FLEISCHWIRTSCHAFT international 1/2017

Volume 32 _D42804 F 

Journal for meat production, 

processing and research 

international 

1_2017 

Poultry 

Global share is growing steadily 

Fermentation 

Meat products as 

carrier of probiotics 

Machinery 

Equipment for 

secondary material 

Research 

Differentiating 

animal species 

Topics 

Smoking and Ripening 

Poultry Processing

Fleischwirtschaft international 1_2017 

3 

Editorial 

RenateKühlcke -kck Gerd Abeln -abe YvonneBuch -yb MichaelWeisenfels -mw 

KathrinGrünewald -gru 

Focus on quality 

2017 presents anew FLEISCHWIRTSCHAFT international 

Over the years poultry has become extremely 

appreciated by consumers worldwide. An 

ever-growing share in the global meat consumption 

is the mirror of this development.This 

means that poultry is the focus of both the consumers 

and the industry -and of this issue of 

FLEISCHWIRTSCHAFT international. 

Likethe title story and our readers, we editors 

focus on the quality of our product–the bimonthly 

magazine for the entire meat sector. 

Over the past few months, we have sharpened the 

profile of FLEISCHWIRTSCHAFT international 

and given it amodern look. At thefirst glance, the 

clear,straightforward logo and the new cover 

layout,based on hygienic design optics, come into 

view.The content is noticeably different and yet 

familiar.New fonts, arevised picture and graphic 

language, clear tables and agreater diversity of 

articles makethe reading experience more distinctive 

and makeFLEISCHWIRTSCHAFT 

international non-interchangeable. 

Thetried-and-tested structure of the journal 

remains unchanged. Thepractical-oriented 

front part of each issue shows the "meat chain" 

from agricultural generation to harvesting, 

processing and marketing. Apart of the DNA 

of our FLEISCHWIRTSCHAFT international 

is also the peer-reviewed “Research and Development”section. 

Our diversity and depth of 

topics are consistently aligned with the needs 

of our target group with atechnological and 

scientific focus. In terms of content,wecontinue 

to rely on the expertise of the specialist 

authors, which has carried us intothe 32nd 

year of our international issue in English and 

the 97th of our German one. Our claim remains 

to be areliable navigator.Here we use 

the columns "News", "Business News"and 

"Foreign Markets", which arelocated on the 

first pages of each issue. In this section information 

about meat-relevant events and topics, 

the initiation and accompaniment of debates 

are central concerns. 

It is atricky thing to revise awell-tried print 

journal, which is anchored in the industry.Finding 

the right measure was our goal. Please let us 

know if we have succeeded. r red-flw@dfv.de

..................................................... 

4 


Content 

14 44 

Poultry 

In recent years consumers have 

more and more appreciated all 

kinds of poultry as an important 

source of protein. In addition they 

like the low fat content and the 

good digestibility. 14 Photo: Marel 

Columns 

3 Editorial 

6 News 

8 Business News 

11 Foreign Markets 

18 Industry News 

47 Calendar 

48 Advertisers, Credits, Subscriptions 

55 Research News 

Meat chain 

14 Poultry 

Use of antibiotics in the Chinese poultry 

industry and alternative solutions development 

of antibiotic-free breeding 

24 Machinery 

Multi-purpose equipment allows the 

processing of secondary meat raw 

materials 

36 Food Waste 

Active and intelligent packagings can 

reduce wastes in meat-producing 

chains 

44 Testing Methods 

Duplex PCR opens new possibilities for 

the detection of GM soya in chicken 

sausages 

Research &Development 

50 Methods of differentiating animal species in foods – 

Status quo 

56 Storage stability of chicken meat incorporated noodles 

at ambient temperature under aerobic condition 

62 Thermoresistance and regeneration 

of heat-damaged E. faecium PCM 1859 

in amedium with reduced ph value 

66 Guidelines for authors 

of FLEISCHWIRTSCHAFT international


20 

Topics 

20 Consumer Research 

Dutch per capita consumption of poultry 

meat remains constant at ahigh level 

22 Packaging 

Modern technologies and materials lead 

to high quality and product safety 

28 Ingredients 

Fermented meat products are suitable 

carriers of probiotics 

56

................................................ 

6 


News 

Rabobank 

Pork Quarterly Q1published 

The level to which China imports pork 

after Chinese New Year will determine 

the start of the seasonal increase of 

the Rabobank Five-Nation Hog Price 

Index, according to the latest 

Rabobank Pork Quarterlyreport. 

Chinese pork prices will remain 

elevated, but likelyslightlyless so 

after Chinese New Year.The stabilising 

sow herd and rapidlyrising productivity 

will not affect the market 

before summer, while the continuing 

impact of environmental policies on 

industry restructuring will limit expansion. 

Pressured supplyand 

continuing exports will support 

prices and margins in the EU. However, 

rising export dependency as a 

result of ongoing pressured domestic 

France 

Ban for beef lifted 

U.S. authorities have lifted an 

embargo on French beef imports 

after 19 years, the French agriculture 

ministry said. This was 

reported by CTV News. 

France is the fourth EU country 

to have its beef re-admitted to 

the US market after a1998 ban 

consumption increases the importance 

of afavourable exchange rate, 

given rising competition from the 

Americas. The margin split in the US 

industry will continue in 1H 2017. 

Rising production will continue to 

pressure farmers’ margins, while 

demand will support packers’ margins. 

However, trade developments 

and the impact of exchange rates will 

be the wildcards. 

//www.rabobank.com 

imposed because of fears over 

bovine spongiform encephalopathy 

(BSE), also known as mad 

cow disease. The others are 

Ireland, Lithuania and the 

Netherlands. 

//www.ctvnews.ca 

Advertisement 

Partner country was Hungary 

Once again the International Green Week Berlin 2017 emphasised 

its function as aleading trade fair for national and international 

agribusiness. From 20 to 29 January atotal of 1,650 exhibitors 

from 66 countries provided acomprehensive review of 

the food industry’s global market and of the achievements of 

agriculture and horticulture. 

Messe Berlin registered at the trade fair and conferences of the 

Green Week 2017 total almost 400,000. In addition to visitors 

attending this event daily the halls were filled each day with some 

10,000 personnel such as exhibitors and stand staff,service 

operatives and media representatives. Percapita expenditure by 

visitors to the fair remained at last year’s level, exceeding of 120€ 

and providing exhibitors with sales worth more than 48 mill. €. 

Dates of the next event:19to28January 2018. 

//www.gruenewoche.de/en 

Photo: Messe Berlin 

DMRI 

Danish Institute opened modern slaughterhouse in South Korea 

Daejeon Chungnam Pig-Farmer Cooperative 

(DC) plans to establish a40,000 m 2 new 

slaughterhouse for 3,000 pigs and 300 cattle 

per day near Cheonan, South Korea. It will 

become the workplace of 400 employees. DC 

is amajor pig producer and the owner of 

butcher shops and restaurants in South 

Korea. 

The facility is planned to start operating at 

the end of 2018,meeting all modern demands 

and standards. DC has engaged the Danish 

Meat Research Institute and Haenglim Architecture 

&Engineering to facilitate the 

project. 

The capacity of the plant is planned to 

process 3,000 pigs and 300 cattle per day 

with the possibility of expanding with aprocessing 

department. The site will offer space 

of around 85,000 m 2 ;the buildings will take 

around 40,000 m 2 .The construction works are 

The Danish Meat 

Research Institute 

designed the 

state-of-the-art plant for 

the Daejeon Chungnam 

Pig-Farmer Cooperative. 

planned to start in the earlyspring of 2017 

and by the end of 2018 the production will 

start up. The slaughterhouse will complywith 

the standards of the European Union and the 

United States of America for slaughtering, 

cutting, de-boning and hygiene for producing 

quality meat products for Korea. Facilities will 

be made for the collection and separation of 

animal by-products according to the EU 

by-product regulation “Health rules concerning 

animal by-products not intended for 

human consumption” EU 1774/2002. 

Equipment and processes will be chosen 

according to the EU environmental standards 

for slaughterhouses, BREF (11.03) "Best Available 

Techniques in the Slaughterhouses and 

Animal By-Product Industries". Media consumption 

and emission will be within the 

ranges stated in the EU BREF. Transport of 

products to and from the slaughterhouse will 

be made from the main roads east and south 

of the site. 

//www.dti.dk


7 

News 

WPF 

Gates Foundation grants 

poultry project in Africa 

The World Poultry Foundation 

(WPF) has received afour year 

$21.4mill. grant from the Bill & 

Melinda Gates Foundation to 

enhance poultry production in 

Tanzania and Nigeria. 

Working closelywith government 

and in-country private sector 

partners, the WPF will lead a 

project that will catalyze atransformation 

of rural poultry production 

in these two countries. This 

initiative will increase poultry 

production and productivity 

through the access of low-input 

dual purpose birds, increase rural 

household income, improve household 

nutrition and empower 

women. 

The grant provides WPF with an 

opportunity to implement astrategy 

that creates access of improved 

genetics to the rural 

famers, provides technical assistance 

and training, and offers 

access to markets that may not 

have been possible before. The 

goal is to impact 2.5 mill. households 

across Tanzania and Nigeria 

by the end of this four-year initiative. 

The project will focus on training 

and extension support to build a 

sustainable value chain. Another 

key component of the project is 

the establishment of over 1,500 

entrepreneurial enterprises – 

primarilyowned and managed by 

women –that will supplyhealthy 

brooded and vaccinated chicks to 

the rural smallholder farmers. 

//worldpoultryfoundation.org 

EFSA 

Chronic wasting disease implies risks for EU 

Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is 

most likelytoenter the European 

Union through the movement of live 

cervids that are transported or roam 

freelyfrom Norway to Sweden and 

Finland. 

EFSA’sPanel on Biological Hazards 

has identified monitoring activities 

and measures to prevent the introduction 

and spread of the disease 

into and within the EU. The experts 

also assessed new evidence on 

possible public health risks. CWD is a 

highlycontagious and deadlyanimal 

brain disease belonging to the group 

of diseases known as Transmissible 

Spongiform Encephalopathies (TSE). 

It was thought to be restricted to 

deer, elk and moose in North America 

and South Korea, but in April and 

May 2016 it was discovered in one 

wild reindeer and one wild moose in 

Norway.Itwas the first time that the 

disease has been detected in Europe 

and in reindeer in the wild. EFSA 

Reindeer and Moose take CWD into Europe. 

Photo: Dieter Schütz/pixelio.de 

scientists note that humans may 

consume infected meat in areas 

where the disease is present. 

However, they conclude that there 

is no current scientific evidence 

that humans can get the disease 

through eating meat from infected 

animals. EFSA’sopinion proposes a 

three-year monitoring system 

across eight countries to detect if 

US President Donald J. Trump 

signed an executive order withdrawing 

the United States from the 

Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) 

agreement, which was signed by 

President Obama as well as the 

leaders of eleven other Pacific Rim 

nations. 

The aim of the agreement was to 

lower tariff and other barriers to 

trade. President Trump said he 

would withdraw from the agreement 

altogether, and his executive 

order to that effect made good on 

that pledge. The order was met 

with consternation in most of the 

agriculture community, which had 

been broadlysupportive of the TPP, 

extolling its potential benefits for 

US agricultural exports. It was 

expected the Trump administration 

also may seek changes to the 

22-year-old North American Free 

Trade Agreement (NAFTA) with 

the disease is present. It also provides 

risk managers with aset of 

possible measures for prevention 

and control which aim at reducing 

contact between animals, lowering 

cervid population densities, and 

increasing awareness of the disease. 

//www.efsa.europe.eu/en 

TPP 

Trade agreement canceled by US President 

Canada and Mexico. Indications 

were the Trump administration was 

seeking meetings with the leaders 

of those two nations. 

The US Meat Export Federation 

(USMEF) said the organization 

would remain committed to trading 

partners in the TPP and NAFTA, 

which account for more than 60% 

of US red meat exports. 

//www.meatinstitute.org

8 


Business News 

CP Foods 

Takeover of Bellisio completed 

Thailand’sCharoen Pokphand 

Foods (CP Foods) has taken over 

frozen specialist Bellisio Foods 

with a$1.075 bn. deal. CP Foods’ 

huge deal to take over Bellisio 

Foods marks its first acquisition of 

aUSfirm. 

The transaction brings together 

one of America’smost dynamic 

frozen food firms with the might of 

Thailand’sdominant verticallyintegrated 

meat business. Bellisio 

manufactures and distributes 

single-serve frozen entrées under 

anumber of brands, such as Michelina’s, 

Atkins, Boston Market, 

Chili’s, EatWell and Eat. Bellisio also 

produces arange of private-label 

and foodservice items. In business 

for over 25 years, Minneapolis-based Bellisio 

Foods manufactures more than 400 frozen food 

items and CP Foods said the well-known brands 

would enhance its US operation. CP Foods 

acquired all outstanding interest in Bellisio 

Financial expert called Charoen Pokphand Foods (CP Foods) the 

ideal partner for Bellisio Foods. Photo: Bellisio Foods 

from US-based private equity firm Centre Partners. 

Bruce Pollack, managing partner at the 

investment firm, described CP Foods as the 

ideal partner for Bellisio. 

//www.cpfworldwide.com 

Atria 

Company’s pork exports to China will start 

Atria Finland Ltd has signed the contract of the 

first pork delivery to China. Atria supplies frozen 

pork products to its Chinese customers around 

3mill. kg during the year 2017. 

The delivery includes all types of products 

derived from apig carcass. The first delivery to 

the customer will be realized in earlyMay.The 

company has reached an agreement with their 

Danish Crown 

Acquiring Teterower Fleisch 

Danish Crown is acquiring the German cattle 

slaughterhouse Teterower Fleisch to become the 

fifth-largest cattle slaughterhouse in Germany. 

The purchase price will not be disclosed. 

Teterower Fleisch in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, 

afederal state in Germany, has an annual turnover 

of 150mill. €, slaughters 110000 cattle annually, 

has 187employees and is privatelyowned. Close to 

20% of the cattle slaughtered by Teterower Fleisch 

are organic. The company also slaughters pigs and 

lambs, but mainlycattle. Danish Crown’sbeef 

division also has significant slaughtering activities 

in the north German city of Husum, where almost 

90000 animals are slaughtered annually. Following 

the takeover of Teterower Fleisch, the plan is to 

run Danish Crown Beefs existing slaughterhouse 

activities in Husum and the newlyacquired business 

as an integrated unit, focusing on specialization 

and on utilizing synergies in the international 

Chinese customers of the first deliveries of 

meat to China. Negotiations with customers are 

progressing well and the first large-scale 

delivery is evaluated as apromising start to 

long-term cooperation, said Juha Gröhn Atria 

Group's CEO. 

//www.atria.com 

markets that both companies serve. The agreement 

on the acquisition of Teterower Fleisch has 

been reported to the German federal cartel office 

(the Bundeskartellamt), which must approve the 

takeover. 

//www.danishcrown.com 

The Danish company will become the 

fifth-largest cattle slaughterhouse in 

Germany. 

Viskase 

Company acquires 

Walsroder Casings Group 

Viskase Companies, Inc., announced that it has 

signed adefinitive agreement to acquire 100% of 

the equity interests in Walsroder Casings Group 

(including its subsidiaries Walsroder Casings 

GmbH and Walsroder Casings Polska Sp. zo.o.), 

headquartered in Bomlitz, Germany, from Quota 

International GmbH and CT Holding GmbH. The 

acquisition also includes the casing business 

assets of Poly-clip System, LLC, Walsroder’s US 

distributor and an affiliate of Quota, located in 

Mundelein, Illinois. 

After several decades, Walsroder is widely 

recognized by the processed meat industry for 

its high quality product line of fibrous and plastic 

casings and innovative manufacturing technology.The 

company’sproducts are distributed 

throughout the world. There are manufacturing 

and distribution facilities in Germany and Poland, 

and distribution in the US through Poly-clip. 

For the year ending 2016,Walsroder’s total 

turnover is approximately$60 mill. This acquisition 

will strengthen and complement Viskase’s 

broad product line of fibrous and plastic casings 

and provide additional production capacity for all 

of Viskase’skey markets. Final closing of the 

acquisition is expected by mid-January, once 

regulatory requirements are completed. Transition 

of the Poly-clip casings finishing and distribution 

business in the US to Viskase will occur 

over the next few months to ensure that all 

customer needs will continue to be satisfied. 

//Viskase.com 

Miratorg 

Increases in food 

production recorded 

Miratorg Zapad, Russia’slargest producer of 

frozen semi-finished meat products and readyto-eat 

meals reports a27% increase in production 

to over 43000 tin2016. 

The plant with atotal capacity of 80000 tof 

products per year produces more than 150 

different types of products and is akey supplier 

for international restaurant chains in Russia. 

The enterprise is also certified for supplyinto 

foreign markets. 

The company’sstrategy focuses on consistent 

growth of production volumes and expansion 

of product lines to satisfy the demand for 

high-quality meat semi-finished products and 

ready-to-eat meals both for Horeca sector and 

the retail market. Miratorg additionallyinvested 

more than 1bnrubles in increase of the enterprise 

capacity and the installation of new hightech 

lines that allow manufacturing of products 

unique for the Russian market. In 2017 the 

enterprise will continue to increase production 

and start new types of semi-finished products. 

//www.miratorg.ru/en


9 

Frontmatec 

Five specialists joined their forces 

Business News 

During the fall of 2016 and beginning 

of 2017,the Danish private 

equity company Axcel acquired 

five companies –all regarded as 

leaders within their respective 

fields: Attec, Itec, Carometec, SFK 

Leblanc and Frontmatec. As from 

31 January 2017,the Group and 

the various entities will conduct 

their business under the name 

Frontmatec. 

The goal is to create aleading 

global supplier of equipment, 

solutions and software for international 

food companies. The integration 

of the companies is well 

under way the companies are 

united under the name Frontmatec, 

under the leadership of a 

newlyappointed Executive Team. 

The new team of Executive 

Directors to head the Frontmatec 

Group is: Henrik Andersen as CEO, 

Lars Hansen as COO and Henrik 

Alifas Nielsen as CFO. He has 

been heading the European 

organization of the 

combined Frontmatec 

Group for the 

past three. Prior to 

this, he has been CEO 

of Carometec, a 

company with an 

enviable development, 

and considered 

as atrue innovator 

in its field. He 

has extensive experience 

in the food 

industry and is highly 

respected for his 

commitment. He also 

has astrong commercial 

and technical background. 

Starting in June 2017,Lars 

Hansen will join the team as Chief 

Operating Officer.Heiscurrently 

VP SupplyChain/Operations at 

Assa Abloy Entrance Systems and 

is highlyexperienced in aglobal 

manufacturing footprint. 

Frontmatec is the name for the new Group after Attec, Itec, Carometec, Frontmatec and SFK 

Leblanc have joined forces. 

Henrik Alifas Nielsen, currently 

CFO at SFK Leblanc, will continue 

as CFO for the new Group. 

The implementation of the 

Frontmatec name as the new 

corporate brand starts as of 31 

January 2017.The transition from 

current brands to Frontmatec will 

happen graduallyduring 2017,with 

no immediate changes affecting 

existing business relationships. 

Though changing the company 

names to one united corporate 

brand, ITEC will remain as acategory 

brand under Frontmatec for 

hygiene equipment and solutions. 

//www.merger.frontmatec.com 

Smithfield 

Progress in sow keeping 

Smithfield Foods, Inc. reported that 

87% of pregnant sows on companyowned 

farms have been transitioned 

to group housing systems, a 

6% increase over 2015.Asplanned, 

all company-owned farms in the 

U.S. are expected to be fullyconverted 

by 2017.Actuallynearlynine 

out of every ten of their pregnant 

sows are living in group housing. 

The change has cost several hundred 

mill. dollars, and on many of 

the farms, the transition process 

led to additional construction work, 

equipment and system upgrades 

and the development of new feeding 

and watering systems. Beyond 

efforts at company-owned farms, 

the company previouslyannounced 

it expects all U.S. contract growers 

to transition to group housing by 

2022. It's hog production operations 

in Poland (AgriPlus) and Romania 

(Smithfield Ferme) fullyconverted to 

group housing facilities years ago. 

Other international hog operations,are 

expected to convert to 

group housing by 2022. 

//www.smithfieldfoods.com 

Sanderson Farms 

New facility opened 

Sanderson Farms opened anew 

$155mill. processing plant and 

wastewater treatment facility in 

St. Pauls, N.C. This new 180,000- 

square-foot plant will accompany 

the existing 65,000-square-foot 

hatchery located in Lumberton, 

N.C., as well as afeed mill in 

Kinston, N.C. The facility features 

the latest technology in the poultry 

industry, including food safety, 

employee welfare and environmental 

conservation. The stateof-the-art 

poultry complex will be 

able to process 1.25 mill. birds per 

week and will sell approximately 

500 mill. pounds of dressed poultry 

meat annually. 

//www.sandersonfarms.com

10 


Business News 

Allen Harim 

Two personal changes announced 

MRI 

Institute appointed 

new leader 

Simmons 

Jackson becomes president 

and chief operating officer 

Photos: Allen Harim 

Photo: MRI 

Photo: Simmons 

Allen Harim, aleading producer and 

processor of chicken on Delmarva, 

has named veteran communications 

expert Catherine M. Bassett 

as the new Director of Public Relations 

to help share positive news 

about the company and oversee 

community relations. Also they 

hired Harry L. Tillman as afood 

industry sales management professional 

to oversee business development 

for the company. 

Bassett began her career in Salisbury 

as anewspaper reporter for 

The DailyTimes in 1989. She started 

her own public relations company in 

2009, and has worked with arange 

of clients including Delmarva 

Power, the Ocean City Air Show, 

Maryland Capital Enterprises and 

the Delmarva Zoological Society. 

Tillman joined Allen Harim in mid- 

January as Senior Manager of Business 

Development. He has spent 

the past 20 years as asales operations 

and strategy executive with a 

deep background in high quality 

value added and retail businesses. 

//www.allenharimllc.com 

Hormel Foods 

Leadership hire announced 

Hormel Foods Corporation announced 

the appointment of Janet Hogan as 

vice president, human resources, 

effective 17 January 2017. 

Hogan assumes responsibility for 

leading the global HR function at the 

company.Her responsibilities will 

include building and executing 

world-class strategies for talent 

development, employee engagement, 

total rewards and labor relations. 

Most recently, she has led 

global human resource organizations 

including ProQuest and OshKosh 

Corporation. Prior to her work at 

these companies, Hogan served as 

the vice president of human resources 

for five years at Harsco 

Corporation and spent almost 20 

years at Monsanto Company. 

//www.hormelfoods.com 

Professor Dr.Pablo Steinberg, 

Director of the Institute for Food 

Toxicology and Analytical Chemistry 

at the University of Veterinary 

Medicine Hannover, has been appointed 

President of the Max Rubner 

Institute by the Federal Ministry 

of Food and Agriculture. 

Professor Steinberg studied biochemistry, 

taking his doctorate in 

this field at the University of Buenos 

Aires. He has aHabilitation in toxicology 

from Johannes Gutenberg 

University Mainz and held various 

positions there. In 1998, he was 

appointed to the Chair of Food 

Toxicology in the Institute of Nutritional 

Science at the University of 

Potsdam, becoming Executive 

Director of the Institute of Nutritional 

Science in 2002. This was 

followed in 2008 by the Professorship 

in Food Toxicology and Replacement/Complementary 

Methods 

to Animal Testing at the University 

of Veterinary Medicine Hannover.Concurrently, 

Professor 

Steinberg became the university’s 

Director of the Institute for Food 

Toxicology and Analytical Chemistry. 

//www.mri.bund.de 

Simmons Prepared Foods, Inc., 

announced that David Jackson will 

succeed Gary Murphy as President 

and Chief Operating Officer of Simmons 

Prepared Foods, reporting 

directlytoToddSimmons, Chief 

Executive Officer of Simmons Foods, 

Inc. &Affiliates. 

David was succeeded as President 

and Chief Operating Officer of Simmons 

Pet Food by Jason Godsey in 

October.Murphy recentlycelebrated 

25 years with Simmons, after almost 

two decades with ConAgra Foods. 

As President and COO of Simmons 

Prepared Foods, he led consistent 

growth, including multiple recordsetting 

years of performance. 

Jackson earned aBachelor of Science 

degree in Administrative 

Management from the University of 

Arkansas and aMaster of Business 

Administration degree from the 

University of Texas at Austin. He 

recentlycelebrated 25 years at 

Simmons. Jackson spent most of his 

earlycareer in the poultry business 

before leading Simmons Pet Food as 

President and Chief Operating 

Officer for the last four years. 

//www.simmonsfoods.com 

BRF 

Enterprise reached Tier 2onfarm animal welfare 

BRF, one of the largest food companies in the 

world, has advanced to Tier 2from Tier 3inthe 

annual report of the Business Benchmark on 

Farm Animal Welfare (BBFAW). This improvement 

recognises BRF’scommitment to animal welfare, 

as reflected in the company’spolicies and 

practices. 

BRF’sclimb in the BBFAWranking follows 

years of continuous investment in animal welfare, 

during which appropriate systems were 

adopted and relevant actions intensified. 

Alongside this, data and information concerning 

animal welfare on BRF’swebsite have been 

broadened and made easier to access. 

In its report, BBFAWacknowledges the established 

internal processes BRF has put in 

place to manage compliance and best practices 

concerning animal welfare commitments. 

It also draws attention to BRF’spartnership with 

World Animal Protection (WAP), which is working 

to better animal welfare practices in the supply 

and production chains. One goal towards which 

BRF is working, with the assistance of WAP, is 

the transitioning of 100% of sows to group 

gestation systems by 2026. 

Amongst the examples of BRF’sanimal welfare 

engagement in 2016 was the implementation 

of environmental enrichment instruments 

in more than 200 aviaries, which encourage 

natural animal behaviour and lead to stress 

reduction. With animal welfare being acore 

value at BRF, ongoing investment is being 

made in environmental enrichment studies, 

with aview to improving conditions for animal 

breeding. 

Now in its fifth year, the BBFAWpublishes an 

annual review of 99 global food companies, 

assessing their quality of animal welfare management, 

as well as their disclosure of animal 

welfare policies and practice. 

//www.brf-global.com


11 

Foreign Markets 

France 

Welfare monitoring in 

slaughterhouses 

China 

Buffalo meat from India finally accepted 

France's national assembly 

adopted draft legislation that could 

see all livestock slaughtering 

recorded on video from next year to 

enforce animal welfare regulations. 

This was reported by Irish Farmers 

Journal. “From 1January 2018, 

pending trials to evaluate feasibility 

and implementation conditions, 

cameras will be installed in all 

lairage, housing, restraining, stunning, 

slaughtering and killing areas,” 

the bill adopted by French 

deputies. It adds that footage will 

be kept for up to one month for 

inspection and may be used for 

staff training. The legislation also 

asks the government to produce 

reports regarding potential bans on 

the slaughter of female livestock in 

the last third of pregnancy and the 

use of CO2 asphyxiation to slaughter 

pigs. The bill must now go to the 

senate before final adoption. 

//www.farmersjournal.ie 

China has finallyagreed to remove 

restrictions on beef export 

from India. Atop official in the 

Commerce ministry said Beijing, 

which has sent quality inspection 

team to India earlier to examine 

buffalo meat facilities, has 

cleared 14 abattoirs for importing 

meat from here. Making China 

agree for direct import of bovine 

meat from India has been atop 

priority for Indian government 

since Narendra Modi government 

took over in May 2014.This was 

reported by the Indian Express. 

Officials said China has been 

buying Indian beef from Vietnam 

in the last few years and New 

Delhi was not getting any advantages 

in terms of changing the 

bilateral trade. Sources said 

Ministry hopes that the export of 

beef would make aconsiderable 

change in the bilateral trade 

deficit. India’strade deficit with 

China increased to $52.69 bn. in 

With the world’slargest population, China’sconsumption of meat has been 

rising. Photo: Janine Grab-Bollinger 

2015-16 from $48.48 bn. in the 

previous financial year. 

China signed an MoU for importing 

bovine meat from India in 

2013 during Premier Li Keqiang’s 

visit, but has not lifted the restrictions 

yet. The country has 

exported 13,14,158.05 MT of 

buffalo meat products to the 

world for the worth of 

Rs 2,6681.56 crore and the main 

export destinations are Malaysia, 

Egypt, Saudi Arabia and Iraq 

apart from Vietnam. 

//Indianexpress.com

12 


Foreign Markets 

Hong Kong 

Country bans imports 

Singapore 

Trade potential discussed 

Regarding to the News Agency 

Xinhua, Hong Kong authorities 

announced that they have banned 

the import of poultry meat and 

products from Chile's Quilpue and 

Romania. This was reported by 

Global Times. 

The Center for Food Safety (CFS) 

of Hong Kong's Food and Environmental 

Hygiene Department said 

that in view of anotification from 

the Chilean authorities about an 

Highlypathogenic H5N8 avian 

influenzainRomania was one 

reason for the ban. Photo: Peter 

Smola /pixelio.de 

outbreak of low pathogenic avian 

influenzaH7inQuilpue, Chile, it 

has banned the import of poultry 

meat and products (including 

poultry eggs) from the above area 

with immediate effect. In addition, 

in view of anotification from the 

World Organization for Animal 

Health (OIE) about an outbreak of 

highlypathogenic H5N8 avian 

influenzainRomania, the CFS has 

banned the import of poultry meat 

and products (including poultry 

eggs) from Romania with immediate 

effect to protect public health 

in Hong Kong. 

ACFS spokesman said that in 

the first eleven months of last 

year, Hong Kong imported about 

750 toffrozen poultry meat from 

Chile. Since Hong Kong has not 

established any protocol with 

Romania for imports of poultry 

meat and eggs, there is no import 

of such commodities from Romania. 

//www.globaltimes.cn 

Leaders from Russia and Singapore 

are examining ways the two 

countries can develop import 

and export relations between 

the two countries concerning 

the trade of poultry and pork 

products. 

The Agri-food and Veterinary 

Authority (AVA)ofthe Republic of 

Singapore recentlyaddressed 

Rosselkhoznadzor, Russia’s 

Federal Service for Veterinary 

and Phytosanitary Surveillance in 

aletter stating its commitment 

to start targeted activities aimed 

at the development of trade 

relations between Singapore and 

Russia. 

Specifically, AVA was referring 

to the implementation of mutual 

inspections of the Russian and 

Singaporean animal product 

manufacturing establishments 

that were scheduled during the 

negotiations between the 

Rosselkhoznadzor and AVA held 

late in November 2016.Thus the 

Singaporean party expressed 

intention to hold a10-day inspection 

of four Russian pork 

and poultry plants. In order to 

optimize the Singaporean experts’ 

activities the AVA requested 

the Russian agency to 

provide supplementary data on 

measures taken to control diseases 

such as African swine 

fever (ASF), foot-and-mouth 

disease (FMD) and avian influenzainRussia. 

The Singaporean party also 

invited the Russian inspectors to 

visit animal product manufacturing 

establishments interested in 

exports to Russia in February 

2016,and asked the agency to 

provide veterinary and sanitary 

requirements for imported meat 

and meat products. 

The Rosselkhoznadzor stated 

it will further take all necessary 

measures to start exports of the 

Russian animal products to 

Singapore. 

//www.ava.gov.sg 

IPPE 

More than 31,000 attendees visited the fair 

The 2017 International Production 

&Processing Expo (IPPE), taken 

place from 31 January to 2February, 

had more than 31,000 poultry, 

meat and feed industry leader 

attendees from all over the world. 

In addition, the show had more 

than 533,000 of net square feet of 

exhibit space and 1,275 exhibitors. 

Sponsored by the U.S. 

Poultry &Egg Association, American 

Feed Industry Association 

and North American Meat Institute, 

IPPE is the world's largest 

annual feed, meat and poultry 

industry event of its kind. This 

year’s tremendous exhibit floor 

and attendee and exhibitor numbers 

are acompliment to IPPE’s 

unmatched education programs, 

ample networking opportunities 

and diverse exhibits. 

The excitement and energy 

displayed by this year’s attendees 

and exhibitors will continue 

to safeguard the success and 

growth of future IPPEs, the three 

organizations said. The central 

attraction is the large exhibit 

floor.Exhibitors demonstrated 

the most current innovations in 

equipment, supplies and services 

used by industry firms in the 

production and processing of 

meat, poultry, eggs and feed 

products. Numerous companies 

highlighted their new products at 

the trade show, with all phases 

of the feed, meat and poultry 

industry represented, from live 

production and processing to 

further processing and packaging. 

The wide variety of educational 

programs complemented the 

exhibits by keeping industry 

management informed on the 

latest issues and events. This 

year’s educational line-up featured 

25 programs, ranging from a 

conference on Listeria monocytogenes 

prevention and control, to 

aprogram on FSMA hazard analysis 

training, to aprogram on 

whole genome sequencing and 

food safety implications. 

The wide variety of educational programs completed the exhibitor range. 

Photo: IPPE 

Other featured events included 

the International Poultry Scientific 

Forum, Beef 101 Workshop, Pet 

Food Conference, TECHTalks 

program, Event Zone activities 

and publisher-sponsored pro- 

grams, all of which have made the 

2017 IPPE the foremost annual 

protein and feed event in the 

world. 

//www.ippexpo.com

14 


Poultry 

Stricter standards and controls 

Use of antibiotics in the Chinese poultry industry and alternative solutions 

In China the significance of the 

production and the consumption of 

poultry meat is very high. The total 

output of poultry meat was more 

than 14 mill. tin2013; the percapita 

consumption was more than 10 kg. 

In this way poultry meat is the 

second biggest consumer good after 

pork (LI WENRUI,2014). This is 

associated with apoultry production 

becoming more and more intensive. 

Particularly with regard to the 

preservation of animal health during 

the production time the use of 

antibiotics seems to be unavoidable. 

By Wang Wei, FriedhelmJaeger, 

Catharina Hölscher, 

HouBoand Ji Lili 

According to the official Chinese 

statistics the consumption rate 

of antibiotics is about 200,000 t. 

This is nearly the half amount wold 

wide. Theamount of 97,000 tof 

them are used in animal farming 

systems. This is about 48.5% of the 

total amount (LI ZHEN,2009). But 

anyimproper practice, especially an 

excessive practice in poultry farming, 

must appreciated as critically. 

Also the importance of the influence 

on human health is increasing 

today.This item considers the use 

of antibiotics in poultry farming 

and the correlated problems in 

China. Thepossibility and chance 

for poultry farming without the use 

of antibiotics are discussed. 

Use of antibiotics in poultry 

production in the past 

Since in 1929 the English scholar 

Fleming found the Penicillin, 

antibiotics are actually the most 

used and most important 

medicines against infectious diseases. 

So theyare regarded as the 

biggest discovery in the 20th century.Thus 

manyinfectious diseases 

could be cured andthe expectancy 

of human life could be increased 

(HUANG FUBING,2012). Also for 

animal farming systems the use of 

antibiotics has been amain factor 

to prevent and cure epidemic diseases. 

In 1946 MOORE et al. reported 

already about the performanceenhancing 

effectofantibiotics. 

They verified, that adaily dose of 

antibiotics increases the weight gain 

notable (MOORE,P., A. EVENSION,T. 

LUCKEY,etal., 1946). Other studies 

showed, that as aresult of atargeted 

and efficient use of antibiotics 

chicklets grow faster,hens lay more 

eggs and the loss ratedecrease. In 

the development of the last 60 years 

over 20 different antibiotics are 

used in poultry farming. In 2005 a 

market report of the International 

Society for Animal Hygiene suggested, 

that with an abandonment 

of antibiotics in the same time the 

In recent years, poultry 

farming in China was 

intensified significantly. 

production of poultry has to increase 

about 25% to cover the requirement 

(LU XIN,2008). 

Butalready since the use of 

antibiotics has been started the 

apprehension about negative consequences 

has been present.BARNES 

(1958) and ELLIOTT (1959) reported 

about bacterial resistances related 

to Tetracycline. In 2002 LI KAINAN 

showed that already in the 80’s 

pathogenic bacteria have been 

resistant to manyantibiotics.In 

1997 the world health organisation 

requested the governments of all 

countries to reduce the amount of 

antibiotics. As areaction the regulations 

and the supervision of the use 

of antibiotics has been intensified 

(LI KAINIAN,2005). 

Current situation 

Theuse of antibiotics in countries 

of Europeand North America has 

along history and is widely used. 

Because of the developing research 

and the awkward growth of 

bacterial resistances the common 

use of antibiotics is decreasing. In 

the EU-Countries several antibiotics 

are prohibited because of 

their growth-enhancing influence. 

In 2011 the European Commission 

pronounced afive year action plan 

for defending bacterial resistances. 

Thetarget of this plan where the 

appropriated and restricteduse of 

antibiotics in human and animal 

medicine, and also the optimised 

supervision of animal used antibiotics. 

In the USA the FDAin1977 

allowed the use of Penicillin, Aureomycin 

and Oxytetracyclin in animal 

feeding systems. In 1996 a 

supervision and audit system for 

bacterial resistances was established 

by the government.This was 

the basis to reacttothe appearance 

of bacterial resistances by prohibiting 

targeted antibiotics. On this way 

in October2000 twoquinolone 

antibiotics were prohibited for 

using in animal feed. In 2014 the 

FDAprohibited the use of antibiotics 

as preventive agents. In this 

way the health of human and animals 

should be savedsustainable. 

Also in Japan and Australia antibiotics 

are often used in animal


15 

Poultry 

farming systems. Although in this 

countries the use of antibiotics has 

begun lately,the supervision by the 

authority is much stricter. Australia 

also has established an entire systemtodetectand 

control potential 

residues in foodstuff. 

In Japan the central government 

has founded 12 commissions and 

several other entities to approve and 

supervise the use of medicines. In 

2002 the Japanese government 

prohibited the use of Penicillin, 

Streptomycin, Salinomycin and 

Monensin in animal feeds. 

In the 70’softhe 20th century 

the use of antibiotics in China has 

begun step by step. Butthe quantity 

has increased immediately. 

According to several studies the 

cumulative production of antibiotics 

is about 200,000 t. This is 

nearly the half amount wold wide. 

97,000 tofthem are used in 

animal farming systems (ZHANG 

XIAOYING,2015). 

To ensure the consumers highest 

defence, in 1999 the Chinese 

government pronounced standards 

for residue levels in animal 

source foods. These included 109 

medicines. Thestandards are 

revised in 2001and 2002. Several 

antibiotics were prohibited to use 

in feeding systems. In 2001withdrawal-periods 

for 20 antibiotics 

were defined. Alist with 57 antibiotics 

was created. This list 

animal species, contained indication, 

withdrawal-periodand advises 

for each medicine. In 2005 

Especiallyinrural areas measures to ensure food safety differ by far from international standards. 

the further use of antibiotics were 

prohibited. 

TheChinese government improves 

permanent the legislation 

and standards about use of 

medicine, especially antibiotics. 

Butthere is an increasing demand 

for poultry products. As a 

consequence the improper use of 

antibiotics is still an existing 

problem. 

Abundant appearing problems 

In the Chinese industrial poultry 

farming the standard of the stockman’s 

education is in general low. 

There is insufficient knowledge 

about breeding, improper use of 

antibiotics and the official rules. 

That is the reason whyantibiotics 

are often used inefficiently.Breeders 

couldn’t recognise the right 

medical indication for using

16 


Poultry 


Some time ago Chinese 

researchers have started 

to provide the scientific 

basis for reducing the 

use of antibiotics in 

poultry production. 

medicine. Also reports about use 

of illegal antibiotics and the abusive 

use of antibiotics are existing 

(ZHOU MINGLI,2013). 

Inthe year 2004 China pronounced 

aregulation about the 

administration of medicines. This 

includes several reserve antibiotics 

for human medicine. So the 

use of these antibiotics is prohibited 

in animals. Aproblem for 

stockmen are the insufficient 

broad spectrum efficacyofthe 

most antibiotics with are allowed 

to use for animals. Thus many 

stockmen use the prohibited 

antibiotics despiteoftheir deficient 

knowledge. In this way they 

are impairing the common problems 

(YAN KEMIN, REN YINXIAO, 

2008). 

Theduration of the withdrawal 

periodafter use of antibiotic is 

one of the main factors for elimination 

of residues. Forseveral 

medicine the withdrawal period 

is clearly defined. Butthere are 

still pig fattening systems which 

are breaking the official withdrawal 

period. According to an 

American study 76% of antibiotic 

residues are resulting from unregarded 

withdrawal periods, 18% 

from feed contamination and 6% 

from an improper use of antibiotics 

(XI HUIPING,2007). 

Hazard by an improper 

use of antibiotics 

According to different studies 

bacterial resistances could be 

grafted from animals trough the 

environment and the food chain 

to human. In this way the bacterial 

resistances in human organisms 

are increasing. Theresult of 

an improper use of antibiotics 

could be consumption residues in 

poultry meat.These residues 

could be directly or indirectly 

perniciously for the human organism. 

Each year there are thousands 

of lives claimed by infectious 

diseases with resistant 

microorganisms. Other risks 

could be genomic mutations, 

malformations, cancer.Chloramphenicol 

and Streptomycin could 

be causes for these dangerous 

effects (ZHOU SHUPING,2012). 

After the application to poultry, 

some antibiotics could be excreted 

unalterably.Some antibiotics like 

Steptomycin have aresilient 

structure. So theycouldn’t be 

biodegraded easily. Astudy by 

ZHANG HUIMIN et al. (2008) about 

residues of antibiotic in the north 

territory of the province Zhejiang 

showed that on the residues of 

Terramycin, Tetracyclin and Aureomycin 

were 5.172, 0.553 and 

0.588 mg/kg among the limit 

value after liquid manure had 

applied (ZHANG HUIMING, ZHANG 

MINGKUI, GU GUOPING,2008). 

Every improper use of antibiotics 

is also ahigh risk for poultry 

farming itself.Because of the 

abundant use of several antibiotics, 

bacterial resistances increase. 

In this way some infectious 

diseases couldn’t be cured 

anymore. Therelevance Escherichia 

coli, Staphylococcus , 

Salmonella ssp. as disease agents 

could increase again. In August 

1996 the European Union had 

stopped all imports of Chinese 

farm products from poultry and 

other animals, because the value 

limits of antibiotic residues had 

been exceeded. In 1997 and 1998 

experts were sent to Chinato 

control the poultry farming systems. 

Points of criticism had been 

the management of control and 

therapy of diseases and the detection 

of antibiotic residues. As a 

reaction the embargo has been 

continued (FU MINGCHUN, XI 

HUIPING, LIU YANZHAO,2008). 

Poultry farming 

without antibiotics 

Because of all the aspects about 

the use of antibiotics the effort to a 

poultry farming without use of 

antibiotics becomes more and 

more important.The first efforts 

were observed in Europe. Today 

there are main strategies for a 

poultry farming systems without 

use of antibiotics in the USA, 

Germanyand Japan. Forexample 

the “Kikok”-Production in Germanyisone 

of these strategies 

with ahigh hygienically standard. 

In Japan broiler farming systems 

use Chinese healing plants instead 

of antibiotics. These chicks 

are also mentioned as “Hanfang 

Chicks”(DONG SHANGYUN,2004). 

At the moment also in China 

there is ahigh progress in alternative 

methods and technologies. 

Themain focus is on probiotics, 

antimicrobial peptides, healing 

plants and enzyme compounds. 

Themethodwithhigh hygienic 

standards is based on astrictly 

controlled environment.This 

begins already with the chicklets. 

They are selectedand reared also 

with ahigh hygienic standard. In 

this way the infiltration with 

pathogens and their distribution 

should be prevented. Thetemperature, 

feed and drinking water are 

strictly controlled. DONG 

SHANGYUN et al. (2004) made a 

comparative study about models 

of poultry farming without antibiotics 

(WANGWEI, JI LILI,2016). The 

results showed, that with ahigh


17 

Poultry 

quality of chicklets, feed and with a 

good husbandry system poultry 

farming without antibiotics is 

possible. Unfortunately this systemisstill 

very expensive and is 

currently reserved for only some 

biological working farms with 

enough funding. At least the high 

prevalence of pathogens is another 

problem regarding to theimplementation 

of this method. Although 

in China the interest in 

this methodisincreasing. 

Chinese healing plants are one 

of the important ingredients of the 

traditional Chinese medicine. 

Added to feed they are able to 

replace antibiotics under special 

requirements .WANG CHANGKANG 

et al. (2008) tried to describe the 

influence of the traditional Chinese 

medicine to chicken rearing 

and carcass quality.The results 

showed, that the use of Chinese 

healing plants could decrease the 

influence of pathogens and increase 

and the quality of poultry 

meat.WANG JINPING,LIYUQING et 

al. (2010,2013) breeded ducks with 

asupplement of Garlicin. The 

study showed, that Garlicin suppressed 

the growth of Escherichia 

col in the jejunum and caecum 

significantly.Also the loss rate 

decreased and the daily gain increased. 

Thestudy of SHENG 

WEIWU et al. (2012)equally 

showed abetter growth of fattening 

poultry (Ross-308) with a 

supplement of Saccharicterpenin. 

YU LIANHONG et al. (2013)used 

traditional medicine likeGlauber 

salt,Zeolith, Astragalus mongholicus 

und garlic together and discovered 

how far antibiotics could be 

replaced. Anumber of studies 

from Chinese scientist clarify,that 

antibiotics can be replaced by 

Chinese healing plants. Actually 

there are some problems. For 

example today it isn’t possible to 

identify the agent from ahealing 

plant which has the main effect 

against pathogens. And also there 

is not enough data about toxicological 

effects. So it’s necessary to 

explore these methodmuch more. 

Probiotics are also termed as 

living microbiological and microeconomical 

compounds. They are 

applied by drinking water.Important 

are also their microbial metabolic 

products. They cansuppress 

pathogens in the gastro-intestinal 

system, produce main organic 

acids, decrease the pH-value, 

encourage hydrogen peroxide and 

encourage antimicrobial effective 

agents as Acidophillin. In this way 

theyare able to stabilize the enteric 

flora (LI DEFA,2009). HE 

MINGQING et al. (2002) replaced 

antibiotics by microeconomical 

compounds like Bacillus 8901for 

fattening poultry systems. The 

results showed, that the appearance 

of diseases decreased about 

20%. At the same time the daily 

gain increased. Other studies 

described similar results. Butin 

contrast some studies expounded, 

that probiotics actually can’t replaceantibiotics 

totally.Although 

theywere able to stabilize the 

enteric flora, the effectagainst 

diseases couldn’t be proven yet 

(BALISH,E., R.D.WAGNER,1998). 

CHENG ANCHUN et al. (2008) 

concluded all the studies about the 

use of probiotics. They underlined 

apart from the opportunity to 

replace antibiotics, the positive 

effectofprobiotics for the environment,animal 

products and the 

reduction of bacterial resistances. 

They advised to push the development 

of probiotics forward. 

Theantimicrobial peptide is a 

small molecular peptide, which is 

also named Bacteriozin. It is 

actual mainly used as asupplement 

to feed. Thedifferent peptides 

can be graduated in peptides 

with origin from mammalians, 

amphibians, insects, plants, 

viruses and bacteria. They have a

18 


Poultry 


In the traditional Chinese medicine several plants play an 

important role; under certain conditions their effect can 

substitute oral antibiotics. Photo: Archive 

wide action spectrum against 

tumor cells, viruses, protozoa and 

bacteria (LEONARD,B.C., V.K. 

AFFOLTER,C.L. BEVINS,2012). The 

first antimicrobial peptide was 

found in 1972. Studies showed the 

good inhibition effecttoviruses, 

mushrooms, protozoa and a 

killing effectagainst microbials, 

without genesis of resistances 

(ANDRE,2003). CHEN XIAOSHENG 

(2005) and HUANG ZIRAN (2006) 

replaced antibiotics by antimicrobial 

peptides from the silkworm. 

Theresults were adecrease of 

diseases and an increase of the 

poultry’s growth. 

Today twelve enzyme compounds 

be used in feeds. Their 

whole production is approaches 

100,000 t. Mainly the enzyme 

Phytase is used, because the other 

products aren’t readyfor practice 

yet.One of the negative factors is 

the high price and the low effective 

range. Theage of the animals, the 

kind of enzymes and the method 

of application are influencing 

factors for the effect(CHENG 

GUYUE,HAO HAIHONG,XIE 

SHUYU,WANG XU and YUAN 

ZONGHUI,2014). Thechief virtue 

is the increase of digestibility.In 

this way the multiplying of 

pathogens is inhibited indirectly 

(RAVINDRAN V. and J.H. SON, 2011). 

GU XIANHONG et al. (2000) were 

able to verify,that the daily gain of 

fattening poultry in the age of 0to 

3weeks increased about 25.41% 

when theyadded enzyme compounds 

to the feed. Thedaily gain 

of fattening poultry in the age of 4 

to 6weeks increased about 8.34%. 

In both groups the feed conversion 

ratio could also be increased. 

Although these effects are identified, 

the action of enzyme compounds 

against pathogens isn’t 

known as far.The approval is very 

low at the moment.Thus also for 

this methodit’snecessary to continue 

investigation and proving. 

Conclusion 

Antibiotics are actually one of the 

most important medicines to save 

the health in animal farming systems 

and to content the demand for 

poultry meat and other animal 

source foods. Butany improper 

practice, especially an excessively 

practice in poultry farming, must 

appreciated as critically.Currently no 

alternatives for the use of antibiotics, 

especially to replace the antibiotics, 

are found. Butthe development in 

the modern animal farming systems 

and the requirement of the consumer 

are looking forward to abandonment 

of antibiotics in poultry 

farming. Based on this alternative 

solutions for the use of antibiotics 

are intensively researched in China. 

Thereby hygienic conditions, healing 

plants, probiotics, antimicrobial 

peptides and enzyme agents are the 

focus of several studies. In future at 

first the official norms and legislation 

considering the use of antibiotics 

will be toughened and as well 

as environmental pollution and the 

developing of resistance will be 

stopped. Thetarget is the continuously 

decrease of the use of antibiotics 

in the farming systems. 

References 

The entire bibliography can be requested 

either from the corresponding 

authors or the editors office. 

Author`s addresses 

Prof. Dr.Wang Wei, Professsor and Director 

(corresponding author for inquiries in 

Chinese: wangwei8619@163.com), Hou Bo 

and Ji Lili, Central Laboratory for Meat 

Processing of the Province Sichuan, 

Chengdu University, 610106Chengdu, 

Sichuan, China; Prof. Dr.Friedhelm Jaeger 

(corresponding author for inquiries in 

German: friedhelm.jaeger@mkulnv.nrw.de) 

and Catharina Hölscher, Ministry of the 

Climate Protection, Environment, Agriculture, 

Conservation and Consumer Protection 

of the State of North-Rhine Westphalia 

(Animal Welfare, Animal Health, Veterinary 

Medicines), Schwannstr.3,40476 Düsseldorf, 

Germany 

Food safety 

China: bird flu situation is stable 

Bird flu 

Disease reached Belgium 

China's Ministry of Agriculture said 

the recent outbreaks of bird flu 

have been handled in atimelyand 

effective manner without spreading 

and have not affected chicken 

products or prices. 

In an emailed statement to 

Reuters, the government department 

said the situation in the 

world's second-largest poultry 

consumer was stable. The comments 

come as South Korea and 

In China bird flu shows no impact 

on the poultry market. Photo: 

Nico Lubaczowski /pixelio.de 

neighbouring countries battle 

outbreaks of various strains of the 

highlyvirulent flu. 

China has culled more than 

170,000 birds in four provinces 

since October and closed some 

live poultry markets after people 

and birds were infected by strains 

of the avian flu. The Chinese government 

said it has recorded ten 

cases of poultry being infected 

with the H5N6 strain this year 

compared with eleven last year. 

The ministry, together with 

local agriculture agencies, have 

monitored and investigated poultry 

markets and farms where 

infected people live, it said. It has 

also searched for the source of 

the virus and conducted emergency 

handling for infected poultry, 

as well as urged farmers, 

butchers and traders to step up 

sterilization programmes. 

//www.reuters.com 

Ahighlycontagious strain of bird 

flu that has affected poultry 

farmers in France and Germany 

has now spread to Belgium. This 

was reported by News 24. 

The H5N8 avian virus was identified 

among birds at ahome in 

the Dutch-speaking region of 

Flanders between the cities of 

Brussels and Ghent. "The virus 

that has hit our neighbours in the 

past months has now reached 

Belgium," said Belgian Agriculture 

Minister WillyBorsus. "Professional 

farmers have not been 

affected, but we must be vigilant," 

he added. 

Belgium in November preventivelyimplemented 

confinement 

measures in order to stop an 

epidemic during the bird migratory 

season. Authorities expanded 

them to include private owners of 

poultry and other birds. 

The H5N8 strain can spread 

quicklyinaffected farms, often 

Migrating birds are able to spread 

bird flu. Photo: uschi dreiucker / 

pixelio.de 

leading to the culling of thousands 

of birds. Since October, the 

strain has been detected in 

15 other European countries 

including Britain, France and 

Germany.Hungary has had the 

highest number of outbreaks in 

the past three months, with 

201cases reported in farms and 

four in wild birds. 

//www.news24.com


19 

Nutriad 

Situation of the US poultry industry 

Industry News 

As the US is moving from aturbulent 

2016 into anew year with an 

uncertain political outlook, it is 

important for the poultry industry 

to understand the various scenarios 

that may unfoldinthe near future 

and possiblechanges in global trade 

agreements, currencyexchange 

rates, regulations and overall cost of 

production. Using insights from 

industry experts within the Nutriad 

group and input from external 

consultants, the companyreviews 

several possiblescenarios and 

shares its vision to theyearahead. 

Influenzaoutbreaks throughout the 

Asian countries and the EU will play 

an important role. 

Forecast of the market 

Both broiler and turkey production 

was short in the last quarter of 

2016.Broiler production is expected 

to increase in the first 

quarter of 2017.The forecasts for 

2017 prices were increased slightly 

for broilers and lowered for turkey 

as indicated by the USDA. As of 

January 2017,broilers had aslight 

increase in price, reaching 

87 cents per pound with aforecast 

for the year of 80 to 86 cents per 

pound for the whole bird. The 

turkey production is estimated to 

have an increase of 245 mill. 

pounds on year-ending stock 

increasing previous expectations. 

//www.nutriad.com 

The election of President Donald 

Trump, will most certainlybring 

changes in the overall trade and 

currency panorama. The outlines of 

some of those changes can already 

be seen in his first days in office. The 

US withdrawal from TPP will leave a 

vacuum to be filled by China. This 

nation will assume greater importance 

in Asia and the Pacific Rim. 

However, the U.S. may establish 

bilateral trade deals with Philippines, 

Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand. 

Around one in five is exported 

Close to 18%ofthe total poultry 

production in U.S. is exported, what 

makes the U.S. poultry industry 

extremelysensitive. The renegotiation 

of NAFTAcan also disturb 

current trades with Mexico and 

Canada, and the threat to overtax 

Mexican products in 20%, might 

have adirect effect on bilateral 

trade. In 2015 Mexican poultry 

imports from US reached over $1 bn. 

The devaluation of the Mexican 

Peso versus the USD might benefit 

Mexican imports from South American 

countries over the United 

States. In January 2017,the value 

of the peso fell almost 20% compared 

to January 2016. 

Regulations and welfare 

The reduction in density, having 

smaller scale operations and using 

non-GM ingredients will demand a 

greater need for land and resources, 

consequentlynegatively 

affecting its sustainability.The new 

Veterinary Feed Directive (VFD) 

might also have an impact, as 

companies adjust to the withdrawal 

of antibiotics growth promoters and 

adapt to natural alternatives. Avian

20 


Consumer Research 

Ardi and Willyvan Erp 

with their farm in Sint 

Anthonis are 

ambassadors of the 

image campaign for the 

advertising slogan “We 

are proud if you buy one 

of our chickens”. 

Poultry still as popular as ever 

Dutch per capita consumption of poultry meat remains constant at ahigh level 

Poultry meat consumption now 

accounts for around one third of 

total meat consumption in the 

Netherlands (per capita around 

75 kg). This is due not only to the 

factthat for manypeoplepoultry 

tastes good,that it is easily digestibleand 

can be prepared easily 

in manydifferent ways. The study 

recently presented by the University 

of Wageningen on the development 

of meat consumption in the years 

2005 to 2015 also shows rational 

arguments such as the comparatively 

small CO2 footprint.The 

Association of Dutch Poultry Processing 

Industries (Nepluvi) sees 

the constantly high level of poultry 

meat consumption as confirmation 

of the industry’scommitment to 

sustainability and viability. 

By Gert-Jan Oplaat 

On the basis of the study on 

meat consumption in the 

Netherlands published recently by 

the University of Wageningen 

from Wageningen, the Netherlands, 

Nepluvi can draw agood 

balance for the poultry sector. 

Although meat consumption in 

general has declined in recent 

years, the consumption of poultry 

meat has continued to rise and 

according to thelatest figures has 

remained at the high level of 

2014.Thus theper capita consumption 

of poultry meat in the 

Netherlands reached an impressive 

22.3 kg in 2015 too and is 

accordingly stable against the 

trend. 

Since 2005 total percapita meat 

consumption in general has 

dropped by five kg from 80 kg to 

75 kg. By contrast, especially in the 

years 2005 to 2009, poultry meat 

consumption increased strongly 

and has remained constant at this 

comparatively high level ever 

since. 

Factors influencing 

meat consumption 

Thestudy examines the development 

of meat consumption by the 

Dutch population in the years 

2005 to 2015 under various aspects. 

Differing attitudes to the 

nature and quantity of meat consumption 

can be identified over 

the years. Alongside changes in 

dietary habits targeting ahealthier 

or more balanced lifestyle, factors 

such as sustainability and animal 

welfare are also playing an increasingly 

important role, with their 

relevance and impactalways depending 

on how much meat a 

consumer basically consumes. 

According to theUniversity of 

Wageningen, in the course of recent 

years it has become established in 

society that lower meat consumption 

involves asmaller CO2 footprint.For 

some consumers, the 

quantity of meat consumed is 

directly linked to global warming 

(Wageningen Economic Research 

Nota 2016-097,9,11). 

However,this is not as relevant 

for the poultry meat sectorasit is 

for other types of meat.Here 

poultry meat has an ecological 

advantage over pigmeat and beef 

above all due to the good feed 

conversion ratebythe nature of of 

the animals. Furthermore, by 

using efficient heat recovery and 

heat storage technologies, the 

sectorisreducing energy consumption 

in poultry-keeping 

further.There are already some 

energy-neutral farms in the 

Netherlands. 

Focus on health, welfare 

and sustainability 

Animal welfare and animal health 

also influence the population’s 

attitude to their meat consumption. 

There are things going on in 

the Netherlands in this respect. 

Forexample the broiler sectoris 

the EU-wide pioneer in reducing 

the application of antibiotics. The 

use of these medicaments there 

has dropped by 71% since 2009. It 

is evident from the 2015 annual 

report of the Dutch Animal Health 

Service (Gezondheidsdienst voor 

Dieren, GD) that it has been possible 

to reduce their use substantially 

there within the last seven years. 

This is attributable above all to a 

special antibiotic use plan that has 

been practiced since 2008. 

Thecorresponding measures 

and methods are applied directly on


21 

Consumer Research 

the farms and above all in advisory/extension 

services, documentation 

and monitoring. Accordingly 

the farms receive professional 

support and recommendations 

concerning ways of reducing 

the use of antibiotics. Theuse of 

antibiotics is documented carefully 

by the farm veterinarians and the 

data are transmitted to acentral 

database. 

On the basis of this data pool, the 

experts can categorise the use of 

antibiotics and develop special 

benchmarking. In this way it is 

possible to identify and evaluate 

differences between the use of such 

medicaments between farms or 

regions. 

Good animal health can also be 

promoted via alternative measures, 

for example by modernising 

older animal housing 

facilities and climatecontrol 

measures there. It has also been 

possible to develop helpful benchmarks 

in other upstream stages of 

the chain. Hatcheries and feed 

producers are working on optimising 

their standards for vital dayold 

chicks. 

Sustainability and animal welfare 

are important topics for consumers 

–and the Dutch industry 

is well placed to tackle this issue 

when the Dutch food retailtrade 

starts to sell only meat from sustainable 

production as of the year 

2020 (as the result of adecision 

taken jointly). In consultation with 

the trade, the poultry industry 

adopted asustainability programme 

for this that incorporates 

new criteria for the entire chain, 

such as for example the use of 

slow-growing breeds or smaller 

stocking densities. 

Business with this new programme 

is already running very 

well –long before the scheduled 

date. Theshare of this segment in 

total fresh poultry meat sold in the 

Dutch food retailtrade is already 

over 60%. 

New dietary trends 

According to the study,further 

motives for meat shopping decisions 

are nutrition-related aspects 

that go hand in hand with new 

trends. Forexample, certain population 

groups such as for instance 

the “flexitarians”aim for asustainable 

and healthylifestyle characterised 

by the attitude, “it is better 

to eat less but in return higher 

quality foods”.Especially in the 

Paul Grefte with his farm in 

Hengewelde is ambassador of 

the image campaign for the 

advertising motif “Chicken meat 

has the best CO2 footprint”. 

meat segment,this attitude is 

manifested by purchases in “special 

segments”, such as for example 

organic meat,meat from special 

breeds or from locally known 

suppliers, or “natural seeming 

supplies”. 

TheDutch poultry industry 

fulfils these consumer wishes very 

well, as it has habitually been a 

pioneer in fields that require 

modern and sustainable value 

creation. Always looking for optimisation 

potential, it works on 

structuring the sectorviably with a 

sense of responsibility for humans, 

animals and the environment.With 

new marketing concepts, 

the Dutch poultry industry 

finds large numbers of customers. 

Consumers can choose from a 

broad range of widely differing 

supply formats, from organic via 

conventional right through to 

further intermediatesegments. 

Image campaign 

promotes sales 

Thestudy by the University of 

Wageningen also shows that 

consumers are taking agrowing 

interest in the production and 

nature of foods. This is catered to 

by the new image campaign that 

Nepluvi is conducting in the 

Netherlands. Its purpose is to 

makethe commitment of the 

poultry sectortosustainability as 

well as to animal welfareand 

animal health transparent.The 

task of the campaign is to show 

consumers plausibly how much 

energy the industry continuously 

invests in precisely those aspects 

that are important to them. New 

regulations or rules for greater 

sustainability are very frequently 

the result of farm-based initiatives 

and go beyond the statutory or EU 

regulations. In this way consumers 

can be sure that theycan 

enjoy poultry meat with agood 

conscience. 

Themotifs of the image campaign 

in autumn last year therefore 

show testimonials from the 

Advertisement 

sectorthat grant insights intotheir 

animal housing facilities and work 

by way of example. Theslogan, 

“we do our best to become even 

better”represents the commitment 

which poultry keepers have 

taken on vis-à-vis the public. The 

rebuilding image campaign focuses 

above all on three important 

areas in which the sectorisworking 

intensively and in which essential 

developments and innovations 

are expectedincoming 

years: “Het RobuusteKuiken” 

(“The robust chick”), “In en Om 

de Stal” (“In and around the hen- 

house”) and “Veelzijdigheid” 

(versatility). TheDutch poultry 

sectorand its committed stakeholders 

at all stages along the 

chain are continuously engaged in 

this. 

One of the targets in the sector 

is to produce astrong and resilient 

chick resulting from intensive 

cooperation between breeding 

farms, hatcheries and supplier 

firms. Other aims are to implement 

energy-saving systems and 

new housing concepts, and to 

examine factors that have positive 

effects on food safety,animal 

welfare, the local surroundings 

and the environment.Furthermore, 

all initiatives that allow 

greater versatility of chicken supplies 

and meet the altered demands 

imposed by society are to 

be promoted. 

Thepositive demand for poultry 

meat also shows that the sectorisa 

highly valued trading partner for 

the high-quality meat products. 

Theproduction figures in the 

Dutch poultry sectorgrew by 

seven percent in 2015 by comparison 

with 2014.The share of 

chicken meat in the total volume 

of poultry meat (1,057,000 t) is 

1,009,000 t.Thesource data were 

processed through Nepluvi on the 

basis of data from its members. 

These are responsible, among 

other things, for 99% of poultry 

slaughtering operations and more 

than 85% of production in cutting 

plants. 

Gert-Jan Oplaat 

took over the presidency of 

Nepluvi at the beginning of 

2015.Hepossesses the 

necessary many years of 

experience for the post, acquired both in 

practice and in senior executive functions in 

important sector organisations and politics. 

From 1998 to 2006 he was amember of the 

Dutch Parliament. Before taking on the 

Nepluvi presidency, he was Chairman of the 

Dutch Union of Poultry Breeders (NVP). 

Author’s address 

Gert-Jan Oplaat, Kokermolen 11, 

3994 DG Houten, The Netherlands.

22 


Packaging 

Appetizing solutions for poultry products 

Modern technologies and materials lead to high quality and product safety 

Whether chicken, turkey,duck or 

goose –today’skitchen not only 

values poultry meat for its versatile 

flavours, but also because it provides 

biologically important protein 

and contains less fat and therefore 

fewer calories than other meats. 

This is whypoultry has become 

extremely appreciated by consumers, 

as can be seenfrom its 

ever-growing share in the global 

meat consumption in recent years. 

Those who want to convince the 

increasingly demanding consumer 

of their poultry products need to 

satisfy in terms of quality and 

freshness. Modern packaging 

solutions assist in protecting these 

sensitive products, whileextending 

their shelf life. By adding special 

features, poultry packaging is able 

to stand out from the crowd, 

especially in the fast-growing 

segment of snacks. 

The skin pack is easy to open. 

vacuum packaging system, such 

products are hermetically sealed 

inside the tray with ahighly transparent 

barrier film that fits the 

contours of the productlikea 

second skin. As the contents in the 

tray are securely held, the product 

is closely surrounded by its marinade, 

allowing it to fully develop 

its flavour. 

When it comes to ready meals, 

poultry is in demand as well. Here, 

aspecial version of the TraySkin 

solution was developed. By using 

ovenable skin film to securely seal 

the productinside the aluminium 

or CPET tray,the productcan be 

heated directly inside its packaging 

in the oven. Theresult is juicy 

chicken. TheTraySkin packaging 

system allows for an extremely 

hygienic cooking process, as the 

consumer does not have to touch 

the raw product. 

By Marcel Veenstra 

Poultry manufacturers continuously 

have to adapt to the 

changing habits of consumers. 

In modern life, fast and easy-toprepare 

meals are in strong 

demand. Furthermore, out-ofhome 

consumption is constantly 

increasing, thereby creating a 

need for snacks and convenience 

foods. At thesametime, consumers 

are asking for more 

variety and quality.This is why 

the industry relies on specialists 

to developfunctional packaging 

solutions that allow for an appetizing 

productpresentation. 

Production safety with maximum 

shelf life are important 

items in this context.For avariety 

of poultry products, Sealpac 

offers solutions. 

TraySkin provides 

taste to marinated 

poultry 

Pre-marinated poultry delicacies 

are in high demand. Sealpac’s 

newly developed TraySkin system 

is suited to enhance the tasteof 

marinated, ready-to-grill poultry 

products. By means of this special 

TraySkin xplus for 

whole birds 

Fresh poultry –especially largesized 

turkey –inthe shapeof 

whole birds has always been a 

challenge when it comes to packaging. 

TraySkin xplus allows 

vacuum skin packaging of bulky 

products. These are loaded onto 

pre-formed trays and reliably 

sealed, even if protruding up to 90 

mm above the tray edge. The 

system allows the use of extremely 

flat trays that provide stability to 

the protruding productduring the 

entire skin packaging process. The 

tight-fitting, transparent skin film 

provides full view of the product. 

To ensure that the packaging is not 

damaged due to the shapeorsharp 

parts (e.g. bones) of the bird, skin 

film in different thicknesses and 

properties is available to match the 

application. 

Within the snacking segment, 

more and more manufacturers 

turn to portion-packaging in 

multi-compartment trays. These 

packs allow for multiple portions 

of the same snack or amix of 

different snacks with extras. Due 

to the perforation, each compartment 

can easily be pulled off from 

the others without the use of hand 

tools. Sealing of the tray can be


23 

Packaging 

done in different ways: either one 

seals the individual cavities all 

together or every compartment 

separately.Thispreserves the taste 

of each individual component,for 

example nuggets and dip, and 

prevents cross-contamination. It 

also provides new opportunities 

for productmixtures. 

EasyPeelPoint allows 

for easy opening 

Fancyaquick snack, but no knife 

nearby? Anyone who wants to 

enjoy asnack on the go relies on 

secure packaging that is easy to 

open without tools. EasyPeelPoint 

became the answer,which has 

proven to be extremely beneficial 

to snack packaging. With this 

revolutionary easy opening 

method, the peel corner is integrated 

within the sealing contours 

of the pack. Thecorner of the top 

film is pressed intoaround cavity 

and releases from the sealing 

edge. With the resulting easy-togrip 

peel tab, the topfilmisremoved 

from the pack with minimum 

force. By using re-closable 

film, even more convenience is 

provided. Individual products are 

easily removed, while the remaining 

products are freshly held 

inside their packaging in the 

refrigerator without loss of quality. 

When it comes to poultry products 

in bulk, extended shelf life 

and optimal productpreservation 

strongly determine the choice of 

packaging. Quiteoften, costefficient 

packaging systems are in 

demand. Thermoforming technology 

is perfectly suited for BBQ 

products in large volumes. As the 

poultry is completely surrounded 

by its marinade, it is able to fully 

develop its flavour and tenderness. 

Modern film properties 

allow for even more convenience. 

Among manufacturers that offer 

bulk packaging, the so-called 

‘cook-in film’, which allows the 

poultry products to be heated 

inside their packaging, has become 

more popular –anideal 

solution for catering and food 

services. 

Author’s Address 

The film allows for 

Marcel Veenstra 

is Marketing &Communications 

Manager at Sealpac 

International. 

Marcel Veenstra, Langekamp 2, NL-3848 DX 

Harderwijk, The Netherlands. 

no-touch cooking in the 

traditional oven.

24 


Machinery 

Sustainability in focus 

Multi-purpose equipment allows the processing of secondary meat raw materials 

Universal multi-purpose equipment 

for processing secondary 

meat raw materials has been 

designed, manufactured and 

utilized under production conditions 

of meat packing plants. It 

includes apower grinder,afat 

separator and afat melting machine. 

The usage of this equipment 

provides the intensification 

of technological processes, increases 

the yieldand quality of 

finished products for food,fodder 

and technical purposes and contributes 

to environmental protection. 

By Mikhail L’vovitch 

Faivishevsky 

Asaresult of slaughter and 

cutting of farm animal carcasses 

at meat industry enterprises 

producers get basic and 

secondary raw meat materials. 

Rawmeat by-products include 

blood,bones, hair and mucous 

offals, raw fat,guts, leather and 

horn-and-hoof by-products, endocrine 

enzymatic and special raw 

materials, inedible offals and the 

contents of cattle and small cattle 

proventriculus .Depending on the 

typeofslaughter animals and 

their fatness, the amount of secondary 

meat raw materials is a 

significant value of up to 60% 

during processing of cattle and up 

to 40% in processing of pigs 

(Fig. 1).Therefore, processing and 

use of such raw materials is essential 

both in terms of the volume of 

manufactured useful products, 

and thecost of the main product– 

meat.Naturally, the variety of 

morphological andchemical 

composition of secondary meat 

raw materials determines the use 

of different types of technological 

equipment for itsprocessing. In 

this regard, thedesign of machines 

and apparatuses, which 

would possess universal possibilities 

for use as part of technological 

lines andplants, regardless of the 

specific properties of the initial 

raw material (liquid, solid,fleshy) 

is important.The availability of 

such equipment allows to reduce 

costs, compared with the equipment 

intended only for aspecific 

Fig. 1: During processing of slaughter animals the amount of secondary meat raw materials is asignificant value. 

typeofraw materials. Some 

progress in this respectwas 

achieved at the V.M. Gorbatov 

All-Russian Meat Research Institute. 

The organization of processing 

of inedible wastes at medium- and 

low-power meat packing plants, 

located at great distances from 

each other,did not allow to create 

aspecializedproduction, which 

could be supplied with raw materials 

from individual enterprises. 

Theactual conditions demanded 

the organization of theiruse and 

processing at those enterprises, 

where the cattle slaughter was 

carried out.Inthis connection, 

meat packing plants had to 

process these raw materials. For 

this purposes technologieswere 

developed and machines and 

lines were manufactured allowing 

to getmeat-and-bone meal and 

technicalfat from various kinds of 

inedible wastes. Thecircumstances 

demanded to design a 

universal machine for grinding all 

kinds of inedible offals of animal 

origin: fleshy(meat), meat-andbone 

and bones, too. 

Apower grinder for meat 

and bone raw material 

Forthese purposes, the power 

grinder typeZh9-FIS was developed. 

It consists of abodywith 

fixed knives, cuttershaft,hopper, 

frame, electricmotor,reducer, 

coupling, protective casings 

(Fig. 2). On the steelframe abody, 

reducer and electricmotor are 

mounted. In the grooves of the 

cast ironbodyfour rows of fixed 

knives on axes aremounted, 

which are pressed with overhead 

covers to the slots.Tothe endsof 

the body,with the helpofabolt 

connection, flanges aremounted, 

in the recess of which cutter shaft 

bearings are installed. From the 

one end of thebody, the shaft is 

closed with ablank cover havinga 

central opening with athread for 

the dismounting bolt.From the 

other end, the shaft passes 

through the central opening of the 

cover and is connectedbythe 

coupling with the reducer shaft. 

Inside the body, in the loading 

part,ahard-wearing metal plateis 

installed, the teeth of which are 

directedagainst the direction of 

rotation of the cutter shaft.Above 

the loading part of the body a 

removable welded hopper is installed. 

Forinspection and cleaning 

of the working space alid is 

available. Themotion from the 

electric motorthrough the reducer 

and the V-belt transmission is 

transferred to the cutter shaft.The 

reducer pulleyissimultaneously a 

flywheel ensuring smooth operation 

in case of overloads in the 

working zoneofthe body.The 

coupling and the V-belt transmission 

are closed by ahousing. 

Themachine operates as follows: 

Theraw material is charged 

intothe hopper,from where it is 

captured by the moving knives 

arranged on the shaft along the 

helical line, and moves through 

the working zone to the discharge 

outlet thanks to the helical set 

pattern and bevels on each of 

them. When moving the raw 

material through the working 

zone of the cutter mechanism, it is 

grounded. From the discharge 

outlet the chopped raw material is 

fed to further technological processing. 

Table 1presents the tech-

............................... 

....................................................... 


25 

Machinery 

nicalcharacteristics of the power 

grinder type Zh9-FIS. 

Afat separator for 

dehydration and degreasing 

Afundamentally newtypeof 

equipmentfor heat treatment of 

the groundsecondary meat raw 

materials of universal application 

is afat separator.Inthe developed 

technological process the dry heat 

treatment methodthateliminates 

thecontactofthe processed raw 

materials with the heat carrier 

(steam or hotwater) was used. 

This method of heatingisutilized 

with the aimtoeliminateorminimize 

the formation of broth containing 

soluble protein substances 

and emulsified fat. In some cases 

this brothbecomes the main 

component of industrial wastewater,whatcauses 

great environmental 

damage. 

Thefat separatortypeYa8-FLK-3 

is ascrew machine (Fig. 3). It 

consists of abodyprovided with a 

steam jacket.Inacut thebottom 

of thisismade in the shapeofa 

semicircle. Inside it,along the 

body on bearings, ahollow screw 

shaft is mounted, under the action 

of which the groundedraw material 

is moved to adischarge nozzle. 

Thescrew shaft is rotated counterclockwise 

from the side of the 

loading hopper.Steam with the 

pressure of 0.3 to 0.4 MPais 

supplied in the jacket andthe 

hollow screw shaft.From the 

outside the steam jacket is thermally 

insulated. To drain the juice 

steam, there is apipeonthe cover 

of the device, to which avent 

pipe-line is attached. Thescrew 

shaft is rotated by an individual 

electric motor through the V-belt 

transmission andawormgear 

located at the upper end ofthe 

shaft. 

Through thelower end steam is 

fed to the screw shaft,and condensateisdischarged. 

To the 

jacket thesteam is fedthrough a 

collector in the upperpart of the 

device, andthe condensateexits 

through anozzlelocated in the 

bottom. Aspecial feature of the 

device is the availability of perforation 

in the lower part of the 

body, through which themelted 

fat and coagulated moistureare 

removed fromit. To cleanthe 

perforation,acomb fixed to the 

rotating shaft in the bearings is 

available.Atthe end of the shaft 

there is alever with aroller interacting 

with the cylindrical cam, 

which is fixed to the screwshaft. 

Thecam has acutout in the shape 

of atriangle, thesmallcathetus of 

which is arrangedradially.Atthe 

end of the lever acounterweightis 

suspended. 

Thecleaning mechanism works 

as follows: During the rotation of 

the screw shaft,the cam mounted 

on it removesthe combwith the 

pins down, opening the perforation 

holes.When theroller 

reaches the cut-out in the cam, the 

counterweight sharply submits 

the comb up,the pins enterthe 

holes and clean them. 

As aresult of conductiveheating 

by the dry method, the fat 

contained in the raw material is 

melted and fl 

ows downintothe 

lower part of the device installed 

at an angle of 12 °tothe horizon. 

Duringprocessing the coagulation 

of raw meat proteins, which 

is accompanied by release of 

moisture, takes place. It is partly 

removed from the device through 

the perforation, aswellasby 

Tab. 1: Technical characteristics of the power grinder type 

Zh9-FISU 

Capacity, kg/h 2000 

Maximum size of loaded raw material, mm 

350x350x480 

Size of pieces after grinding, mm up to 50 

Cutter shaft rotational speed, s -1 0.7 

Electric motor power, kW 13 

Overall dimensions, mm 

Mass, kg 1293 

2065x1505x1085 

Source: FAIVISHEVSKY FLEISCHWIRTSCHAFT international 1_2017 


Fig. 2: Power grinder Zh9-FIS: 1–frame 2–protective casing 3–body 4–hopper 

5–V-belt drive 6–reducer 7–coupling 8–plate 9–cover 10–overhead covers 

11–movable knife 12–electric motor. 

Advertisement 

evaporation. Thevapors arewithdrawn 

from the devicethrough a 

nozzle inthe cap. Table 2presents 

the technical characteristics ofthe 

fatseparator typeYa8-FLK-3. 

This machineissuitable for the 

processing all kinds of secondary 

meat raw materials, except horn 

and hoof materials, including 

bones andblood after preliminary 

coagulation. Itsuse allows to 

carry out thetechnological 

process shortly and in acontinuous 

stream. It therefore found 

application inacontinuouslyoperating 

meat- andbone-meal 

production line. It allows complex 

processing of the bone andbone 

residues obtained aftermechanical 

deboningofbones by the 

pressingmethod, to produce 

high-quality edible bone fat and 

biologically valuable feed meal. 

This device alsopositively proved 

for the processing the fl 

esh of 

edible by-products for thesubsequent 

useinproduction of pates 

and liver sausages. Moderate 

temperature heating of the processed 

rawmaterials to 85 to 

90 °C during 11 to 20 min allows 

inactivation of vegetative microfl 

ora, butisnot sufficientfor 

the destruction of pathogenic 

microfl 

ora. Therefore the processing 

of inedible wastes for 

production of meat-and-bone 

meal may be carriedout only with 

the guaranteethat theyare derived 

from healthy animals. Otherwise 

the rawmaterials processed 

inthis machine must 

undergo additional heat treatment 

at atemperature of above 100 °C 

to ensurethe sterilization of the 

processed material. When using 

the bones and blood of healthy 

animals, the application of this 

machine guarantees sanitary 

welfare of the final food products. 

This machineissuccessfully 

operated at enterprisesinRussia

......................................... 

................................. 

26 


Machinery 

Sustainability in focus 


Fig. 3: Fatseparator Ya8-FLK-3: 1–charging hopper 2–cover 3–screw 4–pipe for juice steam 5–body 6–pipe for steam supplyintojacket7–electric motor 8–V-belt drive 

9–reducer 10–discharge hatch 11–tray 12–condensate pipe 13–cleaning mechanism 14–pipe for steam supplyintoscrew. 

and CIS countries: Thelinefor 

complex bone processingtype 

Ya8-FLK (authors SINITSYN,K.D., 

LIBERMAN,S.G., PETROVSKY,V.P. 

and FAIVISHEVSKY,M.L.), the line 

forproduction of meat-and-bone 

meal typeK7-FKE (authors SINIT- 

SYN,K.D., LIBERMAN,S.G., PETRO- 

VSKY,V.P., GRINBERG,T.D., 

RAZGULYAEV,V.F.and KARNET, 

N.S.)and the installation for production 

of liver sausage (authors 

LIBERMAN,S.G., MOROZOV,V.I., et 

al.). 

The fat melting machine is 

designed for heat treatment 

Among the continuously operating 

machines of versatile use is 

the fat melting machine typ Ya8- 

FIB (authors FAIVISHEVSKY,M.L. 

and KUZMENKO,N.P.) (Fig. 4). 

It consists of aframe on which 

an electric motor is fixed. On its 

fl 

ange abodyofwelded construction 

is located, which has asteam 

jacket along the radial perimeter 

andisequipped with asealing 

device along the rotor hub,aswell 

as acutouttotighten the nut of 

this device. 

In the bodyare mounted a 

movable knife and arotor of 

weldedstructure, consisting of a 

hub with around disk, to which 

twoperforated cylinders of different 

sizes with holes of alargeand 

asmall diameter are welded .To 

the cylinders areradiallywelded 

small blades to replace the raw 

materialand impart it centrifugal 

motion. Thecylinders by their 

edges enter thecircular grooves in 

the cover,which is attached to the 

Tab. 2: Technical characteristics of the fat separator type 

Ya8-FLK-3 

Capacity, kg/h 250 

Screw step, mm 75 

Pen height, mm 55 

Screw rotation speed, s -1 0.06 

Installed power, kW 1.5 

Overall dimensions (without frame), 

mm 

Mass, kg 1000 

6000x1000x1100 


body with quickly removable 

grippers. Aparonitegasket is put 

between them for sealing.Onthe 

cover are mounted twofixed 

knives, equippedwith arotary 

device. Onthe bodythere is apipe 

to feedsteam to the machine. To 

the body cover an elbowwith a 

pipeorahopper is attached. 

Theengine and the machine 

bodyhaveasheet metalguard 

attached to the bodybybolts. The 

machine is equipped with acontrol 

cabinet. 

Theoperating principle of the 

machineisasfollows: Under 

pressurecoarsely grounded raw 

fatisfed to the machine from the 

grinder. Theraw fat particles are 

furthergroundedbythe movable 

knife and thrown to the wallsof 

the internal cylindrical surface of 

the rotor. Under the action of 

centrifugalforces the particles 

are pressed through therotor 

holes and trimmed by the fixed 

knife. Further the particlesare 

thrown to the external cylindrical 

surface of therotor with smaller 

holes, pressed through these 

holesand trimmed by the second 

fixed knife. In theprocess of 

grinding the raw fat particles are 

exposedtothelivesteam, the 

fl 

ow of which coincides with the 

directionoftheir movement,as 

well as countercurrently,what 

provides complete fat melting. 

With the bladeslocated on the 

external wallofthe rotor, the 

mixture of melted fat,condensate 

and cracklings(dross)through 

the pipe under pressure is removed 

from the machineand fed 

to the further processing. Table 3 

presents the technical characteristicsofthe 

fat meltingmachine 

typeYa8-FIB. 

Themainadvantages of this 

machine are the following: reliability 

in operation, possibility of 

mechanized loading, highdegree 

of fat extraction due to reduction 

of itscontent in cracklings, possibility 

of fl 

esh-side fat processing 

in acontinuous fl 

ow,high qualitative 

indicators of obtained melted 

animal fats, transportation of fat 

masses by apipeline over long 

distances. Thelatterfactisvery 

important,ifthe ground for raw 

fat processing is in theroom, 

remote from theslaughter shop 

and its transportation on trucks 

and supply forgrindingare required. 

Practice has shown that 

this is achieved due to processing 

of the raw fat on this machine, 

installedinthe slaughter shop. 

Thereby the obtained fat mass is 

transported by the pipeline to the 

fat area for furtherprocessing 

without the useoflabor-intensive 

transport operations. 

When using machine type 

Ya8-FIB, the fatextraction degree 

reaches 99% of its content in the 

raw fat, whereas in plants the 

machine typeTsentrifl 

ou designed 

by Alfa Laval it is 98% 

from the same rawmaterial. 

Theundoubted advantage of

................... 

........................................ 


27 

Machinery 


Fig. 4: Fat melting machine Ya8-FIB: 1–body 2–rotor 3–hopper 4–steam chamber 

5, 16–melting chamber 6–movable knife 7, 21–fixed knife 8–blade 9, 15–steam 

supplypipe 10–pipe for drainage of fat-protein suspension 11,20–holes for 

steam 12–electric motor 13–frame 14–cover 17–inner perforated cylindrical 

surface of rotor 18–rotor base 19–steam collector. 

this machine is the possibility and 

efficiencyofits application for 

processing of other types of secondary 

meatraw materials in 

production of meat and bone 

meal. In this case after pre-grinding 

in achopper the non-food 

fl 

eshyraw materials are fed into 

the machine, where they are 

subjectedtoconsecutive double 

grinding. Herewith, due to a 

contactwith the livesteam,fat 

melting, denaturation of protein 

substances and exudation of the 

coagulation moisture takeplace. 

Then the obtained fat massis 

forwarded under pressure, without 

apump, to the receiving hopper, 

and from it to the continuousaction 

settling-typecentrifuge. 

Tab. 3: Technical characteristics of the fat melting machine 

type Ya8-FIB 

Productivity on raw fat, kg/h: 

- beef 1500 

- pork 2000 

- flesh-side 800 

Installed power, kW 15 

Consumption: 

-steam, kg/h 100 

-water on sanitization, m 3 /h 0.065 

Occupied area, m 2 0.9 

Overall dimensions, mm 

1300x700x800 

Mass, kg 300 


Thus,fractionation of the fat mass 

intotwo fractions takes place: 

liquid (oil andcoagulation moisture) 

and solid (defatted cracklings). 

Thecracklings are then 

subjectedtosterilization and 

drying, together with or without 

the bones, and then are grounded 

into meal. 

This technology guarantees the 

production of high-quality biologically 

valuable meat- and bonemeal, 

corresponding by its parameters 

to the first grade meat- and 

bone-meal in accordance with the 

requirements of the standard for 

this type of products. Besidesit, 

the methodallowes to intensify 

the process, as the duration of stay 

of the raw materials in the machine 

is limited to 15 s. In addition, 

its usage canimprove the 

yield and quality of the technical 

and feedfat minimizing environmentalpollution. 

Along with this, thefat melting 

machine typeYa8-FIB allows to 

significantly intensify theprocess 

of treatment of technical blood 

from slaughter animals to obtain a 

dry soluble protein product– 

black technical albumin. Technical 

blood is called the blood of the 

slaughter animal, which is not 

collectedasedible. Besidesit, 

from the total amount of the blood 

of slaughter animals (cattle and 

pigs),itispossible to collectabout 

50% as edible. Theremaining 

amount goes to the gutter andis 

used to produce fodder and technical 

products. This blood coagulates 

in the process of collection 

and accumulation. Therefore, for 

the organization of its further use 

to produce an instant dry product 

in accordance with the developed 

technology, it is ground and then 

subjectedtopercolation. As a 

result,fibrin, which servesasraw 

material for production of edible 

meal, is separated. Theremaining 

defibrinated blood is subjectedto 

drying in spray-type dryers, resulting 

in asoluble powdered product 

–black technical albumin. 

Theuse of the machine type 

Ya8-FIBinthis technological 

process allows to eliminatethe 

stage of fibrin percolation. In this 

case, allcoagulated blood is directed 

to thismachine,where it 

undergoesfine grinding.The 

obtained suspension is feddirectly 

intothe dryer.Thisnot only 

significantly reduces the labor 

content, intensifies thetechnological 

process, implements it in a 

continuous stream, but also increases 

the yield of the final productbyanaverage 

of 2% compared 

with the traditional technology 

due to the use of the finegrounded 

fibrin. Application of 

the above machine forthese purposes 

requires to install arotor 

with holes of asmaller diameter 

instead of the existingone. 

Themachine type Ya8-FIB 

proved good for grinding andheat 

treatment of fl 

esh (boneless) 

by-products used for the manufacture 

of liver sausages, pates and 

brawns (headcheeses). 

Conclusion 

Thedesign of the multi-purpose 

equipment has significantly reduced 

costs compared with the 

development andmanufacture of 

machines and devices for processing 

of certain types of secondary 

meat rawmaterials, which led to 

their widespread introduction at 

meat packing plants. 

References 

1. Faivishevsky, M.L. (1988): Processing 

of blood from slaughter animals. 

Agropromizdat, 222 pp. –2.Faivishevsky, 

M.L. (1989): Manufacture of 

dry animal feeds, fodder and technical 

fats. Agropromizdat, 189pp. – 

3. Faivishevsky, M.L. (1995): Manufacture 

of edible animal fats. Antikva, 379 

pp. –4.Meat and fat production. 

Slaughter of animals, processing of 

carcasses and secondary raw materials. 

Edited by Lisitsyn, A.B., VNIIMP, 

2007, 384 pp. –5.Processing and 

utilization of secondary raw material 

resources of the meat industry and 

environmental protection. Directory 

edited by Lisitsyn, A.B., VNIIMP, 2000, 

405 pp. 

Mikhail 

L’vovitch 

Faivishevsky 

is Doctor of Technical 

Sciences (Dr.Sci.), 

professor, and corresponding member of 

the Russian Academy of Engineering. He is 

author of 515 scientific publications, 

including 14 monographs and lives and 

works in Israel. 

Author's address 

Prof. Dr.Sci. M.L. Faivishevsky, Daphna str, 

58, apartment 4Kiriat Byalik, Israel 

2722201.

............................................... 

28 


Ingredients 

Microorganisms may exert health benefits 

Fermented meat products are suitable carriers of probiotics 

Probiotics are live microorganisms exerting 

health benefits upon consumption in an adequateamount 

on aregular basis. Meat provides 

an excellent medium for growth and carrying of 

probiotics that leads to improvement in functional 

value, beneficial effectonhealth and 

organoleptic properties. Dry sausages are most 

appropriatefor carrying probiotics due to processing 

these sausages at alow temperature. 

The ever-increasing growing demand of meat 

products with probiotics provides an open arena 

with lots of opportunities for the meat industry. 

By PramodK.Singh,Pavan Kumar, 

Akilesh K. Verma and RajeevRanjan 

The term probiotics is originated from the 

Greek word meaning “for life”and was first 

used by LILLY and STILLWELL (1965) as antagonist 

to antibiotics observing that microbial secretions 

stimulating the growth of other microorganisms 

(SHARMA et al., 2012). Theconcept of probiotics 

was first postulated by the Russian scientist Elie 

METCHNIKOFF in 1907 by attributing good health 

and longetivity of Bulgarian and Asian farmers to 

consumption of afermented milk productnamed 

yoghurt containing lactic acid bacteria (LAB). 

These LAB bacteria replace harmful bacteria in 

the gut by competitive exclusion and maintain 

gut health. 

According to WHO/FAO (WorldHealth Organization/ 

Food andAgricultural Organization, 

2006) probiotics are live microorganisms which 

exert health benefits to thehost when ingested in 

Source:SINGH et al. FLEISCHWIRTSCHAFT international 1_2017 

Fig. 1: Probiotics have to fit to alot of desired properties. 

Fermented sausages are available in lots of different compositions and shapes. 

Photo: Alexandra Bucurescu /pixelio.de 

adequatelevels in live (Fig. 1).Thus considering 

various antimicrobial activities of enzymes and 

hostile environment of stomach, these should be 

consumed in large quantities (10 6 to 10 8 pergof 

food)toensure presence of sufficient numbers 

of these organisms in live status in intestine 

(Tab). 

Probiotics should be homogenously distributed 

in the food matrix and the bacterial culture should 

be properly tested for health claims, quality,safety, 

efficacyand effectiveness both in-vivo (laboratory 

trials) and in-vitro (live animal) (Fig. 2). 

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) (Fig. 3)constituteto 

be the most commonly used probiotics in the 

food industry owing to their characteristic properties 

as rapid multiplication, acid and bile tolerance, 

good acidifying properties, adhesion to the 

intestine wall and associated nutritive and therapeutic 

health benefits to the host.These bacteria 

are facultative anaerobes and easily replace harmful 

pathogenic bacteria of the gut.However,a 

non-pathogenic strain of Escherichia coli isolated 

from the feces of First World Warsoldier,who did 

not develop enterocolitis during severe outbreak 

of shigellosis, was also developed as first non- 

LAB probiotics by Alfred NISSLE in 1907.Later 

Bifidobacterium was isolated from an infant by 

Henry TISSIER and developed as probiotic. Even 

today,LAB and Bifidobacterium are the most 

commonly used bacterial cultures as probiotics in 

the food industry.Among LAB, L. casei Shirota , 

L. johnsonni La1, L. plantarum 299V, L. rhamnosus 

LB 21, L. reuteri SD 2112, L. casei Imunitass, 

L. casei F19 and L. rhamnosus GG strains are 

commonly used as probiotics. 

B. animalis subsp. lactis Bb 12, B. animalis 

subsp. Bifidus Actiregularis , B. beve Yakult,VSL 

#3(8 strains) and B. longum BB 536 are commonly 

used Bfidobacterium strains (Fig. 4) used 

in probiotics. E. coli Nissle 1917, Saccharomyces

............................................ 

30 


Ingredients 


Source: Singh et al. FLEISCHWIRTSCHAFT international 1_2017 

Fig. 2: Many parameters influence survival and challenges of probiotics. 

boulardii, Lactococcus, Enterococcus , Saccharomyces 

and Propionibacterium are also available 

probiotics for use in food products. 

Fermented meat products 

as carrier of probiotics 

Fermentation of meat and meat products is considered 

as avery old and economical process used 

for enhancing the nutritional value (increase 

availability of vitamins and essential amino acids, 

solubility,lowering anti-nutritional factors etc.), 

organoleptic properties (taste, fl 

avor,color,tenderness, 

sliceability etc.) as well as improving the 

keeping quality (acidification, lowering water 

activity,secretion of antimicrobial peptides etc.) 

(KUMAR et al., 2015). Asudden outburst in the 

development of fermented meat products were 

noticed during the Second World War. At present 

Fig. 3: Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) avery often 

used in the food industry. 

these fermented meat products especially 

sausages are very popular in Europeand account 

nearly 3to5%ofthe total meat consumed 

(HUTKINS,2006) constituting 20 to 40%ofthe 

processed meat products (HAMM et al., 2008). 

Amongst all fermented meat products, sausages 

are very popular and there are lots of varieties of 

sausages available. As perone estimate, around 

350 different types of fermented sausages are 

available in Germany. Previously amixture of 

native microfl 

ora was used for meat fermentation. 

Thedrawback of this methodwas along ripening 

periodand an inconsistent quality of the end 

product. With the introduction of commercial 

starter culture consisting defined microfl 

ora, the 

concern of time and quality has been solved to a 

greater extent.In1995,NIVEN et al. (1995) used 

Pediococcus cerevisae cultures for meat fermentation. 

Currently,homofermentative Lactobacilli 

spp. and Pediococcus acidilacti , P. pentosaceus , 

Gram positive catalase positive cocci, non pathogenic 

coagulase negative Staphylococcus xylosus 

and S. carosus are commonly employed for fermentation 

by meat industry (LUCKE,1998; KUMAR 

et al., 2015). 

Fermentation of meat is done by adding starter 

culture or by adding bacteria from previous batch 

(backslopping) (Fig. 5). However in some cases, 

accidental inoculation of meat has also been 

responsible for the fermentation of meat products. 

These bacteria lead to necessary biochemical 

changes and incompletely oxidize the organic 

substrateespecially carbohydrates intoacids, 

gases and alcohol in the absence of oxygen. Based 

on acidity developed during maturation/ripening, 

fermented meat products have been grouped into 

following twocategories: low acid fermented meat 

products and high acid fermented meat products. 

Fermented sausages are very common fermented 

meat products. These are one of the oldest and 

most popular processed meat products owing to 

variety,unique fl 

avor,nutritive value, convenience 

etc. Theterm sausage derived from the latin word 

“salsus” meaning salt.The description of sausage 

making and consumption have also been reported 

in the ancient Babylonian and Chinese civilization 

around 1500 BC and even described in the famous 

classic Odyssey. Thepreparation of sausages is 

done by chopping emulsified frozen meat,animal 

fat,curing salts, spices, seasoning ingredients and 

sugar (substratefor getting desired level of acidity). 

Starter cultures or live microbial cells from 

previous batch (backslopping) or probiotics are 

added to thesausagemix and refrigerated to 

establish the culture. This raw sausage mix is 

stuffed intocasings and put for ripening in a 

chamber under controlled time, temperature and 

humidity,for facilitating the desired levels of 

fermentation. Based on processing parameters 

and composition, fermented sausages can be 

categorised intodry sausage, semi-dry sausage 

and moist/ undried/ spreadable sausage. The 

temperature, salt concentration and duration of 

ripening depends upon the strain of bacteria as 

Lactobacillus plantarum shows optimum growth 

between 30 to 35 °C, whereas Pediococcus acidilacici 

at more than 40 °C. Lactobacillus sakei and 

Lactobacillus curvatus can multiply even at further 

low temperature. Theoverall acidification 

depends upon rateand action, strain, typeof 

meat,ripening temperature, diameter of the 

sausage and water activity of the meat. 

Premium dry sausages such as Salami, Mortadella, 

Geneo, Pepperoni and Cervelat etc. are 

prepared without cooking and only by drying at 

comparatively lower temperature for about 

90 days (PEARSON and GILLET,1997). They are 

sometimes mildly smoked. Thedrying is very 

critical step as such along periodofdrying makes 

these sausages more vulnerable for microbial and 

chemical degradation. Thedrying is done at 15 to 

35 °C with an air velocity of 15 to 20 cycle per 

hour.During ripening and drying, up to 25 to 

30% weight loss occurs with 0.5 to 1% lactic acid 

acidity,apH value between 4.8 to 5.3, amoisture- 

:protein ratio (M:P ratio) less than 2.3:1and a 

moisture content less than 35% ranging between 

25 and 50%. Thepreparation of semi-dry sausage 

such as Thuringer,SummerSausage and Cervelat,iscompleted 

within 7to30days of heat drying 

and maturation and can be packaged before 

or after fermentation. As compared to dry 

sausages, these sausages owe asharp tangy taste 

attributed to the high acidity (0.5 to 1.3% lactic 

acid acidity with pH 4.7to5.3). Thesalt,moisture 

and moisture:protein ration of these sausages 

range 3.5%, 30 to 50%, and 2.3 to 3.7, respectively. 

This high salt,low moisture and acid environment 

prolongs the shelf life of these sausages 

(PEARSON and GILLET,1997). 

Probioticmeat products 

Meat products containing beneficial live bacteria 

in sufficient amount have been referred as probiotic 

meat products. Initially probiotic meat products 

were developed in Germanyand Japan 

respectively by using human intestinal LAB


31 

Ingredients 

isolates. Salami incorporated three human intestinal 

LAB isolates owing probiotic properties 

viz. Lactobacillus acidophilus , Lactobacillus casei 

andBifidobacterium spp. was developed in 1998 

in Germanyand in 1999, fermented meat spread 

containing live probiotic culture of Lactobacillus 

rhamnosus FERM P-15120 ripened below 20 °C in 

the presence of nitrite(200ppm) and sodium 

chloride (3.3%) was developed in Japan 

(SAMESHIMA et al., 1998). Fermented soft type 

probiotic sausages containing L. paracasei have 

been developed and several beneficial effects on 

consumer’s health such as increase in CD4, 

Thelper cells and the phagocytosis index as well 

as adecrease of the expression of CD54, decrease 

in LDL (low density lipoproteins) and high CLA 

(conjugated linoleic acid) have been documented 

(BUNTE et al., 2002). 

Theproduction of bacteriocins and several 

other peptides by LAB during fermentation plays 

an important role in improving functionality, 

nutritive value and safety of fermented meat 

products by inhibiting growth of spoilage and 

pathogenic microorganisms. Pediococcus acidilactici 

isolated from Spanish dry fermented 

sausages exerts strong antimicrobial properties 

against gram-positive bacteria. HUGAS et al. 

(1995) noted the prevention of Listeria spps. in 

fermented sausages due to the presence of LAB 

such as Lactobacillus sakei , Lactobacillus curvatus, 

L. plantarum. L. casei produces the bacteriocin 

Lactocin 05 which prevents the growth of 

L. plantarum, L. monocytogenes , S. aureus and 

Gram-negative bacteria. JAHREIS et al. (2002) 

reported amoderatestepupinimmunity,blood 

cholesterol and triglyceride levels after taking 

50 gofprobiotic sausage containing L. paracasei 

LTH2579 daily for several weeks. 

Dry sausages are not cooked and thus provide a 

better chance for the survival of probiotics (KLIN- 

BERG and BUDDE,2006). Thepresence of fat in 

meat products ensures aprotective coating 

around probiotics and thus increases their survival. 

However,low water activity,lower pH and 

the presence of salts createhostile conditions for 

probiotics. Probiotic cultures that are resistant to 

these conditions in addition to bile and acid 

resistance such as Lactobacillus sakei and Pediococcus 

acidilactici are preferred for the incorporation 

in dry sausages. Alternatively,avery large 

amount of probiotics can be used to compensate 

these losses. LUCKE (2000) developed fermented 

probiotic sausages containing a Bifidobacterium 

culture. Thepoorsurvival of these bacteria is 

countered by avery high inoculation to maintain 

the minimum prescribed number of these probiotic 

bacteria (6 log cfu/g) in fermented sausage. 

In traditional Scandinavian typefermented dry 

sausages, L. plantarum and L. pentosus have 

been isolated and these bacteria possess probiotic 

characteristics by good bile and acid resistance 

as well as competitive exclusion of harmful 

intestinal pathogens. Various strains of LAB 

such as L. casei, L. paracasei, L. rhamnosus and 

L. sakei have been isolated from traditional Italian 

dry fermented sausage. These strains are 

capable to inhibit commonly occurring gut 

pathogens like E. coli and Salmonella enterica 

(KLINGBERG et al., 2005). Overall preparation of 

fermented probiotic meat products is little bit 

difficult as the viability of probiotic bacteria is 

largely affectedbyahigh salt concentration, an 

acidic environment and lower water activity due 

to drying of dry sausages (DE VUYST et al., 2008). 

Several fermented meat products have been 

developed with the addition of probiotics in a 

starter culture. In general at the beginning, the 

probiotic culture dominates due to ahigh initial 

inoculation and as the ripening/ maturation/ 

fermentation progresses under suitable conditions 

as temperature, humidity,salt concentration 

etc., then the starter culture dominates and 

Fig. 4: Bifidobacterium bifidus is able to replace 

easilyharmful pathogenic bacteria of the gut. 

makes the most of the dominant flora of fermented 

probiotic meat products (PAPAMANOLI et 

al., 2003). After the ripening phase, areduction 

in LAB count was also observed. BURDYCHOVA et 

al. (2008) also documented the initial dominance 

of probiotic cultures followed by ahigh LAB 

count after ripening (at 11 to 13 °C, 75% relative 

humidity for 28 days) in fermented sausages with 

an added probiotic culture of L. casei together 

with astarter culture of Staphylococcus carnosus 

and L. curvatus or Pediococcus acidilactici . 

ERKKIL et al. (2001) also noted similar trends in 

decreasing L. rhamnosus probiotic strains (GG, 

E-97800 or LC-705) after an initial increase after 

the completion of a28days ripening phase in 

fermented probiotic sausages. However,acompensatory 

high inoculation of probiotics resulted 

in an availability of sufficient numbers 

(7 log CFU/g) in Iberian dry fermented sausages

......................................................................................................................................................... 

32 


Ingredients 


Probiotics 

Tab. :Mode of action of probiotics 

Effect Action Outcome References 

Prevent entry of enteropathogenic 

Increased secretion of mucin from goblet Improve intestinal barrier strength HARDY et al., 2013 

bacteria cells by Lactobacillus plantarum 229 vand 

Lctobacillus rhamnosus 

Lower secretion of water and chloride by 

BROWN,2011 

Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus 

acidophilus 

Gene modulation in T84epithelial cells Increased barrier strength SYNGAI et al., 2016 

involve in production of junction protein as 

E-cadherin and β-catenin 

Repair of damaged intestinal barriers by 

altering protein kinase Cand signaling and 

production of tight junction protein of 

zonula-occludens (ZO-2) as Escherichia 

Restoring integrity of intestinal tight 

junctions 

GOUDARZI et al. 2014 

coli Nissle 1917 

Improving gut immunity 

Competitive exclusion of 

pathogenic bacteria 

Secretion of antimicrobial 

peptides 

Immune modulation 

Adhesion to intestinal cells and release of 

various cytokines and chemokines as 

Lactobacillus plantarum 299v 

Production of organic acids like lactic acid, 

acetic acid, resulting in decreasing pH of 

gut 

Stimulation of mucosal and host 

immunity 

Inhibition of pathogenic 

microorganisms 

HEMAISWARYA et al., 2013 

GOUDARZI et al., 2014 

Blocking available site for attachment of Easier removal and destruction 

pathogenic bacteria 

Competing for essential nutrient and Inhibiting growth BROWN 2011 

energy 

Release of substances as arginine, histidine, 

CLAetc. exerting gut protective and 

antimicrobial properties 

Increased antimicrobial defense HEMAISWARYA et al., 2013 

Lactic acid bacteria secrete-lantibiotics Inhibition of food borne pathogens by SAULNIER et al., 2009 

(class I), bacteriocins (class II) like lactacin pore formation and preventing cell wall 

B(L. acidophilus ), plantaricin (L. plantarum), 

synthesis 

nisin (Lactococcus lactis ), and 

bacteriolysins (class III) 

Reuterin by Lactobacillus reuteri exerting Broad spectrum activity 

activity against bacteria, fungi, protozoa 

and viruses 

Defensins –small cysteine-rich antimicrobial 

Host defense mechanisms HARDY et al., 2013 

peptides especiallyatmucosal sites 

capable of destroying cytoplasmic membrane 

Inducing expression of human beta-defensin 

Increased mucosal barrier NG et al., 2009 

2inCaco-2 in testinal epithelial 

cells by Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 

By inducing macrophages for phagocytosis Innate defense DELCENSERIE et al., 2008 

as by L. acidophilus La1, Bifidobacterium 

lactis Bb12 

Production of interleukin-12 (IL-12) Increased natural killer (NK) cell YAQOOB,2014 

activity 

Stimulate Bcells for production of IgA in Intestinal humoral immunity DELCENSERIE et al., 2008 

mesenteric lymphnodes and Peyers patch 

Induce IL-12 and increase NK cell activity Immune stimulation 

YAQOOB,2014 

and TH1 pathways 

Inducing IL-10 and the Tregulatory Immunoregulatory 

pathway 

Degrading auto-inducers by enzymatic 

secretion or production of auto-inducer 

antagonists by Lactobacillus, 

Bifidobacterium and Bacillus cereus 

Interference with quorum sensing 

signaling molecule 

GOUDARZI et al., 2014 

Source: SINGH et al. FLEISCHWIRTSCHAFT international 1_2017

......................................... 

.................... 


33 

Ingredients 

Source: SINGH et al. FLEISCHWIRTSCHAFT international 1_2017 

Fig. 5: The overall process of meat fermentation takes up to several weeks. 

even at the end of a4months lasting ripening 

period(BENITO et al., 2007). 

Microencapsulation ensures 

better survival rates 

Microencapsulation of probiotic cultures by 

enclosing live bacterial cells within asemipermeable 

protective coating for physical 

isolation from harsh conditions ensures a 

better survival rate, controlled release and 

production of microbial metabolites (Fig. 6). 

Thesize of these microencapsulated beads 

ranges from 1to100 µmand the internal environment 

inside these beads remain conducive 

for the growth and survival of bacteria. Depending 

upon the typeofshell/ protective layer 

to be digested by specific enzymes or affected 

by the specific pH of the gut,the controlled 

release of these probiotics at the desired part of 

the gut is ensured. Another aspectofmicroencapsulation 

is that microencapsulated microbial 

cultures do not affectthe organoleptic 

properties of meat products. However,most of 

the probiotics do not alter the sensory attributes 

of meat products. PIDCOCK et al. 

(2002) did not found anydeterioration in the 

sensory attributes of various fermented meat 

products upon incorporating probiotic cultures 

from human intestinal isolates like L. paracasei 

L26 and Bifidobacterium lactis B94. 

MUTHUKUMARASWAMY and HOLLEY (2006) 

added microencapsulated L. reuteri ATCC 

55730 in fermented meat products and did not 

reported anydeterioration in the organoleptic 

properties of these products. 

Fig. 6: Microencapsulated bacteria ensure the 

controlled release in the gut. 

Theproduction of biogenic amines during 

fermentation remains amajor concern for 

meat industry.Biogenic amines are low molecular 

weight nitrogenous compounds produced 

as aresult of microbial decarboxylase enzyme 

action under low acidic conditions and asuitable 

temperature on the freely available amino 

acids in meat.The production of biogenic 

amines leads to poor freshness and sensory 

attributes of fermented meat products. The 

consumption of such products leads to toxological 

effects on consumer’s health. Theconcentration 

of biogenic amines increases upon 

storage. Tyramine, cadaverine, putrescine and 

histamine are the most common biogenic 

amines in dry fermented sausages (EEROLA et 

al., 1996). This problem can be overcome by 

the maintenance of proper hygiene, selecting 

pure and suitable starter cultures with high 

acidification capacity,cultures with amino 

oxidase activity,lower pH, proper maintenance 

of temperature during fermentation etc. 

(KOIOZYN-KRAJEWSKA and DOLATOWSKI,2009; 

LATORRE-MORATALLA et al., 2008; SOMDA et al., 

2011). 

Conclusion 

Probiotic meat products are the future of development 

of novel functional meat products. 

With the ever increasing demand of functional 

meat products exerting health benefits in the 

near future, it is very critical for the meat industry 

to develop functional starter cultures capable 

of enhancing the organoleptic, nutritional 

quality and microbial safety of fermented meat 

products. 

References 

Literature references can be requested from the 

corresponding author or the editorial office, respectively. 

Authors’ addresses 

Pramod K. Singh (corresponding author: pramodsingh.vet@gmail.com), 

Assistant Professor, Deptt of LPT, 

College of Veterinary Sciences, Rajasthan University of 

Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bikaner, Rajasthan, India-334001, 

PavanKumar,Assistant Meat Technology Department 

of LPT,COVS, GADVASU, Ludhiana, Punjab, India-141001, 

Akilesh K. Verma, Teaching Associate, College of Veterinary 

Polytechnique, DUVASU, Mathura, UP, India-2813001and Rajeev 

Ranjan, Assistant Professor, Division of Veterinary Pharmacology 

and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Science and Animal 

Husbandry, Kuthulia, Rewa, MP, India-486001. 

Biogenic amines

34 


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to the requirements of awide range 

of environments. 

Thanks to its versatility of integrating 

the reader into existing 

environments, meat processors can 

continue to use your tried-andtested 

hardware without having to 

reinvest. The RFID reader simplifies 

work processes due to its ruggedness, 

broad range of applications, 

and straightforward operation. 

The industrial PCs (IPCs) designed 

by noax are now available with 

Windows 10.This allows straightforward 

integration into the any existing 

computer network. 

//www.noax.com 

JRS 

Ecobalanced functionality 

Oven 

New temperature controller 

With Räuchergold from JRS –J. 

Rettenmaier &Söhne GmbH &Co. 

KG, headquarted at Rosenberg, 

Germany, good manufacturer of 

organic fiber products proves just 

how well thinking economically 

and acting ecologicallygotogether. 

Leading smoking system manufacturers 

prefer Räuchergold 

The wood chips asure reliable 

plant operations and an excellent 

smoking aroma. 

products. The products stand for 

aplant operation and an excellent 

aroma. ISO and HACCP-tested 

safety guarantees first-class end 

products and smooth and efficient 

production. The wood chips 

feature optimum fractionation and 

aconstant particle size that is 

preciselymatched to suit the 

temperatures produced in the 

smoke generator.This not only 

ensures that food produced with 

this wood chips safelycomplies 

with official threshold values, but 

also that the smoking system as 

awhole can be operated cleanly 

and with cost efficiency. 

The products are both economicallyand 

ecologicallysustainable. 

Production is in line with the 

DIN ISO 50001:2011-certified energy 

management system. All 

wood used is untreated and 

comes from PEFC-certified 

forests. 

//www.raeuchergold.eu 

Oven Industries Inc. from Camp 

Hill, PA,USA, continues its aggressive 

product expansion, by 

introducing the 5R9-355 

temperature controller (Peltier 

effect) to the market. This product, 

from an operational standpoint, 

is the same as the 5R9-350 

model released earlier this year. 

The complimentary features 

included in this new model consists 

of acomplete mechanical 

enclosure with mounting holes, 

user friendlykeypad menu selections 

and avivid LCD display.This 

controller offers atemperature 

resolution of 0.01°Cand a 

control stability of ±0.1 °C. It 

was designed for applications 

needing atemperature control 

range of –40 to 250 °C. The company 

also offers acomplete line of 

temperature sensors. 

Oven Industries, Inc. specializes 

in the development of custom 

electronic temperature controllers 

and sensors along with extensive 

The new controller is equipped with a 

complete mechanical enclosure with 

mounting holes. 

turnkey contract manufacturing 

capabilities and international 

sourcing. 

//www.ovenind.com

36 


Food Waste 

Active and intelligent 

packagings –active 

packagings include 

antimicrobial film as 

produced in the 

Safe-Pack project, and 

pads from Messrs. 

McAirlaids. Intelligent 

packagings include 

aluminium-based TTIs 

and photochromic TTIs 

(Freshpoint, Israel). 

Photo: Sophia Dohlen 

Delaying loss of freshness 

Active and intelligent packagings to reduce wastes in meat-producing chains 

The production of high quality and 

safe foodshas increased steadily in 

recent years. At the same time a 

sustainablefoodproduction gains 

in importance. Sustainability aspectsinclude 

several different 

aspects, such as for examplethe 

energyefficiency of production and 

cooling plants, the logistic concepts, 

animal welfare aspects or the 

energysupply concepts. Especially 

the reduction of wastealong the 

entire supply chain is more and 

more public discussed. 

By Sophia Dohlen and 

Judith Kreyenschmidt 

Theuse of active and intelligent 

packagings is currently being 

discussed as apossibility for significantly 

reducing the wasteinmeatproducing 

chains and at the same 

time ensuring the quality and 

safety of the products. Different 

studies estimatethe amount of 

wasted meat and meat products at 

approximately 12 –22% (GUSTAVS- 

SON et al., 2011;MUTH et al., 2011, 

KREYENSCHMIDT et al., 2013). 

Influencing factors 

Thereasons whymeat and meat 

products are discarded are diverse 

and include, for example, expiry of 

the best before datewithout sale or 

consumption of the products, 

premature spoilage of the products 

caused by wrong handling, meat 

and meat products not correspondend 

to the quality and safety 

requirements, or consumer behaviour.These 

various causes are 

influenced by alarge number of 

factors such as the productproperties 

or the shelf life of the product, 

process factors such as the processing 

and packaging technologies 

used, analysis method, marketing 

channels and structures, and the 

temperature conditions throughout 

the entire supply chain. 

In the case of perishable foods 

the length of shelf life is an important 

factorinfluencing the amount 

of wasted products. Frequently 

products with short shelf life are 

discarded without consumption. A 

further factoristhat there is currently 

alack of rapid methods for 

providing just in time information 

about the real quality,safety and 

the remaining shelf life of the 

products. As aconsequence, in the 

case of significant interruptions of 

the cold chain, perishable goods 

are frequently discarded because of 

possible health hazards. Thesame 

applies for meat and meat products 

where the best before datehas 

expired. This is precisely where 

active and intelligent packagings 

start their work to reduce the 

amount of wasted products. Intelli- 

gent packagings allow productaccompanying 

monitoring of the 

goodsalong the completechain by 

providing information about the 

history,quality,shelf life or safety 

of the foods. Active packagings, on 

the other hand, reactdirectly with 

the productorthe productenvironment 

and thus contributetoan 

extended shelf life and hence to a 

longer marketing window.Although 

the idea of active and intelligent 

packagings is not new,a 

large number of new developments 

have recently started to emerge in 

these fields. 

Active packagings 

Thefirst developments of active 

packagings took place already in 

the mid-1970s. Although market 

demand was very reserved up to the 

end of the 1990s, over the past 

years there has been asteady in-

.......................................................... 


37 

Food Waste 

crease in demand. This has also 

been accompanied by aconstant 

increase in the number of patent 

applications and market implementations 

of new technologies. 

Various active packaging solutions 

have already become established on 

the market worldwide. Thespectrum 

of active packaging solutions 

includes awide range of fields such 

as gas absorbers, scavengers and 

emitters, moisture regulators, 

ethanol emitters, systems for 

releasing or absorbing aroma 

substances and antioxidants, as 

well as antimicrobial packaging 

systems. These can be applied into 

the meat packagings in the form of 

films, trays, labels, pads or sachets. 

Among the active packaging solutions 

available on the market, 

oxygen absorbers, carbon dioxide 

emitters and moisture regulators 

as well as antimicrobial packaging 

materials are commercially important 

in the meat and fish industry. 

Oxygen absorbers 

These absorbers bind the oxygen 

present in the packaging through 

chemical reaction, thus reducing 

oxidation processes in the foods 

such as fat oxidation. Oxygen 

absorbers in sausage products can 

also delay photosensitised oxidation 

and hence colour loss, thus 

counteracting greying of the 

sausage. Furthermore, the growth 

of aerobic bacteria can be reduced 

by this kind of absorber,which can 

lead to an extended shelf life. One 

of the first commercial oxygen 

absorbers was developed by the 

firm Mitsubishi GasChemical in 

Japan as an iron powder sachet. 

Themajority of the oxygen absorbers 

currently available are 

based on iron oxidation. Other 

systems use for example the ascorbic 

acid oxidation reaction or selectedenzymatic 

systems. 

Moisture regulators 

These regulators control or bind 

the moisture in the packaging to 

prevent condensation inside the 

packaging or surface moisture on 

the product. In themeat sector 

such systems are frequently used 

for fresh, packaged poultry meat. 

In the form of absorbent pads, 

these systems bind the drip fl 

uid so 

that arepresentative sales image 

results for the consumer.Furthermore, 

thus the growth of bacteria 

in the meat juice can be reduced. 

Thepads basically consist of a 

Source: DOHLEN and KREYENSCHMIDT FLEISCHWIRTSCHAFT international 1_2017 

Fig.:Antimicrobial activity of amultilayer film with 10%Poly(TBAMS) in the inner layer against pathogenic and spoilage 

microorganisms at 7°Cafter 24 h. 

moisture-absorbing polymer, 

which is surrounded by twolayers 

of amicroporous plastic. 

Carbon dioxide emitters 

Thecarbon dioxide emitters release 

carbon dioxide intothe packaging 

through achemical reaction, 

as aresult of which the microbial 

growth on the surface of perishable 

foodscan be slowed down. Formation 

of the carbon dioxide can be 

based on different reactions, such 

as the reaction of sodium hydrogen 

carbonateand citric acid with 

liquid of the packaged food.Inthe 

form of pads, carbon dioxide emitters 

could be used for fresh meat to 

prolong the shelf life of the products. 

At present CO2 emitters are 

used with fresh fish or poultry. 

Antimicrobial packaging 

systems 

Antimicrobial packaging systems 

inhibit the growth of microorganisms 

or kill microorganisms by 

damaging the cell wall, the metabolism 

or the genetic material. Especially 

in supply chains of perishable 

foodssuch as meat,there is ahigh 

demand for antimicrobial materials, 

as manyproducts have ashort 

selling time due to the short shelf 

life. Reduction of the initial bacterial 

count of perishable foodssuch 

as fresh poultry meat in the range 

of one log10 unit can result in prolonging 

the shelf life for several 

days. Antimicrobial substances can 

be incorporated directly intopackaging 

materials or be applied by 

coating on abase material. Antimicrobial 

substances can be divided 

intodifferent categories depending 

on their origin and chemical properties: 

metals, bacteriocins, enzymes, 

organic acids, plant extracts 

or active polymers. If the antimicrobial 

substance is released to the 

surroundings or the food,meaning 

the effectisbased on amigration. 

If the active agent is permanently 

immobilized to the packaging 

material, the microorganismen can 

be reduced at the productsurface 

between the packaging material 

and the food.The majority of the 

systems currently being developed 

are based on the migration effect. 

Thefocus of the research studies is 

on integrating natural substances 

such as essential oils or plant 

extracts intothe packaging materials. 

However,inparticular the 

integration of the substances into 

the polymers and their temperature 

stability and controlled release 

of the active agents is abig challenge. 

Due to their high temperature 

stability and good antimicrobial 

effectiveness, metals were 

incorporated intovarious polymers. 

Forexample, silver ions leads 

to structural changes of the bacterial 

cell wall in contactwith several 

bacteria. They reactwith thiol 

groups in proteins or enzymes, 

which ultimately leads to death of 

the cell. Although anumber of 

papers have published recently in 

the field of antimicrobial packaging 

materials and new solutions have 

been developed, only afew packaging 

solutions that are based on a 

migration effectare currently 

available on the market.Reasons 

for this are on the one hand the 

technical challenges in producing 

the materials, and on the other 

hand the various factors that infl 

u- 

ence the activity of the incorporated 

substances. Forinstance, food 

components frequently have a 

negative infl 

uence on the antimicrobial 

effectmechanism. For 

example, in the case of packing 

materials with silver the effectcan 

be reduced significantly as silver 

ions are complexed and thus inactivated 

by sulfurous amino acids and 

other protein constituents. Further-

38 


Food Waste 

Delaying loss of freshness 

Intelligent 

packagings 

more, for the use of migrating 

substances in packaging material 

applications, acontrolled release 

during the storage time is necessary.Fast 

and highly concentrated 

release can lead to short-term 

stability as the active ingredients 

are then used up and furthermore 

this may lead to undesirable sensory 

changes in the product. Studies 

show that the release of various 

substances is influenced by the 

temperature. Lowtemperature 

conditions such as theyusually in 

meat supply chains often reduce 

the release from the material and so 

the antimicrobial activtiy. 

On the basis of the challenges in 

migration-based systems described 

above, the development of active 

polymers has become increasingly 

interesting, especially for the meat 

industry.One known representative 

of this group is the biopolymer 

chitosan, which is naturally occurring 

and edible. Themodeofaction 

of chitosan is possibly based on the 

amino groups that reactwiththe 

negatively charged microbial cell 

components. Anumber of studies 

have demonstrated good effectiveness 

against abroad spectrum of 

meat-relevant microorganisms. 

Anew and promising typeof 

active polymers are the Sustainable 

Active Microbiocidal (SAM) polymers. 

This typeofpolymer was 

first developed by Degussa GmbH 

at the end of the 1990s. Theantimicrobial 

activity of these polymers 

is based on electrostatic 

interactions between the positively 

charged polymer and the negatively 

charged cell surfaces of the microorganisms. 

This leads to damaging 

and destruction of the cell membrane 

resulting in cell death. The 

polymer shows very good antimicrobial 

activtiy, but was removed 

from the market again due to 

insufficient material properties. 

Within the framework of nationally 

funded research projects (Smart 

Surf: Funding reference code 

16INO640; www.ccm.unibonn.de), 

apolymerpoly-[2-(tertbutylamino) 

methylstyrene] (Poly 

(TBAMS)) was developed with 

improved material properties and 

good antimicrobial activity.Within 

the context of the cooperative 

projectSafe-Pack (Funding reference 

code 313-06.01-28-1-68.034-10) 

funded by the German Federal 

Office for Agriculture and Food 

(BLE), different packaging materials 

such as packaging films and 

pads were produced from this 

material in order to extend the 

shelf life of meat and meat products. 

Various investigations show 

that the new materials are highly 

Chicken breast fillet 

packaged under modified 

gas atmosphere with a 

photochromic 

time-temperature 

indicator. 

Photo: Daniel Abrams 

active against alarge number of 

pathogenic and spoilage bacteria 

even at refrigeration temperatures 

(Figure). 

Although there is currently still a 

shortage of antimicrobial packaging 

solutions for the meat sectoron 

the market,inview of the large 

number of research projects it can 

be expectedthat in future the 

number of market implementations 

will increase. However,one 

obstacle that must not be neglected 

is the extensive authorisation 

procedure required in manycountries 

for various new approaches. 

Fundamentally,experience from 

anumber of projects in the field of 

active packagings shows that the 

food and packaging industry is 

extremely interested in active 

packagings. Thecore benefit is 

seen in the significant increase in 

food shelf lives and safety and the 

associated longer selling time. 

Further advantages are the increased 

customer satisfaction, the 

development of new markets and 

the declining number of complaints 

and of food waste. On the 

other hand, the trade fears that as a 

result of possible additional labelling 

requirements for migration-based 

materials, manyconsumers 

may view these technologies 

with acertain scepticism. 

Thefirst patent for an intelligent 

packaging were filed already in 

the 1930s. However,more than 50 

years passed before the intelligent 

packagings were first used to 

monitor the cold chain of pharmaceutical 

products. Up to now, 

however,these kinds of intelligent 

labels have not been widespread 

in the food market.While the 

subjectofusing intelligent labels 

had almost faded backstage, it is 

becoming apparent here too that 

the number of patents, publications 

and new technologies being 

introduced to the market has 

recently started to increase significantly.For 

manyyears developments 

in this field were mainly 

focusing on monitoring the temperature 

conditions along the 

supply chain. In recent years 

however the number of developments 

of labels that monitor 

quality and safety parameters or 

other environmental than temperature 

conditions is growing 

steadily.There is also an increasing 

trend towards developing 

electronic labels on the basis of 

RFID (radio frequencyidentification) 

combined with intelligent 

sensor technology. 

Intelligent packagings can be 

classified in different categories 

on the basis of the parameters that 

are monitored. 

Freshness indicators 

Theprinciple of freshness indicators 

is based on directinteraction 

between the food,volatile compounds 

and the indicator.Generally,metabolic 

products of microorganisms 

that are produced during 

storage or chemical modifications 

in the productare detectedby 

these indicators. Forinstance, 

freshness indicators may be based 

for example on detection of volatile 

amines, carbon dioxide, sulphur 

dioxide, ammonia, ethanol, or 

organic acids. Depending on the 

indicator system, the shelf life or 

remaining shelf life of the product 

can also be displayed. Butcurrently 

there is no label available for fresh 

meat products, that is able to monitorthe 

freshness loss and residual 

shelf life at each point along the 

value chain in acost efficient way. 

Achallenge is still the diversity of 

the microflora and the differences


39 

Food Waste 

in their metabolites, which can vary 

considerably depending on the 

packaging and temperature conditions. 

Safety indicators 

These indicators, frequently also 

called biosensors, indicatethe 

presence of pathogenic bacteria. 

This typeofindicator is frequently 

based on immuno-chemical reactions. 

One of the first technologies 

is based on an antibodycomplex 

that is linked with abarcode system. 

Thepresence of acertain 

microorganism is made visible by 

the development of ablack strip on 

the barcode, which then becomes 

no longer legible for scanner systems. 

record the temperature history 

along the whole chill chain in a 

simple and cost effective way.The 

principle of most of the indicators 

is based on chemical, physical, 

microbiological or enzymatic 

reactions which result in acolour 

change of the label. Thelabels can 

also be used as afreshness indicator, 

if the colour change of the label 

correlates with the spoilage kinetics 

of the food to which it is attached. 

Furthermore, it is possible to 

link the colour signals of TTIs with 

simulation models to calculatethe 

residual shelf life of the product. 

Themeasurement of the current 

colour using spectrophotometers 

supplies precise information on 

how long the residual shelf life of 

the productisifitisstored at a 

certain temperature in the following 

stages of the chain. Aprototype 

of such asoftware is available at 

www.ccm-network.com. With the 

additional information at each 

stage, it is also possible in the long 

term to adjust stockmanagement 

in the chains from aFirst In –First 

Out strategy to aLeast–Shelf life – 

First out strategy.Inparticular in 

connection with electronic best 

before dates, it is possible to minimise 

rejects and thus use resources 

more efficiently in this 

way.Furthermore, experience from 

practice has shown that through 

the use of TTIs, weak points in the 

Gas sensors 

With these indicators the focus is 

on monitoring the gas atmosphere 

in the packaging. Depending on 

the indicator or the composition of 

the atmosphere, the decrease or 

increase of oxygen or carbon dioxide 

is controlled. This makes it 

possible to identify directly any 

perforation in the packaging that 

can be caused by sealing or mechanical 

damage during handling 

or transport and which lead to 

premature spoilage of the products. 

Theindicators or pads are 

integrated intothe packaging and 

display acolour change when the 

atmosphere changes, or theyare 

based on amachine readable 

process, as is frequently the case 

with luminescence-based systems. 

Time indicators 

These indicators monitor only the 

time factor, forexample by substances 

diffusing along atime 

scale. This kind of intelligent 

packaging is designed primarily for 

the consumer to showhow much 

time has passed since apackage 

was opened. 

Time-temperature indicators 

These indicators were the first 

labels implemented on the market 

in the field of intelligent packagings. 

Even today,theystill represent 

the most widespread technology 

in the field of intelligent labels. 

Time-temperature indicators 

(TTIs) allow to monitor the temperature 

history of aproducts 

from the time of packaging to 

consumption of the food.Thus, 

these labels provide the possibility 

to continuously monitor and

40 


Food Waste 

cold chain can be reduced significantly 

as the awareness for maintenance 

of the cold chain is increased 

at all stages. Theoptimised 

temperature conditions are at the 

same time coupled with an extension 

of the shelf life and thus of the 

selling window.Afurther benefit 

of these labels with regard to reducing 

the amount of food wasteis 

that the safety margins of the best 

before datecan be reduced significantly 

by adjusting the indicator to 

the real shelf life of the food.Accordingly 

the consumer too is able 

to see whether aproductisstill fit 

for consumption after the end of 

the best before date. 

Although these technologies 

have been available on the market 

for more than 20 years and the 

topic is currently asubjectofintensive 

discussion at the policylevel, 

there is still alack of afar-ranging 

implementation and acceptance of 

these indicators. Accordingly so far 

the fields of application worldwide 

have concentrated on just afew 

supply chains. These include for 

example monitoring of cooked 

poultry meat,fish and fish products, 

mussels, seafood and selectedready-to-eat 

products for 

airline catering. 

Within the framework of twoEU 

projects (FP6-012371, IQ Freshlabel-243423), 

companies were 

asked about the reasons for the 

poor level of implementation. 

Reasons stated in particular are the 

fear of overwhelming consumers 

with information, scepticism and a 

lack of confidence vis-à-vis new 

technologies, or the fear of expensive 

implementation in already 

existing systems. Furthermore, 

manyretailer do not believe in the 

reduction of food wastebyTTIs. 

Instead, theyfear excessively high 

losses due to sorting and arise in 

complaints after the point of sale. 

Surveys among consumers show a 

completely different picture. Consumers 

would view the introduction 

of TTIs as an advantage and 

believe in the reduction of waste 

through intelligent packagings, as 

theythen receive additional information 

about the freshness and 

safety of the products. In particular 

in the fresh meat and fish sector 

consumers would welcome the 

introduction of such alabel. Accordingly 

the attitudes of the upstream 

chain and the last link, the 

consumer,are completely opposed 

as regards the introduction of 

TTIs. Whereas producer,wholesaler 

and retailer are skeptical with 

regard to introduction of the label 

and their contribution to waste 

reduction, end consumers are very 

positive about the idea of introducing 

such indicators. 

Summary and 

prospects 

Active and intelligent packagings 

can in the long term makean 

important contribution to reducing 

the amount of wasteincertain 

supply chains by extending shelf 

life through evidence of correct 

producthandling or by just-in-time 

information about the actual quality 

or remaining shelf life of the 

product. 

Thepercentage reduction rates 

depend on numerous factors, 

however.Higher reduction rates 

are to be expectedinthe case of 

perishable foodssuch as poultry 

meat and fish than in the case of 

products displaying shelf lives of 

more than three weeks. Furthermore, 

the logistic structures represent 

asignificant influence factor. 

Especially in complex food chains 

with long transport routes, these 

types of packaging can makean 

important contribution to sustainablefood 

production. Further 

influence factors include the customer-supplier 

relations, the 

process organisation, the current 

methods used to control important 

quality and safty parameter,the 

markets, the production volumes 

and the involvement of consumers. 

When using intelligent labels it is 

crucially important how these 

indicators are integrated intothe 

overall information and quality 

management and whether the 

information are chaired withn the 

further actors in the chain. The 

wastereduction rates also depend 

crucially on whether,for example, 

time-temperature indicators are 

used as cold chain indicators or as 

indirectfreshness indicators with 

which the residual shelf life can be 

determined at each stage along the 

chain. 

In order to reduce the amount of 

wasteinthe long term it is important 

to first identify the precise 

causes of wastes in different supply 

chains (product-related and supplychain-related 

causes), so that on 

this basis the right packaging 

technology for the respective chain 

or productcan be selected. 

Close cooperation between the 

packaging industry,agricultural, 

processing, transport and trading 

businesses, recycling companies, 

the authorisation authorities as 

well as the consumer is important 

for the future development of new, 

active and intelligent packaging 

technologies. Only in this way can 

sustainable, active and intelligent 

packagings that gain acceptance 

both in the industry and among 

consumers be developed and 

implemented in line with needs in 

the long term. 

Literature 

1. GUSTAVSSON J., C. CEDERBERG,U.SONESSON, 

R. VAN OTTERDIJK und A. MEYBECK (2011): 

Global Food Losses and Food Waste. 

Study for the international Save Food 

Congress, 16-17.05.2011 Düsseldorf. – 

2. KREYENSCHMIDT,J., A. ALBRECHT,C.BRAUN, 

U. HERBERT,M.MACK,S.ROSSAINT,G.RITTER, 

P. TEITSCHEID und Y. ILG (2013): Food Waste 

in der Fleisch verarbeitenden Kette. 

FleischWirtschaft 93 (10), 57–63. – 

3. MUTH,M.K., S.A. KARNS,S.J. NIELSEN, 

J.C. BUZBY und H.F. WELLS (2011): Consumer-level 

food loss estimates and 

their use in the ERS loss-adjusted food 

availability data. Technical Bulletin 

no. 1927.Washington, DC: USDA. 

Further literature references can be 

requested from the authors. 

Dr. Sophia 

Dohlen 

works in Food Processing 

Engineering at the University 

of Bonn. One field of her 

research focuses the assessing active 

packagings with regard to their potential for 

increasing the shelf life of perishable foods. 

PD Dr.Judith 

Kreyenschmidt 

heads the Cold-Chain- 

Management working group 

at the University of Bonn 

(IEL, Food Processing Engineering). The 

fields of research include creating simulation 

models to predict food quality, developing 

and implementing new technologies in 

the areas of temperature monitoring, 

hygiene and packaging to improve food 

quality and safety and to reduce food waste. 

Authors’ address 

Dr.Sophia Dohlen and PD Dr.Judith Kreyenschmidt, 

Institute of Nutritional and Food 

Sciences (IEL) Food Processing Engineering, 

Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität 

Bonn, Katzenburgweg 7–9, 53115Bonn, 

Germany, sdohlen@uni-bonn.de, 

j.kreyenschmidt@uni-bonn.de 

Food Waste 

Wageningen University 

installs Taskforce 

The Taskforce Circular Economy in 

Food, launched during the National 

Food Summit in the Netherlands, 

aims to prevent and reduce 

food waste and becomes an international 

frontrunner in the valorisation 

of agrifood residual 

streams. 

The Taskforce, an initiative by 

Wageningen University &Research, 

in collaboration with the Ministry of 

Economic Affairs and the Sustainable 

Food Alliance, connects initiatives 

against food waste. It is leading 

the transition towards acceleration 

and the development of a 

circular economy.The Taskforce is 

currentlycomposed of 25 members 

from the entire food supplychain, 

from SMEs to food multinationals, 

and supplemented with members 

from public and societal organizations. 

In the second half of 2017,the 

Taskforce will publish anational 

strategy and roadmap to collectivelyachieve 

acircular economy in 

food: an economy in which waste 

does not exist, agrifood residual 

streams are re-used in the best 

possible way, and raw materials 

retain their value. In the roadmap, 

there are concrete goals and actions 

for both the short and long 

term. In addition, the Taskforce will 

function as athink-tank and a 

source of inspiration and will challenge 

businesses to innovate more 

rapidly. 

Participants can use insights 

gained from the European research 

programme Refresh, which is coordinated 

by Wageningen University & 

Research; the Taskforce is strongly 

linked to this programme. “With 

businesses taking the lead, we are 

building an ecosystem in which we 

will dedicatedlywork towards 

realising solutions and tangible 

economic, ecological, and social 

impact,” says Toine Timmermans, 

programme manager at Wageningen 

University &Research and 

initiator of the Taskforce. Within the 

Taskforce network, actions, best 

practices, instruments, and 

progress reports will be shared and 

innovative business cases will be 

developed. During the upcoming 

two years, dozens of actions and 

projects will be launched and supported. 

//www.wur.nl/en


41 

Industry News 

Metalquimia 

Whole muscles 

Eagle 

Inline inspection involves benefits 

Metalquimia, SAU, from Girona, 

Spain, introduces the new Twinvac 

“Evolution”, the interface for 

automatic whole muscle stuffing. 

Suitable for all types of meats, 

from emulsions to whole muscle 

pieces, the interface incorporates 

automatic servostuffing control 

and acompactation pressure 

regulating device. 

Its large diameter double cylinder 

operation ensures high productivity 

and stuffing speed, 

resulting in astuffing quality with 

total absence of internal holes 

and unsurpassed whole muscle 

definition. In addition, the Twinvac 

“Evolution” "friendly" design, 

occupies asmaller installation 

space and reduces the number of 

installing parts, making assembly 

and disassembly, maintenance, 

cleaning and disinfection easier 

than ever. 

//www.metalquimia.com 

Eagle Product Inspection from 

Tampa, FL, USA, is an expert in 

X-Ray product inspection and fat 

analysis systems and demonstrates 

the benefits of inline 

meat and poultry inspection 

solutions. 

Eagle x-ray inspection and fat 

analysis (FA) systems boast the 

lowest total cost of ownership in 

the industry, providing inline 

inspection capabilities that 

enable processors to optimize 

production line efficiency, maximize 

uptime, extract maximum 

value from raw materials and 

ensure that products entering 

the retail supplychain are safe 

for consumption. The comprehensive 

nature of X-Ray inspection 

also makes products that 

have been inspected in this 

manner more attractive to retail 

customers. 

In addition to the detection of 

physical contaminants such as 

X-Ray inspection systems for 

precise bone and contaminant 

detection 

metal fragments, glass shards 

and some plastic and rubber 

compounds, the meat and poultry 

industry’smost common 

concern is the detection of bone. 

As aspecialist in the meat and 

poultry industry, Eagle understands 

the dailychallenge bone 

detection presents to processors. 

The company’sexperts 

have developed arange of systems 

to suit awide array of applications, 

all capable of detecting 

calcified bone down to 2mm. 

In addition, two of Eagle’s 

trusted partners in the meat and 

poultry processing field –Foodmate 

and FPEC –are demonstrating 

Eagle X-Ray inspection systems. 

Foodmate is demonstrating 

the Eagle Pack 400 HC Poultry 

Optimized, designed to meet the 

need for precise bone and contaminant 

detection, which is 

critical for compliance with stringent 

retailer specifications and 

food safety regulations. FPEC is 

also showcasing aPack 400 HC, 

designed specificallyfor chub and 

other packaged meat inspection, 

which demonstrates the versatility 

of the range. Both systems 

provide superior contamination 

detection and automatic rejection 

of foreign objects at speeds of up 

to 60 mper min. (200 FPM). 

//www.eaglepi.com

42 


Industry News 

Cambridge 

Mesh overlay on belt installed 

Sesotec 

Scanners for Quality Assurance 

Offering an added dimension to its 

popular CamEdge conveyor belt for 

cageless spiral systems, Cambridge 

Engineered Solutions (Cambridge, 

USA) has introduced CamEdge More. 

The new product features the same 

edge treatment as the original 

design but includes an interior 

mesh overlay to accommodate 

smaller foods and soft poultry and 

meat parts placed directlyonthe 

belt. 

The original belt has large flat 

wire openings so processors can 

move larger-sized meat and poultry 

parts or packaged product along 

the cageless spiral for cooling or 

freezing. The CamEdge More mesh 

overlay closes openings so nonpackaged 

raw product and soft 

parts can rest on the belt as they 

travel through the spiral. The overlay’smetal 

mesh also reduces 

product marking but still has sufficient 

openness for thorough chemical 

and hot water cleaning. With 

added attention paid to plastic belt 

contamination issues during some 

poultry and meat processes, the 

CamEdge More metal belt is suited 

for dailysanitation practices nec- 

Coils, fans and conditioning 

systems can be placed in the 

center of the conveyor if needed. 

essary to prevent Salmonella, 

Listeria and other bacteria while 

being made from materials that are 

food-safe. 

The belts are both positively 

driven and low in tension. They 

utilize arobust, well-supported 

drive link on the outer edges that 

reduces component flexing during 

sprocket engagement. This results 

in an extended belt life and less 

chance of component fatigue. 

//www.cambridge-es.com 

In production, various technologies 

are used for quality assurance, 

including metal detectors as 

well as X-Ray scanners. When the 

company was looking for anew 

supplier of x-ray scanners, the 

Sesotec system from Sesotec 

Gmbh from Schoenberg, Germany, 

convinced with its detection 

accuracy, reliability, and ease of 

operation, and the company therefore 

integrated Sesotec inspection 

systems in 16 production lines. 

Sesotec's Raycon DX-Ray 

scanners primarilyare used for 

the final inspection of packed 

products and allow high-precision 

inline detection of alarge variety 

of contaminants such as magnetic 

and non-magnetic metals, 

glass, ceramics, stones, raw 

bones, and several types of 

plastics. Raycon Dproduct inspection 

systems combine 

proven Sesotec X-Ray technology 

with hygienic design and ease of 

operation. Furthermore, the 

conveyor belt in the Raycon D 

system can be replaced without 

using tools within two minutes by 

onlyone operator, which compared 

to other systems saves alot 

of time. 

The Sesotec group is one of the 

leading manufacturers of machines 

and systems for contaminant 

detection and material sorting. 

Product sales primarilyfocus 

on the food, plastics, and recycling 

industries. Sesotec's global 

presence includes subsidiaries in 

Great Britain, Singapore, China, 

USA, France, Italy(2), India, 

Canada, Thailand, arepresentative 

office in Turkey, and more 

than 60 partners all over the 

world. 

Sesotec Raycon Dx-ray scanners 

primarilyare used for the final 

inspection of packed meat 

products. 

//www.sesotec.com 

Marel Stork 

Humane and efficient live bird handling uplifted 

Arjuna 

Better safety 

The new Stork Atlas (Advanced 

Technology Live bird Arrival System) 

from Marel Stork from 

Boxmeer, Netherlands, gives high 

attention to animal welfare, while 

increasing efficiency considerably. 

Thanks to the ingenious design of 

the container stack, loading capacity 

can increase up to 38%, 

which means less CO2 emission. At 

Atlas sets new standards in hygiene. Photo: Marel 

the same time, more space is 

available per bird. 

In the supplychain, handling 

remains animal-friendlyall the 

time; during transport and in the 

plant the birds stay calmlyintheir 

spacious trays. The plant logistics, 

such as lairage and destacking, 

have been organized to cause the 

least stress possible. Atlas seamlesslyintegrates 

with CAS Smooth- 

Flow stunning; trays are gently 

moved through the system. Only 

after having lost consciousness, 

the broilers are shackled to enter 

the process. 

The Stork Atlas live bird handling 

system features atechnologically 

advanced SmartStack module, 

consisting of arevolutionary 

loadable pallet with avariable 

number of frameless trays (mostly 

three or four) on top of it. The 

clever design of this module increases 

the loading capacity up to 

38%, which means fewer truck 

movements and therefore less CO2 

emission. Making use of the same 

floor surface, SmartStack provides 

more space to each bird. Already at 

the farm, the module shows it 

advantages, having alarge opening 

for easy loading of broilers in 

all tray levels. 

//www.marel.com/atlas 

Arjuna Natural Extracts Ltd. from 

Kerala, India, presents X-tend, a 

complete, natural, formulationspecific 

preservative designed to 

increase chilled-meat product 

shelf-life. Synthetic preservatives 

contain nitrates. These can generate 

nitrosamines, chemical compounds 

suspected of increasing 

cancer risk. But nitrosomyoglobin, 

formed from myoglobin and nitric 

oxide during curing, is responsible 

for the red colour in cured meats 

associated with freshness. Some of 

the volatile nitrosamines formed 

during curing process with nitrates 

have mutagenic activity.The allnatural 

X-tend formulation can 

replace chemical nitrosomyoglobinforming 

preservatives yet is noncarcinogenic 

and safe to use in 

chilled meat. It prevents the growth 

of yeast and mold in chilled meat 

products. 

//www.arjunanatural.com

44 


Testing Methods 

Fig. 1: In 

low-price-products soy 

flour is often used as an 

extender. 

Innovation in food control 

Duplex PCR opens new possibilities for the detection of GM soya in chicken sausages 

Up to now the detection of the 

GM-soy presence in chicken 

sausages was expensive and took 

some time. The successful merging 

of the procedures for endogene and 

transgene amplification in asingle 

tubemade it faster and less expensive. 

By Zoran T. Popovski, 

Elizabeta Miskoska-Milevska, 

Tome Nestorovski 

and ZlatkoPejkovski 

This study reports the screening 

for GMO presence in soy containg 

(Fig.1) chicken sausages 

(Fig. 2) in asingle step using 

duplex PCR. Previously,the 

screening was performed in two 

steps, one for revealing the soy 

DNA, and the second for detecting 

the presence of the construct that 

is present in GM soy.Anoptimization 

of the PCR conditions was 

performed focusing on the MgCl2 

concentration and primers annealing 

temperature. The achieved 

data showed that aconcentration 

of 2.5 mM MgCl2 and atemperature 

of 60 °C are appropriate to 

amplify the both fragments in a 

single reaction. The results did not 

show any false positive or false 

negative data. They were wellmatched 

with those from the 

separately accomplished reactions. 

This kind of doubled PCR enables 

faster and cheaper detection of the 

presence of GM-soy.Itgives a 

possibility to eliminate too many 

negative samples before the quantification 

step with real-time PCR. 

How GMOs 

are detected 

Due to the fact that the nucleotide 

sequences of GMOs are determined, 

the detection of GMO 

presence in processed meat products 

commonly is performed using 

PCR based techniques (Mulis, 

1987). One of the most applied 

genetic modifications among the 

crops is creating herbicide tolerant 

plants, especially against the 

roundup herbicide and that is the 

reason why those crops are named 

as “roundup ready” (Oxtoby et al., 

1990). The first step in this procedure 

is to detect the presence of an 

“housekeeping” gene for the appropriate 

organism which was 

modified, and then to search for 

the presence of aconstruct that can 

be present in the sample (Windels, 

2001).Asa“housekeeping” gene in 

the soy genome, usually,the gene 

for lectin synthesis is used, while 

for the detection of transgene, 

commonly,anamplification covering 

part of the promoter sequence 

and part of the inserted gene is 

performed (Holst-Jensen,2003). 

The screening of roundup ready 

soya (RRS) was performed in two 

ig. 2: Mostlychicken sausages are available for alow price. 

steps before, one for revealing soy 

DNA, and the second one for 

detecting the presence of the construct 

that is present in GM soy. 

(Meyer et al., 1997). 

The aim of this study was to 

simplify the procedure for GMO 

detection on DNA level developing 

anew duplex PCR in order to amplify 

the part of endogen and trans-

....................................... 


45 


Source: POPOVSKI et al. FLEISCHWIRTSCHAFT international 1_2017 

Fig. 4A): MgCl2 gradient concentration from 0.5 Mm to 4.5 mM amplicons of 74 bp of the same sample on a2.5% agarose gel. #1–50 bp ladder #2–0.5 mM MgCl2 #3–1.0mM 

MgCl2 #4–1.5mMMgCl2 #5–2.0 mM MgCl2 #6–2.5 mM MgCl2 #7–3.0 mM MgCl2 #8–3.5 mM MgCl2 #9–4.0 mM MgCl2 and #10–4.5 mM MgCl2. 

B): Temperature gradient form 55 °C to 65 °C. Electrophoregram of 2.5% agarose gel. #1–50bpladder #2–55.8 °C #3–56.3 °C #4–57.1 °C #5–58.1°C#6–58.8 °C #7–59.6 °C 

#8–60.2 °C #9–61.6°C#10–62.2 °C #11–63.3 °C and#12–64.2°C 

gene in one reaction. It could serve 

as abasis to simplify the procedure 

for GMO detection. 

Materials and methods 

As starting material were used: 

certifi 

ed reference GMO free soybeans, 

for positive and negative 

control for RRS soybeans purchased 

from JRC-IRMM, soy free 

chicken sausages and chicken 

sausages that contained soy as an 

ingredient. 

The DNA isolation was performed 

using the CTAB method 

(DOYLE and DOYLE,1987) with some 

slight modifi 

cation (MISKOSKA- 

MILEVSKA et al., 2011)(Fig. 3). 

The soybean DNA detection was 

done using PCR to amplify the part 

of the lectin gene. The used forward 

primer 5’-GCC CTC TAC 

TCC ACC CCC ATC-3’ and reverse 

primer 5’ -GCC CATCTG CAA 

GCC TTT TTG TG -3’(POPPING, 

2001),amplifi 

ed afragment with 

118bpinlength. The reactions 

contained 3.0 mM MgCl2, 0.4 mM 

dNTP, 0.2 pM GM03/GM04, 1U 

Taqpolymerase and 100ngDNA. 

The annealing temperature was at 

60 °C. GM soy DNA was detected 

with the second pair of primers 

RR1F(5’-CATTTG GAC AGG 

ACA CGC TGA-3’) and RR1R 

(5’-GAG CCA TGT TGT TAATTT 

GTG CC- 3’) (WEI et al., 2008). The 

amplicon with alength of 74 bp 

comprehended the end part of 35S 

promoter and the initial part of the 

CTP4 inserted gene. The reactions 

contain 2.5 mM MgCl2,0.4 mM 

dNTP, 0.2 mM RRS1-F/RRS1-R 

and 0,5 UAmpliTaq Gold polymerase 

activated with hot-start. The 

concentration of MgCl2 was optimized 

by changing it in the range 

from 0.5 mM up to 4.5 mM. Optimization 

was done also for the 

annealing temperature, in order to 

fi 

nd an appropriate value for annealing 

the two pairs of primers, 

one for the transgene covering part 

of the CMV 35S promoter and the 

part of the CTP4 EPSPS inserted 

gene, and the second pair for the 

“housekeeping” gene. 

concentration for these reactions 

(Fig. 4A). 

The optimization of the temperature 

was done with 12 different 

values in the range from 55 °C to 

65 °C. The analysis on a2.5% 

agarose gel shows that the 

strength of the signal started to be 

weaker at temperatures above 

62.2 °C (Fig. 4B, #11and #12). The 

rest of the samples that were 

amplifi 

ed at values between 

55.8 °C and 62.2 °C did not show 

any differences in the bands; that 

is an indicator for the possibility 

for primers annealing at the temperatures 

with awider range. 

(Fig. 4B). 

Due to the similar conditions in 

both reactions atrial was con- 

Fig. 3: The DNA isolation was performed using the slightlymodified CTAB method. 

What is the result? 

The results from the MgCl2 optimization 

were visualized on 2.5% 

agarose gel. The samples with 

0.5 mM and 1.0mMMgCl2 did not 

show any fragments, while in the 

samples with 1.5mMand 2.0 mM 

MgCl2 aweak signal was registered. 

The samples that had concentration 

of MgCl2 from 2.5 mM up to 

4.5 mM have shown visible and 

clear fragments. Due to the fact that 

the higher MgCl2 concentration 

usually results in unspecifi 

camplifi 

- 

cation, the 2.5 mM MgCl2 was 

considered to be the most suitable

................................................ 

46 



Innovation in food control 

Source: POPOVSKI et al. FLEISCHWIRTSCHAFT international 1_2017 

Fig. 5: Electrophoregram of duplex PCR: #1–50 bp ladder #2 and #3–GMO-free soy #4–positive control #5–negative control #6–non-specific amplification 

#7–chicken sausages without soy #8 and #9–chicken sausage containing soy. 

ducted to perform aduplex PCR 

with both pairs of primers, one to 

amplify the part of the lectin gene, 

end the second to prove the presence 

of the insert. So,the single 

tube contains 2.5 mM MgCl2, 

0.4 mM dNTP, 0.2 mM primers 

(GM03/GM04 and RRS1-F/RRS1- 

R), 1.0UAmpliTaqGold polymerase 

and 100ngofsoy DNA. 

The annealing temperature of 

60 °C and the needed concentration 

of 2.5 mM MgCl2 were used to 

amplify both fragments at once. 

This double PCR enables faster 

detection of GM soy.The method 

is cheaper and quicker.The results 

gained through the experiment did 

not show false positive or false 

negative values. The verifi 

cation 

was done by agarose gel electrophoresis 

(Fig. 5). 

The positive control (Fig. 5, #4) 

and the samples that contained 

DNA derived from the expression 

box resulted with two fragments of 

118and 74 bp. The negative control 

and the samples that were not 

genetically modifi 

ed resulted with 

just one fragment of 118bpfrom 

the lectin gene. The control did not 

show any fragment; this was aproof 

for the absence of any contamination 

and excludes any possibility of 

false positive results. 

Practicle importance and 

application 

In order to reduce the expenses a 

successful merging of the procedures 

for endogene and transgene 

amplifi 

cation in asingle tube was 

realized. Merging these procedures 

enables faster detection of 

GM-soy presence. 

It offers apossibility to eliminate 

many negative samples before 

the quantifi 

cation step with 

real-time PCR will be taken. The 

results did not show any false 

positive or false negative data. 

They were well-matched with 

those from the separately accomplished 

reactions. 

References 

1. DOYLE,J.J. and DOYLE,J.L. (1987): A 

rapid DNA isolation procedure for small 

quantities of fresh leaf tissue. Phitochem 

Bull. 19,11–15.–2.HOLST-JENSEN, 

A., RONNING,S.B., LOVSETH,A.and BERDAL, 

K.G. (2003): PCR technology for screening 

and quantification of genetically 

modified organisms (GMOs). Anal. 

Bioanal. Chem. 375, 985–993. –3.MEYER, 

R. and JACCAUD,E.(1997): Detection of 

geneticallymodified soya in processed 

food products: development and validation 

of aPCR assay for the specific 

detection of Glyphosate-Tolerant 

Soybeans. Proceedings of the Euro 

Food Chem IX Conference, Interlaken, 

Switzerland, Event No. 220, 1, 23–28. – 

4. MISKOSKA-MILEVSKA,E., POPOVSKI,T.Z, 

DIMITRIEVSKA,B.and PORCU,K.(2011): 

Isolation of DNA for fragment analyses 

from tomato leaves and seeds. XVI 

Savetovanje obiotehnologiji. Zbornik 

radova 16 (18),59–64. –5.MULIS,K.B. 

and FALOONA,F.A. (1987): Specific synthesis 

of DNA in vitro via apolymerase 

catalized chain reaction. Methods in 

Enzymology 155, 335. –6.OXTOBY,E.and 

HUGHES,M.A. (1990): Engineering herbicide 

tolerance into crops. Trends 

Biotech. 8, 61–65. –7.PÖPPING,B.(2001): 

Methods for the detection of geneticallymodified 

organisms: Precision, 

pitfalls and proficiency.International 

Laboratory 31 (4), 23–29. –8.WEI,D., 

LITAO,Y., KAILIN,S., BANGHYUN,K., GIJS,A.K., 

HANS,J.P.M., et al. (2008). GMDD: A 

database of GMO detection methods. 

BMC Bioinformatics 9, 260. –9.WINDELS, 

P.,TAVERNIERS,I., DEPICKER,A., VAN BOCK- 

STAELE,E.and DE LOOSE,M.(2001):Characterizations 

of the roundup ready soybean 

insert. Eur.FoodRes. Tech. 213, 

107–112. 

Author’s addresses 

Prof. Zoran T. Popovski PhD (corresponding 

author: zoran_popovski@yahoo.com), 

University “Ss. Cyril and Methodius” – 

Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Food – 

Institute of Animal Biotechnology, Department 

of Biochemistry and Genetic Engineering, 

Bld. “Aleksandar Makedonski” –bb, 

1000 Skopje, Republic of Macedonia; Ass. 

Prof. Elizabeta Miskoska-Milevska PhD, 

University “Ss. Cyril and Methodius” – 

Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Food – 

Food Institute ,Department of Food Quality 

and Safety, Bld. “Aleksandar Makedonski” – 

bb, 1000 Skopje, Republic of Macedonia; 

Tome Nestorovski, University “Ss. Cyril and 

Methodius” –Faculty of Agricultural 

Sciences and Food –Institute of Animal 

Biotechnology –Department of Biochemistry 

and Genetic Engineering, Bld. “Aleksandar 

Makedonski” –bb, 1000 Skopje, 

Republic of Macedonia; Prof. Zlatko 

Pejkovski PhD, University “Ss. Cyril and 

Methodius” –Faculty of Agricultural 

Sciences and Food –Institute of Animal 

Biotechnology, Department of Technology 

of Animal Products, Bld. “Aleksandar 

Makedonski” –bb, 1000 Skopje, 

Republic of Macedonia.


47 

CALENDAR 

Calendar 

24 –26February 

Yangon, Myanmar 

26 February –2March 

Dubai, UAE 

28 February –3March 

Moscow, Russia 

2–5March 

Istanbul, Turkey 

7–9March 

Rennes, France 

7–10March 

Tokio, Japan 

8March 

Copenhagen, Denmark 

18 –20March 

Athens, Greece 

21 –23March 

Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam 

28. –30March 

Lagos, Nigeria 

Book review 

Profound insights for food industry and consumers 

HOOGENKAMP,H.(2017): Plant 

Protein &DisruptiveDiagnostics 

|The Transformational Food 

Journey for Today'sFuture | 

450 p. |US$ 68,€64 | 

ISBN 9781534787421| 

www.amazon.com 

Myanmar Agriculture Expo, Myanmar Food 

Processing Expo 

MiTAServices Pte. Ltd. &MiTAMyanmar 

( +95 9420 110 666) 

Gulfood 

Dubai World Trade Centre ( +971 4332 1000) 

Dairy &Meat Industry and Ingredients Russia 

ITE Moscow ( +7 499 750 08 28) 

Fotec 

( +90 212 216 40 10) 

Cifa 

GL events Exhibitions ( +33 553367878) 

Foodex Japan 

Japan Management Association 

( +81-3-3434-1238) 

Meat ShowHow 

Marel Meat ( +45 2082 7344) 

Food Expo Greece 

Metropolitan Expo ( +30 210 5242100) 

Pro Pack Vietnam 2017 

SES Vietnam Exhibiton Services Co., Ltd 

( +84 83930 7618) 

Nigeria agrofood 

fairtrade GmbH &Co. KG 

( +49 6221 45 65 14) 

Insights about plant protein and 

disruptive diagnostics 

Henk Hoogenkamp's book “Plant 

Protein &Disruptive Diagnostics” 

tackles topics from food-related 

diseases to malnutrition to organic 

and GMO to dealing with a 

world approaching an epidemic of 

obesity. 

Anew nonfiction work shows 

the challenge of malnutrition in 

the developing world, even as 

Western societies are dealing 

with obesity. 

For most consumers in the 

Western world an abundance of 

animal protein is nearlyalways 

part of the dailydiet, while for 

most in the developing world not 

sufficient animal protein is available. 

Hoogenkamp argues that 

the key to solve this dilemma is 

unlocking the potential of plant 

proteins as well as cellular 

3–6April 

Khartoum, Sudan 

4–6April 

Chicago, USA 

10 –13April 

Algier, Algeria 

22 –24April 

Cairo, Egypt 

25 –27April 

Brussels, Belgium 

25 –27April 

Krasnodar, Russia 

27 –28April 

Mumbai, India 

27 –29April 

Istanbul, Turkey 

4–10May 

Dusseldorf, Germany 

8–11May 2017 

Milano, Italy 

biotechnology that deliver affordable 

nutrition, improve health 

and wellbeing and reduce the 

environmental burden in an era of 

shrinking water and land resources. 

Along with detailed chapters 

discussing plant protein varieties 

such as derived from soy, pea, 

wheat, rice, potato and hemp the 

book explains: 

r Food, water &climate change 

r Sports Nutrition, Wellness & 

Lifestyles 

r Food: People, Plamnet, Profit 

r Glutenfree Protein Solutions 

r Societal Food 

r Diabetes T2: From Bad to Worse 

r Fast Good Food &Family 

r Fiber: ANatural Need for More 

r Lifestyle Diagnostics 

r Real Plant Meat 

r Sugar, Salt Phosphate: Less is 

More 

r Natural &Organic 

r Sarcopenia &Longevity 

AgriAfrica, FoodExAfrica 

Aldowalia Integrated Solutions & 

Management Projects (IMG) Co. Ltd. 

( +249 994 824 977) 

ProFood Tech 

McCormick Exhibition Center 

( +49 221 821-2960) 

Djazagro Algeria 

Safex Exhibition Park ( +33 176771489) 

Food Africa 

IFP Group ( +961 5959 111, -172) 

Seafood Expo 

Seafood Expo Global ( +1 207-842-5590) 

Food Industry Krasnador 

KrasnodarExpo ( +7 861 200-12-34) 

Fresh Produce India 

Asiafruit ( +44 20 7501 3702) 

VIV Turkey 2017 

Hkf Fuarcilik A.S. ( +90 212 216 40 10) 

Interpack 

Messe Düsseldorf GmbH 

( +49 211 456001) 

Tutto Food 

Fiera Milano SPA 

( +39 02 4997 6239) 

Alle Veranstaltungen auch auf www.fleischwirtschaft.de 

Hoogenkamp is born in the 

Netherlands, in his entire professional 

career he has been ahead 

of the curve, many times more 

right than wrong. Many of the 

things he advocated for were 

initiallylooked upon skeptically, 

but are now standard procedure 

in the industry.With honesty and 

lots of inside information, 

Hoogenkamp gives afresh new 

voice to the world of plant protein 

technology and marketing. He 

shares practical know-how reflecting 

the skills needed to feed 

the world with food for tomorrow. 

Along with coining the term 

“Lifestyle Foods” in the 1990s, his 

resume includes pioneering work 

in developing groundbreaking 

applications for milk and plant 

protein ingredients in meatfree 

foods, cream liquers, and cheese 

analogs. 

//www.henkhoogenkamp.com

48 


Service 

Supplement reference 

Please note that this issue contains inserts 

published by: 

REX-Technologie GmbH &Co. KG, 

5303 Thalgau, Austria 

Journal for meatproduction, 

processing and research 

Published by: 

Deutscher Fachverlag GmbH 


Max-Rubner-Institut (MRI), Federal Research Institute of Nutritionand 

Food,Germany (Dr.Andrée –Dr. Bauer –Dr. Brüggemann –Dr. Dederer 

–Dr. Hahn –Dr. Jira –Dr. Judas –Dr. Klotzsche –Dipl.-Ing. Knauer – 

Dr.Kranz –Dr. Kröckel –Dr. Lick –Machtolf –Moje –Dr. Münch – 

Dr.Nitsch –Dr. Scheuer –Dr. Schwägele –Dr. Schwind –Dipl.-Biol. 

Sönnichsen –Dr. Wagner) and the 

GovernmentalTechnical Collegefor Meat Technology, Kulmbach 

Index of advertisers 

AVO-Werke August Beisse GmbH 22 

CSB-System AG 3 

Fessmann GmbH &Co. KG 29 

GEA Food Solutions B.V. 19 

Hela Gewürzwerk 

Hermann Laue GmbH 

IFC 

IFWexpo Heidelberg GmbH 15 

J. Rettenmaier &Söhne 

GmbH +Co. KG 31 

Kerres Anlagensysteme GmbH 33 

KOHLHOFF Hygienetechnik 

GmbH &Co. KG 25 

Marel Stork Poultry Processing B.V. 23 

Marelec Food Technologies 7 

Messe Düsseldorf GmbH 11 

Metalquimia, S.A. 13 

Nock Maschinenbau GmbH 21 

PH Liquid Belgium NV 46 

Productos Sur S.A. 39 

SEALPAC GmbH 6 

VLAM vzw -Belgian Meat Office 

WORLD PACInternational AG 9 

BC 

Yuncheng Hongyuan Sausage 

Casing Co. Ltd. 17 

Company’sRegister Frankfurt am Main 

Registration no.: HRB 8501sales tax identification 

VATReg. no.: DE 114139662 

Postal address for letters and newspapers: 

60264 Frankfurt am Main, Germany 

Postal address for packetsand parcels: 

Mainzer Landstrasse 251 

60326 Frankfurt am Main, Germany 

Phone: Editor +49697595-1571 

Advertising department: +49 69 7595-1854 

Fax: +49 69 7595-1570 

Email: Editor: red-flw@dfv.de 

Advertising department: anz-flw@dfv.de 

Executive Management Board: 

Angela Wisken (Speaker of Management Board), Peter Esser, Markus 

Gotta, Peter Kley, Holger Knapp, Sönke Reimers 

Supervisory board: 

Klaus Kottmeier, Andreas Lorch, Catrin Lorch, 

Peter Ruß 

Publishing director: 

Thomas Wulff -1261 

Object manager: 

Christian Schnücke -1961 

Editors-in-chief: 

Gerd Abeln MA -1571 

Dipl.oec.troph. Renate Kühlcke (kck) -1551 

Editors: 

Yvonne Buch -1572 

Dipl.oec.troph. Kathrin Grünewald -1573 

Dipl.-Ing. Jörg Schiffeler -1554 

Dipl.-Ing. Michael Weisenfels -1575 

Graphic design and layout: 

Dipl.-Des. Johannes Kayser -2575 

Dipl.-Des. Anja Schönauer -1567 

Regular contributors: 

Prof. Dr.Bauer, Austria –Prof. Dr.Böhm, Stuttgart –Brauer, Walluf – 

Prof. Dr.Bülte, Gießen –Prof. Dr.Calkins, USA –Dr. habil. Dolata, 

Poland –Falkenstein, Aulendorf –Prof. Dr.Faustman, USA – 

Prof. Dr.Fehlhaber, Leipzig –Prof. Dr.Fries, Berlin – 

Prof. Dr.Dr. Gareis, München –Dr.-Ing. Haack, Halle – 

Prof. Dr.Hildebrandt, Berlin –Dr. Högg, Bonndorf –Prof. Dr.Huff 

Lonergan, USA –Prof. Dr.Kleiner, Bernburg –Dr. Kuntzer, Fellbach – 

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50 



Methods of differentiating animal species 

in foods –Status quo 

By H.U. Waiblinger, D. Bartsch, J. Brockmeyer, C. Bruenen-Nieweler, U.Busch, I. Haase, A. Hahn, 

M. Haarmann, W.Hauser, I.Huber, K.D. Jany, N. Kirmse, S. Lindeke, K.Neumann, H. Naumann, 

A. Paschke, K. Pietsch, B.Pöpping, R. Reiting, U. Schroeder, F.Schwägele, M.G. Weller and J. Zagon 

Work on standardising methods in the fieldofanimal species differentiation 

has been intensified in Germanyinrecent years, not least due to the horsemeat 

scandal in 2013.Eventhough there are now hardly ever anypositive 

findings anymore in examinations to detecthorse adulterations in foods 

such as lasagne, animal species differentiation altogether ranks high in 

detecting adulteration of foods. This articletherefore summarises the current 

status of analytical techniques used in Germanywith standardisation at 

German level. It has been established by the working group “Biochemical 

and Molecular Biological Analytics” of the Lebensmittelchemische 

Gesellschaft (FoodChemistry Society within the German Chemical Society) 

with support of experts in the working group “Molecular biologytechniques 

for differentiating plant and animal species” (§ 64 of the German Food and 

Feed Code –LFGB) and the “Immunologyand molecular biology” task force 

of the food hygiene and food of animal origin working group (ALTS), both 

from Germany. 

Analytical methods for 

detecting animal species 

At present molecular biology techniques on the basis of real-time polymerase 

chain reaction (PCR) and DNA chips as well as immunological 

methods (e.g. ELISA) are mainlyused. In addition, applications of mass 

spectroscopy (LC-MS) techniques have been published (VON BARGEN,2013 

and 2014;WATSON,2015;OHANA,2016). 

Over 20-year-old methods for analysing proteins on the basis of electrophoresis 

and isolelectric focusing exist in the official collection of 

analytical techniques (ASU L06.00-19,1990, ASU L01.00-39, 1995). These 

are now onlyapplied in isolated cases, but they currentlyrepresent the 

onlyofficial methods for animal species differentiation in milk and dairy 

products. The corresponding techniques for meat and meat products can 

be used for raw (PAGE) and heated (PAGIF) products. In most cases the 

detection limit is around 5%, which is why these methods are suitable for 

identifying non-declared admixtures upwards of this concentration. 

PCR-based and other molecular biology 

detection methods 

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), aDNA amplification technique, represents 

asensitive technique for detecting animal species in foods. 

Species-specific genes encoded in the cell nucleus can be used for 

detection, as described for growth hormone genes (MEYER,1995a) and 

phosphodiesterase gene (LAUBE,2007) and, more recently, for other targets 

(DRUML,2015a und b; ROJAS,2011; MERZ,2016). Frequently, however, conserved 

sequence segments from the mitochondrial (mt) genome serve as 

target sequence, especiallyasegment of the gene of the cytochrome c 

oxidase subunit I(COI or cox1) (HEBERT,2003) and the cytochrome bgene 

(MEYER,1995b; MATSUNAGA,1999). However chromosomal coded segments 

may also be suitable for this, for instance the myostatin gene occurring in 

mammals and poultry (LAUBE,2007). Using “universal primers” that bind to 

such conserved sequences, it is possible to amplify DNA sequences in a 

cross-species manner.The animal species are then identified by sequencing, 

specific probe binding real-time PCR, melting point analysis or restriction 

fragment analysis. 

Animal species differentiation via DNA chip 

It is also possible to use acommerciallyavailable method on the basis of 

aDNA chip to screen for animal species, e.g. products of unknown composition 

(IWOBI,2011).Alongside the major mammal/livestock species, 

game (e.g. roe deer, red deer, kangaroo) and poultry species (e.g. goose, 

pheasant, ostrich, duck species) are also covered. The differentiation is 

based on species-specific differences in asequence of the mt 16SrRNA 

gene of the animal species. In PCR, biotinylated primers are used. In the 

subsequent hybridisation reaction, the corresponding biotinylated amplificates 

bind to species-specific oligonucleotide probes immobilised 

on achip. The detection is carried out via an enzyme substrate cascade 

using alkaline phosphatase coupled with streptavidin and subsequent 

colour reaction. The evaluation is carried out with the chip scanner and 

the associated software. 

The method is purelyqualitative and is suitable for mixtures. The 

detection limit is, case-depend, between 0.1% and 1%. 

Multiplex methods 

In 2008 and 2011,KÖPPEL et al. presented two real-time PCR methods for 

simultaneous species-specific determination of four different animal 

species, each: cattle, pig, turkey and hen (“All Meat”) (KÖPPEL,2008) and 

then cattle, pig, equidae and sheep (“All Horse”) (KÖPPEL,2011).Byusing 

calibrators or by calibrating with DNA extracts from materials of defined 

composition, the DNA-based methods were applied to quantify the 

quantity of the respective animal species (KÖPPEL,2012). In addition, the 

methods were trialled on (processed) meat products. The condition for 

using these methods with regard to percentage ratios is that no further 

animal species apart from the respective four animal species may be 

present. 

Amatrix-independent approach for simultaneous detection of different 

animal species, e.g. cattle, pig, equidae and sheep was published by 

IWOBI et al. (2015 and 2017). In these multiplex real-time PCR methods, the 

myostatin gene is used as areference gene in combination with animal 

species-specific standard series for quantifying the DNA ratios of the 

respective animal species. This method has already proven successful in 

meat products, dairy products and feedstuffs. 

Digital PCR 

Keywords 

» Animal species differentiation 

» Fish species 

» PCR 

» Standardisation 

Initial applications of the ‘digital PCR’ which allows standard-independent 

quantification at DNA level have been published (FLOREN,2015; 

CAI, 2014). Further development and testing for practicability are underway.

......................................................................................................... 


51 


Sensitivity 

PCR-based methods for detecting animal species generallyachieve 

detection limits in the range of 0.1% in compound foods (LAUBE,2007; 

KÖPPEL,2012). In particular when using universal primer systems, it is 

possible that in mixtures of different animal or fish species, the target 

fragments are amplified to different extents of efficiency, depending on 

the species. This can adverselyaffect the sensitivity of the detection in 

certain cases (PIETSCH and WAIBLINGER,2010). 

Quantification 

Under the conditions described above, multiplex real-time PCR techniques 

make it possible to quantify species-specific DNA sequences and 

to determine the ratios of these DNA sequences to each other (IWOBI et 

al., 2016). 

When considering the question of whether acorrelation exists between 

DNA ratios and weight ratios of animals in mixed samples, the 

following aspects are among those which must be taken into account: in 

fatty tissue, compared to meat (muscle tissue), there is generallyless 

(around 30%) DNA. Offal such as liver and heart contain 10 to 25 times as 

much DNA (originating from mitochondria and the cell nucleus) as muscles 

(SCHWÄGELE,2003). When using PCR systems based on target sequences 

from mtDNA, it must also be taken into consideration that the 

number of mitochondria in animal cells can fluctuate very stronglyfor 

example depending on the animal species and tissue (SCHWÄGELE,2003). In 

fish roe, mtDNA is the prevailing DNA form (REHBEIN,2003). 

ELISA methods 

Immunochemical methods such as e.g. Sandwich ELISA (Enzyme Linked 

Immunosorbent Assay) or LFD (Lateral Flow Device; Dipsticks) are also 

frequentlyused in routine work. Generallykits provided by commercial 

suppliers are used. For example, detection methods for the main livestock 

species in raw or heated products such as pig/wild boar, cattle/ 

bison, sheep/goat or equidae (horse, mule, donkey etc.) and deer as a 

game species are available. The test kits detect animal species-specific 

proteins in both, unheated and heated meat products. 

German standard methods for animal species differentiation 

Tab.: Overview of the status quo in standardisation of animal differentiation analyses (except for isoelectric focusing) 

Designation Method Matrix Animal Remarks/Characteristics/Results 

species 

§35L06.00-47 ELISA heated meat products cattle Detection limit =2%;noquantitative data 

§64L08.00-61 Multiplex 

real-time PCR 

sausage products cattle Qualitative to semiquantitative technique: 

> 1% (DNA%) reliablyexceeded at 2.3 wt%; 

> 5% (DNA%) at 12.2 wt% 

pig 

Qualitative to semiquantitative technique: 


> 5% (DNA%) at 1wt% 

chicken Qualitative to semiquantitative technique: 


> 5% (DNA%) at 7.8wt% 

turkey Qualitative to semiquantitative technique: 


> 5% (DNA%) at 7.8wt% 

§64L08.00-62 

Multiplex 

real-time PCR 

sausage products cattle Qualitative to semiquantitative technique: 


> 5% (DNA%) at 6.8 wt% 

pig 

Qualitative to semiquantitative technique: 

> 1% (DNA%) reliablyexceeded at 0.9 wt% 

sheep Qualitative to semiquantitative technique: 


> 5% (DNA%) at 5.3 wt% 

equidae Qualitative to semiquantitative technique: 


> 5% (DNA%) at 8.5 wt% 

(animal species: horse) 

§35L06.00-47 ELISA heated meat products pig Detection limit =0.2 to 0.5 %; no quantitative data 

§35L06.00-47 ELISA heated meat products poultry Detection limit =0.2 to 0.5 %; no quantitative data 

§64L06.26/27-2 PCR-RFLP fullypreserved meat horse qualitative technique, specificallyfor animal species 

horse; detection limit 1wt% 

§35L11.00-7 PCR (cytb) – 

RFLP 

fish 

(raw/heated) 

fish 36 fish species from the hake, eel, sardine, salmon/trout 

and flatfish families tested 

§64L10.00-12 PCR (cytb) – 

Sequencing 

§64L12.01-3 PCR (16S rRNA) – 

Sequencing 

fish 

(raw/heated) 

Legend: §64/§35=Methodinthe Official Collection of Analysis Techniques 

fish 

6coded samples of plaice, sole, witch flounder, turbot, 

common dab 

and Pacific dab tested 

crustacean products crustaceans 6coded samples of black tiger shrimp, scampi/ Norway 

lobster, edible crab, Rosenbergii shrimp, northern deep 

water shrimp and white tiger shrimp tested 

Source: WAIBLINGER et al. FLEISCHWIRTSCHAFT international 1_2017

52 



Methods of differentiating animal species in foods –Status quo 

An advantage here is the large sample weight (generally25g)provided 

for in some protocols by comparison with e.g. PCR-based methods, as 

this allows more representative sampling of large sample volumes. 

The detection limits stated by the manufacturer or cited in literature 

are in the range of 0.05 to 5%. However, the achievable level of sensitivity 

depends stronglyonthe animal species, the nature of the meat component 

used (muscle meat or inner organs) and the extent to which the food 

to be examined has been processed. In the case of highlyheated foods, 

the detection limit rises steeplydue to denaturation/destruction of the 

target proteins, so that incorrect negative results in highlytreated (e.g. 

canned) samples cannot be ruled out. In dry, scalded and cooked 

sausages, a1%meat component is generallyidentified safely. 

Furthermore, there are commercial methods which detect not onlyone 

or afew species, but also relativelylarge, phylogeneticallyrelated 

groups such as poultry or ruminants. In the latter case, anti-body-based 

kits are offered that are reportedlysuitable for products which have 

been heated to extremelyhigh temperatures (up to 150°C) and treated 

under strong pressure, such as e.g. meat-and-bone meals. Heat-stable 

target proteins named by kit manufacturers (e.g. Transia or Neogen) or 

cited in literature are for example troponin I(CHEN,2002) or h-Caldesmon 

(KIM,2004). 

Ring trials have been conducted above all with kits for detecting 

ruminants in highlyprocessed meat-and-bone meals (FUMIÈRE,2009; VAN 

RAAMSDONK,2012). The desired detection limit of 0.1% (w/w) for ruminant 

material heated up to 133°C/20 min/3 bar in compound feed has not 

been reached with the available commercial kits so far. 

In view of the differing composition of foods and different production 

methods, the animal species detections using ELISA are therefore to be 

classified as purelyqualitative. 

Animal species differentiation 

using LC-MS-MS 

The development of mass-spectrometry methods for differentiating 

animal species is as yet astill relativelynew technique that is encountering 

increasing interest in research, and in isolated cases is already 

being used in routine analyses. 

In particular targeted proteomics, in other words the targeted massspectrometry 

detection of enzymaticallygenerated marker peptides, is 

becoming established as an alternative method of species identification. 

For this it is first necessary to identify sequence polymorphisms (insertions, 

deletions, amino acid exchanges) in the proteome that are specific 

for the species to be identified. Identification of these peptides can 

be carried out via databases. Frequentlythese databases are not complete, 

however, so that experimental identification of these polymorphisms 

by means of high-resolution mass spectrometry becomes necessary.Marker 

peptides that contain the corresponding sequence polymorphisms 

can then be detected sensitivelyand specificallythrough 

mass spectrometry, even on routine equipment. Detection of horse or pig 

in beef now manages this with detection limits of up to around 0.1%, 

even in processed foods (VON BARGEN,2013, VON BARGEN,2014). The signal 

conditions of corresponding marker peptides from homologous proteins 

of the species to be differentiated can be used for relative quantification 

of mixtures of different species (WATSON,2015). Alternative approaches to 

animal species differentiation use the direct comparison of alarge 

number of MS/MS spectra (spectral matching) in order to achieve differentiation 

without prior identification of marker peptides (OHANA,2016). 

This omits the need for partiallycostlyidentification of specific biomarkers, 

but for each measurement of an unknown sample at least 2000 

MS/MS spectra have to be generated here and compared with spectral 

libraries in order to allow authentication. 

Molecular biology methods for 

differentiating fish species 

Today, PCR sequencing with universal primers is the method of choice 

for differentiating fish species (GRIFFITH et al., 2014). The mitochondrial 

markers cytochrome b(cytb) and cytochrome coxidase subunit I(cox1) 

are predominantlyused. While according to the publications, cytb was 

preferred for fish species differentiation up to the year 2007 (TELETCHEA, 

2009), agrowing trend in the direction of cox1can be noted. This is due 

not least to the “International Barcode of Life (iBOL)” Initiative (HEBERT et 

al., 2003). Mitochondrial gene markers satisfy the condition regarding 

high interspecific and low intraspecific variability for reliable identification 

(WARD et al., 2005). In view of approx. 33000 different fish species 

(Fishbase), the identification represents amajor challenge. Various 

universal M13-marked cox1primer cocktails for barcoding of fish were 

first presented by the working group IVANOVA et al. (2007). In this study 

the cox1-cocktail COI-3 was convincing regarding PCR and sequencing 

success, so that within the context of the EU “Labelfish” project a 

standard operating procedure (SOP) with this cocktail was developed 

and validated in an international ringtrial (publication pending). 

In addition, further mitochondrial markers are used, such as for example 

the 16SrRNA gene which is to be classified more as conserved and is 

used for confirmation of an unknown fish sample (REHBEIN and OLIVEIRA, 

2012), or the variable control region gene used for clear differentiation of 

closelyrelated fish species such as tuna fish (Thunnus spp.) (VIŇAS and 

TUDELA,2009). Especiallywhen allocation of the fish species is rendered 

more difficult for instance by hybridisations, introgressions and few SNP 

(Single-Nucleotide-Polymorphism) differences, as in the case of tuna 

fish species, it is advisable to conduct FINS (ForensicallyInformative- 

Nucleotide-Sequencing) with avariable mitochondrial and anuclear 

marker (VIŇAS and TUDELA,2009). The use of anuclear marker alone, such 

as the intron-free rhodopsin gene 1(Rh1),shows limitations when differentiating 

between species of the same genus, e.g. in the case of eels 

(Anguilla spp.) or sturgeons (Acipenser spp.) (REHBEIN,2013). 

Traditionallythe RFLP, SSCP or sequencing of an amplicon from the 

16SrRNA gene are frequentlycarried out to detect mussels and crustaceans 

(MARÍN et al., 2013;SCHIEFENHÖVEL and REHBEIN,2010). However, cox1 

barcoding is also becoming increasinglymore popular for differentiating 

between mussels and crustaceans by providing suitable primer systems 

(LOBO et al., 2013;GELLER et al., 2013). 

Until recently, Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) techniques were 

limited to the area of fish, molluscs and crustaceans in biodiversity 

studies. To identify species on the basis of pyrosequencing, the research 

group DE BATTISTI et al. (2013)developed techniques for diverse 

fish species, while the research group ABBADI et al. (2016)developed 

techniques for various mussel types. However, these techniques only 

consider individuals and not mixtures. In the meantime, afew papers 

have been published that describe the NGS method for identifying animal 

and plant species in unknown mixed samples as well. There are NGS 

approaches that carry out an analysis via the classic barcode sequence 

regions and also non-targeted techniques (STAATS et al., 2016;RIPP et al., 

2014). 

Quick methods 

In order to achieve fast and high sample throughputs in species differentiation 

of fisheries products, quick methods or screening applications 

are increasinglybeing developed alongside the conventional PCR sequencing 

method. 

Real-Time PCR 

While the developments in real-time PCR techniques for mussels (SÁNCHEZ 

et al., 2014)and cephalopods (HERRERO et al., 2012;ESPIŇEIRA and VIEITES, 

2012)have been very clearlystructured to date (there have been none 

for crustaceans so far), in recent years anumber of different qualitativelyoriented 

single, duplex and multiplex applications have been 

published for relevant fish species. In this context we can name, for 

example, the real-time PCR techniques for detecting the oilfish Lepidocybium 

flavobrunneum and Ruvettus pretiosus (GIUSTI et al., 2016), the 

European eel (Anguilla anguilla )byESPIŇEIRA and VIEITES (2016), as well as 

sole (Solea solea)byHERRERO et al. (2014)and tuna fish (CHUANG et al., 

2012). Commercial real-time PCR kits are already available on the market 

for various salmonid and gadoid species and for the European hake


53 


(Merluccius merluccius ), as well as for differentiating between white and 

black halibut. 

Microarray and LAMP 

The microarray developed within the context of the EU project “Fish & 

Chips” (2004–2007), which enabled differentiation of fish species with 

the aid of oligonucleotide probes, based on the mt genes cytb, cox1 

and the 16S-rRNA (KOCHZIUS et al., 2010), should be mentioned. The 

focus here lays on the selection of fish species for monitoring biodiversity.Invarious 

proof-of-concept studies, further DNA chips were 

presented for identifying different fish species such as e.g. salmonids, 

Korean rays, eels and catfish. In view of the still relativelyhigh apparatus 

requirements for the fluorescence-based detection systems and 

the associated costs prevailing at the time of development, DNA chips 

for fish species have not yet become established. 

For on-site examinations, the LAMP (loop-mediated isothermal 

amplification) based quick test TwistFlow® Red Snapper from the firm 

TwistDx in the United Kingdom for detecting Lutjanus campechanus 

deserves mention. The isothermal DNA amplification method proceeds 

at constant temperatures and, as recentlydescribed for detecting 

Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua )(SAULL et al., 2015), represents an interesting 

alternative to PCR. 

ELISA 

In isolated cases commercial ELISA tests are available for identifying fish 

species, e.g. in raw or cooked pangasius. However, the ELISA manual 

points out that wherever possible fresh fillet should be used. 

Animal species differentiation in dairy products 

Arelativelyold, protein analysis technique on the basis of isoelectric 

focusing (ASU, 1995) can be used to monitor sheep and goat cheese 

for bovine components. The gel-specific detection and determination 

limit is in the range of 1to3%ineach case. The method is not suitable 

for mixtures with whey cheese, as the casein band is used for quantification. 

In the meantime multiplex real-time PCR methods for use in milk and 

dairy products have also been published and trialled in aring trial 

(RENTSCH,2013). These comprise atriplex PCR designated as 

“AllCheese” in which the chromosomallyencoded, species-specific 

sequences of cattle, sheep and goat are amplified, as well as a 

tetraplex PCR designated as “AllMilk” in which the mt cytochrome b 

gene sequences of cattle, sheep, goat and water buffalo are used as 

target sequence for the PCR. The “AllMilk” method displays astrong 

cross-reaction between sheep and goat, but possesses better sensitivity 

and lower measurement uncertainty than the “AllCheese” 

method. The latter displays better specificity, especiallybetween 

goat and sheep. 

Within the context of the ring trial, calibration was carried out with 

both DNA mixtures and matrix calibrators (cheese produced from defined 

components of milk of the said animal species). In the quantitative 

evaluation of the ring trial, the authors came to the conclusion 

that both methods are suitable for differentiating unavoidable traces 

(< 1wt%) and admixtures (> 5wt%). In particular in the case of ripened 

cheese, reduced sensitivity can be expected as aresult of DNA degradation 

(RENTSCH,2013). 

Interlaboratory studies 

In the meantime regular interlaboratory examinations are being conducted 

in the field of animal species differentiation (including fish 

species) (LVU, FAPAS). The evaluations to date are purelyqualitative. 

Experience gained so far shows that PCR and ELISA techniques are 

basicallysuitable for qualitative differentiation. However, in the case 

of foods heated to high temperatures, the detection limit of the ELISAbased 

test systems rises so steeplythat incorrect negative results 

cannot be ruled out. In the case of highlyheated foods, therefore, 

PCR-based methods should preferablybeused. 

Reference materials 

The company LGC (GB) offers reference materials for the animal species 

turkey, chicken, sheep, horse, cattle and pig, as well as mixtures of 5% 

and 1% cattle, turkey or chicken in mutton on the market. Furthermore, 

materials of defined composition from interlaboratory studies and ring 

trials are available to laboratories (e.g. working group ERFA (CH), LVU, 

FAPAS). 

Method standardisation, status quo 

The table describes the available standard methods for animal species 

differentiation using molecular biology methods or ELISA published so 

far within the context of the Official Collection of Analysis Methods in 

accordance with §64LFGB (German Food and Feed Code). 

Mammals/livestock 

An animal species determination method using ELISA (ASU L06.00-47, 

2002) dating back to 2002 is described in the Official Collection. ELISA 

systems for detecting pig, cattle, sheep and poultry were tested. The 

method is described as aqualitative technique, no quantitative evaluation 

is available. Depending on the animal species and degree of 

processing, the detection limits lay between 0.2% and more than 2%. 

Since then, no further standardisation of methods for animal species 

differentiation using ELISA has been carried out. 

Amethod for detecting horse based on the qualitative, PCR with subsequent 

restriction digestion (gel-based detection) dating from 2007 

was published in the Official Collection. The method is specific for the 

animal species horse and the detection limit is 0.1%. 

Twomultiplex real-time PCR methods for animal species determination 

based on the method published by KÖPPEL et al. in 2008 and 2011 were 

recentlypublished in the Official Collection. The “AllMeat” method was 

also tested in aring trial in Switzerland (EUGSTER et al, 2009). With regard 

to the “All Horse” method, it should be noted that the detection covers 

not onlyhorse, but also other equidae such as donkey or zebra. According 

to the quantitative ring trial evaluation for the systems “All Meat” (ASU 

L08.00-61, 2016)and ”All Horse” (ASU L08.00-62, 2016), however, the 

variation is relativelyhigh in each case. For instance, with aDNA share of 

50% the variation is from 31.8% to 68.2% (All Meat) or from 32.9% to 

67.1% (All Horse). If the DNA amount is determined to be e.g. 10%, the 

measurement uncertainty is 4.3% to 19.7% (All Meat) or 4.8% to 18.7% 

(AllHorse) results. This means that the methods can be used primarilyfor 

qualitative detection. With restrictions, following the validation reports 

on the methods, they can also be used as semi-quantitative screening 

techniques. 

Fish/crustaceans 

APCR-RFLP technique for differentiating fish species was included in 

the Official Collection already in 2002. Asequence region of the cytochrome 

bgene is amplified and then differentiated by means of 

restriction analysis. Not least due to the increasing diversity of the 

fish species to be differentiated and the limited differentiating possibilities 

of gel-based restriction analysis, amodified technique with 

differentiation of the cytochrome bamplificates via sequencing analysis 

and identification of the animal species via database comparison 

was published. This makes awide-ranging differentiation of fish 

species possible. Asimilar method which amplifies an mt cytochrome 

coxidase gene sequence parenthesis and differentiates by means of 

sequence analysis was recentlytried out in an international ring trial 

within the framework of the Labelfish project (European Union INTER- 

REG Atlantic Area Program-Project 2011-1/163) (previouslyunpublished 

results). 

Since 2012,aPCR/sequencing technique based on the amplification 

and sequence analysis of a16S rRNA gene segment has also been available 

for differentiating crustaceans. 

The techniques each have aqualitative character and can be used on 

materials that consists of one fish or one crustacean species.

54 



Outlook 

Standardised techniques are available for differentiating mammal, fish 

and crustacean species. The techniques are primarilyqualitative in 

character.Inmixtures the detection limits are approx. 0.1to1%. 

Methods that include differentiation by means of conventional sequence 

analysis allow abroad species differentiation. However, these 

methods are less suitable for differentiation in mixtures. There have 

been some developments here in the field of NGS in recent years that will 

allow the use of NGS methods for analysing mixed samples in routine 

work as well in future. Accordinglysome service laboratories are already 

offering this analysis method. 

For screening of abroader spectrum of animal species, acommercial 

system on the basis of aDNA chip is also suitable. 

LC-MS/MS methods for animal species differentiation have not yet 

been adopted in routine analysis, but they certainlyhave potential for 

this. Further developments in this field remain to be awaited, and the 

same applies for Digital PCR (ddPCR). 

The techniques of animal species determination via multiplex realtime 

PCR now included in the Official Collection can be used, especially 

with suitable matrix calibrators, in asemi-quantitative manner as well 

and thus for separating unavoidable trace contamination (


55 


cessed scallops by multiplex PCR. Food Control 32,472–476. –40. MATSUNAGA,T., K. 

CHIKUNI,R.TANABE,S.MUROYA,K.SHIBATA,J.YAMADA and Y. SHINMURA (1999): Aquick and 

simple method for the identification of meat species and meat products by PCR 

assay.Meat Science 51,143–148. –41. MERZ,A., K. PÄLCHEN,D.SEBAH,U.BUSCH and I. 

HUBER (2016)Matrix-unabhängige Quantifizierung von Rind- und Wasserbüffel-DNA- 

Anteilen mittels real-time-PCR in Fleischerzeugnissen und Milcherzeugnissen. 

Lebensmittelchemie 70 (81),112.–42. MEYER,R., U. CANDRIAN and J. LUTHY (1994): 

Detection of pork in heated meat products by the polymerase chain reaction. 

Journal of AOAC International 77,617–622. –43. MEYER,R., C. HÖFELEIN,J.LÜTHY and 

U. CANDRIAN (1995): Polymerase chain reaction –restriction fragment length polymorphism 

analysis: asimple method for species identification in foods. Journal of 

AOAC International 78,1542–1551. –44. OHANA,D., H. DALEBOUT,R.J. MARISSEN,T.WULFF, 

J. BERGQUIST,A.M. DEELDER and M. PALMBLAD (2016): Identification of meat products by 

shotgun spectral matching. Food Chem 203,28–34. –45. PIETSCH,K.and H.U. 

WAIBLINGER (2010): Polymerase Chain Reaction –Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism 

Analysis. Molecular Biological and Immunological Techniques and Application 

for Food Chemists. Edited by B. Popping et al., Wiley-Verlag New York. – 

46. REHBEIN,H.and B. HORSTKOTTE (2003): Proceedings of the TAFT 2003 conference, 

Reykjavik, Island, 190–192(www.rf.is/TAFT2003 ). –47. REHBEIN,H.(2013): Differentiation 

of fish species by PCR-based DNA analysis of nuclear genes. Eur Food Res 

Technol 236,979–990. –48. RENTSCH,J.S.WEIBEL,J.RUF,A.EUGSTER,K.BECK and R. 

KÖPPEL (2013): Interlaboratory validation of two multiplex quantitative real-time PCR 

methods to determine species DNA of cow, sheep and goat as ameasure of milk 

proportions in cheese. Eur Food Res Technol 236, 217–227.–49. RIPP,F., C.F. 

KROMBHOLZ,Y.LIU,M.WEBER,A.SCHÄFER,B.SCHMIDT,R.KÖPPEL and T. HANKELN (2014): 

All-Food-Seq (AFS): aquantifiable screen for species in biological samples by deep 

DNA sequencing. BMC Genomics 15,639. –50. ROJAS,M., I. GONZÁLEZ,M.A. PAVÓN, 

N. PEGELS,P.E. HERNÁNDEZ,T.GARCÍA and R. MARTÍN (2011): Application of areal-time PCR 

assay for the detection of ostrich (Struthio camelus )mislabelling in meat products 

from the retail market. Food Control 22 (3–4), 523–531sowie Corrigendum: Food 

Control (2013) 32,736. –51. SÁNCHEZ,A., J. QUINTEIRO,M.REY-MÉNDEZ,R.I. PEREZ-MARTÍN 

and C.G. SOTELO (2014): Identification and quantification of two species of oyster 

larvae using real-time PCR. Aquat. Living Resour 27,135–145. –52. SAULL,J., C. 

DUGGAN,HOBBS and T. EDWARDS (2016): The detection of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua ) 

using loop mediated isothermal amplification in conjunction with simplified DNA 

extraction process. Food Control 59,306–313.–53. SCHWÄGELE,F.(2003): Noch 

Forschungsbedarf bei PCR –Real-time PCR liefert nur bedingt verlässliche Ergebnisse 

zur Bestimmung verwendeter Tierarten, Fleischwirtschaft 83 (9), 78. –54. 

STAATS,M., A.J. ARULANDHU,B.GRAVENDEEL,A.HOLST-JENSEN,I.SCHOLTENS,T.PEELEN,T.W. 

PRINS and E. KOK (2016): Advances in DNA metabarcoding for food and wildlife forensic 

species identification. Anal Bioanal Chem 408 (17), 4615–4630. –55. TILLMAR,A., 

B. DELL'AMICO,J.WELANDER and G. HOLMLUND (2013): AUniversal Method for Species 

Identification of Mammals Utilizing Next Generation Sequencing for the Analysis of 

DNA Mixtures. PLOS one 8 (12), e83761. –56. VAN RAAMSDONK,L.W.D., R.J.C.F. MARGY, 

R.G.C. VAN KAATHOVEN and M.G.E.C. BREMER (2012)Detection of animal proteins in aqua 

feed. RIKILTReport 2012.014,online: http://edepot.wur.nl/239044 .–57. VIŇAS,J. 

and S. TUDELA (2009): Avalidated methodology for genetic identification of tuna 

species (Genus Thynnus ). PLos ONE 4(10):e7606. Doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007606. 

–58. VON BARGEN,C., J. DOJAHN,D.WAIDELICH,H.U. HUMPF and J. BROCKMEYER (2013)New 

sensitive high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry 

method for the detection of horse and pork in halal beef. J. Agric. Food Chem 61, 

11986–11994. –59. VON BARGEN,C., J. BROCKMEYER and H.U. HUMPF (2014): Meat authentication: 

anew HPLC-MS/MS based method for the fast and sensitive detection of 

horse and pork in highlyprocessed food. J. Agric. Food Chem 62,9428–9435. – 

60. WATSON,A.D., Y. GUNNING,N.M. RIGBY,M.PHILO and E.K. KEMSLEY (2015): Meat Authentication 

via Multiple Reaction Monitoring Mass Spectrometry of Myoglobin Peptides. 

Anal. Chem. 87,10315–10322 

Authors’ address 

H.U. Waiblinger (corresponding author: hans-ulrich.waiblinger@cvuafr.bwl.de), D. Bartsch, 

J. Brockmeyer, C. Bruenen-Nieweler, U. Busch, I. Haase, A. Hahn, M. Haarmann, W. Hauser, I. Huber, 

K.D. Jany, N. Kirmse, S. Lindeke, K. Neumann, H. Naumann, A. Paschke, K. Pietsch, B. Pöpping, 

R. Reiting, U. Schroeder, F. Schwägele, M.G. Weller and J. Zagon, Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt 

Freiburg, Bissierstr.5,79114 Freiburg, Germany 

University of Georgia 

Support for SA poultry farmers 

Mike Lacy, professor emeritus and 

former head of the University of 

Georgia Department of Poultry 

Science located at Athens, Georgia, 

USA, has been tapped by the 

U.S. Department of State to help 

train agricultural extension agents 

in South Africa and to provide 

support to poultry farmers there. 

Lacy, who retired from UGA in 

2016,will travel to South Africa in 

Mike Lacy is aprofessor emeritus 

and retired department head of 

the University of Georgia 

Department of Poultry Science. 

February 2017 as part of the Department 

of State’sFulbright Specialist 

Program, asponsored exchange 

program for academics and 

professionals. 

He worked in UGA Cooperative 

Extension poultry housing research 

for many years before entering 

administration. He led outreach 

trips to African countries throughout 

his career.Inaddition to assisting 

fledgling poultry industries, 

teams from UGA poultry science 

worked to build the capacity for 

rural, smallholder farmers, many of 

whom are women, to manage 

small-scale poultry flocks. 

Lacy will work with the World 

Poultry Foundation and the 

KwaZulu-Natal Poultry Institute to 

provide assistance to historically 

disadvantaged poultry producers 

who have faced significant production 

constraints due to high 

feed costs, absence of disease 

control and asevere lack of educational 

resources. 

//www.uga.edu 

Zhejiang Gongshang University 

Consortium to boost food science in China 

Five universities have joined forces 

to establish ajoint knowledge 

base for international food companies 

to access the Chinese market, 

and promote their food science 

and nutrition work in the country. 

Massey University in New Zealand, 

through the Riddet Institute 

Centre of Research Excellence, has 

signed aMemorandum of Understanding 

(MOU) with The University 

of Leeds, United Kingdom, Wageningen 

University and Research, 

the Netherlands and Zhejiang 

Gongshang University, China, creating 

anew International Consortium 

in food science and nutrition. 

Professor Harjinder Singh, Co- 

Director of Riddet Institute and 

Director of the Massey Institute of 

Food Science and Technology led 

the Massey delegation to China. 

“This international consortium will 

provide an excellent platform for 

our staff and students to enhance 

research capability and capacity at 

different universities. The combined 

expertise of the four highly 

ranked universities in food science 

will be attractive to international 

food industry and will bring in new 

partnerships and funding,” he said. 

The MOU is aformalisation of the 

four universities in order to provide 

consistency, and afocal point for 

the preparation and administration 

of the Consortium for collaboration 

and cooperation. 

//www.zjgsu.edu.cn 

The Zhejiang 

Gongshang 

University is Chinas 

most traditional 

business school.

................................. 

56 



Storage stability of chicken meat 

incorporated noodles at ambient 

temperature under aerobic condition 

By Akhilesh K. Verma, V.Pathak, Pramila Umaraw and V. P. Singh 

The effectofchicken meat incorporation in rice flour based noodlesand 

its preservation was studied. Nutritional composition, pH, water activity 

(aw), free fatty acid (FFA), thiobarbituric acid reacting substances (TBARS), 

water absorption index (WAI), water solubility index (WSI), texture profile,microbial 

quality and sensory characteristics were investigated during 

30 days storage time at ambient temperature. The results showed that the 

moisture, aw,TBARS, FFA, WAI, total platecounts, yeast and mould 

counts and crispiness values increased significantly (P

............................................ 

............................................ 


57 


chicken meat while the treated group had 50% minced chicken meat. 

Noodles were formed by amanuallyoperated stainless steel extruder 

into around shape in atray and were dried in ahot air oven (SciTech) at 

65±2 °C for the required time (7 to 8h). The dried and cooled noodles 

were manuallybroken into 10 to 15 cm and were packed and sealed with 

asealer (Singhal, HSP-200, India) in pre-sterilised LDPE. The LDPE bags 

containing chicken meat noodles and control were kept at ambient 

temperature for further analysis of different physico-chemical parameters 

(moisture, fat, protein, crude fibre and ash), pH, water activity (aw), 

water absorption index (WAI), water solubility index (WSI), free fatty acid 

(FFA), 2-Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) value, textural 

profile analysis (TPA), microbial quality and sensory attributes during the 

storage study at ambient temperature of 35±2 °C up to 30 days. 

Analytical techniques 

Proximate composition 

The moisture, protein, fat and ash content of the chicken meat noodles 

were determined following standard methods as per (AOAC 1995). 

Crude fiber 

Crude fiber was determined by refluxing 2gof each sample with 100mlof 

0.3 NH2SO4 for 1h.The hot mixture was filtered through afibre sieve cloth. 

The residue obtained was returned to the flask and refluxed for another 

1hwith 100mlof0.3N NaOH solution. The mixture was filtered through a 

sieve cloth and the residue washed with 10 ml of acetone. The residue 

was then washed with 50 ml hot distilled water twice on the sieve cloth 

before it was finallytransferred into the crucible. The crucible with 

residue was oven dried at 105°Covernight, and weighed. The crucible and 

its content was then transferred into amuffle furnace set at 550 °C and 

heated for 4h,cooled and re-weighed. The weight of crude fibre was 

then calculated as g/100gof original sample (SAURA-CALIXTO et al. 1983). 

pH 

The pH of the noodles was determined according to (TROUT et al., 1992) by 

blending 10 gofsample with 100mldistilled water for 1min. using pestle 

and mortar.The pH of the suspension was recorded by dipping acombined 

glass electrode of an Elico pH meter (Model LI 127). 

Water activity (aw) 

Water activity was determined using ahand held portable digital water 

activity meter (Rotonix Hygro Palm AW1Set/40). Afinelyground sample 

was filled up (80%) in amoisture free sample cup provided along with the 

aw meter.The sample cup was placed into the sample holder, and then 

Source: VERMA et al. FLEISCHWIRTSCHAFT international 1_2017 

Fig.:Change in the TBARS (malondialdehyde mg/kg) values during the storage 

study of chicken meat noodle under aerobic condition. 

sensor was placed on it for 5min. Duplicate readings were performed for 

each sample. 

Free fatty acids (FFA) 

The method described by KONIECKO (1979) was followed: 5gof the chicken 

meat noodles sample was blended for 2min with 30 ml of chloroform in 

the presence of anhydrous sodium sulphate (5 g). Then it was filtered 

through Whatman filter paper No. 1into a450 ml conical flask. About 2or 

3drops of 0.2% phenolphthalein indicator solution was added to the 

chloroform extract, which was then titrated against N/10 alcoholic 

potassium hydroxide to get pink color at the end point. The quantity of 

potassium hydroxide consumed during titration was recorded. Free fatty 

acids percentage was calculated as follows: 

Tab. 2: Change in nutritive values of chicken meat noodles at ambient temperature under aerobic condition 

Composition (%) Treatment 0Day 10 Days 20 Days 30 Days 

Moisture C 9.31 b ±0.03 9.39 b ±0.03 9.49 ab ±0.02 9.52 Ba ±0.02 

T 9.39 c ±0.04 9.46 cb ±0.04 9.54 b ±0.05 9.67 Aa ±0.07 

Fat C 2.38 B ±0.09 2.33 B ±0.08 2.23 B ±0.07 2.13 B ±0.10 

T 4.33 Aa ±0.13 4.23 Aab ±0.12 4.15 Aab ±0.11 4.00 Ab ±0.12 

Protein C 8.97 B ±0.46 8.79 B ±0.45 8.95 B ±0.55 8.77 B ±0.36 

T 22.11 A ±0.99 21.93 A ±0.68 21.75 A ±1.14 21.56 A ±0.71 

Crude fibre C 1.68 Aa ±0.02 1.62 Ab ±0.02 1.56 Ac ±0.02 1.49 Ad ±0.01 

T 0.81 B ±0.01 0.79 B ±0.01 0.79 B ±0.02 0.76 B ±0.01 

Ash C 2.59 Ba ±0.07 2.43 Bab ±0.05 2.33 Bb ±0.04 2.33 Bb ±0.03 

T 3.78 Aa ±0.12 3.72 Aa ±0.07 3.64 Aab ±0.05 3.52 Ab ±0.05 

Mean ±S.E.withdifferent superscripts row wise (small alphabets) and column wise (capital alphabets) differ significantly(P

............................................ 

58 



Storage stability of chicken meat incorporated noodles at ambient temperature... 

The extraction method described by WITTE et al. (1970) was used with 

appropriate modifications for the determination of TBARS values: 10 gof 

sample was triturated with 25 ml of precooled 20% trichloroacetic acid 

(TCA) in 2Morthophosphoric acid solution for 2min. The content was 

then transferred quantitativelytoabeaker by rinsing with 25 ml of cold 

distilled water which was then well mixed and filtered through Whatman 

filter paper No. 42. To this 3mlofTCA extract (filtrate) and 3mlofTBA 

reagent (0.005 M) was mixed in test tubes and placed in adark room for 

16 h. Ablank sample was made by mixing 3mlof10% TCA and 3mlof 

0.005 MTBA reagent. The absorbance (A) was measured at afixed wavelength 

of 532 nm with ascanning range of 531nmto533 nm using an 

UV-VIS spectrophotometer (Elico). The TBARS value was calculated as mg 

malondialdehyde per kg of sample by multiplying the value with the 

factor 5.2. 

Water absorption index (WAI) 

The water absorption index was determined in accordance with method 

described by (ANDERSON et al. 1969). Accurately2.5 goffinelyground 

noodles sample was taken in acentrifuge tube, to which 30 ml of distilled 

water was added. It was allowed to settle for 30 min, and was 

finallycentrifuged at 5000 rpm (1957×g) for 10 min. The gel obtained after 

centrifugation was weighed and the water absorption index was determined 

using following formula: 

Water solubility index (WSI) 

Water solubility index was estimated in accordance with method described 

by (ANDERSON et al. 1969). Afinelyground noodles sample (2.5 g) 

was taken in acentrifuge tube with 30 ml of distilled water which was 

mixed and allowed to settle for 30 min. It was then centrifuged at 

5000 rpm (1957×g) for 10 min. The supernatant obtained after centrifugation 

was completelydried in ahot air oven. The weight of the sample 

leftovers after drying was taken and the water solubility index was determined 

using following formula: 

Optimum cooking time 

The optimum cooking time of noodles was measured according to the 

method of SINGH et al. (1989). The noodles sample (5 g) was inserted into a 

beaker containing 75 ml distilled water and one strip was crushed between 

two glasses at every 30 s. The cooking was continued until the 

white fraction in the core of the crushed noodles disappeared; the time 

that passed was recorded as optimum cooking time. 

Texture profile analysis (TPA) 

The textural properties of the chicken meat noodles were evaluated 

using atexturometer (stable micro system TA.XT-2i-25) at the goat products 

technology lab at the central institute for research on goat (CIRG) in 

Makhdoom, Mathura. The texture profile analysis (TPA) following BOURNE 

(1978) was performed using ahomogeneous sample for each treatment 

which was compressed to 10 mm of their original height through aminiature 

Ottowa and Kramer shear cell platen probe. Across head speed of 

2mmper s, post-test speed 10 mm per sand atarget mode distance of 

10 mm waere used and hardness (N), work of shear (Ns) and crispiness 

(number of peaks) were determined. 

Assay for microbiological quality 

The Sstandard plate counts (SPC), total coliforms counts (TCC), Staphylococcus 

spp. counts (SCC), and yeast and mould counts (Y&M) in the 

samples were enumerated following the methods as described by the 

American Public Health Association (APHA1984). The Salmonella spp. 

count was done as per the procedure mentioned in the OIE Terrestrial 

Manual (2008) which was based on the ISO standard (6579:2002) with 

certain modifications, such as addition of Novobiocin supplement to 

Xylose Lysine Deoxycholate agar. 

Sensory evaluation 

Anine member experienced panel of judges consisting of teachers and 

postgraduate students of the College of Veterinary Science and animals 

husbandry (DUVASU), Mathura, evaluated the samples for the attributes 

of appearance and colou, flavou, texture, mouth-coating, saltiness, 

meat flavor intensity and overall acceptability using an 8point descriptive 

scale following KEETON (1983)where 8= extremelydesirable and 1= 

extremelyundesirable. Three evaluations (n= 27) were conducted for 

each replicate and at each point of storage time the samples were 

warmed in amicrowave oven for 20 s. 

Statistical analysis 

The data were analysed statisticallyonthe SPSS-16.0 software (SPSS 

Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) package as per standard methods by SNEDECOR and 

Physico-chemical parameters 

Tab. 3: Effect of storage on physicochemical parameters of chicken meat noodles under aerobic condition 

Parameter Treatment 0Day 10 Days 20 Days 30 Days 

pH C 6.38 Aa ±0.01 6.230 Ab ±0.01 6.32 Ab ±0.01 6.36 Aa ±0.01 

T 6.06 Bc ±0.01 6.02 Bc ±0.01 6.097 Bb ±0.01 6.35 Aa ±0.01 

aw C 0.400 Ad ±0.001 0.411 Ac ±0.002 0.426 Ab ±0.002 0.442 Aa ±0.001 

T 0.294 Bd ±0.004 0.334 Bc ±0.003 0.3185 Bb ±0.003 0.404 Ba ±0.002 

FFA % C 0.038 Bc ±0.01 0.043 Bb ±0.01 0.046 Bab ±0.01 0.049 Ba ±0.01 

T 0.046 Ac ±0.01 0.049 Abc ±0.01 0.050 Ab ±0.01 0.055 Aa ±0.01 

WAI% C 1.79 Bb ±0.04 1.84 Bb ±0.04 1.90 Bab ±0.03 2.00 Ba ±0.02 

T 1.99 Ab ±0.08 2.06 Ab ±0.03 2.08 Aab ±0.04 2.20 Aa ±0.03 

WSI % C 0.072 Aa ±0.002 0.071 Aab ±0.002 0.068 Aab ±0.002 0.066 Ab ±0.002 

T 0.049 Ba ±0.001 0.048 Bab ±0.001 0.048 Bab ±0.001 0.047 Bb ±0.001 

Mean ±S.E. with different superscripts row wise (small alphabets) and column wise (capital alphabets) differ significantly(P

.............................................. 


59 


Microbial quality 

Tab. 4: Microbial quality of chicken meat noodles under aerobic condition 


Total plate count C 1.09 d ±0.23 1.77 Bc ±0.04 2.90 b ±0.06 3.59 a ±0.03 

log cfu/g 

T 1.07 d ±0.35 2.21 Ac ±0.03 3.05 b ±0.05 3.68 a ±0.07 

Coliform counts C ND ND ND ND 

cfu/g 

T ND ND ND ND 

Staphylococcus C ND ND ND ND 

counts cfu/g 

T ND ND ND ND 

Salmonella counts C ND ND ND ND 

cfu/g 

T ND ND ND ND 

Yeast and mould C 0 c ±0 0 c ±0 0.55 Bb ±0.25 0.98 a ±0.22 

cfu/g 

T 0 b ±0 0 b ±0 1.15 Aa ±0.07 1.12 a ±0.21 


....................................................... 

.................................. 

60 



Storage stability of chicken meat incorporated noodles at ambient temperature... 

Texture profile 

Tab. 5: Change in the texture profile analysis of chicken meat noodles under aerobic condition 


Hardness C 256.04 a ±26.65 159.14 b ±28.18 82.39 bc ±2.15 62.80 c ±6.10 

(Force N) T 267.63 a ±63.12 138.66 bc ±13.39 130.96 bc ±18.10 85.80 c ±8.69 

Work of 

C 450.69 a ±34.80 231.97 b ±34.15 152.28 Bcd ±5.16 95.73 d ±3.88 

shearing (Ns) T 390.97 a ±30.59 251.62 b ±22.04 243.04 Abc ±21.29 147.88 d ±9.79 

Crispiness C 49.67 Bd ±2.86 73.33 c ±2.08 82.33 b ±2.03 90.67 a ±3.08 

(Peak counts) T 59.00 Ac ±5.35 75.33 b ±1.80 82.83 ab ±2.34 90.33 a ±1.17 



61 


pearance and color of the chicken meat noodles showed good acceptability 

by all sensory panelists throughout storage. The decrease in 

appearance and colour might be attributed due to the development of 

oxidation in noodles during the time of storage. The Maillard reaction or 

browning between carbohydrate and protein present in the noodles 

during drying at high temperature may also be attributed to the color 

change which was in agreement with KONG et al. (2010), who reported a 

decreasing trend in the appearance and colour values of an extrusioncooked 

salmon product. Flavor is aprime indicator of product quality 

which involves both taste and odor of products. Flavor and texture 

decreased non-significantly(P>0.05) in the control whereas in the 

treatment it decreased significantly(P

62 



Thermoresistance and regeneration of 

heat-damaged E. faecium PCM 1859 

in amedium with reduced pH value 

By Bożena Danyluk and Jerzy Stangierski 

The aim of this study was to determine anew model useful to calculatethe 

lethality value. It was required to determine the influence of the decreasing 

pH of the medium during heating and recovery on the thermoresistance of 

Enterococcus faecium and determine zpH and z’pH parameters. These parameters 

determine the influence of the heating (zpH)and recovery (z’pH)pHofa 

medium on the D-value. The experiments revealed that Enterococcus faecium’s 

PCM 1859 thermoresistance decreased during heating in an environment 

characterised by areduced pH. Statistically significant differences 

occurred when the pH was reduced to the valueof6.5. The impactofpHon 

the examined bacteria thermoresistance was characterised by the following 

coefficients: zpH=4.09–5.12,z’pH=2.98–4.08. On the basis of these values 

and the earlier determined coefficients zaw=0.14–0.28 and z’aw=0.18–0.44, it 

was possibletodetermine anew model to calculatethe lethality value. 

Canned food are traditional products and in order to remain attractive for 

potential buyers, it is essential to improve their quality and enhance 

their health security.Canned meat products belong to botulogenic foods; 

high water activity and pH of the filling in combination with low oxidation 

potentials create conditions for the development of Clostridium botulinum . 

That is why canned meat products belonging to the group of “full” preserves, 

which do not require refrigeration during storage, are subjected to 

the process of sterilisation to the value of F= 4.0–5.5 (LEISTNER,1979). The 

F-value for sterilization processes (P-value for pasteurization) can be 

calculated according to the following formula (BALL and OLSON,1957): 

F(P) =∫ o 

t 

where :t–heating time, L–degree of lethality and 

L=10 T-T r 

z 

Ldt 

where: T–temperature of critical zone of canned meat during heating; 

Tr –reference temperature (generallyTr=121.1 °C for sterilisation and 

Tr=70°C for pasteurisation); z–increase of temperature which leads to a 

ten-fold reduction of the decimal reduction time (D). 

The high quantity of heat supplied to the product, especiallytoits external 

parts, causes anumber of unfavorable changes. In this situation, these 

adverse consequences can onlybereduced using jointlyanumber of preservation 

methods, i.e. utilisation of the so called “hurdle” technology.Anexample 

of such technology is the production of Shelf Stable Products (SSP) canned 

food products where, apart from the basic preservation factor, other conservation 

factors applied in appropriate combinations are employed, e.g. reduced 

water activity and/or pH value, addition of sodium nitrate (III) etc. (LEISTNER, 

WIRTH and TAKÁCS,1970; REICHERT and STIEBING,1977;WIRTH,1979;GOULD,1996; 

VUKOVIĆ,1999). This kind of approach makes it possible to reduce heating 

parameters. Instead of the sterilisation process, during which the temperature 

in the centre of the can usuallyreaches 117to120 °C, it is possible to applya 

milder process, i.e. pasteurization. During pasteurization, the temperature of 

the heating agent does not exceed 100°C, while the temperature in the centre 

usuallyamounts to 70 °C. In this case, onlyvegetative forms of microorganisms 

are inactivated. 

Keywords 

» Enterococcus faecium 

» Thermoresistance 

» pH 

» Pasteurization 

» Canned food 

Joint application of several preservation methods protects these products 

against the development of Clostridium botulinum and the lower 

heating temperature (below 100°C) means that the obtained canned food 

is characterized by better quality: higher amounts of vitamins, improved 

sensory quality, lower concentration of Maillard’sreaction products (LAN- 

GOURIEUX and ESCHER,1998)and asmaller quantity of the thermal drip (HONIKEL, 

2004), as well as asmaller difference between the extent of heating of 

external and internal layers. However, the change of environmental conditions 

during heating affects the thermoresistance of the inactivated 

microorganisms and creates possibilities for the regeneration of damaged 

cells following the thermal process in the course of arelativelylong storage 

period. It is well known, that even during sterilisation not all microorganisms 

are killed; some of them are impaired to the extent that after the 

thermal process, they are unable to regenerate and develop. One of the 

problems is to determine possibilitiy of bacteria’sregeneration following 

their thermal damage. These possibilities are checked in optimal conditions 

in alaboratory on an optimal medium (composition, aw,pH). However, 

if the composition of the can filling is modified, e.g. change its pH value or 

aw,then the thermallyimpaired cells of microorganisms have adifferent 

possibility of regeneration in the course of the subsequent storage than on 

optimal substrates. That is why the degree of lethality L–employed to 

determine sterilization and pasteurization values –should take into consideration 

the aw and pH values of the canned products both during heating 

as well as during storage of the finished product. 

LEGUÉRINEL et al. (2005) emphasised that the thermoresistance of microorganisms 

ascertained on the basis of D-value (time of decimal reduction) 

should be calculated according to the following formula: 

T–T* pH–pH* a 

log D=log D*- ( z T 

) - - ( w–1) - 

z pH 

pH´–pH 

z aw 

( 

opt´ 

) 2 - 

where: Tisthe temperature in centre of canned meat, in the critical zone; 

T* is the reference temperature (generallyinsterilization process T*= 

121.1°C); D* –Disthe value at T*, pH* and aw=1;zTis the conventional 

z-value; pH* is the pH of the maximal heat resistance of bacteria (generally 

7); zpH is the distance of pH from pH* which leads to aten-fold reduction of 

decimal reduction time (D); aw is the water activity of the heated product; 

zaw is the distance of aw from 1which leads to aten-fold reduction of the 

z´pH 

a 

( ) 2 

w´–a´wopt 

záw 

Received: 28 April 2016 |reviewed: 3January 2017 |revised: 3January 2017 |accepted: 4January 2017

......................................... 


63 


D-value; pH’ is the pH of the recovery medium; pH’opt is the optimal pH value 

of the recovery medium; z’pH is the distance of pH from pH’ of the recovery 

medium which leads to aten-fold reduction of the D-value; a’w is aw of the 

recovery medium; a’wopt is the optimal aw of the recovery medium; z’aw is the 

distance of aw from the a’w of the recovery medium which leads to atenfold 

reduction of the D-value. 

Taking into consideration the correlation between the time of decimal 

reduction and the degree of lethality L: 

D= 

D* 

L 

anew calculation model of the Lvalue was elaborated: 

T–T* IpH–pH*I a w–1 

a´w–1 

pH´–pHópt 

( ) 2 

záw 

L =10 

( ) 2 

z T z pH z aw z´pH 

+ + ++ 

Explanations as in the equation above. 

It replaces the well-known model elaborated by BIGELOW (1921). 

The application of the above-presented model requires the determination 

of appropriate coefficients (zpH,zaw,z’pH,z’aw)for the indicator microorganism. 

These coefficients were determined for bacteria from the 

Bacillus and Clostridium genera, in other words, sporulating bacteria 

which should be taken into consideration during the sterilisation process 

(LEGUÉRINEL et al., 2000, 2005; GAILLARD et al., 1998; COROLLER,etal., 2001; 

MAFART et al., 2001).Following the process of sterilisation of canned meat 

products of the SSP type, spores of bacteria are no longer capable of 

germinating because of unfavorable environmental conditions (reduced 

aw and pH values, presence of NaNO2)and, therefore, when assessing the 

effectiveness of the heating process, it is necessary to take into account 

the survivability of thermoresistant non-sporulating bacteria. Enterococci 

are considered to be most thermoresistant among the vegetative bacteria 

(GIRAFFA,2002; FRANZ et al., 2003; HUGAS et al., 2003). These bacteria 

occur in many foods (meat, dairy and vegetable origin) and play an important 

role in the production of fermented meat products and cheese (PAVIA 

et al., 2000). The surface of pig carcasses contain 10 4 to 10 8 enterococci 

per 100cm 2 .The predominant isolated species are E. faecium and E. 

faecalis (KNUDTSON and HARTMAN,1993). Enterococci are used as starter 

cultures and their bacteriocins are usuallyactive towards such 

pathogens like Listeria and Clostridium (GIRAFF et al., 1995, 1997; AYMERICH 

et al., 2000). They are also used as human probiotics however they are 

important nosocomial pathogens, that cause bacteraemia, endocarditis 

and other infections. The role of enterococci in diseases call into question 

their safety for the usage in foods or as probiotics. The presence of 

enterococci in the gastrointestinal tract of animals leads to ahigh potential 

for contamination of meat at the time of slaughter (FRANZ et al., 2003). 

In the case of these microorganisms, the impact of water activity on 

changes in their thermoresistance and possibilities of regeneration after 

pasteurisation was determined, in other words, zaw and z’aw values were 

determined which –for Enterococcus faecium PCM 1859 –amount to 0.14 

and 0.44, respectively(DANYLUK et al., 2013). On the other hand, no information 

is available with respect to the influence of pH on the behavior of 

these microorganisms during pasteurization and their possibilities of 

regeneration during astorage period, i.e. zpH and z’pH values were not 

determined. 

The aim of this paper was to ascertain thermoresistance and regeneration 

possibilities of thermallydamaged Enterococcus faecium PCM 1859 

cells depending on the pH value of the medium during heating and incubation 

following the thermal process and to determine zpH and z’pH values. In 

combination with the results published earlier (DANYLUK et al., 2013), they 

allow the determination of anew formula for the calculation of the degree 

of lethality which constitutes the basis for the determination of the pasteurization 

value Pduring heating of canned meat products. The subjectmatter 

of the article is very complex and depends on anumber of factors 

mentioned in the manuscript and it constitutes amodel system which 

provides abasis for further investigations in future. 

Materials and methods 

Preparation of samples 

The bacterial strain used in the described experiments was that of Enterococcus 

faecium PCM 1859 derived from the Strain Collection of the Polish 

Academy of Sciences in Wrocław. Experimental bacteria were cultured on 

Slanetzand Bartey medium with differing pH values. The substrate pH value 

was reduced with by HCl and the following variants were obtained: 

r basic medium (optimal) containing: pepton 20.0 g, dipotassium phosphate 

4.0 g, yeast extract 5.0 g, glucose 2.0 g, sodium azide 0.4 g, 

TTC0.1 g, agar 15.0 g, distilled water 1L;pHofthe ready medium 7.2, 

aw=1.0 –A 

r basic medium +0.8 mL 1NHCl; aw=1.0, pH= 7.0–B 

r basic medium +2.7 mL 1NHCl; aw=1.0, pH= 6.8 –C 

r basic medium +5.0 mL 1NHCl; aw=1.0, pH= 6.5 –D 

Following inoculation, the samples were incubated for 48 hatatemperature 

of 37 °C. Bacteria collected from media AtoDwere placed in the test 

tubes (Ø= 16 mm) with aphysiological fluid containing the same quantity of 

HCl as during culturing. Their initial concentration amounted to 10 6 to 

10 8 cfu/mL. Next, 10 mL suspension was collected from each flask, transferred 

to three test tubes and heated in awater bath at atemperature of 

55 °C, respectively, for 10,20and 30 min. The same procedures were followed 

when bacteria were heated at atemperature of 60 °C for 1, 3and 

5min and at 65 °C for 1, 2and 3min. Each experiment was repeated three 

times. After the appropriate time of heating, the bacteria were inoculated 

Heat resistance 

Tab. 1: Heat resistance of Enterococcus faecium cultured, heated and recovered in medium with different pH. 

Decimal reduction time 

pH value of medium during 

Variant 

Heating Recovery D55 (min.) D60 (min.) D65 (min.) 

7.2 7.2 A 10.82 c ±0.45 1.51 c ±0.01 0.91 e ±0.10 

7.0 7.2 B 10.17 c ±0.22 1.43 c ±0.26 0.84 de ±0.07 

7.0 7.0 B’ 9.78 bc ±1.22 1.46 c ±0.07 0.69 bcd ±0.06 

6.8 7.2 C 9.92 c ±0.15 1.38 bc ±0.11 0,80 bcde ±0.11 

6.8 6.8 C’ 8.97 abc ±0.11 1.15 abc ±0.05 0.67 bc ±0.08 

6.5 7.2 D 7.83 ab ±0.85 1.04 ab ±0.17 0.61 ab ±0.00 

6.5 6.5 D’ 7.26 a ±0.45 0.95 a ±0.14 0.51 a ±0.02 

The same letters in columns denote not significant difference for means at p ≤ 0.05 (n= 6; mean ±standard deviation) 

Source: DANYLUK and STANGIERSKI FLEISCHWIRTSCHAFT international 1_2017

....................................... 

64 


Research &Development Thermoresistance and regeneration of heat-damaged E. faecium PCM 1859 ... 

Source: DANYLUK and STANGIERSKI FLEISCHWIRTSCHAFT international 1_2017 

Fig. 1: Change of the D-value (%) during heating of E. faecium in the environment 

with reduced pH value. 

a, b–different letters for agiven temperature indicate statisticallysignificant 

differences at p≤0.05 (n= 6) 

in order to ascertain the number of survived microorganisms. Bacteria 

cultured on medium Awere flushed after heating with medium A; bacteria 

collected from the media of reduced pH value were incubated on medium A 

(optimal) and, simultaneously, on the medium characterised by the same 

parameters as during heating. The Asurvival curve was plotted for agiven 

heating temperature from which the time of the decimal reduction Dwas 

determined for both the bacteria incubated on the basic medium and on 

the modified medium (of reduced pH value) and then from the curve of 

log D-pH dependence, zpH and z’pH coefficients were determined. When 

plotting the log D-pH curve, alinear course was assumed (R 2 =0.7634 for 

D55;R 2 =0.6326 for D60;R 2 =0.8048 for D65). 

Measurements of pH 

Measurements of pH value were conducted employing aSchott Geräte 

pH-meter type CG 840 (Mainz, Germany) equipped with aglass electrode. 

Statistical analysis 

All the determinations were performed in two replications and the results 

were subjected to statistical analysis. One-factorial analysis of variance 

and post hoc Tukey’stest were applied for multiple comparison of mean 

value. The level of significance was p≤0.05. All computations were performed 

using Statistica PL v. 10 software by StatSoft. 

Results and discussion 

Table 1presents the impact of the medium pH during heating on the D- 

values (variants A, B, Cand D-regeneration on optimal medium). The obtained 

research results indicate that the sensitivity of the assessed bacteria 

to heating differed depending on the pH of the environment during the 

heating process. 

Figure 1presents differences in the D-values during heating at agiven 

temperature depending on the pH of the medium. The D-value determined 

during sample heating on the substrate of the optimal pH of 7.2was assumed 

as 100%. During heating at the temperature of 55 and 60 °C, the 

reduction in the D-value was similar and amounted to, respectively, 6and 

5.3% at pH 7.0and to 8.3 and 8.6% at pH 6.8. Heating at the temperature of 

65 °C led to the greatest reduction in the value of D, i.e. by 7.7% at pH 7.0 

and by 12.1% at pH 6.8. The lowest thermal resistance of the strain was 

recorded when samples were heated in the environment where the pH 

amounted to 6.5; the D-values were reduced by 27.6% (55 °C), 31.1% (60 °C) 

and 33.0% (65 °C) in comparison with the values determined during the 

heating at agiven temperature at optimal pH (7.2). However, astatistically 

significant impact of the medium pH on E. faecium’s thermoresistance 

expressed by the D–value was demonstrated onlyinthe case of heating of 

the bacteria in the environment of pH 6.5 irrespective of the temperature 

of heating. On the other hand, experiments on the thermal resistance of 

Bacillus stearothermophillus carried out by LÓPEZ et al., (1996) demonstrated 

that the effect of any given pH is depended on the treatment 

temperature. At low treatment temperatures (115 °C), amarked reduction 

of the D-values was observed when pH was lowered from 7.0to4.0. This 

reduction was significantlylower at 125°C. At higher temperatures 

(135°C), the D-values obtained in pH 6.0 and 7.0 did not show significant 

differences. 

The available literature data indicate that pH reduction enhances the 

preservation effect of food products. This may be caused by the growth 

inhibition of microorganisms, whose growth depends on levels of free H + 

ions and concentrations of undissociated, weaker acids which, in turn, 

is dependent on pH. Anions of some weaker acids are metabolised in the 

bacterial cell in such away that H + ions are liberated by acidifying the 

interior of the cell to the level of inhibiting growth (SABATAKOU et al., 2001). 

The effect of preservation can also be the result of diminished thermoresistance 

of microorganisms in the environment with reduced pH. In the 

case of spores, the mechanism of this phenomenon can be explained by 

the fact that, during heating in acid environment, hydrogen ions replace 

calcium ions associated with the cell and form the so called H-sporeions 

characterised by lower thermoresistance. All calcium ions which 

constitute approximately2%ofspore dry matter can be removed in this 

way.This is areversible phenomenon. When pH increases, hydrogen ions 

are again substituted by calcium found in food products. However, this 

process is so slow that during heating of food products spores continue 

to be sensitive to heat (GOULD,1996). 

Reduced thermoresistance at lower pH was demonstrated for Salmonella 

enteritidis and Escherichia coli indicating simultaneouslythat the effect 

depended on the type of the applied acid: lactic acid and acetic acid exhibited 

asimilar or even greater lethal effect than HCl, whereas the application 

of citric acid decreased this effect (BLACKBURN et al., 1997). Reduced 

thermoresistance under the influence of lactic and acetic acids was also 

reported in the course of heating of S. faecium (HOUBEN,1980; 1982). It was 

demonstrated that bacteria were more sensitive to pH changes than 

yeasts and molds (SABATAKOU et al., 2001). 

The calculation of D-values determined in the case of E. faecium 

heating in environments characterised by different pH allowed determination 

of log D-pH dependence as well as the zpH coefficient, i.e. the 

difference in the pH value which causes tenfold reduction of D. The zpH 

values presented in Table 2confirm that, together with the increase of 

heating temperature, the sensitivity of the examined strain to the 

medium acidity also increases: zpH decreases from 5.12 (55 °C) to 4.09 

(65 °C). 

If during the heating process the conditions (aw and pH) in the can are 

not optimal for bacteria, then also during storage the possibility of regeneration 

of microorganisms will be reduced. The results collated in Table 1 

indicate that heating and regeneration of E. faecium bacteria on the 

medium with areduced pH value (variant B`, C` and D`) –incomparison 

with the control (variant A) –caused astatisticallysignificant diminishment 

of the decimal reduction times D55 and D60 onlythen, when the pH 

value was lowered to 6.5 (variant G`). On the other hand, heating at the 

temperature of 65 °C caused astatisticallysignificant change of the 

decimal reduction time already at pH ≤7.0 indicating that the D65 value for 

B`, C` and D` variants differed statisticallysignificantlyfrom the D65 value 

determined for the control sample (variant A). From the dependence log D- 

pH of the medium during regeneration, the z’pH coefficient was determined 

for E. faecium on amodified medium of differing pH. The obtained results 

are collated in Table 2. The z’pH coefficient declined together with the 

increase of heating temperature and fluctuated from 4.08 (55 °C) to 2.98 

(65 °C). These values were by 20.3 to 27.4% lower in comparison with the 

zpH value which means that the thermoresistance of the examined bacteria 

was significantlysmaller than those determined on optimal media.

.......................................................... 


65 


Values of zpH 

Tab. 2: Values of zpH as related to heating temperature and pH of 

medium. 

T( o C) pH zpH z’pH 

7.2 

55 7.0 5.12 b ±0.39 4.08 b ±0.14 

6.8 

6.5 

7.2 

60 7.0 4.35 ab ±0.37 3.23 a ±0.29 

6.8 

6.5 

7.2 

65 7.0 4.09 a ±0.26 2.98 a ±0.11 

6.8 

6.5 

zpH –the distance of pH frompH* =7which leads to atenfoldreduction in D-value 

z’pH –the distance of pH from pH’ of recovery medium, which leads to atenfold reduction in 

D-value 

The same letters in columns denote not significant difference for means at p ≤ 0.05 

(n= 6; mean ±standard deviation) 

Source: DANYLUK and STANGIERSKI FLEISCHWIRTSCHAFT international 1_2017 

Experiments carried out earlier (DANYLUK et al., 2013)made it possible to 

determine zaw and z’aw coefficients. On the basis of the results presented in 

this study, zpH and z’pH coefficients were determined. It is true that the 

experiments were conducted in model conditions but E. faecium bacteria 

were used which are treated as indicator microorganisms in pasteurised 

canned meat production. Therefore, they can be helpful in the calculation 

of lethality degrees Linaccordance with the new model for any value of pH 

and aw. 

Conclusion 

Improvement of the canned meat production process involves restraining 

the heat treatment parameters and, simultaneously, applying other 

conservation factors such as, for example, reduction of water activity 

values and pH of the raw material (“hurdle” technology). The end-products 

obtained in this way are characterised by better quality due to the 

fact that the range of unfavorable changes associated with the action 

of heat on food is reduced. The care for the safety of the manufactured 

products requires improvement of the accuracy of models describing 

heat treatment conditions of canned food. The model of determination 

of the degree of lethality employed so far based onlyontemperature is 

no longer sufficient. The new model should take into consideration, 

apart from temperature changes, also changes of thermoresistance of 

microorganisms depending on water activity and pH of the environment 

in the course of heating and possibilities of their regeneration following 

the thermal process in the environment of changed parameters. 

The performed investigation revealed that the reduction of pH values 

resulted in the diminished Enterococcus faecium thermoresistance 

and the coefficients determining the impact of this parameter on 

thermoresistance amounted to zpH=4.09 to 5.12,ifbacterial survivability 

was tested on the optimal medium and z’pH=2.98 to 4.08, if they were 

cultured on the medium with the pH identical to during heating. This 

means that when heating canned meat products characterised by 

reduced pH value, the applied dose of heat should be smaller.The results 

obtained in this study and earlier (DANYLUK et al., 2013)corroborate 

the advisability of the pasteurisation control of canned meat products 

using for this purpose anew model of determination of the degree of 

lethality L. 

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Authors‘ addresses 

Bożena Danyluk, PhD, Institute of Meat Technology, Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition, Poznan 

University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 31, 60-624 Poznań, Poland and Jerzy Stangierski, 

PhD, Department of Food Quality Management, Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition, Poznan 

University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 31, 60-624 Poznań, Poland

66 


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Areference to each table should be made at the relevant place in 

the text. Abbreviations should be explained at the end of the table. 

r 11. Figures (photos and diagrams) should be given separatelyand 

numbered. Legends to the figures should appear on aseparate sheet. 

When inserting the captions it should be remembered that they must 

still be legible should the figure have to be reduced in size. Areference 

to each figure must be given in the relevant part of the text. 

Reading of research papers 

Presented research papers are read by FLEISCHWIRTSCHAFT international 

reviewers (see list of editorial board). The authors are informed of 

their decision without the reviewers’ names being given. Papers dealing 

with practical experiences in the meat industry or with new developments 

in the practice are reviewed onlybythe editor. 

E-mail 

Along with the printed version the text of the manuscript (including 

legends to figures, tables and literature references) should either be 

provided on adisk or electronically. Please save the text as MS-Word.x 

data file. If you use other word-processing-programmes, please talk to 

the editorial department to determine their compatibility.Photos shall 

be provided as jpg-files with a300 dpi resolution. 

E-mail address of FLEISCHWIRTSCHAFT international: 

info@fleischwirtschaft.com February 2017

FLEISCHWIRTSCHAFT international 1/2017

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