europe <strong>de</strong>s citoyens ou <strong>de</strong>s intérêts?,Éditions Privat, Toulouse, 2002, 125 p. – ISBN 2-7089-0637-2 – 11,40 €.Rinus van SCHENDELEN, Machiavelli in Brussels. The Art <strong>of</strong> Lobbying the EU,Amsterdam University Press 2002, Amsterdam, 344 p. – ISBN 90-5356-573-6 (paperback)– 37,60 €.Justin GREENWOOD (ed.), The Effectiveness <strong>of</strong> EU Business Associations, Palgrave,Houndmills/Basingstoke/New York, 2002, XV+263 p. – ISBN 0-333-96412-8 – 55 €.Die Rolle nationaler und transnationaler Interessenverbän<strong>de</strong> im europäischen „Mehrebenensystem“ist schon seit geraumer Zeit Gegenstand politik- und geschichtswissenschaftlicherForschung. Ins<strong>of</strong>ern ist es nicht verwun<strong>de</strong>rlich, dass gleich drei neue sozialwissenschaftli-


Book reviews – Comptes rendus – Buchbesprechungen 143che Publikationen über <strong>de</strong>n „state <strong>of</strong> the art“ aus unterschiedlichen Blickwinkeln und mitunterschiedlichen Ansprüchen Auskunft geben. Was haben sie für eine stärker historischinteressierte Integrationsforschung zu bieten?Bertrand Vayssière, Geschichtsdozent an <strong>de</strong>r Universität von Pau, liefert einen ebensoknappen wie soli<strong>de</strong>n Überblick über das europäische Verbandswesen und geht dabeiinsbeson<strong>de</strong>re <strong>de</strong>r Frage nach, ob die Aktivitäten <strong>de</strong>r verschie<strong>de</strong>nen Interessengruppen eher alsAusdruck bürgerschaftlichen Engagements o<strong>de</strong>r als klassisches Lobbying zu <strong>de</strong>uten seien. DieThemen, die er streift, reichen von einer Begriffsbestimmung und Anmerkungen zur „logiquecommunautaire […] basée sur la recherche permanente du compromis“ (S.29) – die, verbun<strong>de</strong>nmit einer gewissen Abhängigkeit <strong>de</strong>r Kommission von <strong>de</strong>r Expertise <strong>de</strong>r Verbän<strong>de</strong>, dasinteressenpolitische patchwork in Brüssel gera<strong>de</strong>zu zwangsläufig hervorgebracht habe – übereine Charakteristik <strong>de</strong>s Brüsseler Institutionengefüges und die Schil<strong>de</strong>rung <strong>de</strong>r Beziehungenzwischen Kommission und Parlament auf <strong>de</strong>r einen und Interessenverbän<strong>de</strong>n auf <strong>de</strong>r an<strong>de</strong>renSeite bis zu einer Übersicht über die verschie<strong>de</strong>nen Formen <strong>de</strong>r Interessenvertretung. Seine6seitige Skizze zur Entwicklung <strong>de</strong>s Verbandssystems seit 1945 und seine Typologie,unterschie<strong>de</strong>n nach Unternehmensverbän<strong>de</strong>n, Gewerkschaften und Berufsverbän<strong>de</strong>n,Vertretungen <strong>de</strong>r Regionen, non-governmental organizations zivilgesellschaftlicher Provenienzund Consulting-Gesellschaften, bieten erwartungsgemäß keine neuen Erkenntnisse, ermöglichenaber eine rasche Orientierung.Vayssières Antwort auf die Leitfrage fällt zwiespältig aus: Während er das bisherige, von<strong>de</strong>n großen Unternehmens-, Agrar- und Gewerkschaftsverbän<strong>de</strong>n repräsentierte europäischeVerbandssystem ein<strong>de</strong>utig <strong>de</strong>m „lobbyistischen“ Pol zuordnet, erblickt er in <strong>de</strong>n neuen,zivilgesellschaftlich verankerten und orientierten Organisationen Geburtshelfer eineskünftigen „Europas <strong>de</strong>r Bürger“.Rinus van Schen<strong>de</strong>len verfolgt mit seiner mittlerweile in dritter Auflage vorliegen<strong>de</strong>nStudie ein an<strong>de</strong>res, stärker praxisorientiertes Anliegen. Der Pr<strong>of</strong>essor für PolitischeWissenschaft an <strong>de</strong>r Universität Rotterdam trainiert nämlich nebenberuflich Lobbyisten –eine Tätigkeit, die <strong>de</strong>m Buch, das sich über weite Strecken wie ein Ratgeber fürerfolgreiches Lobbying liest, <strong>de</strong>utlich anzumerken ist.Zunächst rekapituliert van Schen<strong>de</strong>len die „Europäisierung <strong>de</strong>r öffentlichen Angelegenheiten“,wobei er zwischen alten und neuen Techniken <strong>de</strong>r Interessenwahrnehmungunterschei<strong>de</strong>t: Zu ersteren zählt er „coercion“, „encapsulation“, „advocacy“ und„argumentation“ (S.40-41). Die neue, erfolgversprechen<strong>de</strong>re Technik umschreibt er mit <strong>de</strong>mBegriff „public affairs management“: PAM zeichnet sich zum einen durch eine intensive interneVorbereitung („homework“) <strong>de</strong>r externen Aktivitäten aus, zum an<strong>de</strong>ren durch wesentlichsubtilere Metho<strong>de</strong>n <strong>de</strong>r Einflussnahme („public marketing“). Auf <strong>de</strong>r europäischen Ebenepraktiziert, wirke PAM zwar keineswegs wie ein Allheilmittel: „If applied pr<strong>of</strong>essionally, bycareful homework and fieldwork, it provi<strong>de</strong>s only better chances to win or, at least, not to lose anEU game” (S.49) – aber größere Erfolgsaussichten verspreche dieses Konzept allemal. Nachdieser Einführung skizziert van Schen<strong>de</strong>len das Brüsseler „Spielfeld“ und die verschie<strong>de</strong>nenMöglichkeiten <strong>de</strong>r Einflussnahme, ehe er Ratschläge für die einzelnen Arenen – EU, „homefront“, „fieldwork“ – erteilt und dabei auch auf die Grenzen <strong>de</strong>s Konzepts aufmerksam macht.Den Abschluss bil<strong>de</strong>t eine Erörterung <strong>de</strong>s Verhältnisses zwischen Lobbying und Demokratie in<strong>de</strong>r EU, die in <strong>de</strong>r bemerkenswerten These gipfelt, „that the most pr<strong>of</strong>essional lobby groupsmake the largest contributions to EU <strong>de</strong>mocracy“ (S.316).Die Studie besticht durch eine Reihe von interessanten Beobachtungen und Thesen,beispielsweise zu <strong>de</strong>n zehn populären Mythen über die EU, zu <strong>de</strong>n Unterschie<strong>de</strong>n zwischen„lobbying“ und „influencing“ o<strong>de</strong>r zu <strong>de</strong>n verschie<strong>de</strong>nen Lobbying-Stilen, die zweifelsohneauch für historiographische Arbeiten über die Rolle von Interessengruppen von großemWert sein können. Mitunter verlieren sich seine analytischen Kategorialisierungen aber auch


144Book reviews – Comptes rendus – Buchbesprechungenin einem schematischen Entwe<strong>de</strong>r-O<strong>de</strong>r, das kaum geeignet erscheint zur Erfassung einerdifferenzierten und sich stetig wan<strong>de</strong>ln<strong>de</strong>n Realität.Mit einem beson<strong>de</strong>ren Verbandstypus befasst sich das dritte Buch. Justin Greenwood, <strong>de</strong>ran <strong>de</strong>r Robert Gordon Universität in Aber<strong>de</strong>en European Public Policy lehren<strong>de</strong>Herausgeber, hat darin die Beiträge für eine von <strong>de</strong>r EU gesponserten Konferenz übereuropäische Unternehmerverbän<strong>de</strong> versammelt. Diese Konferenz führte Wissenschaftlerund Praktiker zusammen – ein sinnvolles, aber keineswegs so einzigartiges Unterfangen,wie <strong>de</strong>r Herausgeber glauben machen möchte.Der Band ist in vier Kapitel unterglie<strong>de</strong>rt: Zu Beginn wer<strong>de</strong>n die Rahmenbedingungenverbandlicher Aktivitäten erläutert, darunter die jeweilige Wirtschaftsstruktur, die Rolle <strong>de</strong>sStaates, die Be<strong>de</strong>utung von Großunternehmen o<strong>de</strong>r bestimmte Governance-Arrangements. Daszweite Kapitel befasst sich mit <strong>de</strong>n verschie<strong>de</strong>nen Faktoren <strong>de</strong>s Wan<strong>de</strong>ls europäischerUnternehmerverbän<strong>de</strong> und <strong>de</strong>n Möglichkeiten, diesen Wan<strong>de</strong>l zu steuern. Im dritten Teil wer<strong>de</strong>neinige Beispiele für branchenübergreifen<strong>de</strong> und sozialpolitische Interessenorganisation aufEU-Ebene vorgestellt, <strong>de</strong>n Schluss bil<strong>de</strong>t eine Diskussion <strong>de</strong>r Probleme und Perspektiven <strong>de</strong>r„associational governance“. Greenwood ist es gelungen, mit Maria Green Cowles, Wyn Grant,Franz Traxler und Frans van Waar<strong>de</strong>n renommierte Verbandsforscher als Autoren zu gewinnen.Entsprechend anregend und pointiert sind viele Beiträge ausgefallen. Das gilt auch für dieZusammenfassung <strong>de</strong>s Herausgebers, in <strong>de</strong>r er die Erträge <strong>de</strong>s Ban<strong>de</strong>s bün<strong>de</strong>lt und insbeson<strong>de</strong>reauf die Unterschie<strong>de</strong> zwischen nationalen und europäischen Interessenorganisationen eingehtund nach Möglichkeiten fragt, wie letztere ihre, verglichen mit <strong>de</strong>n nationelen Verbän<strong>de</strong>ngeringere Schlagkraft steigern und damit ihre Attraktivität erhöhen könnten.Ein Defizit <strong>de</strong>r sozialwissenschaftlichen Verbän<strong>de</strong>forschung, das in GreenwoodsSammelband beson<strong>de</strong>rs auffällt, bleibt in<strong>de</strong>s zu erwähnen: Die Ergebnisse <strong>de</strong>r einschlägigengeschichtswissenschaftlichen Forschung wer<strong>de</strong>n unverständlicherweise meist völligignoriert. Das gilt selbst für Maria Green Cowles, obwohl sie im Untertitel ihres Aufsatzeseine „historische Perspektive“ ankündigt: Ihre Aussagen zur Entstehung europäischerUnternehmerverbän<strong>de</strong> sind zumin<strong>de</strong>st schief, in<strong>de</strong>m sie sowohl <strong>de</strong>n bereits 1949 aufInitiative <strong>de</strong>r OEEC gegrün<strong>de</strong>ten „Rat <strong>de</strong>r europäischen Industrieverbän<strong>de</strong>“ als auch die1952 aus <strong>de</strong>r Taufe gehobene Dachorganisation <strong>de</strong>r Industrieverbän<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>r Mitgliedslän<strong>de</strong>r<strong>de</strong>r EGKS übergeht und <strong>de</strong>n Wi<strong>de</strong>rstand <strong>de</strong>r Großindustrie gegen die europäische Einigungüberzeichnet. Und ihre schematische Periodisierung <strong>de</strong>r europäischen Verbandsentwicklungerscheint im Lichte historiographischer Arbeiten ebenfalls wenig überzeugend. Vielleichtwäre es an <strong>de</strong>r Zeit, nicht nur <strong>de</strong>n Dialog zwischen Wissenschaft und Praxis, son<strong>de</strong>rnendlich auch <strong>de</strong>n innerwissenschaftlichen Dialog zwischen Politologen und Historikern, dieüber Verbän<strong>de</strong> und Europa arbeiten, zu intensivieren: Bei<strong>de</strong> Seiten wür<strong>de</strong>n nämlich davonpr<strong>of</strong>itieren.Priv.Doz. Dr. Werner BührerTechnische Universität MünchenDECKER Claudia – Han<strong>de</strong>lskonflikte <strong>de</strong>r USA mit <strong>de</strong>r EU seit 1985. Eine Studie <strong>de</strong>sReziprozitätsprinzips in <strong>de</strong>r U.S.-Aussenpolitik, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin, 2002, 277 S.– ISBN 3-428-10663-6 – 74,00 €.Die gegenseitigen Han<strong>de</strong>lsbeziehungen <strong>de</strong>r EU-Staaten und <strong>de</strong>r USA sind fast täglichGegenstand <strong>de</strong>r Wirtschaftspresse. Kaum ein Tag vergeht, ohne dass auf Meinungsverschie<strong>de</strong>nheitenund Probleme Bezug genommen wird. Vieles bleibt punktuell und tritt auch raschin <strong>de</strong>n Hintergrund. Die längerfristige Perspektive bleibt verborgen. Es ist das ausseror<strong>de</strong>ntlicheVerdienst <strong>de</strong>r vorliegen<strong>de</strong>n Untersuchung, diese gegenseitigen Beziehungen gründlich


Book reviews – Comptes rendus – Buchbesprechungen 145und über eine längere Zeitdauer nachzuzeichnen und zu verfolgen. Der Autorin gelingt diesin hohem Masse und das Buch verdient, nicht nur zum besseren Verständnis von Grundlagenund Verfahren, son<strong>de</strong>rn auch als eigentliches Handbuch und Chronik <strong>de</strong>r zahlreichenAuseinan<strong>de</strong>rsetzungen von 1985 bis 2000 Verwendung zu fin<strong>de</strong>n.Ausgangspunkt <strong>de</strong>r Untersuchung bil<strong>de</strong>t die Frage nach <strong>de</strong>m Reziprozitätsprinzip in <strong>de</strong>rHan<strong>de</strong>lspolitik <strong>de</strong>r USA. Darunter ist allgemein eine Politik gegenseitiger Marktöffnung zuverstehen, welche bilateral, aber auch multilateral von Gegenleistungen abhängig gemachtwird. Reziprozität kann spezifisch und strikt sein und durch bedingte Meistbegünstigungausgedrückt wer<strong>de</strong>n. Sie kann aber auch als unspezifisch als eine allgemeineHandlungsmaxime verstan<strong>de</strong>n wer<strong>de</strong>n, <strong>de</strong>ren Ziel in einem allgemeinen Gleichgewichtbesteht. Hinter <strong>de</strong>r ersten Auffassung steht die merkantilistische, hinter <strong>de</strong>r zweiten diefreihändlerische Tradition. Die Arbeit zeigt vorerst die geschichtliche Entwicklung hin voneiner spezifischen zur unspezifischen Reziprozität, wie sie nach <strong>de</strong>m Zweiten Weltkrieg und<strong>de</strong>m Aufbau <strong>de</strong>s weltwirtschaftlichen Systems Ausdruck im GATT 47 fand, zurück zuspezifischen Rezprozitätsfor<strong>de</strong>rungen in <strong>de</strong>r Han<strong>de</strong>lsgesetzgebung <strong>de</strong>r USA <strong>de</strong>r jüngerenGeschichte. Diese Epoche wird im einzelnen untersucht mit ihren Spannungen zurunbedingten Meistbegünstigung, <strong>de</strong>m Multilateralismus und damit auch zum Recht <strong>de</strong>rWTO 94. Die Darstellung geht in<strong>de</strong>ssen weit über diesen Ausgangspunkt hinaus. Siebeschränkt sich nicht auf die Darstellung <strong>de</strong>r durch diese Entwicklung erzeugtenSpannungen mit <strong>de</strong>r EG. Vielmehr bietet die Arbeit eine ebenso ausführliche Darstellung<strong>de</strong>r transatlantischen Wirtschaftsbeziehungen mit reichhaltigem Datenmaterial. Der Lesererfährt fast ebensoviel über die Han<strong>de</strong>lspolitik <strong>de</strong>r EG wie diejenige <strong>de</strong>r USA.Claudia Decker glie<strong>de</strong>rt ihre Untersuchung in sechs Kapitel. Nach <strong>de</strong>m einleiten<strong>de</strong>nKapitel geht sie im zweiten auf die Definition und die unterschiedliche Ausrichtung <strong>de</strong>rReziprozität sowie auf ihr Verhältnis zur Meistbegünstigung in <strong>de</strong>r amerikanischenHan<strong>de</strong>lspolitik ein. Die Entwicklung <strong>de</strong>r Reziprozitätsgedanken in <strong>de</strong>n USA vor und nach<strong>de</strong>m Zweiten Weltkrieg wird in einem historischen Überblick ver<strong>de</strong>utlicht. Hierzu kommenauch die wichtigsten amerikanischen Han<strong>de</strong>lsgesetze aus <strong>de</strong>n 70er und 80er Jahren (wieSektion 301, „Super 301“, „Special 301“), <strong>de</strong>ren Anwendung und Reaktionen seitens <strong>de</strong>rEG zur Sprache. Decker stellt fest, dass die strikte Reziprozität kein neuer Gedanke ist,son<strong>de</strong>rn gängige Praxis <strong>de</strong>r US-amerikanischen Aussenhan<strong>de</strong>lspolitik bis zum ZweitenWeltkrieg war. Im dritten Kapitel untersucht Decker eingehend die wirtschaftlicheVerflechtung im Waren-, Agrar- und Dienstleistungsbereich zwischen <strong>de</strong>n USA und <strong>de</strong>r EGund liefert eine Fülle von Daten, einschliesslich <strong>de</strong>r Direktinvestitionen (S.88-122), um in<strong>de</strong>r Folge die Be<strong>de</strong>utung <strong>de</strong>r transatlantischen Han<strong>de</strong>lsbeziehungen – auch im Vergleich zuan<strong>de</strong>ren Han<strong>de</strong>lspartnern – und das von Konflikten betr<strong>of</strong>fene Han<strong>de</strong>lsvolumen (1% <strong>de</strong>sgesamten US-EG-Han<strong>de</strong>ls) besser einschätzen zu können. Das vierte Kapitel untersucht dieUS-amerikanische Europapolitik insbeson<strong>de</strong>re in Bezug auf die Verwirklichung <strong>de</strong>sBinnenmarktes nach <strong>de</strong>m Weissbuch von Delors (1985) und <strong>de</strong>r Einheitlichen EuropäischenAkte (1986). Wir fin<strong>de</strong>n hier einschlägige Belege für die strategische US-amerikanischeUnterstützung <strong>de</strong>r europäischen Integration, welche je<strong>de</strong>nfalls bis zum En<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>s KaltenKrieges durch operative Konflikte nicht geschmälert wur<strong>de</strong>.Das fünfte Kapitel bietet eine eingehen<strong>de</strong> Chronik und systematische Analyse <strong>de</strong>rHan<strong>de</strong>lskonflikte zwischen <strong>de</strong>n USA und <strong>de</strong>r EG von Januar 1985 bis Dezember 1999. DieUntersuchung wird unterteilt in <strong>de</strong>n Agrar-, Industriegüter- und Dienstleistungsbereich undnach <strong>de</strong>m Gegenstand <strong>de</strong>s Konflikts (Subventionen, Normen und an<strong>de</strong>re Anfor<strong>de</strong>rungen wietechnische und tarifäre Han<strong>de</strong>lshemmnisse bzw. Quoten). Nachzutragen wären dieInteressen und Konflikte im Bereiche <strong>de</strong>s geistigen Eigentums, welche die Autorin lei<strong>de</strong>rnicht berücksichtigt hat. Sie dokumentiert eingehend insgesamt 25 grössere Konflikte, von<strong>de</strong>nen zwei Drittel auf die Landwirtschaft entfallen, obgleich diese lediglich einen Anteilvon 2% am BIP <strong>de</strong>r USA und 1.5% <strong>de</strong>s BIP <strong>de</strong>r EG ausmachen (S.215) und am gesamten


146Book reviews – Comptes rendus – BuchbesprechungenExportvolumen <strong>de</strong>r USA von 13.6% (1985) und 6.7% (2000) aufweist (S.98, S.212). Nichteinbezogen sind dabei Klagen seitens <strong>de</strong>r Europäischen Gemeinschaft.Im letzten Kapitel fin<strong>de</strong>n wir eine Beurteilung dieser Konflikte unter <strong>de</strong>m Gesichtspunkt<strong>de</strong>r strikten Reziprozität (S.220 ff.). Die Autorin kommt zum Ergebnis, dass sich die USAtrotz einer Hinwendung zur strikten Reziprozität in ihrer Gesetzgebung und einem grossenunilateralen Retorsionspotential <strong>de</strong>n multilateralen Streitbeilegungsmechanismen <strong>de</strong>r WTObedient. Ihre Klagen sind nicht in erster Linie durch Reziprozitätsüberlegungen geprägt,son<strong>de</strong>rn vielmehr Reaktionen auf han<strong>de</strong>lsbeschränken<strong>de</strong> Massnahmen <strong>de</strong>r EG zurückzuführen.Den USA geht es in erster Linie darum, sich günstige Zugangsbedingungen zumEG-Binnenmarkt zu verschaffen und von <strong>de</strong>ssen Vorteilen <strong>de</strong>r economies <strong>of</strong> scale zupr<strong>of</strong>itieren. Damit wi<strong>de</strong>rlegt Decker die in <strong>de</strong>r Literatur verbreitete Meinung, dass die USAeine strikte Reziprozität in ihren Han<strong>de</strong>lsbeziehungen mit <strong>de</strong>r EG durchsetzen wollen(S.244).Beson<strong>de</strong>rs hervorzuheben und innovativ sind die Untersuchungen zur Frage, inwieweit dieAktionen <strong>de</strong>r USA durch <strong>de</strong>ren chronisch negativen Han<strong>de</strong>lsbilanz motiviert sind (S.234-243).Den Korrelationen lassen sich kein klares Muster entnehmen, was auch damit erklärt wird, dassdie Durchführung von Verhandlungen und Streitschlichtungsverfahren immer mit einemgewissen Zeitverzug erfolgt und so sich nur Ten<strong>de</strong>nzen ausmachen lassen. Aufschlussreich istauch <strong>de</strong>r Vergleich zwischen Direktinvestitionen und Han<strong>de</strong>l. Diese übertreffen <strong>de</strong>nHan<strong>de</strong>lsverkehr um ein Vielfaches (S.110-115) und stehen gewissermassen in umgekehrtproportionalem Verhältnis zur Aufmerksamkeit, welche die causes celèbres, wie Bananen- undHormonstreit in <strong>de</strong>r Presse und öffentlichen Wahrnehmung erfahren haben.Das Werk ist ein eindrückliches Zeugnis, dass Perzeption und Realitäten nichtübereinstimmen. Die multilaterale Han<strong>de</strong>lspolitik ist auf einer längeren Zeitachse betrachtetbesser als ihr Ruf. Die Beziehungen <strong>de</strong>r USA und <strong>de</strong>r EG sind trotz einer Vielzahl vonStreitigkeiten gesund und verlaufen dank <strong>de</strong>r WTO-Regeln in geordneten, völkerrechtlichenBahnen. Gemessen am Umfang <strong>de</strong>r gegenseitigen Investitionen und Han<strong>de</strong>lsströmennehmen sich die Konflikte letztlich beschei<strong>de</strong>n aus und müssen in ihren Proportionengesehen wer<strong>de</strong>n. Das Alltagsbild <strong>de</strong>r Wirtschaftspresse täuscht in diesem Sinne. Man ist andie Aussage Louis Henkin erinnert, dass „almost all nations observe almost all principles <strong>of</strong>international law and almost <strong>of</strong> their obligations almost all <strong>of</strong> the time“ (How NationsBehave, 2. Aufl. 1979, S.47). Man tut gut daran, dies gera<strong>de</strong> heute zu betonen. Die Arbeitvon Claudia Decker leistet dazu einen hervorragen<strong>de</strong>n Beitrag.Pr<strong>of</strong>. Thomas Cottier und Dr. Erik EvtimovWorld Tra<strong>de</strong> Institute, Bern


147Abstracts – Résumés – ZusammenfassungenN. Piers LudlowAn Opportunity or a Threat?The European Commission and The Hague Council <strong>of</strong> December 1969The Commission had very mixed feelings about The Hague summit. On the positivesi<strong>de</strong>, Jean Rey and his colleagues could not fail to welcome the agreement reached oncompletion, <strong>de</strong>epening and wi<strong>de</strong>ning. The <strong>de</strong>al on completion would greatly help theCommission’s efforts to steer the Six towards an agreement on the Community’s financesafter January 1970. That on <strong>de</strong>epening gave the Commission an exciting new agenda onwhich to focus. The settlement <strong>of</strong> the enlargement question would heal a long-standing sorethat had seriously disrupted the EEC’s advance. And the Commission was also pleased tosee the lea<strong>de</strong>rs <strong>of</strong> the Six reaffirm the long term political aims <strong>of</strong> the <strong>integration</strong> process. Butamid these reasons for satisfaction, there were also causes for concern. For not only had theSix chosen largely to ignore the Commission’s own efforts to shape The Hague’sconclusions and marginalised Rey during the summit <strong>de</strong>bate. But the very success <strong>of</strong> theHeads <strong>of</strong> Government gathering looked likely to accelerate the gradual slippage <strong>of</strong> powerfrom the Commission and to the member states that had been un<strong>de</strong>rway for much <strong>of</strong> the1960s.Opportunité ou menace?La Commission européenne et le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye <strong>de</strong> décembre 1969L’attitu<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> la Commission européenne à l’égard du sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye est pour lemoins mitigée. Certes, Jean Rey et ses collègues ne peuvent que se féliciter <strong>de</strong>s accordsatteints sur les trois principaux sujets <strong>de</strong> l’achèvement, <strong>de</strong> l’appr<strong>of</strong>ondissement et <strong>de</strong>l’élargissement. Le premier facilite beaucoup les efforts <strong>de</strong> la Commission en vue d’obtenirun arrangement définitif sur le financement <strong>de</strong> la CEE. Le <strong>de</strong>uxième ouvre <strong>de</strong>s perspectivestout à fait intéressantes à la matérialisation <strong>de</strong>squelles la Commission peut consacrer sesefforts. Le troisième met fin à la longue querelle sur l’élargissement qui, au cours <strong>de</strong>s annéesprécé<strong>de</strong>ntes, avait tant retardé les travaux <strong>de</strong> la CEE. En outre, la Commission est égalementravie <strong>de</strong> voir les chefs <strong>de</strong> gouvernement réaffirmer les finalités politiques <strong>de</strong> la constructioneuropéenne. Toujours est-il qu’à côté <strong>de</strong> tous ces indéniables atouts, il y a aussi <strong>de</strong>s aspectsmoins positifs. Ainsi les Six ont fait la sour<strong>de</strong> oreille aux idées défendues par la Commissionau cours du sommet, <strong>de</strong> sorte que Rey n’a finalement guère pu contribuer aux débats. Pireencore, le succès <strong>de</strong> la réunion à La Haye fait entrevoir l’accélération d’un phénomène àl’œuvre <strong>de</strong>puis le début <strong>de</strong>s années soixante: le glissement progressif du pouvoir <strong>de</strong> laCommission vers les Etats membres.Gute Aussichten o<strong>de</strong>r Bedrohung?Die europäische Kommission und die Konferenz von Den Haag (Dezember 1969)Die europäische Kommission legte nach <strong>de</strong>m Haager Gipfeltreffen eher gemischteGefühle an <strong>de</strong>n Tag. Zweifelsfrei positiv beurteilten Jean Rey und seine Kollegen <strong>de</strong>n allgemeinenKonsens über <strong>de</strong>n Ausbau, die Vertiefung und die Erweiterung <strong>de</strong>r Gemeinschaft.Die Abmachung über <strong>de</strong>n Ausbau wür<strong>de</strong> es ihnen wesentlich leichter machen die Finanzierung<strong>de</strong>r EWG nach <strong>de</strong>m 1. Januar 1970 abzusichern. Die Beschlüsse über die Vertiefungstellten die Kommission vor eine ganze Reihe neue, interessante Herausfor<strong>de</strong>rungen,


148Abstracts – Résumés – Zusammenfassungenwährend die Erweiterung versprach jene endlosen Querelen zu beseitigen, die <strong>de</strong>n Fortschrittin <strong>de</strong>r Gemeinschaft während <strong>de</strong>n vorangegangenen Jahren stets gehemmt hatten.Darüber hinaus freute sich die Kommission über <strong>de</strong>n bekun<strong>de</strong>ten Willen <strong>de</strong>r Staats- undRegierungschefs, <strong>de</strong>n politischen Zielen <strong>de</strong>r europäischen Konstruktion wie<strong>de</strong>r mehr Beachtungzu schenken. Trotz<strong>de</strong>m gab es für Rey und seine Kollegen nicht nur Positives zu verbuchen.Immerhin hatten die Sechs <strong>de</strong>n I<strong>de</strong>en <strong>de</strong>r Kommission kaum Beachtung geschenkt,so dass ihr Präsi<strong>de</strong>nt in Den Haag nur sehr unwesentlich zu <strong>de</strong>n Debatten beitragen konnte.Viel schlimmer aber gestaltete sich <strong>de</strong>r Umstand, dass <strong>de</strong>r Erfolg <strong>de</strong>s Gipfels bereits <strong>de</strong>utlichdie Beschleunigung eines allgemeinen Phänomens <strong>de</strong>r Sechzigerjahre erkennen ließ:<strong>de</strong>r progressive Machtverfall <strong>de</strong>r Kommission zugunsten <strong>de</strong>r Mitgliedsstaaten.Anjo Harryvan and Jan van <strong>de</strong>r HarstSwan Song or Cock Crow?The Netherlands and the Hague Conference <strong>of</strong> December 1969Swan Song or Cock Crow analyses the Dutch government’s policy with regard to theHague summit and the extent to which this summit was <strong>de</strong>emed instrumental forre-launching European <strong>integration</strong> after the De Gaulle era. The authors conclu<strong>de</strong> that TheHague’s historical importance is by and large to be attributed to the subsequentimplementation and follow-up <strong>of</strong> the summit’s final communiqué. Had the Brusselsconference (late December 1969), the Werner and Davignon committees and theenlargement negotiations been unsuccessful, the by now famous triptych ‘completion,wi<strong>de</strong>ning and <strong>de</strong>epening’ would have remained null and void. Hence, in the authors’ view,the ‘spirit <strong>of</strong> The Hague’ was <strong>of</strong> more importance than the actual wording <strong>of</strong> thecompromises arrived at in the Rid<strong>de</strong>rzaal (the conference room). As a matter <strong>of</strong> fact, thegovernment’s immediate reaction after the conference was one <strong>of</strong> misgivings, particularlyconcerning the lack <strong>of</strong> a formal agreement on British entry.The authors further point to the crucial role played by the West-German government,hea<strong>de</strong>d by the recently appointed chancellor Willy Brandt. They argue that the Germanperformance heral<strong>de</strong>d a new era in European <strong>integration</strong>, in that in and after The Hague theBun<strong>de</strong>srepublik freed itself <strong>of</strong> its historically <strong>de</strong>termined reticence in post-war Europeanaffairs. Given the convergence <strong>of</strong> German and Dutch EC priorities, the Dutch governmenthailed the new German assertiveness as an important outcome <strong>of</strong> the summit. Thus TheHague did constitute a break-through, first and foremost <strong>of</strong> a psychological nature.Chant du cygne ou cri du coq?Les Pays-Bas et la conférence <strong>de</strong> La Haye <strong>de</strong> décembre 1969Chant du cygne ou cri du coq analyse à la fois la politique du gouvernement néerlandaisau regard du sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye et la manière dont la conférence a été jugée apte <strong>de</strong> servird’instrument à la relance <strong>de</strong> l’intégration européenne au len<strong>de</strong>main du départ <strong>de</strong> Charles DeGaulle. L’importance «historique» <strong>de</strong> La Haye doit être attribuée dans une très large mesureà l’exécution subséquente, avec succès, <strong>de</strong>s termes du communiqué final du sommet.Autrement dit: si la rencontre <strong>de</strong> Bruxelles organisée vers la fin du mois <strong>de</strong> décembre 1969,ou les comités Werner et Davignon, ou encore les négociations sur l’élargissement s’étaientsoldées par un échec, alors le slogan du triptyque «achèvement, appr<strong>of</strong>ondissement,élargissement» <strong>de</strong>venu entre-temps fameux, serait tout simplement resté lettre morte.Toujours est-il – <strong>de</strong> l’avis <strong>de</strong>s auteurs – que l’«esprit <strong>de</strong> La Haye» importe en définitive biendavantage que le détail <strong>de</strong>s compromis négociés au Rid<strong>de</strong>rzaal, la salle <strong>de</strong> réunion dusommet. La réaction immédiate <strong>de</strong>s gouvernements après la rencontre fut en effet inspirée


Abstracts – Résumés – Zusammenfassungen 149par <strong>de</strong>s appréhensions, notamment en ce qui concerne l’absence d’un accord formel au sujet<strong>de</strong> l’entrée <strong>de</strong>s Britanniques.Il convient finalement <strong>de</strong> souligner le rôle crucial joué par le gouvernement <strong>de</strong> Bonn, enl’occurrence le chancelier Willy Brandt récemment sorti vainqueur <strong>de</strong>s élections fédérales.Sa performance annonce une ère nouvelle en ce sens qu’au cours, et surtout après laconférence <strong>de</strong> La Haye, les Allemands s’affranchissent <strong>de</strong> la retenue «historique» qu’ilss’étaient jusque-là imposée en matière <strong>de</strong>s affaires européennes <strong>de</strong> l’après-guerre. Vu laconvergence <strong>de</strong>s priorités alleman<strong>de</strong>s et néerlandaises, le gouvernement <strong>de</strong>s Pays-Bassaluait le nouvel aplomb <strong>de</strong> Bonn comme un succès important du sommet. De ce point <strong>de</strong>vue, La Haye représente incontestablement une percée <strong>de</strong> nature avant tout psychologique.Schwanengesang o<strong>de</strong>r Hahnenschrei?Die Nie<strong>de</strong>rlan<strong>de</strong> und <strong>de</strong>r Haager Gipfel (Dezember 1969)Schwanengesang o<strong>de</strong>r Hahnenschrei analysiert sowohl die Politik <strong>de</strong>r nie<strong>de</strong>rländischenRegierung mit Blick auf <strong>de</strong>n Haager Gipfel, als auch die Art und Weise wie die Konferenz,nach <strong>de</strong>r De Gaulle Ära, als Instrument zur europäischen Relance bewertet wur<strong>de</strong>. Diehistorische Dimension <strong>de</strong>s Gipfeltreffens liegt wohl weniger im eigentlichen HaagerKompromiss, son<strong>de</strong>rn viel mehr in <strong>de</strong>r darauffolgen<strong>de</strong>n, erfolgreichen Implementierung <strong>de</strong>rim Abschusskommuniqué festgehaltenen Beschlüsse. Wären die Brüsseler Konferenz vomEn<strong>de</strong> Dezember 1969, die Werner- bzw. die Davignonkommission o<strong>de</strong>r die Verhandlungüber die Erweiterung <strong>de</strong>r Gemeinschaft erfolglos geblieben, dann hätte <strong>de</strong>r sogenannteTriptik «Ausbau, Vertiefung, Erweiterung» wohl nie jene Berühmtheit erlangt, die er heutemittlerweile besitzt. Wichtig war allen voran <strong>de</strong>r «Geist von Den Haag» <strong>de</strong>r die Konferenzim Rid<strong>de</strong>rzaal, <strong>de</strong>m Tagungsort, beseelte. Die ersten Reaktionen unmittelbar nach <strong>de</strong>mTreffen waren in <strong>de</strong>r Tat eher von Skepsis geprägt, beson<strong>de</strong>rs was das Fehlen einer formalenZusage über <strong>de</strong>n Beitritt <strong>de</strong>r Briten betrifft.Schließlich bleibt die überaus wichtige Rolle <strong>de</strong>r Bonner Regierung, insbeson<strong>de</strong>re <strong>de</strong>skürzlich gewählten Kanzlers Willy Brandt, zu erwähnen. Sein Auftritt läutet bereits während<strong>de</strong>s Gipfeltreffens eine neue Ära <strong>de</strong>utscher Europapolitik ein, die sich fortan von <strong>de</strong>r«historischen» Zurückhaltung <strong>de</strong>r Nachkriegszeit befreit. Die nie<strong>de</strong>rländische Regierungbegrüßte diese neue <strong>de</strong>utsche Haltung sehr, waren doch ihre Prioritäten gleichlautend mit<strong>de</strong>njenigen <strong>de</strong>r Bun<strong>de</strong>srepublik. So gesehen bil<strong>de</strong>t <strong>de</strong>r Haager Gipfel unbestreitbar einenDurchbruch hauptsächlich psychologischer Natur.Jérôme WilsonNegotiating European Renewal? Belgium and the Hague ConferenceA little over ten years after it was set up, the European Community <strong>of</strong> 1969 has come toa halt. Enlargement towards the United Kingdom gives rise to distrust and suspicion amongthe Six. Benelux itself hints at divisions between the Belgians and the Dutch. But DeGaulle´s <strong>de</strong>parture <strong>of</strong>fers an opportunity for France to restart the engine. Belgian diplomatictroops, few in number but well trained, set the train in motion. Harmel, Eyskens and Snoyrely on a perfect collaboration with their Luxemburg counterparts. They also take advantage<strong>of</strong> the presence <strong>of</strong> Rey at the head <strong>of</strong> the European Commission, whose positionscoinci<strong>de</strong>nce with all the <strong>of</strong>ficial steps taken by the Belgians. Impressive conciliatory work isachieved behind the stage. A <strong>de</strong>cisive move takes place in Brussels when a preparatorymeeting brings together Foreign Affairs ministers in September 1969.Besi<strong>de</strong>s political and military preoccupations, the Belgians also favour addressingobjectives <strong>of</strong> technological and monetary cooperation. The question <strong>of</strong> a common Europeancurrency, which will lead to the Werner plan, has its roots in proposals coming from Snoy


150Abstracts – Résumés – Zusammenfassungenand in technical solutions <strong>de</strong>veloped by an American expert <strong>of</strong> Belgian origin, RobertTriffin, passed on to Willy Brandt by Monnet. The Belgians are here revealed as tryingendlessly to build up the most workable mechanisms for European <strong>integration</strong>, and set up aculture <strong>of</strong> "compromise" <strong>of</strong> their own which turns out to be a <strong>de</strong>termining factor in makingEuropean progress, particularly within the fields <strong>of</strong> enlargement or monetary union.Négocier la relance européenne: les Belges et le sommet <strong>de</strong> La HayeUn peu plus <strong>de</strong> dix ans après son lancement, la Communauté européenne est en panne.La question <strong>de</strong> l’élargissement vers le Royaume-Uni divise les Six; une méfiance malsaines’est installée entre les partenaires. Le Benelux lui-même laisse entrevoir <strong>de</strong>s dissensionsbelgo-néerlandaises. Le départ <strong>de</strong> De Gaulle <strong>of</strong>fre à la France l’opportunité <strong>de</strong> relancer lemoteur. Les troupes diplomatiques belges, peu nombreuses mais bien entraînées, embraientle pas. Harmel, Eyskens et Snoy s’appuient sur une collaboration parfaite avec leurshomologues luxembourgeois. Ils bénéficient également <strong>de</strong> la présence <strong>de</strong> Rey à la tête <strong>de</strong> laCommission, qui affiche <strong>de</strong>s points <strong>de</strong> vue en harmonie avec les démarches <strong>of</strong>ficiellesbelges. Les Belges s’agitent beaucoup dans les coulisses, et un tournant décisif s’opère àBruxelles lors d’une réunion préparatoire réunissant les ministres <strong>de</strong>s Affaires étrangères enseptembre 1969.A côté <strong>de</strong>s préoccupations politiques et militaires, les Belges favorisent également laprise en compte d’objectifs <strong>de</strong> coopération sur les plans technologique et monétaire. Laquestion <strong>de</strong> la mise en place d’une <strong>de</strong>vise commune pour l’Europe, qui débouchera paraprès sur le plan Werner, s’inspire largement <strong>de</strong> propositions émises par Snoy et <strong>de</strong> solutionstechniques développées par un expert américain d’origine belge, Robert Triffin, transmises àWilly Brandt par l’intermédiaire <strong>de</strong> Jean Monnet. Fidèles à leur foi européenne, les Belgesmettent en pratique à La Haye leur culture pragmatique du «compromis» qui marquera <strong>de</strong> sagriffe tous les progrès européens, <strong>de</strong> l’élargissement à la monnaie unique.Die Verhandlungen zur europäischen Relance: die Belgier und <strong>de</strong>r Gipfel von DenHaagEtwa zehn Jahre nach ihrer Gründung drohte die Europäische Gemeinschaft endgültig in<strong>de</strong>r Sackgasse zu stecken. Die Frage <strong>de</strong>r Aufnahme Großbritanniens spaltete die Sechs; einunheilsames Misstrauen machte sich unter <strong>de</strong>n Partnern breit. Selbst innerhalb <strong>de</strong>rBenelux-Staatengruppe gab es belgisch-nie<strong>de</strong>rländische Meinungsverschie<strong>de</strong>nheiten. DerAbgang De Gaulles’ gab Frankreich jedoch die Gelegenheit <strong>de</strong>n europäischen Motor wie<strong>de</strong>rin Gang zu bringen. Belgiens kleine, aber wohltrainierte diplomatische Truppe war s<strong>of</strong>ortbereit auf <strong>de</strong>m neuen Weg mitzumarschieren. Harmel, Eyskens und Snoy konnten sich dabeinicht nur auf eine enge Zusammenarbeit mit ihren luxemburgischen Kollegen verlassen; siewur<strong>de</strong>n zusätzlich vom Kommissionspräsi<strong>de</strong>nten Jean Rey unterstützt, <strong>de</strong>ssen Haltungvöllig mit <strong>de</strong>n <strong>of</strong>fiziellen belgischen Vorstößen übereinstimmte. Letztere spielten sichhauptsächlich hinter <strong>de</strong>n Kulissen ab, so dass bereits im September 1969 anlässlich einerAußenministerkonferenz in Brüssel ein wichtiger Durchbruch gelang.Neben politischen und militärischen Überlegungen verfolgten die Belgier auch dieWeiterführung <strong>de</strong>r technologischen und monetären Kooperation. Die I<strong>de</strong>e zur Einführungeiner gemeinsamen europäischen Währung, die später zum Werner Plan führen sollte, istweitgehend beeinflusst durch Snoys Vorschläge und die technischen Lösungen die <strong>de</strong>ramerikanische Experte belgischer Herkunft, Robert Triffin, <strong>de</strong>m <strong>de</strong>utschen Kanzler WillyBrandt über <strong>de</strong>n Mittelsmann Jean Monnet zukommen ließ. Getreu ihres europäischenGlaubens, spielten die Belgier in Den Haag die Trumpfkarte ihrer pragmatisch orientierten


Abstracts – Résumés – Zusammenfassungen 151Kompromisskultur und drückten damit <strong>de</strong>m Fortschritt <strong>de</strong>r europäischen Sache, von <strong>de</strong>rErweiterung bis zur Einheitswährung, mehr als einmal ihren Stempel auf.Claudia HiepelIn Search <strong>of</strong> the Greatest Common Denominator:Germany and the Hague Summit Conference, 1969The European public wi<strong>de</strong>ly attributed the success <strong>of</strong> the Hague Summit Conference inDecember 1969 to the diplomacy and commitment <strong>of</strong> German chancellor Willy Brandt.In<strong>de</strong>ed, it was Brandt who <strong>de</strong>cisively contributed to the successful realisation <strong>of</strong> the FrenchPresi<strong>de</strong>nt’s i<strong>de</strong>a to solve European problems at a conference <strong>of</strong> the heads <strong>of</strong> state andgovernment. Despite his own reservations about a summit conference that exclu<strong>de</strong>d GreatBritain, Brandt <strong>de</strong>fen<strong>de</strong>d this initiative against sceptics within the Community. As ForeignMinister <strong>of</strong> the Grand Coalition which was composed <strong>of</strong> Social Democrats and ChristianDemocrats, Brandt pursued an active diplomacy but this tactic merely brought the differingviews into line with each other. After being elected Chancellor in October 1969, heintensified the pressure on the French government, which finally agreed to start negotiationswith the applicant states and, in return, received a satisfactory solution for financing theCommon Market.This contribution reconstructs the road from the Pompidou initiative in June 1969 to theconference at the beginning <strong>of</strong> December 1969 by examining the files from the appropriateFrench and German ministries. It brings out more clearly a German policy that was based onpursuing German national interests by reconciling the interests <strong>of</strong> all <strong>of</strong> the member states.By searching the greatest common <strong>de</strong>nominator, Brandt ma<strong>de</strong> a clear case for the success <strong>of</strong>the new fe<strong>de</strong>ral government’s esprit communautaire. The Hague Summit also marked thefirst success <strong>of</strong> the Brandt government’s foreign policy towards Europe before theimplementation <strong>of</strong> the new Ostpolitik.En quête du plus grand dénominateur commun: la République Fédérale d’Allemagneet le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye. 1969L’opinion publique européenne est largement acquise à l’idée que le succès du sommet<strong>de</strong> La Haye en 1969 aurait été le mérite <strong>de</strong> la diplomatie alleman<strong>de</strong> en général, et <strong>de</strong>l’engagement personnel du chancelier Willy Brandt en particulier. Celui-ci est en effet pourbeaucoup dans la transposition pratique du concept français qui consiste à se servir d’uneconférence au sommet <strong>de</strong>s chefs d’Etat et <strong>de</strong> gouvernement pour résoudre les problèmeseuropéens. En dépit <strong>de</strong> ses propres hésitations originales quant à une rencontre organisée àl’exclusion <strong>de</strong> la Gran<strong>de</strong>-Bretagne, Brandt soutint finalement l’initiative du prési<strong>de</strong>ntPompidou contre les sceptiques <strong>de</strong> la Communauté. Au titre <strong>de</strong> ministre <strong>de</strong>s Affairesétrangères <strong>de</strong> la Gran<strong>de</strong> Coalition du SPD et du CSU, il se contenta d’abord <strong>de</strong> pratiquer uneactive «diplomatie <strong>de</strong>s voyages» dont le but était <strong>de</strong> rapprocher les points <strong>de</strong> vue souventfort opposés. Ensuite, dès son avènement à la chancellerie au len<strong>de</strong>main <strong>de</strong>s électionsd’octobre 1969, il augmenta les pressions, notamment sur la France afin <strong>de</strong> l’obliger àdonner son aval aux négociations avec les pays candidats en contrepartie d’une solutionacceptable en matière du financement <strong>de</strong> la PAC.La présente contribution retrace le cheminement <strong>de</strong> l’initiative <strong>de</strong> Pompidou <strong>de</strong>puis lemois <strong>de</strong> juin 1969 jusqu’à le conférence en décembre <strong>de</strong> la même année. Le dépouillement<strong>de</strong>s archives <strong>de</strong> différents ministères jadis concernés dégage ainsi, du côté allemand, uneébauche <strong>de</strong> politique soucieuse <strong>de</strong> conserver les intérêts nationaux grâce à un juste équilibre<strong>de</strong>s intérêts <strong>de</strong> tous les pays membres. Avec sa quête pour un plus grand dénominateurcommun, Brand a non seulement fait preuve <strong>de</strong> l’esprit communautaire du nouveau


152Abstracts – Résumés – Zusammenfassungengouvernement fédéral. Le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye a également marqué son premier succès surle plan <strong>de</strong> la politique européenne et ce, bien avant la mise en route <strong>de</strong> la nouvelle Ostpolitik.Auf <strong>de</strong>r Suche nach <strong>de</strong>m größten gemeinsamen Nenner.Deutschland und die Haager Gipfelkonferenz 1969Der Erfolg <strong>de</strong>r Haager Gipfelkonferenz im Dezember 1969 wur<strong>de</strong> von weiten Teilen <strong>de</strong>reuropäischen Öffentlichkeit <strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong>utschen Gipfeldiplomatie und vor allem <strong>de</strong>m Engagement<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>utschen Bun<strong>de</strong>skanzlers Willy Brandt zugeschrieben. In <strong>de</strong>r Tat hatte Brandtentschei<strong>de</strong>n<strong>de</strong>n Anteil an <strong>de</strong>r erfolgreichen Umsetzung <strong>de</strong>r I<strong>de</strong>e <strong>de</strong>s französischenStaatspräsi<strong>de</strong>nten, die europäischen Probleme auf einer Konferenz <strong>de</strong>r Staats- undRegierungschefs zu lösen. Trotz anfänglicher eigener Vorbehalte gegen einen Gipfel unterAusschluss Großbritanniens unterstützte er die Initiative gegenüber Skeptikern in <strong>de</strong>rGemeinschaft. Als Außenminister <strong>de</strong>r Großen Koalition von SPD und CDU erschöpfte sichseine Aufgabe in einer regen Reisediplomatie, die lediglich eine Annäherung <strong>de</strong>runterschiedlichen Positionen bewirkte. Nach seiner Wahl zum Bun<strong>de</strong>skanzler im Oktober1969 verstärkte er <strong>de</strong>n Druck auf die französische Regierung, die sich zur Aufnahme vonVerhandlungen mit <strong>de</strong>n Beitrittslän<strong>de</strong>rn bereit erklärte, um im Gegenzug einezufrie<strong>de</strong>nstellen<strong>de</strong> Lösung für die Agrarfinanzierung <strong>de</strong>r Gemeinschaft zu erhalten.Der Beitrag rekonstruiert anhand <strong>de</strong>r Akten <strong>de</strong>r beteiligten Ministerien <strong>de</strong>n Weg vonPompidous Initiative im Juni 1969 bis zur Konferenz Anfang Dezember 1969. Dabeikristallisiert sich auf <strong>de</strong>utscher Seite ein Politikansatz heraus, <strong>de</strong>r auf <strong>de</strong>r Wahrnehmungnationaler Interessen im Rahmen eines Interessenausgleichs aller Mitgliedstaaten basierte.Mit seiner Suche nach <strong>de</strong>m größten gemeinsamen Nenner stellte Brandt <strong>de</strong>n europäischenPartnern nicht nur <strong>de</strong>n esprit communautaire <strong>de</strong>r neuen Bun<strong>de</strong>sregierung unter Beweis. DerHaager Gipfel markierte auch <strong>de</strong>n ersten außenpolitischen Erfolg <strong>de</strong>r Regierung Brandt, <strong>de</strong>nsie noch vor <strong>de</strong>r Implementierung <strong>de</strong>r ,Neuen Ostpolitik’ auf europapolitischem Gebiet zuverzeichnen hatte.Marie-Thérèse BitschThe summit <strong>of</strong> Den Haag. The French Initiative, its Finalities and its LimitsOnly France, that had opposed the United Kingdom’s accession to the EEC, could breakthe <strong>de</strong>adlock that had been reached within the Community after General <strong>de</strong> Gaulle’s secondveto, at the end <strong>of</strong> the 1960s. It was up to Georges Pompidou, elected presi<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>of</strong> theRepublic in June 1969, to take the initiative for breaking this stalemate and relaunching theEuropean construction. The new Presi<strong>de</strong>nt followed this line rapidly and resolutely, both fordomestic (election) reasons, and to meet the requirements <strong>of</strong> the Europeans but above all inor<strong>de</strong>r to speed up again cooperation within the EEC, imperative for the mo<strong>de</strong>rnization <strong>of</strong> theFrench economy. Thus he accepted enlargement with the accession <strong>of</strong> Great Britain and theother candidate countries, on two preconditions: the completion, i.e. the adoption <strong>of</strong> theprinciple <strong>of</strong> an own resources system before passing on to the <strong>de</strong>finitive stage on 1 st January1970 and the preliminary agreement between the Six on the conditions <strong>of</strong> accession to beimposed on the future member countries. By suggesting a summit meeting, in those days anexceptional practice, with strong Gaullist and intergovernmental connotations, Pompidousought to keep control over the process, but ran the risk <strong>of</strong> annoying and worrying hispartners. But, sincere in his will to relaunch the European construction, he was ready toyield some ground in or<strong>de</strong>r to make <strong>of</strong> the Den Haag conference a cause <strong>of</strong> satisfaction forthe French diplomacy and a not inconsi<strong>de</strong>rable success for European <strong>integration</strong>.


Abstracts – Résumés – Zusammenfassungen 153Le sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye. L’initiative française, ses finalités et ses limitesSeule la France, qui s’était opposée à l’entrée du Royaume-Uni dans la CEE, pouvaitmettre fin au blocage qui frappe la Communauté après le <strong>de</strong>uxième veto du général <strong>de</strong>Gaulle, à la fin <strong>de</strong>s années 1960. Il revient à Georges Pompidou, élu prési<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>de</strong> laRépublique en juin 1969, <strong>de</strong> prendre les initiatives pour sortir <strong>de</strong> l’impasse et relancer laconstruction européenne. Le nouveau prési<strong>de</strong>nt s’engage dans cette voie, rapi<strong>de</strong>ment etrésolument, à la fois pour <strong>de</strong>s raisons <strong>de</strong> politique intérieure (électorale) française, pourrépondre aux attentes <strong>de</strong>s Européens et, surtout, pour redynamiser la coopération au sein <strong>de</strong>la CEE, indispensable à la mo<strong>de</strong>rnisation <strong>de</strong> l’économie française. Il accepte alorsl’élargissement à l’Angleterre et aux autres candidats, moyennant <strong>de</strong>ux préalables:l’achèvement, c’est-à-dire l’adoption du principe <strong>de</strong>s ressources financières propres avant lepassage à la phase définitive le 1 er janvier 1970 et l’entente préliminaire entre les Six sur lesconditions d’adhésion à imposer aux futurs Etats membres. En suggérant la réunion d’unsommet, qui est à l’époque une pratique exceptionnelle, ayant une forte connotationgaulliste et intergouvernementale, Pompidou cherche à gar<strong>de</strong>r la maîtrise <strong>de</strong> l’opérationmais prend le risque d’irriter et d’inquiéter ses partenaires. Mais, sincère dans sa volonté <strong>de</strong>relance, il sait lâcher suffisamment <strong>de</strong> lest pour faire <strong>de</strong> la conférence <strong>de</strong> La Haye un sujet <strong>de</strong>satisfaction pour la diplomatie française et un succès non négligeable pour l’intégrationeuropéenne.Das Gipfeltreffen von Den Haag. Finalität und Grenzen <strong>de</strong>r französischen Initiative.Nur Frankreich, das sich <strong>de</strong>m Beitritt <strong>de</strong>s Vereinigten Königreichs in die EWGwi<strong>de</strong>rsetzt hatte, konnte die Pattsituation, in <strong>de</strong>r sich die Gemeinschaft nach General <strong>de</strong>Gaulles zweitem Veto befand, gegen En<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>r 60er Jahre been<strong>de</strong>n. Georges Pompidou, <strong>de</strong>rim Juni 1969 zum Präsi<strong>de</strong>nten <strong>de</strong>r Republik gewählt wor<strong>de</strong>n war, kam es zu, die Initiativezu ergreifen, um das europäische Einigungswerk aus <strong>de</strong>r Sackgasse zu führen und neu zubeleben. Schnell und entschlossen begab er sich auf diesen Weg, sowohl aus innen- undwahlpolitischen Grün<strong>de</strong>n, als auch, um <strong>de</strong>n Erwartungen <strong>de</strong>r Europäer entgegen zukommen, und beson<strong>de</strong>rs um <strong>de</strong>r Zusammenarbeit innerhalb <strong>de</strong>r EWG eine neue Dynamikzu verleihen. Letzteres war unerlässlich für die Mo<strong>de</strong>rnisierung <strong>de</strong>r französischenWirtschaft. Pompidou stimmte also <strong>de</strong>r Erweiterung, und damit <strong>de</strong>m Beitritt Englands und<strong>de</strong>r übrigen Kandidaten zu, unter zwei Bedingungen: die endgültige Verabschiedung <strong>de</strong>sPrinzips <strong>de</strong>r finanziellen Eigenmittel vor <strong>de</strong>m Übergang zur <strong>de</strong>finitiven Phase am 1. Januar1970 und die vorausgehen<strong>de</strong> Einigung <strong>de</strong>r Sechs über die Beitrittsbedingungen für diezukünftigen Mitgliedsstaaten. Mit <strong>de</strong>m Vorschlag zu diesem Gipfeltreffen - zur damaligenZeit eine eher ungewöhnliche Angelegenheit, mit stark gaullistischem Einschlag - versuchte<strong>de</strong>r neue französische Präsi<strong>de</strong>nt die Kontrolle über diesen Prozess zu behalten. Er ging dabeiaber das Risiko ein, seine Partner zu verärgern und zu beunruhigen. Aber in seinemaufrichtigen Wunsch nach einer Wie<strong>de</strong>rbelebung <strong>de</strong>r Gemeinschaft, war er zu <strong>de</strong>nerfor<strong>de</strong>rlichen Konzessionen bereit, so dass die Konferenz von Den Haag <strong>de</strong>r französischenDiplomatie Anlass zur Zufrie<strong>de</strong>nheit geben konnte und einen nicht zu unterschätzen<strong>de</strong>nErfolg für die europäische Integration bil<strong>de</strong>te.Maria Eleonora GuasconiItaly and the Hague Conference <strong>of</strong> 1969The policies pursued by Italy during and after the Hague Conference <strong>of</strong> 1-2 December1969 are an interesting example <strong>of</strong> its Europeanism, which put in a right perspective thestereotype <strong>of</strong> 'weak negotiator', illustrating the political interests un<strong>de</strong>rlying its initiatives.


154Abstracts – Résumés – ZusammenfassungenThe documents <strong>de</strong>monstrate how the Italian government, <strong>de</strong>spite a serious domesticinstability and the emerging threat <strong>of</strong> terrorism, tried to find a space among its Europeanpartners, in particular France and Germany, by supporting Great Britain's admission in theEC, promoting a common policy on the question <strong>of</strong> employment and re-launching theproject for European political co-operation. These goals were inten<strong>de</strong>d as countermeasures,meant to s<strong>of</strong>ten the negative consequences <strong>of</strong> the completion <strong>of</strong> the CAP, the introduction <strong>of</strong>the Value Ad<strong>de</strong>d Tax (VAT) and the <strong>de</strong>velopment <strong>of</strong> the European Monetary Union (EMU)for the Italian economy.L’Italie et la Conférence <strong>de</strong> La Haye <strong>de</strong> 1969Les positions défendues par les Italiens à l’occasion <strong>de</strong> la conférence <strong>de</strong> La Haye du 1 erau 2 décembre 1969 sont un bon exemple <strong>de</strong> leur européisme qui se distingue à la fois par lestéréotype du «faible négociateur» et par les intérêts politiques sous-jacents à leursinitiatives.Les sources nous révèlent en effet un gouvernement qui, en dépit <strong>de</strong> la sérieuseinstabilité politique et <strong>de</strong> la menace naissante du terrorisme en Italie, cherche à trouver saplace dans le concert européen, notamment parmi les <strong>de</strong>ux grands, la France et l’Allemagne.Son action porte sur trois points essentiels: le soutien <strong>de</strong> la candidature britannique, lepromotion d’une politique commune concernant le marché <strong>de</strong> l’emploi et la relance duprojet <strong>de</strong> coopération politique. Chacun <strong>de</strong> ces objectifs se comprend comme unecontre-mesure <strong>de</strong>stinée à atténuer les répercussions négatives provoquées par l’achèvement<strong>de</strong> la PAC, <strong>de</strong> l’introduction <strong>de</strong> la Taxe sur la Valeur Ajoutée (TVA) et le développement <strong>de</strong>l’Union Monétaire Européenne (UME) sur l’économie italienne.Italien und die Haager Konferenz von 1969Italiens Position anlässlich <strong>de</strong>s Haager Gipfels vom 1.-2. Dezember 1969 bil<strong>de</strong>t eintypisches Beispiel <strong>de</strong>s „Europäismus“ eines „schwachen Verhandlungspartners“ <strong>de</strong>ssenInitiativen durch die unterschwellige Verfolgung politischer Interessen gekennzeichnet sind.Die Quellen ver<strong>de</strong>utlichen in <strong>de</strong>r Tat wie, trotz <strong>de</strong>r innenpolitisch angespannten Lageund <strong>de</strong>r wachsen<strong>de</strong>n Bedrohung durch <strong>de</strong>n Terrorismus, die italienische Regierung sichinsbeson<strong>de</strong>re zwischen Frankreich und Deutschland auf <strong>de</strong>m europäischen Parkett zupositionieren sucht, in<strong>de</strong>m sie die britische Beitrittskandidatur unterstützt und sichgleichzeitig für eine Neuauflage <strong>de</strong>r politischen Kooperationspläne und die Einführungeiner gemeinsamen Arbeitsmarktpolitik stark macht. Alle drei Anliegen verstehen sichgleichsam als „Gegenmaßnahmen“, um die negativen Auswirkungen <strong>de</strong>r europäischenAgrarpolitik, <strong>de</strong>r Einführung <strong>de</strong>r Mehrwertssteuer und <strong>de</strong>r Währungsunion auf dieitalienische Wirtschaft abzufe<strong>de</strong>rn.Alan S. MilwardThe Hague Conference <strong>of</strong> 1969 and the United Kingdom’s Accessionto the European Economic CommunityThe United Kingdom's approach to the summit meeting at The Hague was dominated bythe necessity to obtain from the Six a <strong>de</strong>finite date for the start <strong>of</strong> negotiations on its 1967application for membership <strong>of</strong> the Communities. This objective was supported strongly byGermany, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. All <strong>of</strong> these states, however, alsosupported the strengthening <strong>of</strong> the Communities' common policies, the '<strong>de</strong>epening' <strong>of</strong> theCommunities. This situation enabled France to insist on The United Kingdom accepting in


Abstracts – Résumés – Zusammenfassungen 155full the financial regulations <strong>of</strong> the Common Agricultural Policy. For the country with thebiggest net food import surplus in the EEC and with an agricultural sector that was notgeared for export, this was a massive financial bur<strong>de</strong>n, about which the prime minister at thetime <strong>of</strong> the summit, Harold Wilson, had grave reservations. After he had lost the election, theHeath government, <strong>de</strong>termined though it was to enter the EEC, came increasingly to theconclusion that the terms <strong>of</strong> entry might be economically crippling and acceptedmembership with the intention <strong>of</strong> renegotiating the financial terms. Their electoral <strong>de</strong>feat ,inturn, meant that financial renegotiation became a plank <strong>of</strong> the policy <strong>of</strong> both political parties,later to be brought to a conclusion by Margaret Thatcher. While, therefore, The HagueSummit ma<strong>de</strong> negotiations possible it can not be said that they guaranteed a successful,much less a lasting, conclusion to them.La conférence <strong>de</strong> La Haye <strong>de</strong> 1969 et l’accession du Royaume-Uni àla Communauté Economique EuropéenneLe Royaume-Uni aborda le ‘sommet’ <strong>de</strong> décembre 1969 à La Haye en poursuivant un butprédominant, à savoir <strong>de</strong> forcer l’annonce d’une date pour l’ouverture <strong>de</strong>s négociations sur sacandidature posée en 1967 en vue d’une adhésion aux Communautés européennes. Grâce àl’ai<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>s Pays-Bas et <strong>de</strong> l’Allemagne ce but fut atteint, mais au prix d’entériner un acquiscommunautaire, défini par le gouvernement français, et dont le prix semblait dangereusementélevé, même pour un gouvernement conservateur et un premier ministre convaincus <strong>de</strong> lanécessité <strong>de</strong> se joindre aux Six. Edward Heath et son cabinet se sont donc trouvés obligés <strong>de</strong>solliciter sur chaque point <strong>de</strong>s négociations une révision, en l’occurrence <strong>de</strong>s paiementsbritanniques et <strong>de</strong>s frais essuyés par plein <strong>de</strong> détails <strong>de</strong> la Politique Agricole Commune. Lesorigines <strong>de</strong> la requête pour une ‘renégociation’ formulée en 1973 par leurs successeurssocialistes remontent ainsi à l’acceptation par le gouvernement conservateur tant <strong>de</strong>s décisionsprises au sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye que <strong>de</strong> celles adoptées au cours <strong>de</strong>s négociations quis’ensuivirent, sauf à y ajouter un plan pour une réévaluation <strong>de</strong>s coûts financiers dès que leRoyaume-Uni serait entré dans la Communauté. Sous cet angle, Margaret Thatcher asimplement poursuivi plus tard une politique héritée du sommet <strong>de</strong> La Haye.Die Haager Konferenz und Großbritanniens Beitritt in die EWGIm Rahmen <strong>de</strong>r Haager Gipfelkonferenz verfolgte Großbritannien ein alles an<strong>de</strong>reüberragen<strong>de</strong>s Ziel: die Ankündigung eines genauen Datums zur Eröffnung <strong>de</strong>rVerhandlungen über die bereits 1967 gestellte Kandidatur zum Beitritt in die europäischeGemeinschaft. Dank <strong>de</strong>r nie<strong>de</strong>rländischen und <strong>de</strong>utschen Hilfe, gelang es <strong>de</strong>nn auch diesesZiel zu erreichen, allerdings zu einem gefährlich hohen, von <strong>de</strong>r französischen Regierungfestgelegten Preis <strong>de</strong>r, zusammen mit <strong>de</strong>r Übernahme <strong>de</strong>s „acquis communautaire“, auch füreine konservative Regierung und ihren von <strong>de</strong>r Notwendigkeit eines britischen Beitrittsüberzeugten Premier nicht ohne weiteres annehmbar war. Edward Heath und sein Kabinettsahen sich also gezwungen je<strong>de</strong>n Punkt <strong>de</strong>r Verhandlungen einer Revision zu unterziehen,beson<strong>de</strong>rs die britischen Beitragszahlungen und je<strong>de</strong> Menge von Detailfragen im Bereich<strong>de</strong>r gemeinsamen Agrarpolitik. Der Ursprung <strong>de</strong>s 1973 von <strong>de</strong>r nachfolgen<strong>de</strong>nLabour-Regierung gestellten Revisionsverfahrens geht also auf jene Entscheidungenzurück, die das konservative Kabinett sowohl in Den Haag als auch während <strong>de</strong>ndarauffolgen<strong>de</strong>n Verhandlungsrun<strong>de</strong>n getr<strong>of</strong>fen hatte, allerdings unter <strong>de</strong>m Vorbehalt <strong>de</strong>rAufstellung eines Planes über die Neubemessung <strong>de</strong>r finanziellen Lasten sobaldGroßbritannien <strong>de</strong>r Gemeinschaft beigetreten sei. Unter diesem Gesichtspunkt bil<strong>de</strong>t diespäter von Margaret Thatcher verfolgte Politik nichts an<strong>de</strong>res als die Weiterführung <strong>de</strong>sErbes von Den Haag.


Gábor Erdödy (Hrsg.)MitteleuropaPolitische Kultur und europäische EinigungMitteleuropa – die historisch geprägte und teilweise vorbelastete Fixierungauf die eigene Region ist für die Donaustaaten durch die Perspektive <strong>de</strong>r EU-Mitgliedschaft erweitert und teilweise abgelost wor<strong>de</strong>n. Gleichzeitig aberwirken kulturelle Prägungen und geistige Bil<strong>de</strong>r über Wert und Wirkung vonMitteleuropa im Raum zwischen Alpen, Adria und Schwarzem Meer nach. RenommierteHistoriker aus Ungarn, Kroatien, <strong>de</strong>r Slowakei, Rumänien, Österreichund Tschechien reflektieren in diesem Sammelband über Stellenwertund Wan<strong>de</strong>l <strong>de</strong>r Mitteleuropai<strong>de</strong>e im Kontext <strong>de</strong>s sich unter <strong>de</strong>m Dach <strong>de</strong>r EUwie<strong>de</strong>rvereinen<strong>de</strong>n Europa.2003, 153 S., geb., 38,– €, ISBN 3-8329-0288-0(Schriften <strong>de</strong>s Zentrum für Europäische Integrationsforschung (ZEI), Bd. 54)Nomos


157Contributors - Auteurs - AutorenBITSCH Marie-Thérèse, Pr<strong>of</strong>esseur à l’Université Robert Schuman <strong>de</strong> Strasbourg,Chaire Jean Monnet d’histoire <strong>de</strong> la construction européenneAdresse personnelle: 10, rue Schiller, F.67081 Strasbourg Ce<strong>de</strong>xTél.: (+) 33 388 25 61 20e-mail: mt.bitsch@wanadoo.frGUASCONI Maria Eleonora, Lecturer in History <strong>of</strong> International Relations atthe University <strong>of</strong> Urbino (Piazza Gherardi 4, 61029 Urbino).Personal address: Via di Città, 43 53100 SIENA, ItalyTel.: (+) 39 339 74 30 285E-Mail: guasconi@uniurb.itHARRYVAN Anjo G., Senior Lecturer in International Relations at the University<strong>of</strong> Groningen, P.O. Box 716, NL-9700 AS Groningen, NetherlandsTel.: (+) 31 50 3636033E-mail: a.g.harryvan@let.rug.nlHIEPEL Claudia, Hochschulassistentin at the University <strong>of</strong> Duisburg-Essen,Department <strong>of</strong> History, D – 45117 Essen.Tel.: (+) 49 201 1833582E-mail: claudia.hiepel@uni-essen.<strong>de</strong>LUDLOW N. Piers, Lecturer in International History, London School <strong>of</strong> Economics,Houghton St., London WC2A 2AETel. (+) 44 20 79557099E-mail: n.p.ludlow@lse.ac.ukMILWARD Alan S., Official Historian, United Kingdom Cabinet Office, CabinetOffice Historical and Records Division, Admirality Arch, North Entrance, TheMall, London, SW1A 2WHVAN DER HARST Jan, Jean Monnet Chair hol<strong>de</strong>r at the Department <strong>of</strong> InternationalRelations, University <strong>of</strong> Groningen, P.O. Box 716, NL-9700 AS NetherlandsTel.: (+) 31 50 3636015E-mail: j.van.<strong>de</strong>r.harst@let.rug.nlWILSON Jérôme, Research Fellow in European Integration History, Institute forEuropean Studies, University <strong>of</strong> Louvain.Personal address: rue <strong>de</strong> la Limite 207, 1950 Kraainem, BelgiumTel: (+) 32 2 7310757E-mail: wilson@euro.ucl.ac.be


Andreas Maurer und Wolfgang WesselsDas Europäische Parlamentnach Amsterdam und Nizza:Akteur, Arena o<strong>de</strong>r Alibi?Die Studie untersucht die Aussagekraft <strong>integration</strong>swissenschaftlicher Ansätzeeiner marginalen Be<strong>de</strong>utung <strong>de</strong>s Europäischen Parlaments, seiner gewachsenenRolle als eigenständiger und schlagkräftiger Akteur im institutionellen Gefüge<strong>de</strong>r EU sowie seiner erst in <strong>de</strong>n letzten Jahren zum Vorschein treten<strong>de</strong>n Funktionals Arena, in <strong>de</strong>r die sozioökonomischen Konflikte gespiegelt und in Form parteipolitischerAuseinan<strong>de</strong>rsetzung manifestiert wer<strong>de</strong>n. Die Autoren analysierenhierzu einen Katalog parlamentarischer Funktionen an, <strong>de</strong>r die spezifischen Bedingungen<strong>de</strong>s EU-Systems berücksichtigt. Mit <strong>de</strong>r »Politikgestaltungsfunktion«wird <strong>de</strong>r Einfluss <strong>de</strong>s Parlaments im EU-Politikzyklus erfasst; bei <strong>de</strong>r »Systemgestaltungsfunktion«wird geprüft, ob und wie es eine Rolle als Architekt bei <strong>de</strong>r Gestaltung<strong>de</strong>r Verträge übernimmt. Schließlich wer<strong>de</strong>n unter <strong>de</strong>m Blickwinkel <strong>de</strong>r»Interaktionsfunktion« die Beziehungen zwischen Abgeordneten, Bürgern undintermediären Gruppierungen untersucht. Die Studie bietet einen aktuellen,theoretisch reflektierten und empirisch untermauerten Blick in die Verfassungswirklichkeit<strong>de</strong>s Europäischen Parlaments. Sie wen<strong>de</strong>t sich an Studieren<strong>de</strong> undLehren<strong>de</strong> in <strong>de</strong>n Bereichen <strong>de</strong>r Politik- und Rechtswissenschaft. Andreas Maurerist Leiter <strong>de</strong>r Forschungsgruppe EU-Integration an <strong>de</strong>r Stiftung Wissenschaft undPolitik, Berlin und einer <strong>de</strong>r führen<strong>de</strong>n Experten zu Fragen <strong>de</strong>s europäischen Parlamentarismus.Wolfgang Wessels ist Jean-Monnet-Pr<strong>of</strong>essor für Politikwissenschaftund Europäische Fragen an <strong>de</strong>r Universität zu Köln.2003, 251 S., geb., 55,– €, ISBN 3-8329-0270-8(Schriften <strong>de</strong>s Zentrum für Europäische Integrationsforschung (ZEI), Bd. 38)Nomos


159Books received – Livres reçus – Eingegangene BücherBONO Giovanna – Nato’s ‘Peace-Enforcement’ Tasks and ‘Policy Communities’:1990 – 1999, Ashgate, Hampshire, 2003, 198 p. – ISBN 0-7546-0944-8 – 40,00 €BRANDT Willy – Die Entspannung unzerstörbar machen.Internationale Beziehungenund <strong>de</strong>utsche Frage, 1974-1982, Dietz Verlag, Bonn, 2003, 500 S.– ISBN 3-8012-0309-3 – 27,60 €BRUCK Elke – François Mitterrands Deutschlandbild, Peter Lang, Bruxelles,2003, 355 S. – ISBN 3-631-50202-8 – 46,80 €COSTA PINTO Antonio, TEIXEIRA SEVERIANO Nuno – Southern Europeand the Making <strong>of</strong> the European Union. Social Science Monographs,2002, Columbia University Press, New York, 2002, 273 p. – ISBN0-88033-991-8. – 35 $DELCOURT Barbara – Droit et Souverainetés. Analyse critique du discourseuropéen sur la Yougoslavie, Bruxelles, P.I.E. Peter Lang, 2003, 490 p. –ISBN 90-5201-179-6 – 43,50 €FLEURY Antoine, FINK Carole, JILEK Lubor – Les droits <strong>de</strong> l’homme enEurope <strong>de</strong>puis 1945. Human Rights in Europe since 1945, Peter Lang,Bern, 2003. 364 p. – ISBN 3-906770-51-6 – 54.80 €FREIRE Maria Raquel. – Conflict and Security in the Former Soviet Union.The Role <strong>of</strong> the OSCE, Ashgate, Hampshire, 2003, 288 p. – ISBN0-7546-3526-0 – 47,50 £GILLINGHAM John – European Integration 1950 – 2003. Superstate or New MarketEconomy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2003, 488 p. – ISBN0-521-01262-7 – (paperback)17,95 £ – ISBN 0-521-81317-4 – 47,50 £GEHLER Michael, PELINKA Anton, BISCHOF Günter (Hrsg.) – Österreichin <strong>de</strong>r europäischen Union.Bilanz seiner Mitgliedschaft, Böhlau, Wien/Köln/Weimar, 2003, 655 S. – ISBN 3-205-77116-8 – 69 €GREBING Helga, SCHÖLLGEN Gregor, WINKLER Heinz-August – WillyBrand. Die Entspannung unzerstörbar machen. Internationale Beziehungenund die <strong>de</strong>utsche Frage 1974 – 1982, Dietz Verlag, Bonn, 2003. 498 S.– ISBN 3-8012-0309-3 – 27,60 €GÖZTEPE-ÇELEPI Ece – Die Unionsbürgerschaft und ihre Fortentwicklungim Hinblick auf die politischen Rechte, LIT-Verlag, Münster, 2003, 457 S.– ISBN 3-8258-6466-9 - ?HOBSBAWM Eric – Interesting Times. A Twentieth-Century Life, PenguinBooks, London, 2002, 447 p. – ISBN 0-713-99581-5 – 20,00 £KELLER Berndt, PLATZER Hans-Wolfgang – Industrial Relations and EuropeanIntegration. Trans- and Supranational Developments and Prospects,Ashgate, Hampshire, 2003, 192 p. – ISBN 0-7546-3336-5 – 45,00 £


160Books received – Livres reçus – Eingegangene BücherKRAUSE Joachim, WENGER Andreas, WATANABE Lisa – Unraveling theEuropian Security and Defense Policy Conundrum, Peter Lang, Bern,2003, 246 p. – ISBN 3-906770-86-9 – 25,10 €MOKRE Monika, WEISS Gilbert, BAUBÖCK Rainer – Europas I<strong>de</strong>ntitäten.Mythen, Konflikte, Konstruktionen, Campus Verlag, Frankfurt, 2003, 304S. – ISBN 3-593-37231-2 – 39,90 €MECHI Lorenzo – L’Europa di ugo la Malfa. La via italiana alla mo<strong>de</strong>rnizzazione(1942 – 1979), Franco Angeli, Milano, 2003, 228 p. – ISBN 88-464-4641-0 –21,00 €PASSERINI Luisa (ed.) – Figures d’Europe. Images and Myths <strong>of</strong> Europe,P.I.E. Peter Lang, Bruxelles, 2003, 183 p. – ISBN 90-5201-189-3 – 27,00 €PETER Hartmut Rüdiger, TIKHONOV Natalia (Hrsg.) – Universitäten alsBrücken in Europa. Les universités: <strong>de</strong>s ponts <strong>de</strong> l’Europe, Peter Lang,Pieterlen, 2003, 339 p. – ISBN 3-631-39890-5 – 46,80 €SCHALENBERG Marc – Humboldt auf Reisen? Die Rezeption <strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>utschenUniversitätsmo<strong>de</strong>lls´ in <strong>de</strong>n französischen und britischen Reformdiskursen(1810 – 1870), Schwabe & Co AG, Basel, 2003, 520 S. – ISBN3-7965-1930-X. – 50,50 €TAYFUR Fatih M – Semiperipheral Development and Foreign Policy. The case<strong>of</strong> Greece and Spain, Ashgate, Hampshire, 2003, 270 p. – ISBN0-7546-1964-8 – 49,95 £TIMMERMANN Heiner, JAKIR Aleksan<strong>de</strong>r (Hrsg.) – Europas Tragik. Ex-Jugoslawienzwischen H<strong>of</strong>fnung und Resignation, LIT Verlag, Münster, 2002, 160S. – ISBN 3-8258-6527-4 – 24,90 €VITZTHUM Wolfgang Graf, WINKELMANN Ingo – Bosnien-Herzegowinaim Horizont Europas. Demokratische und fö<strong>de</strong>rale Elemente <strong>de</strong>r Staatswerdungin Sü<strong>de</strong>uropa, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin, 2003, 232 S. – ISBN3-428-11068-4 – 58,80 €WARLEIGH Alex – Democracy in the European Union. Theory, Practice andReform, Sage Publications, London, 2003, 156 p. – ISBN 0-7619-7280-3 –60,00 £ (Cloth) – ISBN 0-7619-7281-1 – 17,99 £ (Paper)WESSELS Wolfgang, MAURER Andreas, MITTAG Jürgen – Fifteen intoone? The European Union and its member states, Manchester UniversityPress, Manchester, 2003, 472 p. – ISBN 0-7190-5849-X – 17,99 £Journal <strong>of</strong> International Affairs. Perceptions. Volume VII, Number 4, December2002 – February 2003, Intermedia, Istanbul, 224 p. ISSN 1300-8641


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JOURNAL OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION HISTORYThe purpose <strong>of</strong> The Journal <strong>of</strong> European Integration History is to encourage theanalysis and un<strong>de</strong>rstanding <strong>of</strong> different aspects <strong>of</strong> European <strong>integration</strong>, especiallysince 1945, in as wi<strong>de</strong> a perspective as possible. The Journal publishes theconclusions <strong>of</strong> research on diplomatic, military, economic, technological, socialand cultural aspects <strong>of</strong> <strong>integration</strong>. Numbers <strong>de</strong>voted to single themes as well asto diverse subjects are published in English, French or German. Each numberinclu<strong>de</strong>s reviews <strong>of</strong> important, relevant publications.REVUE D’HISTOIRE DE L’INTÉGRATION EUROPÉENNEL’objectif <strong>de</strong> la Revue d’histoire <strong>de</strong> l’intégration européenne est <strong>de</strong> promouvoir l’analyseet la compréhension <strong>de</strong>s différents aspects <strong>de</strong> l’intégration européenneparticulièrement <strong>de</strong>puis 1945, mais sans exclusive. La Revue publie les résultats <strong>de</strong>srecherches sur les aspects diplomatiques, militaires, économiques, technologiques,sociaux et culturels <strong>de</strong> l’intégration. Les numéros à thème ou ceux ouverts à diversesperspectives sont publiés dans l’une <strong>de</strong>s langues suivantes: anglais, français, allemand.Chaque numéro comprend <strong>de</strong>s comptes rendus d’ouvrages importants.ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR GESCHICHTE DEREUROPÄISCHEN INTEGRATIONDie Zeitschrift für Geschichte <strong>de</strong>r europäischen Integration bietet ein Forum zurErforschung <strong>de</strong>s europäischen Integrationsprozesses in allen Aspekten: <strong>de</strong>n politischen,militärischen, wirtschaftlichen, technologischen, sozialen und kulturellen.Ihren Schwerpunkt bil<strong>de</strong>n Beiträge zu <strong>de</strong>n konkreten Einigungsprojekten seit1945, doch wer<strong>de</strong>n auch Arbeiten zu <strong>de</strong>n Vorläufern und Vorbereitungenpubliziert. Die Zeitschrift erscheint zweimal im Jahr. Neben Themenheften stehen„<strong>of</strong>fene“ Ausgaben, und je<strong>de</strong>smal wer<strong>de</strong>n auch Besprechungen wichtiger Neuerscheinungenveröffentlicht. Die Beiträge eines internationalen Autorenkreiseserscheinen in englischer, französischer o<strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong>utscher Sprache.2003, Volume 9, Number 2NOMOS VerlagsgesellschaftBa<strong>de</strong>n-Ba<strong>de</strong>n

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