Report on the State of Food Insecurity in Urban India, 2010 - M. S. ...

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8 REPORT ON THE STATE OF FOOD INSECURITY IN URBAN INDIA shrinking. The absence of formal employment limits the livelihood opportunities available to the urban poor. Informal-sector employment is highly unstable, poorly remunerated and susceptible to seasonal variations. Much of the informal-sector activity takes place outdoors (construction, street vending, or rickshaw drawing) making the rainy season an especially difficult period.’ Moreover, even where urban agriculture or rural to urban food transfers are significant, most food in urban areas is purchased, ‘highlighting the importance of markets and income-earning opportunities to urban livelihoods and household food security’ (UNWFP 2002). Ruel and Garret (2004) observe that ‘the poor work in a variety of jobs, but working long hours in often precarious conditions for low wages is a constant. Jobs tend to be irregular and tenure insecure. The poor may work in clothes factories, run small shops, sell food or cigarettes in the street, scavenge in rubbish dumps, sweep streets and clean latrines, drive rickshaws, or seek day work in construction’. The ESCAP report on poverty reduction argues that ‘urban food security depends on issues related to access and utilisation rather than availability…. In many cases, the urban poor pay up to 30 per cent more for their food than the rural poor, and spend 60 per cent or more of their total expenditure on food’ (ESCAP 2007). The Indian experience with urbanisation during the period of economic reforms has shown that urban inequality has increased. Access to productive assets is either minimal or non-existent for a majority of urban households. A significant section of the urban population does not even own a place of shelter, not to speak of ownership of productive assets. With more than 23 per cent of the urban population living in slums, and this percentage being much higher for metropolitan cities like Mumbai (54 per cent), a substantial chunk of the urban population faces highly insecure tenure in respect of shelter. The emerging picture in terms of employment and earnings is also discouraging. The rate of growth of urban employment fell from 3.20 per cent per annum compound from1983 to 1993-94 to 3.12 per cent between 1993-94 and 2004-05. The growth in employment between 1993-94 and 2004-05 consisted of two distinct and contrasting phases. Between 1993-94 and 1999-2000, the growth of employment was very slow. Between 1999-2000 and 2004-05, employment grew much more rapidly, but most of this growth was in self-employment, with low average earnings, reflecting more of distress and lack of access to better-paid wage employment than of expansion in productive self-employment opportunities. Most of the growth in employment – nearly all of it, in fact – between 1999-2000 and 2004-05 was in informal employment, which carries no provision of any social security. The total employment figure, including both rural and urban areas, between 1999- 2000 and 2004-05 was 59.3 million. Of this, 57.9 million was in the category of informal employment – both self- and wage-paid. As the NCEUS final report points out: ‘Although employment increased by 14 per cent in the organised sector over this period, the entire increase has been mostly informal in nature, i.e., without any job or social security.’ More than three-fourths of wage workers in agriculture (77 per cent) and all workers in nonagriculture (75 per cent) were either landless or land-poor (NCEUS 2009).
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 9 Population Segments Worker Status 1983 to 1993-94 Agriculture Non-Agriculture 1993-94 to 2004-05 Agriculture Non-Agriculture Rural male Regular 4.6 4.4 4.1 2.6 Casual 3.6 4.0 2.2 2.4 Rural female Regular 2.5 3.5 3.4 3.1 Casual 3.6 4.1 2.2 3.8 Urban male Regular 4.5 3.1 0.2 2.0 Casual 2.1 2.3 0.9 1.2 Urban female Regular 5.0 4.0 0.2 1.9 Casual 3.1 3.6 0.5 1.6 Growth rate in GDP 2.8 6.1 2.5 7.5 Source: NCEUS 2009 What is the story on earnings? The growth rates of daily earnings of workers has been reproduced in Table 1.1. The data show that the growth rate of average daily earnings for all categories of urban wage workers – male or female, regular or casual, working in agriculture or nonagriculture – has declined significantly between 1983 to1993-94 and 1993-94 to 2004-05. From 1999-2000 to 2004-05, the average daily earnings for almost all categories of paid urban workers (male and female, in agriculture and in non-agriculture) – with the tiny exception of women workers in agriculture in urban areas – has actually declined in real terms. This is shown in Table 1.2. Table 1.2 Growth Rate of Average Daily Earnings of Workers in the Age Group 15-59 Years (1993-94 Prices) between 1999-2000 and 2004-05, India Population Segments Status Agriculture Non-Agriculture Rural male Rural female Urban male Urban female Source: NCEUS 2009 Table 1.1 Growth Rates of Daily Earnings of Workers Aged 15-59 Years in India Regular salaried -1.44 -0.58 Casual workers 1.74 1.04 Regular salaried 0.32 -10.79 Casual workers 1.40 1.89 Regular Salaried -10.92 -0.98 Casual workers -1.30 -0.57 Regular salaried 0.36 -4.70 Casual workers -2.38 -0.82
Page 1 and 2: REPORT ON THE STATE OF FOOD INSECUR
Page 3 and 4: REPORT ON THE STATE OF FOOD INSECUR
Page 5: Contents List of Acronyms i List of
Page 8 and 9: ICDS Integrated Child Development S
Page 10 and 11: List of Tables 1.1 Growth Rates of
Page 12 and 13: 3.4 Percentage of Urban Households
Page 14 and 15: Box 1 Koozh in Chennai List of Boxe
Page 17 and 18: Foreword In early 2000, the M. S. S
Page 19 and 20: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Executive Summary
Page 21 and 22: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The first three i
Page 23 and 24: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 2009-10 and 2010-
Page 25: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY macroeconomic pol
Page 28 and 29: 2 REPORT ON THE STATE OF FOOD INSEC
Page 36 and 37: 10 REPORT ON THE STATE OF FOOD INSE
Page 79 and 80: CHAPTER 3 Urban Food Insecurity Acr
Page 81 and 82: FIAUI also worked out an overall ur
Page 83 and 84: Data on percentage of households wi
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The presence of stunting in childre
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3.4.1 Proportion of Urban Populatio
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Percentage of Population Consuming
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and 2004-05. At the all-India level
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Number per 1000 Urban Male Workers
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3.4.4 Percentage of Urban Household
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Number per 1000 Urban Female Worker
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Percentage of Urban Households with
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Table 3.5a and Maps 3.5a and 3.5b i
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Percentage of Urban Households with
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Percentage of Ever-married Urban Wo
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3.4.7 Percentage of Urban Women wit
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Percentage of Urban Children (6-35
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2005-06 were West Bengal, Maharasht
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Percentage of Stunted Children (6-3
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etween 1998-99 and 2005-06. At the
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Percentage of Children Underweight
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Percentage of Urban Children Wastin
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Sl. No. The picture emerging from a
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• Percentage of urban children (6
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There has generally been not much c
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Composite Index of Urban Food Insec
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URBAN FOOD INSECURITY ACROSS STATES
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URBAN FOOD INSECURITY ACROSS STATES
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Most States have remained in the sa
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Period Composite Index Variant 1 wi
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under all the variants, just as Ker
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100 REPORT ON THE STATE OF FOOD INS
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5.1 Brief Review CHAPTER 5 Conclusi
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measured by the composite index in
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cent of GDP, and given the importan
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CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATI
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service area of primary health cent
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ANNEXURE 1 Recommendations: Towards
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Agarwal, Arti Bhanot and Kirti Sang
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Mathur, M. P., Rajesh Chandra, Satp
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Reforms, 1993-94 to 2004-05. Unpubl
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Participants at the Consultation on
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Acknowledgements The Report
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