biologia - Ganatleba
biologia - Ganatleba
biologia - Ganatleba
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marina sexniaSvili, darejan lorTqifaniZe<br />
<strong>biologia</strong><br />
X<br />
gamomcemloba<br />
`saqarTvelos macne~<br />
2009
edaqtori levan mnaTobiSvili<br />
m. sexniaSvili, d. lorTqifaniZe<br />
ISBN 978-9941-406-24-9<br />
© gamomcemloba<br />
`saqarTvelos macne~<br />
Tbilisi<br />
2009
Tavi I<br />
memkvidreobiTobis molekuluri safuZvlebi
4<br />
1.1<br />
H<br />
H<br />
N<br />
rogor xdeba niSan-Tvisebis formireba?<br />
H<br />
O<br />
C<br />
OH<br />
CH SH 2<br />
aminomJava cisteini<br />
cilebi<br />
memkvidreobiToba aris organizmis Tviseba, Seinaxos da gadasces Tavisi niSan-Tvisebebi<br />
STamomavlobas. memkvidreobiTobis elementa-<br />
rul funqciur erTeuls ki geni warmoadgens,<br />
romelic organizmis calkeuli niSan-Tvisebis<br />
Sesaxeb Seicavs informacias. niSan-TvisebaSi<br />
igulisxmeba organizmis (ujredis) agebulebis,<br />
fiziologiuri, bioqimiuri procesebis Taviseburebebi.<br />
1. daasaxele adamianis ramodenime<br />
niSanTviseba?<br />
niSan-Tvisebis formirebisaTvis aucilebelia mravali nivTierebis, upirveles yovlisa,<br />
specifikuri Tvisebebisa da funqciis mqone cilebis sinTezi. magaliTad, yvavilis<br />
gvirgvinis furclebis Seferiloba damokidebulia gvirgvinis furclebis ujredebSi<br />
garkveuli saxis pigmentebis arsebobaze. pigmentebis warmoqmnaSi ki monawileobs<br />
specifiuri cila _ fermenti.<br />
2. ra iciT cilebis Sesaxeb?<br />
ujredis organuli naerTebidan<br />
raodenobrivad da funqciebis mravalferovnebis<br />
mixedviT gamoirCeva<br />
cilebi. cila polimeruli naerTia<br />
da masSi monomerebis rols aminom-<br />
Javebi asruleben.<br />
pigmentis granulebi<br />
H<br />
H<br />
N<br />
H<br />
C<br />
O<br />
CH3 aminomJava alanini<br />
3. Seadare erTmaneTs aminomJavebi da gansazRvre:<br />
a) ra nawilebi aqvT saerTo da ra gansxvavebuli;<br />
b) am elementebidan romlis atomebia orive aminomJavas SemadgenlobaSi?<br />
ujredebi<br />
fermenti<br />
OH
aminomJavebis gansxvavebul nawils radikals uwodeben da<br />
aRniSnaven R-iT.<br />
ujredebSi170-zemetisaxisaminomJavaa<br />
aRmoCenili, magram amTgan<br />
20 saxis aminomJava Rebulobs<br />
monawileobas cilis sinTezSi<br />
(ix. aminomJavebis cxrili, (?4).<br />
mcenareebi20-vesaxisaminomJavas<br />
asinTezeben ufro martivi niv-<br />
Tierebebidan.cxovelebiTviTon<br />
ver asinTezeben zogierT ami-<br />
aminomJavebis zogadi qimiuri<br />
formula<br />
nomJavas da isini maT sakvebTan<br />
erTad iReben. aseT aminomJavebs<br />
Seucvlels uwodeben.<br />
karboqsilis jgufi _ COOH aminomJavas aniWebs mJavas Tvisebebs,<br />
aminojgufi _ NH 2 ki _ fuZe Tvisebebs. amitom aminomJavebi amfoteruli<br />
bunebisaa da erTmaneTs advilad ukavSirdebian. erTi<br />
aminomJavas karboqsilis jgufidan OH-sa da meore aminomJavas<br />
aminojgufidan H-is SeerTebiT warmoiqmneba wylis molekula,<br />
gamoTavisuflebuli valentobis xarjze ki ori aminomJava ukavSirdeba<br />
erTmaneTs peptidur-kovalenturi bmiT da miiReba<br />
dipeptidi, sami aminomJavas dakavSirebiT _ tripeptidi, mravali<br />
aminomJavas dakavSirebiT ki _ polipeptidi. polipeptiduri<br />
jaWvi iwyeba aminojgufiT da mTavrdeba karboqsilis jgufiT.<br />
H 2 N<br />
f. sengerma gaSifra (1944-54ww.) hormon insulinis aminomJavuri<br />
Tanmimdevroba, risTvisac man nobelis premia miiRo.<br />
aminomJavebis dakavSireba da dipeptidis warmoqmna.<br />
H<br />
C<br />
R 1<br />
O<br />
C +<br />
OH<br />
H<br />
H<br />
N<br />
H<br />
C<br />
R 2<br />
COOH<br />
H 2 N<br />
peptiduri bma<br />
4. cxrilSi Seucvleli<br />
aminomJavebi<br />
gansxvavebuli feri-<br />
Taa warmodgenili.<br />
gaecani cxrils da<br />
daasaxele Seucvleli<br />
aminomJavebi.<br />
oci standartuli<br />
aminomJa<br />
alanini<br />
arginini<br />
asparagini<br />
asparaginis mJava<br />
valini<br />
histidini<br />
glicini<br />
glutamini<br />
glutaminis mJava<br />
izoleicini<br />
leicini<br />
lizini<br />
meTionini<br />
prolini<br />
serini<br />
Tirozini<br />
treonini<br />
triftofani<br />
fenilalanini<br />
cisteini<br />
5. warmoidgine, rom tripeptidis warmoqmnaSi monawileobs mxolod ori sxvadasxva _<br />
A da B aminomJava, maSin yvela tripeptidis SesaZlo aminomJavuri Tanmimdevroba aseTi<br />
iqneba: AAA, BBB, AAB, ABA, ABB, BAA, BAB, BBA. aqedan gamomdinare, tripeptidebis saxeobrivi<br />
raodenobis ganmsazRvreli formula iqneba 2 3 =8.<br />
a) am formulis gamoyenebiT gansazRvre, 100 aminomJavisgan Sedgenili ramdeni saxis polipeptidis<br />
ageba SeiZleba ori sxvadasxva aminomJavisgan? 20 sxvadasxva aminomJavisgan? b)<br />
Seadgine zogadi formula, ramdeni saxis polipeptiduri jaWvis ageba SeiZleba 20 standartuli<br />
aminomJavisgan? g) gaaanalize miRebuli Sedegebi da gaakeTe daskvna.<br />
H<br />
C<br />
R 1<br />
O<br />
C N<br />
H<br />
H<br />
C<br />
R 2<br />
COOH<br />
+ H 2 O<br />
miuxedavad imisa, rom molekulis SenebaSi monawileobas Rebulebs 20 saxis aminom-<br />
Java, cilis molekulebis mravalferovneba usazRvroa, radgan TiToeuli cilisaTvis<br />
damaxasiaTebelia Tavisi gansakuTrebuli aminomJavuri Semadgenloba, Tanmimdevroba<br />
da raodenoba.
6<br />
1.2<br />
pirveladi<br />
struqtura<br />
cilis struqtura da Tvisebebi<br />
ra gansazRvravs cilis Tvisebebs?<br />
yovel cilas gaaCnia Tavisi specifiuri sivrcobrivi (geometriuli) forma, anu<br />
konfiguracia, rac gansazRvravs mis Tvisebebsa da funqciebs. cilebisaTvis damaxasiaTebelia<br />
sircobrivi organizaciis oTxi sxvadasxvanairi done: pirveladi, meoreuli,<br />
mesameuli da meoTxeuli struqturebi.<br />
cilis pirveladi struqtura warmoadgens gaSlil polipeptidur jaWvs, romelsac<br />
qmnis kovalentur-peptiduri bmebiT dakavSirebuli aminomJavebis garkveuli<br />
Tanmimdevroba.<br />
meoreuli<br />
struqtura<br />
cilis struqturebi<br />
mesameuli<br />
struqtura<br />
meoTxeuli<br />
struqtura<br />
yvela cilisaTvis pirveladi struqturis garda, damaxasiaTebelia meoreuli struqturac.<br />
meoreul struqturaSi cilis polipeptiduri jaWvi nawilobriv spiraluradaa daxveuli.<br />
am dros erT xveulze myof NH-jgufis wyalbadisa da mezobel xveulze myof<br />
CO-s Jangbads Soris warmoiqmneba wyalbaduri bmebi.<br />
zogierTi cila imyofeba meoreul struqturaSi da aqvs Zafiseburi forma, maT<br />
fibrilur cilebs uwodeben. isini wyalSi uxsnadebi arian, gamoirCevian didi meqanikuri<br />
simtkiciT. fibrilur cilebs miekuTvneba miozini, keratini.<br />
umravlesoba cilebisaTvis damaxasiaTebelia kidev ufro maRali donis _ mesameuli<br />
struqturebi. am dros cilas aqvs kompaqturi burTulis _ globulis saxe da aseTi<br />
konfiguraciis cilebs cila-globulinebi ewodeba. isini xsnadebi arian. cila-globulinebia<br />
fermentebi, antisxeulebi, zogierTi hormoni.<br />
cocxal ujredebSi aRmoCenilia cilis kidev ufro rTuli sivrcobrivi forma meo-<br />
Txeuli struqtura. am SemTxvevaSi cila Sedgeba ramdenime polipeptiduri jaWvisgan.<br />
meoTxeuli struqtura axasiaTebs magaliTad hemoglobins, romlis molekulac Sedgeba<br />
oTxi calkeuli polipeptiduri jaWvisagan (2α da 2β jaWvisgan).<br />
mesameuli da meoTxeuli struqturis warmosaqmnelad aucilebelia wyliani garemo.<br />
wyali ukuaqcevs aminomJavebis wyalSi uxsnad-hidrofobur radikalebs, isini erTmaneTs<br />
ukavSirdebian hidrofoburi bmebiT.
insulini<br />
2. ganixile sqema da Tanmimdevrulad aRwere aq gamosaxuli procesebi. axseni, ram gamoiwvia<br />
eriTrocitis normaluri formis Secvla? ra daskvnas gaakeTeb am magaliTidan?<br />
hemoglobinis<br />
molekulebis<br />
normaluri<br />
konfiguracia<br />
ormxriv<br />
Cazneqili<br />
diskos formis<br />
eriTrociti<br />
janmrTeli<br />
adamiani<br />
α<br />
hemoglobini<br />
aminomJavebis normaluri Tanmimdevroba<br />
hemoglobinis erT-erT β polipeptidur jaWvSi<br />
valini histidini leicini treonini prolini glutaminis glutaminis<br />
mJava mJava<br />
β<br />
hemoglobinis<br />
molekulebis<br />
anomaluri<br />
konfiguracia<br />
namgliseburi<br />
formis<br />
eriTrociti<br />
namgliseburi anemiiT<br />
daavadebuli adamiani.<br />
kolageni<br />
1. daakvirdi sxvadasxva cilis molekulebis<br />
sivrcobriv struqturas da<br />
gansazRvre TviTeuli maTganisaTvis damaxasiaTebeli<br />
umaRlesi struqtura?<br />
aminomJavebis anomaluri Tanmimdevroba<br />
hemoglobinis igive β polipeptidur jaWvSi<br />
valini histidini leicini treonini prolini valini glutaminis<br />
mJava<br />
polipeptidur jaWvSi erTi monomeris Secvlamac ki SeiZleba organizmis niSan-<br />
Tvisebis mniSvnelovani cvlileba gamoiwvios.<br />
7
8<br />
3. ra gansxvavebaa moxarSuli<br />
da umi kvercxis cilas fizikur<br />
Tvisebebs Soris. ra faqtorma<br />
gamoiwvia moxarSuli kvercxis<br />
cilis Tvisebebis Secvla?<br />
cilis denaturacia, meoTxeuli struqturis (1) daSla mesameul (2), meoreul (3) da pirvelad (4)<br />
struqturad.<br />
zogjer denaturirebuli cila, romelsac SenarCunebuli aqvs pirvelad struqturaSi<br />
misTvis damaxasiaTebeli aminomJavuri Tanmimdevroba, Sesaferis pirobebSi kvlav<br />
aRidgens misTvis damaxasiaTebel konfiguracias, rasac renaturacia ewodeba.<br />
4. rogor fiqrob, moxarSuli kvrcxis cila aRidgens misTvis damaxasiaTebel maRal<br />
struqturebs? ratom?<br />
cilis bunebrivi<br />
k o n f i g u r a c i a ,<br />
Sesabamisad, misi<br />
Tvisebebi da funqciebidamokidebulia<br />
cilis pirveladstruqturaSi<br />
amonomJavur<br />
Tanmimdevrobaze.<br />
kovalentur bmebTan SedarebiT, wyalbaduri da<br />
hidrofoburi bmebi susti bmebia. amitom sxvadasxva<br />
fizikur-qimiuri faqtorebis (maRali an dabali temperatura,<br />
dasxiveba, mJavebis, tuteebis, marilebis<br />
koncentrirebuli xsnarebi, meqanikuri zemoqmedeba)<br />
gavleniT advilad irRveva cilis maRali struqturebi<br />
pirvelad struqturamde. cilis bunebrivi<br />
struqturis rRvevas denaturacia ewodeba.<br />
k<br />
aiRe ori kvercxis cila da Tanabrad gadaanawile is 7WiqaSi;<br />
#1 WiqaSi temperature unda iyos oTaxis temperatures Sesabamisi,<br />
#2-Si SigTavsi gaaTbe 45mde, #3-Si 70-mde., Caamate: #4-Si erTi<br />
sufris kovzi sufris marili, #5-Si 2-3 wveTi marilmJava, #6-Si<br />
_ erTi sufris kovzi saWmeli soda, #7-Si _ samedicino spirits<br />
ramdenime wveTi;<br />
daakvirdi, Seicvleba Tu ara cilis konsistencia WiqebSi. Cilis<br />
Semkvriveba denaturaciis maCvenebelia;<br />
ganmarte, romel WiqaSi moxda denaturacia da ra faqtorma<br />
gamoiwvia;<br />
ra iyo cdaSi damokidebuli da damoukidebeli cvladi; gaiTvaliswine,<br />
rom movlena, romelsac Seiswavli sxvadasxva pirobebSi,<br />
aris damokidebuli cvladi, xolo pirobebi, romelsac cvli,<br />
damokidebuli cvladebia;<br />
Catarebuli muSaobis Sesaxeb dawere oqmi.
1.3<br />
niSan-Tvisebis formirebaSi cilebi ratom asruleben mniSvnelovan rols?<br />
cilis mravalferovneba (rogorc struqturis, ise fizikur-qimiuri Tvisebebis<br />
mixedviT) ganapirobebs mis mraval biologiur funqcias. amitomac ukavSirdeba cilebs<br />
organizmisaTvis damaxasiaTebeli niSan-Tvisebebi.<br />
cilebis funqciebidan erT-erTi aris samSeneblo anu struqturuli funqcia. magaliTad,<br />
struqturul funqcias asruleben: cilebi, romlebic Sedian plazmuri membranis<br />
da ujredis organoidebis membranebis SemadgenlobaSi, kolageni (Zvlebis, myesebis,<br />
xrtilebis komponenti), keratini (Tmis, bewvis, frCxilebis, rqebis komponenti) da sxva.<br />
ujredgare garemo naxSirwylebi<br />
cilebi<br />
aRsaniSnavia cilebis satransporto<br />
funqcia. magaliTad,<br />
xerxemlianebSi O 2 -<br />
is transportireba xdeba<br />
eriTrocitebSi arsebuli<br />
cila _ hemoglobinis saSualebiT;<br />
garda amisa, ujredul<br />
membranebSi CaSenebulia santransporto<br />
cilebi, romlebic<br />
garemodan ujredSi da ujredidan<br />
garemoSi nivTierebaTa<br />
cilis funqciebi<br />
lipidebi<br />
citoplazma<br />
plazmuri membranis struqtura<br />
nivTiereba<br />
cilis<br />
molekula<br />
1 2 3<br />
transportirebaSi Rebuloben monawileobas.<br />
cilebi asruleben mamoZravebel funqciasac. mamoZravebel funqcias asruleben<br />
kumSvadi cilebi _ miozini da aqtini, romlebic ganapirobeben kunTebis SekumSvas,<br />
erTujredianebSi wamwamebis, Soltebis moZraobas.<br />
aqtini<br />
nivTierebaTa gadaadgileba membranaSi cilis<br />
molekulebis daxmarebiT.<br />
zogierTi hormoni qimiuri bunebiT cilaa. magaliTad, insulini, glukagoni, somatotropini<br />
da sxva. hormonebi aregulireben organizmSi mimdinare sasicocxlo procesebs.<br />
9
10<br />
ujredebs membranaSi aqvT specialuri cilebi (2), romlebic reagireben ujredTan<br />
misul hormonze, magaliTad, insulinze (1). aseT cilebs hormonis receptorebi (mim-<br />
Rebi) ewodeba. insulinis zemoqmedebiT receptori aqtiurdeba, Tavis mxriv moqmedebs<br />
glukozis satransporto cilebze (3) da xels uwyobs am cilebis mier glukozis swraf<br />
transportirebas (4) ujredSi. receptoris gaaqtiureba ganapirobebs agreTve ujredSi<br />
Sesuli glukozis glikogenad gardaqmnas (5).<br />
glikogeni<br />
glukoza<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
glukoza<br />
1<br />
2<br />
insulinis receptoris moqmedeba. receptoris da hormonis urTierToba<br />
hormonis zemoqmedeba receptorze garkveul pirobebSia SesaZlebeli. kerZod,<br />
hormonis molekulis (1) urTierTqmedebas cila-receptoris molekulasTan (2) aadvilebs<br />
hormonis da receptoris molekulebis sivrcobrivi agebulebis msgavseba.<br />
aseT SemTxvevaze amboben, rom hormoni da receptori molekulis formiT Tanxvdebian<br />
erTmaneTs.<br />
1. hormonebi mxolod konkretul ujredebze moqmedeben, anu aqvT egreTwodebuli<br />
samizne ujredebi. axseni es faqti.<br />
2. ra saWiroa hormonis da receptoris urTierTobis TaviseburebaTa codna? an raSi<br />
gamogvadgeba hormonis molekulis agebulebis codna?<br />
adamianis zrdas ganapirobebs zrdis hormoni _ somatotropini, romelsac gamoyofs<br />
Sinagani sekreciis jirkvali _ hipofizi. zrdis hormoni aqtiurad gamoiyofa axalgazrdis<br />
organizmSi, Semdeg ki, rodesac zrdasrul asaks vaRwevT, am hormonis raodenoba<br />
mniSvnelovnad mcirdeba.<br />
zogierT SemTxvevaSi, magaliTad hipofizSi simsivnis ganviTarebisas, zrdis hormoni<br />
Zalian didi raodenobiT gamoiyofa zrdasrul adamianSic. es iwvevs akromegalias:<br />
avadmyofs ezrdeba saxis Zvlebi, ena, xelis mtevani, terfi, uziandeba saxsrebi, Zvlebi,<br />
Sinagani organoebi.<br />
zrdis hormonis gamoyofas aregulirebs hormoni somatostatini. somatostatini<br />
cilaa. mas gamoimuSavebs Tavis tvinis nervuli ujredebi.<br />
somatostatini urTierTqmedebs hipofizis ujredebis Sesabamis<br />
receptorebTan. receptorebi aqtiurdebian da aferxeben am<br />
ujredebis mier zrdis hormonis gamomuSavebas.<br />
hipofizis simsivnis dros zrdis hormoni gadaWarbebuli<br />
raodenobiT gamoiyofa da somatostatinis raodenoba aRar<br />
aris sakmarisi zrdis hormonis gamoyofis regulaciisaTvis.<br />
aseT SemTxvevaSi iyeneben qimiur warmoebaSi xelovnurad<br />
Seqmnil qimiur nivTierebebs, magaliTad sandostatins, romlebic<br />
somatostatinis msgavsad urTierTqmedeben somatostatinis<br />
somatostatini<br />
receptorebTan da aferxeben zrdis hormonis gamomuSavebas.<br />
1<br />
2
3. sandostatinis molekulis agebuleba unda iyos Tu ara somatostatinis molekulis<br />
msgavsi? pasuxi ganmarte<br />
4. ra mniSvneloba aqvs somatostatinis agebulebis codnas akromegaliis mkurnalobisaTvis?<br />
5. sandostatinis moqmedebas hipofizze SeiZleba vuwodoT “somatostatinis receptoris<br />
`motyueba~? pasuxi ganmarte.<br />
1<br />
antisxeuli (marcxniv) da misi dakavSireba antigenTan (marjvniv)<br />
didi mniSvneloba aqvs cilebis damcvelobiT funqcias. magaliTad, antisxeulebi,<br />
interferoni cilebia; aseve fibrinogeni da Trombini, romlebic sisxlis Sededebas<br />
ganapirobeben.<br />
antisxeuli aris imunuri cila, romelsac warmoqmnis limfocitebi. antisxeuls<br />
organizmi gamoimuSavebs SemoWrili ucxo sxeulis _ antigenis sawinaaRmdegod. antigeni<br />
SeiZleba iyos baqteriis membranis zedapirze arsebuli cilis an naxSirwylis<br />
molekula, mkvdari ujredebidan gamoyofili toqsini da sxva. hormonisa da receptoris<br />
urTierTobis msgavsia antisxeulis da antigenis urTierToba. antisxeulis da antigenis<br />
SekavSirebac xdeba maTi molekulebis sivrcobrivi agebulebis msgavsebis gamo.<br />
antisxeuli ukavSirdeba antigens. antisxeulis molekulis erTi nawili (1) qmnis antigenTan<br />
bmas (2). miRebuli naerTi ileqeba, an xdeba antigenis gardaqna da ganeitraleba,<br />
rac xels uwyobs leikocitebis mier antigenebis ganadgurebas.<br />
k<br />
moiZie informacia:<br />
interferonis mniSvnelobis Sesaxeb;<br />
interferonis aRmoCenaSi qarTveli mecnierebis wvlilis Sesaxeb.<br />
6. ratom moqmedebs antisxeuli<br />
ZiriTadad mxolod erT konkretul<br />
antigenze?<br />
7. CamoTvale cilis funqciebi.<br />
axseni ratom asruleben cilebi<br />
mniSvnelovan rols niSan-Tvisebis<br />
formirebaSi.<br />
2<br />
cilebis funqciebidan gansakuTrebiT mniSvnelovania<br />
katalizuri funqcia. zogierT cilebs<br />
aqvT bioqimiuri reaqciebis siCqaris gazrdis<br />
unari. aseT cilebs fermentebs uwodeben. yovel<br />
ujredSi asobiT sxvadasxva fermentia. maTi daxmarebiT<br />
xorcieldeba mravalricxovani qimiuri<br />
reaqciebi.<br />
1<br />
11
12<br />
1.4 fermentebi<br />
ra Tvisebebi axasiaTebs fermentebs?<br />
fermentebi biologiurad aqtiur molekulebs miekuTvneba, rac imas niSnavs, rom<br />
ferments sul mcire koncentraciis drosac SeuZlia didi raodenobis nivTierebis<br />
gardaqmna. igi nebismier nivTierebas ar gardaqmnis, moqmedebs konkretul naerTze,<br />
romlis amocnobis unaric aqvs.<br />
fermenti xasiaTdeba Semdegi ZiriTadi TvisebebiT:<br />
yvela fermenti warmoadgens cila-globulins;<br />
igi zrdis reaqciis siCqares, magram TviTon am reaqciaSi arc ixarjeba da arc icvleba;<br />
safuZvliani gamokvlevebis Sedegebma aCvenes, rom umravlesoba fermentebis<br />
molekulebi gacilebiT didi zomisaa, vidre substratis (dasakatalizebeli nivTiereba)<br />
molekulebi da rom substrat-fermentis kompleqsSi substratTan kontaqtSi Sedis<br />
fermentis molekulis Zalian mcire nawili (3-12 aminomJavuri naSTi), rasac fermentis<br />
aqtiur centrs uwodeben;<br />
fermentis aqtiuri centri da substratis an (substratebis) molekula formiT<br />
erTmaneTs Seesabameba;<br />
fermentebi gavlenas ar axdenen reaqciis produqtis (an<br />
produqtebis) Tvisebebze;<br />
fermentuli reaqciebi Seqcevadia;<br />
fermentebis aqtivoba icvleba pH-is, temperaturis,<br />
wnevis da rogorc substratis, ise TviT fermentis koncentraciis<br />
mixedviT;<br />
fermentebixasiaTdebianspecifiurobiT,e.i.erTigarkveuli<br />
fermenti akatalizebs mxolod erT konkretuli saxis reaqcias.<br />
4<br />
3<br />
1<br />
2<br />
substrati<br />
aqtiuri centri<br />
substrat-fermentis<br />
modeli<br />
fermentis mier disaqaridis molekulis gardaqmna<br />
magaliTad, disaqaridi ori monomerisagan<br />
Sedgeba (1). fermenti ukavSirdeba disaqaridis<br />
molekulas (2) da iwvevs monomerebs Soris bmis<br />
gawyvetas (3). “amis Semdeg fermenti moscildeba<br />
daSlil molekulas (4).<br />
aris fermentebis gansakuTrebuli jgufi _<br />
alosteruli fermentebi.alosterulsuwodeben<br />
fermentebs, romelTa aqtiurobac regulirdeba<br />
ara maTi substratiT, aramed sxva nivTierebiT,<br />
aqtiuri centri<br />
fermentis molekuluri<br />
modeli<br />
supstrati supstrati<br />
1<br />
fermenti fermenti<br />
1. a) sqemaze warmodgenilia alosteruli<br />
fermenti. SeadareT erTmaneTs<br />
fermentis A da B mdgomareoba: romel<br />
mdgomareobaSia aqtiuri fermenti?<br />
pasuxi daasabuTe.<br />
b) am SemTxvevaSi ra ganapirobebs fermentis<br />
aqtiur da araaqtiur formas?<br />
c) ganmarteT am procesSi monawile<br />
cifrebiT aRniSnuli komponentebi.<br />
romelic ukavSirdeba fermentis aqtiuri centridan moSorebul gansakuTrebul ubans. es<br />
nivTiereba _ alosteruli efeqtori iwvevs Seqcevad cvlilebas fermentis aqtiuri centris<br />
struqturaSi da gavlenas axdens mis aqtivobaze. Tu efeqtori amaRlebs mis aqtivobas, mas<br />
alosteruli aqtivatori ewodeba, Tu piriqiT, amcirebs mis aqtivobas, mas alosteruli<br />
inhibitori ewodeba.<br />
A<br />
2<br />
3<br />
B<br />
4<br />
5
2. daakvirdi, mocemul mruds da axseni,<br />
substratis koncentraciis gazrdiT<br />
dasawyisSi ratom izrdeba fermentuli<br />
reaqciis siCqare, xolo Semdgom ki<br />
ratom rCeba ucvleli substratis<br />
koncentraciis gazrdis miuxedavad?<br />
(gaiTvaliswine, rom substrati<br />
ukavSirdeba fermentis aqtiur<br />
centrs).<br />
fermentuli<br />
reaqciis<br />
siCqare (V)<br />
10 20 30 40 50 60 t C<br />
o<br />
k1<br />
rogor gavigoT, Slis Tu ara amilaza<br />
saxamebels?<br />
piris RruSi sanerwyve jirkvlidan<br />
gamoiyofa nerwyvi. nerwyvi Seicavs ferments<br />
_ amilazas.<br />
gamoiyene wyalxsnari, romelic Seicavs<br />
amilazas;<br />
moamzade 10 ml puris fqvilis wyalxsnari<br />
da gadaanawile Tanabrad or sinjaraSi.<br />
sinjarebi danomre: #1 da #2;<br />
#1 sinjaraSi daumate 1 ml. fermentiani<br />
siTxe, xolo #2-Si 1 ml sufTa<br />
wyali;<br />
5 wuTis Semdeg orive sinjaraSi Caumate<br />
3-3 wveTi iodi;<br />
daakvirdi, romel sinjaraSi Seicvleba<br />
SigTavsis feri?<br />
daafiqsire Sedegebi. monacemebi gaanalize.<br />
(daeyrdeni faqts, rom saxameblis<br />
wyalxsnari iodis Tanaobisas lurj fers<br />
iZens. Tu saxamebeli daSlilia, iodi<br />
wyalxsnars aRar gaalurjebs): Seicvlida<br />
Tu ara fers sinjaris #1 SigTavsi, Tu<br />
iods CaawveTebdi nerwyvis Semcveli<br />
siTxis Camatebamde? ra gansxvavebaa<br />
sinjarebSi #1 da #2 cdis dayenebis<br />
pirobebs Soris? risTvis dagWirda<br />
sinjara #2?<br />
gaakeTe saboloo daskvna saxamebelze<br />
amilazas moqmedebis Sesaxeb.<br />
reaqciis<br />
siCqare<br />
V (maqs)<br />
substratis koncentracia<br />
3. a) daakvirdi mruds da axseni, Tu rogor<br />
gavlenas axdens temperatura fermentis<br />
aqtivobaze.<br />
b) axseni, fermentis denaturaciam rogor<br />
SeiZleba moaxdinos gavlena mis katalizur<br />
aqtivobaze.<br />
k2<br />
rogor moqmedebs temperatura fermentis<br />
aqtivobaze?<br />
kuWis wveni Seicavs ferments – pefsins,<br />
romelic Slis cilebs, magaliTad rZis<br />
cilebs, kvercxis cilebs.<br />
gamoikvlie, ra temperaturul pirobebSi<br />
moqmedebs pefsini. amisaTvis daakvirdi pefsinis<br />
moqmedebas sxvadasxva temperaturaze<br />
da daadgine, ra temperaturaa optimaluri<br />
(saukeTeso) pefsinis moqmedebisaTvis da ra<br />
temperatura zRudavs mis moqmedebas.<br />
danomre sinjarebi (##1,2,3,4,5,6) da<br />
yvelgan Caagde erTnairi zomis moxarSuli<br />
kvercxis cilis naWeri;<br />
yvela sinjaraSi Caasxi erTnairi raodenobis<br />
da koncentraciis pepsinis wyalxsnari.<br />
temperatura sinjarebSi unda iyos nuls<br />
zeviT: #1-Si 1-2C°, #2-Si 5C°, #3-Si 25C°,<br />
#4-Si 35C°, #5-Si 45C°, #6-Si 70C°.<br />
dainiSne dro da gansazRvre romel sinjaraSi<br />
moineleba cila ufro swrafad,<br />
romel sinjaraSi darCeba cila mounelebeli?<br />
monacemebi Seitane cxrilSi. aage pefsinis<br />
aqtivobis temperaturaze damokidebulebis<br />
diagrama, gaanalize da gamoitane daskvna<br />
pefsinis aqtivobaze temperaturis moqmedebis<br />
Sesaxeb. ra iyo cdaSi damokidebuli<br />
da damoukidebeli cvladi? cdis Sedegidan<br />
gamomdinare, ra aris pefsinis moqmedebis<br />
optimaluri temperatura.<br />
dawere oqmi.<br />
13
14<br />
savarjiSoebi _ cilebi<br />
1. aminomJava cisteinis Sesaxeb ra ufro srulfasovan warmodgenas<br />
iZleva, zogadi formula C 3 H 7 O 2 NS. Tu molekulis<br />
sivrcobrivi modeli? pasuxi ganmarte.<br />
2. fermenti qimiuri TvalsazrisiT warmoadgenen:<br />
a. polisaqaridebs.<br />
b. aminomJavebs.<br />
g. cilebs.<br />
3. fermenti moqmedebs naerTze im SemTxvevaSi, Tu:<br />
a. SeuZlia masTan Zalian axlo kontaqtSi Sesvla;<br />
b. sivrcobrivi formiT Tanxvdeba gardasaqmnel nivTierebas;<br />
g. orive pasuxi sworia.<br />
4. cilis struqturuli funqciis magaliTia:<br />
a. fermentis molekulebis monawileoba nivTierebaTa<br />
gardaqmnaSi;<br />
b. hormonebis mier samizne ujredebis funqciis regulacia;<br />
g. cilis molekulebis monawileoba plazmuri membranis SenebaSi.<br />
5. davuSva, aris cilis ori molekula, romlebic Sedgeba erTidaigive da erTnairi raodenobis<br />
aminomJavebisagan. qvemoT moyvanili mtkicebebidan orive marTebulia. ratom?<br />
es SeiZleba iyos cilis ori erTnairi molekula.<br />
es SeiZleba iyos cilis ori gansxvavebuli molekula.<br />
6. davuSva, rom cilis molekulis SedgenilobaSi Semavali uklebliv yvela aminomJava<br />
amJRavnebs hidrofilur Tvisebebs. imoqmedebda es cilis struqturul agebulebaze?<br />
pasuxi ganmarte.<br />
7. daasabuTe, rom cilis molekulis yvela Taviseburebas misi pirveladi struqtura<br />
gansazRvravs.<br />
8. CamoTvale plazmur membranaSi CaSenebuli cilebis funqciebi.<br />
9. daasrule winadadeba:<br />
1) cilis monomeria ----------------------------------------------------------------------<br />
2) yvela aminomJavas saerTo nawilebia: -----------------------------------------------<br />
3) cilebis mravalferovneba ganpirobebulia ---------------------------------------<br />
4) cilis denaturacia aris -------------------------------------------------------------<br />
5) cilis renaturacia SeuZlebelia, rodesac ---------------------------------------<br />
10. Seavse cxrili:<br />
cilis sivrcobrivi organizaciis doneebi maxasiaTeblebi<br />
pirveladi struqtura<br />
S<br />
N<br />
C<br />
O<br />
H<br />
cisteinis sivrculi<br />
modeli
nukleinis mJavebi<br />
organizmebSi niSan-Tvisebebis gamovlena damokidebulia mTel rig bioqimiur procesebze,<br />
romlebic fermentebis uSualo monawileobis gareSe ar warimarTeba. fermentebis<br />
specifiuroba damokidebulia misi polipeptiduri jaWvis aminomJavur Semadgenlobasa<br />
da Tanmimdevrobaze, am informaciis matarebeli ki genia.<br />
geni lokalizebulia qromosomaSi. qromosomebi Sedgebian cilebisa da nukleinis<br />
mJavebisgan.<br />
mecnierebaSi didxans iyo sakamaTo da kvlevis<br />
sagani _ cilebi iyo memkvidreobis matarebeli,<br />
Tu nukleinis mJavebi. gamokvlevebiT dadginda,<br />
rom nukleinis mJavebTan aris dakavSirebuli<br />
memkvidreobiTi informaciis Senaxva da gadacema.<br />
k<br />
1.<br />
geni aris dnm-is ubani,<br />
romelic Seicavs informacias<br />
gansazRvruli cilis<br />
pirveladi struqturis<br />
Sesaxeb.<br />
Sveicarielma mecnierma<br />
fridrix miSerma 1868 wels<br />
nukleinis mJavebi aRmoaCina<br />
birTvSi.<br />
dnm-is molekulis sivrculi modeli<br />
moiZie informacia, ra wvlili Seitana<br />
rozelind frenklinma dnm-s<br />
struqturis aRmoCenaSi.<br />
ra kavSiria cilasa da gens Soris?<br />
1. geni cila niSan-Tviseba.<br />
axseni, ras gulisxmobs es sqema.<br />
ujredSi nukleinis mJavebi warmodgenilia dezoqsiribonukleinis<br />
mJavis (dnm) da ribonukleinis<br />
mJavis (rnm) saxiT.<br />
dnm cilis msgavsad, polimeria. eukariotul organizmebSi<br />
dnm-s ZiriTadi nawili ujredis birTvSia<br />
moTavsebuli. dnm aris agreTve mitoqondriebsa da<br />
qloroplastebSi. prokariotebSi dnm citoplazmaSia<br />
ganTavsebuli.<br />
dnm-is molekula polimeruli naerTia, romlis<br />
monomerebi nukleotidebia. nukleotidi oTxi saxisaa:<br />
adeniniani, Timiniani, citoziniani da guaniniani.<br />
dnm-is molekula erTmaneTis mimarT spiralurad daxveuli<br />
ori polinukleotiduri jaWvisgan Sedgeba.<br />
1953 wels amerikelma biologma j. uotsonma da<br />
ingliselma fizikosma f. krikma Seqmnes dnm-is<br />
molekulis orjaWviani sivrculi modeli.<br />
1
16<br />
2. daakvirdi nukleotidebisagebulebas.<br />
ramdeni da ra<br />
da ra nawilisagan<br />
Sedgeba TiToeuli<br />
maTgani?<br />
3. Seadare erTmaneTsnukleotidebi:<br />
ra aqvT maT saerTo<br />
agebulebaSi da riT<br />
gansxvavdebian?<br />
4. saidan warmodgeba<br />
nukleotidebis<br />
saxelwodebebi?<br />
dezoqsiribonukleotidebi<br />
1.<br />
adenini<br />
(azotovani fuZe)<br />
2.<br />
fosformJavas<br />
naSTi<br />
fosformJavas<br />
naSTi<br />
dezoqsiriboza<br />
(naxSirwyali)<br />
fosformJavas<br />
naSTi<br />
guanini<br />
3. (azotovani fuZe)<br />
4.<br />
dezoqsiriboza<br />
(naxSirwyali)<br />
fosformJavas<br />
naSTi<br />
1. adeniniani, _ A; 2. Timiniani_ T; 3. guaniniani _ G; 4. citoziniani _ C.<br />
5. daukvirdi nukleotidebis sqemas da miuTiTe,<br />
romeli cifrebiT nukleotidis romeli nawilia<br />
aRniSnuli?<br />
1 2 3<br />
T<br />
A<br />
G<br />
C<br />
dnm-is nukleotidebi sqematurad<br />
dnm-s polimerSi nukleotidebi mravaljer<br />
meordeba. nukleotidebi uerTeba<br />
erTmaneTs da qmnis dnm-is erT jaWvs. nukleotidebis<br />
dakavSireba jaWvSi xorcieldeba<br />
erTi nukleotidis naxSirwyalsa da<br />
meore nukleotidis fosformJavas naSTs<br />
Soris kovalenturi bmis warmoqmniT.<br />
Timini<br />
(azotovani fuZe)<br />
dezoqsiriboza<br />
(naxSirwyali)<br />
citozini<br />
(azotovani fuZe)<br />
dezoqsiriboza<br />
(naxSirwyali)<br />
nukleotidebis dakavSireba erT jaWvSi
dnm-is molekulis ori jaWvis nukleotidebi erTmaneTs ukavSirdeba azotovani<br />
fuZeebiT. Tu sqemas daakvirdebi, aRmoaCen, rom azotovani fuZeebi erTmaneTs SemTxveviT<br />
ar ukavS irdeba. erT jaWvSi arsebul adenins ori wyalbaduri bmiT ukavSirdeba meore<br />
jaWvis Timini, xolo guanins _ citozini sami wyalbaduri bmiT. azotovani fuZeebis<br />
erTmaneTTan dakavSireba xdeba sivrculi (geometriuli) formis SesabamisobiT. nukleotidebis<br />
ganlagebis am princips ewodeba komplementurobis principi. amitom dnm-<br />
Si A-s raodenoba yovelTvis tolia T-s raodenobis, xolo G-s raodenoba yovelTvis<br />
tolia C-s raodenobisa. A-s da T-s raodenoba SeiZleba ar iyos G-s da C-s raodenobis<br />
toli.<br />
G<br />
C<br />
G<br />
T<br />
A<br />
G<br />
C<br />
C<br />
A A<br />
T<br />
G<br />
A<br />
dnm-is ori jaWvis erTmaneTTan dakavSireba<br />
A<br />
C<br />
A A<br />
C<br />
G<br />
T<br />
C<br />
fosformJavas<br />
naSTi<br />
naxSirwyali<br />
azotovani<br />
fuZe<br />
komplementarobis principi uzrunvelyofs azotovan fuZeebs Soris maqsimaluri<br />
raodenobiT bmis warmoqmnas da ormagi spiralis mTel sigrZeze jaWvebs Soris Tanabari<br />
manZilis dacvas. amitom yoveli komplementuri nukleotidis wyvilis zoma spiralis<br />
RerZis gaswvriv aris 0,34 nanometri _ nm (1nm = 10 -6 mm).<br />
komplementarobis<br />
principiT<br />
Sepirispirebuli<br />
nukleotidebi.<br />
nukleotidebi<br />
T<br />
A<br />
C<br />
G<br />
6. sqemis mixedviT<br />
gamoicani romeli<br />
nukleotidebi<br />
arian ganlagebuli<br />
erTmaneTis mopirispired.<br />
7. warmoidgine, rom<br />
dnm-is erTi jaWvis<br />
monakveTi aseTia: A-<br />
A-G-A-C-C-C-C-C-T-<br />
A-T-T-T-T, a) rogori<br />
iqneba misi komplementuri<br />
monakveTi<br />
meore jaWvSi?<br />
b) dnm-is romeli<br />
TvisebiTisargeble<br />
meore jaWvis agebis<br />
dros?<br />
g) gansazRvre dnms<br />
am fragmentis<br />
sigrZe.<br />
G G<br />
A<br />
G<br />
C<br />
rnm-is agebuleba.<br />
ribonukleinis mJava (rnm), iseve<br />
rogorc dnm, polimeria. isic Sedgeba<br />
nukleotidebisagan. aris gansxvavebac<br />
dnm-s da rnm-s agebulebas<br />
Soris. rnm, dnm-sgan gansxvavebiT,<br />
erTjaWviania.<br />
T<br />
A<br />
T<br />
A<br />
17
18<br />
8. sqemaze mocemuliribonukleotidebis<br />
agebuleba<br />
Seadare me-16 gv.<br />
mocemul dnm-s nukleotidebissqemas.<br />
a) ra msgavseba<br />
da gansxavebaa maT<br />
Soris?<br />
b) romeli nukleotidi<br />
ar aris rnm-<br />
Si?<br />
1.<br />
fosformJavas<br />
naSTi<br />
adenini<br />
(azotovani fuZe)<br />
riboza<br />
(naxSirwyali)<br />
ribonukleotidebi<br />
guanini<br />
3. (azotovani fuZe)<br />
4.<br />
fosformJavas<br />
naSTi<br />
riboza<br />
(naxSirwyali)<br />
fosformJavas<br />
naSTi<br />
fosformJavas<br />
naSTi<br />
1. adeniniani, _ A; 2.uracilini _ U; 3. guaniniani _ G; 4. citoziniani _C.<br />
1 2 3<br />
U<br />
A<br />
G<br />
C<br />
rnm-is nukleotidebi sqematurad<br />
2.<br />
uracili<br />
(azotovani fuZe)<br />
riboza<br />
(naxSirwyali)<br />
citozini<br />
(azotovani fuZe)<br />
riboza<br />
(naxSirwyali)<br />
rnm ramdenime saxisaa: informaciuli,<br />
ribosomuli, trasportuli. informaciuli<br />
da transportuli rnm-ebi cilis sinTezSi<br />
monawileoben, xolo ribosomuli rnm Sedis<br />
ribosomis SemadgenlobaSi da mis funqcionirebas<br />
ganapirobebs. maT Tvisebebsa da<br />
funqciebs dawvrilebiT Semdeg paragrafebSi<br />
gaecnobi.<br />
9. Seadare erTmaneTs dnm da rnm qvemoT mocemuli cxrilis mixedviT:<br />
nukleinis<br />
mJavebi<br />
dnm<br />
rnm<br />
jaWvis<br />
ricxvi<br />
naxSirwyali<br />
nukleotidebi<br />
azotovani<br />
fuZe<br />
fosformJavas<br />
naSTi<br />
funqciebi
1.6<br />
memkvidreobiTi materialuri masalis kvlevis istoria<br />
cila Tu dnm?<br />
gasuli saukunis Sua wlebSi bevri mecnieri muSaobda imis dasadgenad, ra nivTiereba<br />
_ cila Tu dnm, asrulebda memkvidrobiTi materialuri masalis rols. qvemoT warmogidgenT<br />
yvelaze mniSvnelovan kvlevebs.<br />
k1<br />
1928 wels frederik grifiti ikvlevda pnevmoniis (filtvebis anTebis) gamomwvev<br />
baqteriebs _ pnevmokokebs. man aRmoaCina, rom kafsuliani plevmokokebi iwveven<br />
filtvebis anTebas (radgan kafsula icavs maspinZlis imunuri sistemisgan), ukafsuloebi<br />
ki, ar iwveven filtvebis anTebas.<br />
pirobiTad, kafsuliani baqteriebis xazi aRvniSnoT rogorc PV, (pirveli asoebi<br />
sityvebisa Pneumonia _ filtvebis anTeba da Virulent-virulenturi anu daavadebis<br />
gamomwvevi), ukapsuloebi ki aRvniSnoT, rogorc NV (Nonvirulent _ aravirulen-<br />
turi).<br />
cocxali NV cocxali PV mkvdari PV<br />
I II III IV<br />
cocxali NV +<br />
mkvdari PV<br />
cdis pirvel etapze grifitma sacdeli virTagvebis erT jgufSi cocxali NV baqteriebiT<br />
savse siTxe Seiyvana. cxovelebi cocxlebi darCnen (I). virTagvebis meore jgufs Seuyvana<br />
cocxali PV baqteriebi. dasnebovnebuli virTagvebi ki ramdenime dReSi avad gaxdnen da<br />
daixocnen (II).<br />
cdis Semdeg etapze grifitma winaswar mokla PV baqteriebi maRali temperaturis<br />
zemoqmedebiT da baqteriebis Semcveli siTxe Seasxura virTagvebis sxeulSi. virTagvebi<br />
avad ar gamxdaran (III).<br />
amis Semdeg grifitma virTagvebis sxeulSi erTdroulad Seiyvana mkvdari PV da cocxali<br />
NV baqteriebis Semcveli siTxe. virTagvebi avad gaxdnen da daixocnen (IV). grifitma gamoyo<br />
daxocili cxovelebis organizmidan baqteriebi da aRmoaCina, rom NV baqteriebs gauCnda<br />
iseTive kapsula, rogoric qonda PV-s.<br />
ra moxda PV mikrobebi gacocxldnen? grifitma ivarauda, rom mkvdari kafsuliani pnevmokokebis<br />
mier gamoyofili raRac nivTierebis zegavleniT cocxali ukafsulo pnevmokokebi<br />
kafsulianebad gardaiqmneba.<br />
1. ganmarte grifitis cdis Sedegi: ratom gadarCa virTagvebis erTi nawili da ratom<br />
daiRupnen sxvebi.<br />
2. SeinarCunes Tu ara virulenturoba mkvdarma PV baqteriebma?<br />
3. rogor fiqrob, grifitma am cdiT daadgina, PV-is romeli nivTiereba _ cila Tu dnm<br />
atarebda informacias kafsuliani garsis Sesaxeb?<br />
19
20<br />
k2<br />
warmoidgine rom im periodis mecnieri xar, Sen unda gaagrZelo grifitis mier wamowyebuli<br />
kvleva da pasuxi gasce SekiTxvas: PV-s romelma nivTierebam _ cilam Tu dnm-m SesZina<br />
NV-s axali niSan-Tviseba.<br />
warmoidgine, rom SegiZlia gaimeoro grifitiseuli cda. Sens gankargulebaSia pnevmokokis<br />
orive xazi: PV da NV, sacdeli virTagvebi da SegiZlia Caataro cdis yvela procedura.<br />
imavdroulad Sen damatebiT gaqvs ori saxis fermenti: proteaza, romelic iwvevs cilis<br />
denaturacias da dezoqsiribonukleaza, romelic Slis dnm-s polimers. am enzimebiT Sen<br />
SegiZlia SerCeviTad imoqmedo pnevmokokebze da Seni survilis mixedviT gamoiwvio cilis<br />
an dnm-s molekulebis daSla.<br />
dagegme cda, Camowere misi yvela etapi;<br />
gansazRvre, rogor gamoiyeneb enzimebs, baqteriebs da sacdel cxovelebs;<br />
ivaraude, ra Sedegs miiReb da ra daskvnas gamoitan am Sedegebze dayrdnobiT.<br />
frederik grifiti osvald eiveri<br />
is cda, romelic Sen dagegme da warmosaxviT Caatare kidevac, sinamdvileSi Caatara<br />
osvald eiverim 1928 wels. eiverim daadgina, rom mkvdari PV-dan cocxal NV-Si gadasuli<br />
dnm atarebda informacias PV-s kapsulis Sesaxeb.<br />
mecnierebi yovelTvis cdiloben mravaljer gadaamowmon miRebuli faqti, raTa<br />
darwmundnen mis sisworeSi.<br />
amitom eiveris Semdgom, cdebi dnm-ze gaagrZeles marTa Ceizma da alfred herSim.<br />
Ceizma da herSim gamokvleva Caatares 1952 wels. rogorc iTqva isini cdilobdnen<br />
moepovebinaT damatebiTi eqsperimentuli mtkicebulebebi, rom dnm atarebs informacias<br />
organizmis niSan-Tvisebebis Sesaxeb.<br />
Ceizi da herSi muSaobdnen baqteriofagze. im periodisaTvis codnis done aseTi iyo:<br />
mecnierebma icodnen, rom fagi jdeba baqteriis sxeulze,<br />
xsnis garss da ujredSi SeuSvebs raRac nivTierebas, romelic<br />
atarebs informacias virusis Sesaxeb. vurusis es informacia<br />
gadaecema baqterias da mas aiZulebs daiwyos fagis<br />
dnm-isa da cilis sinTezi.<br />
virusisagebulebidangamomdinareCeizidaherSifiqrobdnen,<br />
rom es nivTiereba aris dnm an cila. maT gamoiyenes radiaqtiuri<br />
izotopebi raTa gaegoT fagis ra nivTireba Sedis<br />
baqteriis ujredSi. izotopebi asxiveben didZal energias,<br />
romlis registraciac SeiZleba specialuri xelsawyoebiT.<br />
fagebis nawili gamoiyvanes radiaqtiur fosforian garemoSi,<br />
nawili ki _ radiaqtiur gogirdian garemoSi.<br />
1. radiaqtiuli fosfori da gogirdi Sedianfagis organuli<br />
nivTierebebis SemadgenlobaSi. rogor fiqrob romel<br />
nivTierebaSi Cajdeba gogirdi da romelSi fosfori?<br />
marTa Ceizi da alfred herSi<br />
dnm<br />
baqteriofagi<br />
cilovani<br />
garsi
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