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Introduction to the Human Body 1 CHAPTer OBJeCTIVes Anatomy and Physiology • Define the terms anatomy and physiology and discuss the relationship between these two areas of study. Levels of Organization • List the six levels of organization within the human body. Organ Systems in the Body • Name the 11 organ systems of the body and briefly describe the major role of each system. Life Processes • List and define 10 life processes in the human body. Environmental Requirements for Life • List five physical environmental factors necessary for survival of the individual. Homeostasis • Discuss the concept of homeostasis. • Distinguish between negative feedback mechanisms and positive feedback mechanisms. Anatomical Terms • Describe the four criteria that are used to describe the anatomical position. • Use anatomical terms to describe body planes, body regions, and relative positions. • Distinguish between the dorsal body cavity and the ventral body cavity, and list the subdivisions of each cavity. Key Terms Anabolism (ah-NAB-oh-lizm) Building up, or synthesis of, reactions that require energy and make complex molecules out of two or more smaller ones Anatomical position (an-ah-TOM-ih-kul poh-ZIHshun) Standard reference position for the body Anatomy (ah-NAT-o-mee) Study of body structure and the relationships of its parts Catabolism (kah-TAB-oh-lizm) Reactions that break down complex molecules into two or more smaller ones with the release of energy Differentiation (dif-er-en-she-AY-shun) Process by which cells become structurally and functionally specialized Homeostasis (hoh-mee-oh-STAY-sis) Normal stable condition in which the body’s internal environment remains the same; constant internal environment Metabolism (meh-TAB-oh-lizm) Total of all biochemical reactions that take place in the body; includes anabolism and catabolism Negative feedback (NEG-ah-tiv FEED-bak) Mechanism of response in which a stimulus initiates reactions that reduce the stimulus Physiology (fiz-ee-AHL-oh-jee) Study of the functions of living organisms and their parts Positive feedback (POS-ih-tiv FEED-back) Mechanism of response in which a stimulus initiates reactions that increase the stimulus and the reaction keeps building until a culminating event occurs that halts the process 1
2 Chapter 1 Introduction to the Human Body The human body is an awesome masterpiece. Imagine billions of microscopic parts, each with its own identity, working together in an organized manner for the benefit of the total being. The human body is more complex than the greatest computer, yet it is very personal and efficient. The study of the human body is as old as history itself because people have always had an interest in how the body is put together, how it works, why it becomes defective (illness), and why it wears out (aging). The study of the human body is essential for those planning a career in health sciences just as knowledge about automobiles is necessary for those planning to repair them. How can you fix an automobile if you do not know how it is put together or how it works? How can you help fix a human body if you do not know how it is put together or how it works? Knowledge of the human body is also beneficial to the non– health care professional. Using this knowledge will help you keep your body healthy. It will help you rate your activities as being beneficial or detrimental to your body. Knowledge of anatomy and physiology makes you better able to communicate with medical personnel, understand treatments that may be prescribed, and critically evaluate advertisements and reports in magazines. In addition to all this, the study of the human body is appealing. It lets you learn more about yourself. Anatomy and physiology are dynamic, applied sciences. New technology leads to new discoveries that may change the way certain aspects are viewed. For the student to keep up with the new discoveries and changes, it is necessary to have a strong foundation on which to build new knowledge. This book is an introduction that provides a basis for the continuing study of anatomy and physiology, whether you are a health care provider or a health care consumer. Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy (ah-NAT-oh-mee) is the scientific study of the structure or morphology of organisms and their parts. Human anatomy is the study of the shape and structure of the human body and its parts. It encompasses a wide range of study, including the development and microscopic organization of structures, the relationship between structures, and the interrelationship between structure and function. The broad field of anatomy has numerous subdivisions. Gross human anatomy deals with the large structures of the human body that can be seen through normal dissection. It includes topics in surface anatomy, systemic anatomy, regional anatomy, and surgical anatomy. Microscopic anatomy deals with the smaller structures and fine detail that can be seen only with the aid of a microscope. Cytology and histology are subdivisions of microscopic anatomy. Physiology (fiz-ee-AHL-oh-jee) is the scientific study of the functions or processes of living things. It answers how, what, and why anatomical parts work. Some physiologists specialize in the study of a particular system, such as the digestive system. This is called systemic physiology. Many people currently studying in the field of physiology deal with individual cells and how they work. This is called cellular physiology. Another aspect of physiology is immunology, which is the study of the body’s defense mechanisms. Pharmacology is the study of drug action in the body. This is also under the broad heading of physiology. Anatomy and physiology are interrelated because structure and function are always closely associated. The function of an organ, or how it works, depends on how it is put together. Conversely, the anatomy or structure provides clues to understanding how it works. The structure of the hand, with its long, jointed fingers, is related to its function of grasping things. The heart is designed as a muscular pump that can contract to force blood into the blood vessels. By contrast, the lungs, whose function is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the outside environment and the blood, are made of a very thin tissue. Imagine what would happen if the heart were made of thin tissue and the lungs were made of thick muscle. Structure and function are always related. Diagnostic imaging and pathology are two areas of medicine that encompass both anatomy and physiology. In diagnostic imaging, the structures and functions within the body are observed by using various imaging techniques. The pathologist studies structural and functional changes associated with disease. Quick Applications Often congenital anatomical abnormalities must be surgically repaired so that disruptions in physiology are corrected. For example, a cleft palate (anatomy) is repaired so that food will enter (physiology) the pharynx instead of the nasal cavity. Broken bones (anatomy) are reset so that function (physiology) is restored. Levels of Organization One of the most outstanding features of the complex human body is its order and organization—how all the parts, from tiny atoms to visible organs, work together to make a functioning whole. There are six levels to the organizational scheme of the body (Figure 1-1). Starting with the simplest and proceeding to the most complex, the six levels of organization are chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, body system, and total organism. The structural and functional characteristics of all organisms are determined by their chemical makeup. The chemical level, discussed in Chapter 2, deals with the interactions of atoms (such as hydrogen and oxygen) and their combinations into molecules (such as water). Molecules contribute to the makeup of a cell, which is the basic unit of life. Cells, discussed in Chapter 3, are the basic living units of all organisms. Estimates indicate that there are about 100 trillion dynamic, living cells in the human body. These cells represent a variety of sizes, shapes, and structures and provide a vast array of functions. Cells with similar structure and function are grouped together as tissues. All of the tissues of the body are grouped into four main types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous. Chapter 4 addresses the tissue level of organization. Two or more tissue types that combine to form a more complex structure and work together to perform one or more
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