Dealing with 'The Sacred' in today's business world - Propedia

Dealing with ‘The Sacred’ in today’s business world
Jessica Lichy, ICAR, IDRAC Lyon Jessica.lichy1@idraclyon.com
Terry Smith, Chester Business School terry.smith@chester.ac.uk
Mitchell J Larson, University of Central Lancashire mjlarson@uclan.ac.uk
Gautier Fontanel, ICAR, IDRAC Lyon gautier.fontanel@idraclyon.com
Abstract
How widespread is spirituality in the workplace? Does everyone perceive it in the same way?
Academic interest in the sacred has steadily increased over the last decade. The ‘spirituality
movement’ describes efforts to create a sense of meaning and purpose at work, to develop
connections between the organisation, its employees and the surrounding social and natural
environment. The present enquiry explores manifestations of the spirituality movement in two
national settings, comparing France and Britain, to provide a cross cultural snapshot. Through
the literature and by means of a pilot survey, a connection is made between spirituality and
corporate social responsibility (CSR).A subtle difference in perception can be found when
comparing the two national contexts.
Jusqu’à quel point la spiritualité est intégrée sur le lieu de travail? Est-elle perçue de
la même façon par tous? Les chercheurs se penchent de plus en plus sur le sujet depuis près
d’une dizaine d’années. Le soi-disant « mouvement de spiritualité » décrit les efforts de créer
un sens de sincérité et de but au travail, mais aussi de développer un lien entre
l'organisation, ses employés et l'environnement naturel. Cet article s’évertue à explorer et
comparer les différentes manifestations du mouvement de spiritualité dans les contextes de la
France et de la Grande-Bretagne. Le but de cette étude comparative étant
d’approfondir la connaissance sur les différences interculturelles existantes au regard du
sacré. A travers la littérature et par l’intermédiaire d’une enquête, un rapprochement a été
réalisé entre le sacré et la responsabilité sociale de l’entreprise, bien qu’il existe une subtile
différence quant à sa définition lorsqu’on compare ces deux pays.
Introduction
The theme of ‘sacred’ is closely linked to the growing literature on ‘trust’ in the workplace
(Lewis and Weigert, 1985; Hosmer, 1995; Kramer, 2009) both within and between
organisations as well as between companies and consumers. Gee (2010:5) talks of the urgency
to “fully understand the needs in our communities and to fully address them - as partners,
together”. Webb (2004:173) discusses the breakdown of character and social relation in
contemporary organisations resulting in “greater insecurity, the erosion of trust and increased
individualism in employment relations”. These fields of research underscore the growing
concerns about interpersonal relationships and how the (re-) introduction of the sacred – in
other words, morally-motivated behaviour, attitudes, and symbols– may reflect a move away
from purely contractual relationships. These contractual relationships are most common
among businesspeople in the West but can contrast sharply with more ‘human’ relationships
based on shared values, experiences, and goals which are more common in Asia and Africa.
1

Belk et al. (1989) put forward that consumer behaviour exhibits certain aspects of the sacred;
it shapes and is shaped by the secularization of religion and the sacralization of the secular. In
some societies, the sacred refers to “magic, shamanism, animism, and totemism” (p.2), which
is often linked to the natural environment and thus treated with great respect. In contemporary
Western religion, certain idols, shrines, clothing, days, texts, relics and songs can be defined
as sacred. For many consumers, various elements of life with no connection to religion are
considered sacred – revered, awe inspiring and respected – such as flags, sports teams and
celebrities, national parks, art, cars, museums and collections. One of the clearest illustrations
of a mundane item invested with sacred value is Charlton Heston’s National Rifle Association
Presidential Address in 2000 which concluded by holding up a rifle and proclaiming that ‘I'll
give up my gun when you pry it from my cold, dead hands’. Here the right to bear arms in
America is given sacred meaning with religious fervour in public by a famous actor.
According to Marietta (2008:767), “In symbolic terms, it is a clear statement of a sacred
boundary”. Atran and Axelrod (2008:221) agreed, writing that “Sacred values differ from
material or instrumental values in that they incorporate moral beliefs that drive action in ways
dissociated from prospects for success”. The business press publicizes the notion that firms
are embracing “a ‘values-based’ culture in which employees can be trusted to do the right
thing because they know what the firm stands for” (Economist, 2011: 78).
Comparatively little has been published in Anglo-American business literature about the
sacred; much more has been published about economic decision-making. That does not mean
that it is not an important concern but in religiously pluralistic Britain and the USA it would
be unusual to see openly religious or ‘sacred’ behaviours in business environments. Perhaps
in the so-called Latin countries such as France and Spain where religious identification has
been more uniform over time, these behaviours are more common even if the people perform
them out of habit, because it is expected, or merely to be polite. The rise in the importance of
the theme of ‘the sacred’ is in itself an indicator of a trend in current discourse, an element of
social identification more freely called upon in Anglo-American contexts than in continental
ones, where it remains less overtly expressed. Could a French President ever end a speech
with “God Bless France” just as American Presidents commonly conclude with “God Bless
America”? The role of the sacred in these two national contexts is starkly different and thus
makes the former highly unlikely. This point is important because it raises the issue of
cultural influence and hints at the roles of the sacred and religion itself in national identity. To
this end, our enquiry asks the following research questions: to what extent does culture impact
on how people perceive ‘the sacred’ within organisations, and how do they believe that ‘the
sacred’ is defined within those organisations? We aim therefore to explore the interpretation
of the sacred within French and British communities with a view to identifying commonality
and disparity.
Existing literature
Notions of the sacred, religion and spirituality are intertwined; they are all part of human
experience. Yet from a research perspective, they are under-represented in academic business
literature. Perhaps this is because they are not generally considered as a core element or
activity in the creation of economic wealth. Indeed, many Western institutional procedures
appear incompatible with spiritual and cultural traditions. In other words, the sacred and
spirituality are not the values that a profit-making business organisation has traditionally
promoted.
2

In the literature on the sacred and spirituality in the workplace, the overarching theme is that
there is broad disenchantment with leadership (Parameshwar, 2005), manifested in
redundancies, downsizing, corruption, ethical scandals, suicide at work, etc. It is likely that
this disillusionment and its consequences amongst the workforce triggered an awakening in
management thinking. Over the past decade a dramatic and steady increase of interest in
spirituality took place within organisations. This new “spirituality movement” (Karakas,
2010:74) describes how organisations are considering making room for a spiritual dimension
that is less focused on the rational and more centred on building a sense of community, with a
focus on ensuring the well-being of the employees. It could be argued though that other issues
need to be dealt with first such as respecting equal opportunities policies that underscore
gender equality and equal pay.
It is interesting to note that in the discourse on spirituality within organisations and the role of
corporate social responsibility (or CSR), there is no overt mention of ‘religion’ in Frenchlanguage
literature (although it will be discussed later how CSR was inspired from religious
considerations). In contrast, a growing body of English-language publications present a
healthy debate of spirituality in the workplace (see Morgan, 2005; King, 2007). The term
‘religion’ is however used in broadcast debates, calling into question an evolution in French
society and values (RMC Info, 2011:4) “L’influence croissante de l’islam et plus
généralement de la religion dans les villes de banlieue traduit-elle un échec de l’intégration
républicaine ?”(Can the increasing influence of Islam and more generally religion in the
suburbs be interpreted as the failure of Republican integration?).
Despite the growing interest in the topic, there is no single definition of spirituality.
“Spirituality and religiousness (religiosity) are often used synonymously” (Phipps, 2011:
271), although a distinction does exist. While religion conveys connotations of institutional
control and regulation (Masters, 2007), spirituality is a broader, more inclusive term that can
encompass virtually every positive human experience – love, hope, gratitude, appreciation,
harmony, peace, and comfort – whether or not it has any involvement with the transcendent or
sacred (Koenig et al., 2001). Spirituality at work is defined by Ashmos and Duchon (2000:
137) as “the recognition that employees have an inner life that nourishes and is nourished by
meaningful work that takes place in the context of community”.
The spirituality movement rests on the belief that there is a division between the sacred and
the profane; “there must be a distance between the two for the division to make sense, though
of course the precise nature of the division is very flexible and likely to vary with different
cultures” (Grint, 2010: 95). Peterson and Seligman (2004) observed that spirituality is
universal: “Although the specific content of spiritual beliefs varies, all cultures have a concept
of an ultimate, transcendent, sacred, and divine force” (p. 601). Tombaugh et al. (2011: 146)
put forward two assumptions about spirituality within organisations. The first is that “many
people want to feel comfortable integrating their personal sense of spirituality into the
workplace”. The second claims that “this integration is best accomplished when the
individual’s spiritual needs are recognized and nurtured by the organization, and the spiritual
values of the employee are congruent with the values of the organization”. It is thought that
people who have a positive outlook on work and life are generally more engaged with their
environment and with others (Lyubomirsky, et al., 2005).It follows that managers should
seriously consider nurturing the renaissance of spirituality in the workplace, given the
potential organizational benefits that can be gained from embracing the spirituality
movement.
3

The renewed interest in the spirituality movement is driven partly by the perceived need to
replace a declining institutionalized religious life but also by a rejection of traditional
leadership. Fry (2005: 52) believes that the “perversion of the Protestant Work Ethic, which
resulted in managers and employees acting out of self-interest and the opportunity to reap
great rewards, underlies the current malaise in corporate ethics and social responsibility”.
Developing this idea further, Lips-Wiersma and Nilakant (2007) asserted that the negative
consequences of the neo-liberal framework have led to social dysfunction. As a solution, they
suggest an approach that is based on corporate social responsibility and workplace spirituality
(WPS). The focus is on employee well-being and respect for the environment:
“The CSR perspective aims to address the social consequences of neoliberalism
by exhorting firms to pay more attention to environmental and social
issues. The WPS perspective urges corporations to attend to internal aspects of
neo-liberal policies and practices.” (p.2)
Lips-Wiersma and Nilakant (2007: 3) hold that CSR and WPS accommodate too many of the
assumptions and values of the neoliberal perspective; instead the authors suggest “practical
compassion as the effort to pursue an ideal of commitment within the practical constraints of
everyday organizational life”.
To provide a modest illustration of CSR and spirituality in the workplace, two comparable
contexts are discussed in the ensuing paragraphs, highlighting the existence of idiosyncratic
and shared characteristics in two different national contexts: France and Britain. It is expected
that on the whole the different business environments will have given rise to different
expressions of CSR and spirituality in the workplace. We wish to examine these national
expressions closely to tease out the subtle differences and (perhaps) attempt to explain them.
Taking inspiration from materials published in French, it is generally acknowledged that
successive economic recessions and the widening gap between rich and poor have led to a
‘prise de conscience’ – or awareness – of the growing inequalities in today’s society. This
notion has been much debated in the national media, for example in Le Monde (2011: 1) “la
pauvreté s'est aggravée en France en 2011” (poverty is increasing in France in 2011) and is
fuelled by the release of annual statistics from INSEE (2010:1), the national institute for
statistics and economic studies, that claim “Les riches, toujours plus riches, les pauvres,
toujours plus pauvres” (the rich are getting richer and the poor poorer). Amid a climate of
social unrest and strikes, businesses have started to promote social and environmental values
within the organisation through CSR programmes. Indeed, European directives provide a
framework for the indisputable recognition of CSR at all levels of economic life (CCE, 2001).
Acquier, Gond and Igalens (2005) draw attention to the fact that CSR is not a new concept.
Although there is clear evidence of various forms of socially-responsible business activity in
Britain throughout the 19 th century (Larson et al., 2010), it is thought to have been imported
from the USA to Europe at the end of the 19 th century. This can be seen in Andrew Carnegie’s
speech ‘The Gospel of Wealth’ which underscored the social responsibilities incumbent upon
wealthy businessmen at that time (Heald, 1970: 17-18). During the early 20 th century,
American Protestants asserted the notions of ‘public service’ and ‘stewardship’ that business
owners should perform for the community. Bowen (1953) suggested that these notions, based
on the religious and cultural values common in America, constitute an implied contract of
mutual aid between the company, its employees and society as a whole. Developing this view,
Acquier, Gond and Igalens (2005) highlight the impact of Catholicism on CSR. Papal letters
including Encyclical Rerum Novarum (1891), Quadregesimo Anno (1931) and Encyclical
4

Centesimus Annus (1991) reiterate the importance of recognizing human rights but also duties
to companies, particularly with regard to labour and greed.
It can be assumed that religion influenced the development of CSR (Pasquero, 1995; Epstein,
2002; Acquier et al., 2011). In modern society, Christianity still plays a defining if declining
role in European civilization but secular thinking tends to dominate the business world,
stifling religious views in the workplace. On the whole, traditionally Catholic countries seem
less sensitive towards sacred values and religion than their Protestant counterparts where
everyday events and items take an ethical stance; for example, the American President’s
closing remarks typically include “God Bless America” and ‘In God We Trust’ appears on
U.S. currency. Both evoke sacred values and respect for the market economy.
In the particular context of France, where the church and state formally separated in 1905,
business philosophy is based on Republican values – les Droits de l’Homme– rather than
sacred, spiritual or religious considerations. Referring to the work of Akrich and Callon et al.
(1998), Gond and Boxenbaum (2004), Dejean and Gond et al. (2004), Giamporcaro (2004),
and Gond and Leca (2004), it would appear that there are no explicit references to religion in
the French management approach; indeed, the absence of religious views is thought to have
been essential for the diffusion of CSR in France. It is believed that removing religious
considerations from CSR rendered it more universally acceptable (Aggeri, Pezet et al.,
2005).Thus the notion of sustainable development and the secularization of CSR entered
European management philosophy in the late 1980s; it is important to underscore that they are
two very separate ideas and not necessarily related but they often appear together in literature.
While Christian principles may no longer directly influence corporate policy, values which
originate from the social doctrine of the Church such as altruism and solidarity are
increasingly apparent in contemporary CSR, suggesting that social values could today be
regarded as ‘sacred’. It is only in this light that the term ‘sacred’ could apply to CSR in the
French model. On the whole, the literature emphasises the need to quantify business, stressing
management values rather than spiritual, social or environmental values. For example,
Crane’s investigation (2000) into three companies contemplating a ‘green’ approach showed
no sign of religious references.
Offering an alternative explanation for the absence of religious considerations, Acquier, Gond
and Igalens (2005) assert that CSR has been “assimilated” (p.19) into the concept of
sustainable development, underscoring an approach that is long-term, ethical and socially
responsible. The UN World Commission on Environment and Development in the 1987
Bruntland Report promoted sustainable development through economic and technological
activities that are environmentally sound. Thus CSR or ‘Sustainability’ implies that
organisations have to be seen as partners in their communities, not merely as profit centres
promoting the interest of their shareholders, but as businesses having obligations towards
various ‘stakeholders’. In the quarter century that followed, this goal has proved more
difficult to achieve in practice (Stephany, 2003).
To conclude the review of materials published in French, the literature tends to point to a
subtle difference in the perception of religion (including sacred and spirituality) in France that
is not as noticeable in Protestant or Muslim countries. It is important to bear in mind that
exceptions exist, such as the blurring of the secular/sacred dichotomy evident in brands such
as the Muslim Mecca Cola (launched in France in 2002). Emphasizing the symbolic
significance, this product is emblazoned with the name مكة (“Mecca”), Islam’s holiest city, in
Saudi Arabia. Over time, it has taken on different connotations; it can be interpreted as a
substitute product to the dominant Western brands, a pledge to aid specific charities including
5

the Palestinian community, and an unusual espousal of the Muslim faith reflected in the
company’s slogan stamped onto every product: “Shake your conscience”. In other words,
products are changed into brands and some can be infused (rightly or wrongly) with sociocultural
or, in this case, religious connotations.
In the French context, the difference in the perception of religion can generally be linked to
the separation of church and state; Catholic philosophy emphasises the fallibility of
humankind, the need to recognise and confess intimately one’s misconduct (sin), and atone
for these errors in order to be forgiven. In contrast Protestants seeks ways to improve their
behaviour. The Protestant philosophy can be considered more compatible with modern CSR,
yet the ‘absolution’ sought by planting trees to compensate for the guilt of committing ‘sinful’
environmental damage (i.e. through long-haul flights) surely echoes Catholic conscience.
Today’s new sin is damage to the environment: conscience consumption is the order of the
day and “sustainability” has surpassed sacrosanct to become sacred.
The evangelical adoption of fair and ethical policies (i.e. CSR) has been recently tempered by
the wave of economic uncertainty engulfing the marketplace, but the catalyst is compliance
and competition, not conscience. Although CSR and WPS can be an effective way to cocreate
value and share values, will they have a similar special, sacred relationship as that
forged between company and customer by the brand experience? Exogenous environmental
factors have forced organisations to re-evaluate the notion of customer-orientation. The
myopic, amoral mantra of Milton Friedman in 1970 - ‘the business of business is business’ –
has been supplanted by a wider mission of corporate citizenship in which employee and
extended stakeholder perceptions as well as commercial credibility are integral to building
brand equity.
In Britain, the roots of CSR can be traced to Victorian paternalism – like the enlightened
welfare capitalism of America in the late 1880s – which infused a marketplace with a kind of
morality and sowed the seeds for a variety of corporate social responsibility beliefs that were
not inherently part of a laissez-faire approach to commerce. The Industrial Revolution
radically affected the dynamics of the economy and society; the period from the late 18th
century to the mid-Victorian years moved the production axis from an agrarian mode into
mass manufacturing which facilitated a new commercial ‘spirit’ focusing on consumptive
hedonism. Despite the ethical working practices espoused by visionaries such as Robert Owen
or Titus Salt, the nobility in labour and craftsmanship was inevitably subsumed by a
profanation of work. The moral obligation of altruism has European roots: a Frenchman’s
(Auguste Comte) neologism became a British catechism. More recently, the move towards
CSR grew in the 1960s in step with wider social activism common in both countries at the
time; a wider stakeholder franchise began to acknowledge a more market-oriented
organisation (Freeman, 1984); inevitably globalisation effected the change from a shareholder
business model to a stakeholder partnership model (Middlemiss, 2002).
All this was a pre-cursor for what is now increasing evident in the UK: a social thread of trust
and responsibility, belief and commitment. Tyler (2003:556) stresses the importance of trust
within organizations: “trust must move beyond rational or calculative trust to various forms of
social trust”. With a new gospel of citizenship, corporate responsibility and community, CSR
describes a symbolic symbiotic relationship between organisation and customer. The trend for
co-creation (Vargo & Lusch, 2006; Vandermerwe, 1993) transcends the transaction and is
bound up in the sacramental mission of creating a company generating both value and values.
Scott and Robert (2008: 233) claim that “sacred values differ from material or instrumental
6

values in that they incorporate moral beliefs”. In an organisational context, this is more often
enshrined in some form of CSR mission statement. Whether motivated by conscience or
compliance, altruism or competitive parity, the elevation of CSR as a pathway to profit is now
almost universal. The UK perspective on CSR, with all its alliterative allusions to managing
risk, reputation and relationships, has as its Holy Grail the creation of not only sustainable
economic value and brand longevity, but also real worth in terms of social salience. All
consumption is culturally contingent, and the relationship between consumer and brand – the
heart of deconstructing social constructionism - has transcended purely functional utility to
become an act of creating social salience in co-created psychological and social resonance.
Products have both profane and sacred meaning in symbolic consumption; some commodities
are imbued with quasi-religious sacred meanings. This is seen in the turning of products into
cultural objects, evident in many of the brands which create mythical narratives. Belk et al.
(1989), Holt (2004), and others have ploughed this field well with insights into how objects
contribute to our extended sense of self on a social and emotional basis. The quasi-religiosity
of shopping, with shopping malls as temples and celebrities as false icons – where the transfer
of meaning occurs through celebrity endorsement – witnesses the creation of brand
mythology being played against the erosion of the culturally-transfusive triad of family,
education and religion (Blackwell, Miniard, and Engel, 2003:437)
The relationship between employee and organisation implicit in the psychological contract
(Rousseau, 1996) - like the brand relationship between customer and company – is dependent
upon trust and belief, and this conditions the company’s responsibility. Kitchin (2002: 315)
suggests that this depends “explicitly on the promises the brand has filtered to each
stakeholder, and implicitly on the trust that the brand’s reputation has accumulated with those
stakeholders”. Matten and Moon (2004:315) extend this, claiming that, from a
communications perspective, “the balance of implicit and explicit CSR in Europe has been in
the direction of explicit CSR”. The values held between company, employee and customer
have assumed more of a shared, sacred mission than ever before. As a consequence, CSR can
offer a sustainable business model that simultaneously frames long-term strategy, offers a
unifying narrative that binds company to customer and employee, and legitimates operations
rooted in social and moral change. Kotler (2004:22) describes a socially responsible company
as “living out a deep set of company values…and behaving in a consistently ethical manner”.
But there is a fine line between altruism and competitive advantage; Graaland and van de Bert
(2006:111) refer to organisational motives as both extrinsic (the commercial creation of
value) and intrinsic (the instillation of values). Martin (2002) also refers to intrinsic motives
as being ‘non-commercial’ values adopted for their own sake. Here CSR is seen as a moral
duty of companies towards society inducing a stronger involvement than the strategic
economic motive. In some instances the economic motive may be directly or indirectly
opposed to the sustainable or social motive. This echoes Hunt and Morgan’s (1994:20)
observation of the paradox of relationship marketing: “to be an effective competitor, a
company must be a trusted co-operator”. Whilst the economic imperative has primacy, the
ethical essence of employee and market relations is certainly the soul of CSR; when rational,
instrumental action and symbolic interaction are infused with a sanctified operational spirit, it
becomes integrated into the fabric of the organisation’s belief system: a creed becomes a
cause becomes a contract – a social, ethical, sacred contract.
This then becomes the basis for distinction between companies holding socially responsible
values and those organisations where these values have been lifted higher into the realm of the
‘sacred’. We could draw a useful distinction between businesses which pursue CSR or WPS
initiatives for profane purposes: recruitment and retention of qualified staff, to break into new
7

markets, or to make material or reputational amends for crisis situations where the effect was
negative for the local community or for the environment. Such initiatives as these will cease if
the organisation perceives that a desired goal has been achieved. Contrast this position with
organisations that pursue CSR or WPS objectives firmly in the belief that their business
would not be able to succeed without doing so, that pursing these goals is an integral part of
the corporate identity and an agreed goal of a majority of stakeholders, and that removing
these now-‘sacred’ elements would fundamentally change the character of the organisation.
An example of this is the co-operative movement in the United Kingdom which embodies a
particular business philosophy to which a number of people, both insiders and outsiders, see
as belonging to the ‘sacred’. The alternative business model followed by this organisation
prioritises both economic and social motives in way that encourages stakeholders to form a
‘sacred’ bond with the firm.
In the UK socially responsible business practices arose out of the Industrial Revolution in an
atmosphere of predominantly Protestant paternalism by individuals concerned about the wellbeing
of their communities and workers. In France CSR and WPS have been influenced
strongly by the social doctrine of the Catholic Church operating on an institutional level. Both
varieties reflect American influences during the twentieth century and both received
encouragement by heightened social activism during the 1960s. Nevertheless, they have
arrived at very similar destinations in terms of the corporate statements, practices, and
purposes that surround corporate CSR and WPS in the twenty-first century. So how can
researchers hope to elucidate the subtle national differences in how the ‘sacred’ acts, and
interacts, in the corporate world?
The work of the cultural essentialists (Hofstede, 1991; Hall and Hall, 1995; Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner, 1997) leads us to believe that culture and language determine the way in
which individuals behave, which in turn will cause divergence in organisational behaviour
from one country to another. However the review of literature, above, suggests that this is not
entirely true; there seems to be a degree of commonality in the perception of spirituality in the
workplace in France and Britain, but to ensure that this observation is not atypical, it is
necessary to carry out a survey to gain an insight into CSR and spirituality in the workplace
within each national context. Given the timeframe, it was decided to do a pilot survey in
October-November 2011 and to undertake a larger scale survey in 2012.
Methodology
The methodology is structured in two phases, a secondary research phase and a pilot field
research phase. Documentary sources were used to explore a number of macro-literature
aspects, such as different perspectives and manifestations of sacred values, spirituality and
religion with a work context.
For the field research, face-to-face interviews were conducted during October 2011 in each
national context within the service industry. A convenience sample of local eating places was
chosen to explore how employees perceive the sacred in the workplace. Here, the idea was to
interview people who come into contact with a large cross-section of the general public. More
importantly, the food industry is controlled by national and European legislation in order to
ensure high standards of hygiene and quality. This sector therefore provided an interesting
insight into the interpretation of ‘sacred’ within a highly regulated industry. These
illustrations were not produced with the intention of generalising across different national
8

contexts; they provide a modest snapshot of the extent to which different eating places have
an understanding of sacred values. Anonymity was guaranteed.
The pilot survey explores manifestations of CSR and spirituality in the workplace and thus
provides a preliminary snapshot of employee perspectives on this issue. Given the limited
time and resources available, surveys were considered the most appropriate method to obtain
information about how employees perceive the sacred in their thoughts, experiences and
behaviours. We expect the findings of the survey to provide evidence of the extent to which
national differences are apparent in CSR and spirituality in the workplace, confirming the
existence of divergence. The survey was designed to be intentionally simple for ease of
comparison across two languages. The translations were done by the investigators who are
fluent in French and English. It comprises 5 questions (closed and open-ended), as follows:
1. Thinking about the workplace, what does the word 'spirituality' mean for you?
2. How would you define 'sacred’ in the context of an organisation?
3. How would you define 'sacred values' in the context of your work?
4. In your opinion, describe how much time is allocated to employee well-being by your
employer?
5. In your experience, how does your employer demonstrate a commitment to
environmental and social issues?
In addition to these questions, personal data was requested at the end of the survey to classify
the respondents; thus we collected data from respondents about their gender, age range, and
profession. There was space at the end of the survey to include any further comments made by
the interviewees. It was anticipated that each interview should take between 45-60 minutes to
administer.
The responses given in the interviews were then coded according to the various words,
phrases and sentences used by the participants to describe their understanding of the sacred in
their work context. Acknowledging the work of Basit (2003), who emphasizes the intuitive
dimension of qualitative research, the analysis of the data was undertaken by the researchers -
instead of electronically - in order to gain a deeper understanding of the situation.
Limitations
Given the small sample size of the pilot research and the qualitative approach used in this
exploratory study, caution must be exercised when interpreting the data. Generalisations have
to be avoided. The study focused on a specific cross-cultural context (France and Britain)
within the food and catering industry. The findings of the pilot study should not be applied to
other national contexts, professions, or sectors.
Findings
A number of themes emerged from an analysis of the pilot survey. The responses given by
participants can be classified into the following broad domains: the individual meaning of
‘sacred’ within the cultural context, the distinction between personal and professional
interpretation of ‘sacred’ and the extent to which the employer invested in sacred values,
environmental concerns and social values. These dominant themes were discussed by both
9

French and British respondents. The responses highlight areas where the business world, in
this case the food and catering industry, show evidence of respecting sacred values, compared
with areas that seem to be neglected. For ease of comparison, the responses are summarised
qualitatively in the following table.
Table 1: a comparative summary of key themes discussed in relation to sacred values
within the food & catering industry
The meaning of
'spirituality' (in the
context of the
workplace)
Definitions of
'sacred’ in the
context of an
organisation
Definitions of
'sacred values' in the
context of your work
Time/ facilities
allocated to
employee well-being
(by employer)
How the employer
demonstrates
commitment to
environmental &
social issues
Key comments from French
respondents (n=15)
Religious ‘papal’ undertones,
work ethic, loyalty from
employees to employer,
transmission of values to
employees, a form of tolerance
towards one’s co-workers
‘Pride’ and spiritual values,
depends on age & personal
world-view, the core values of
the company, taking pride in
doing the job well
Building a relationship with coworkers,
showing respect to
others, quality of work,
delivering what is expected
Impossible to quantify in time; it
can be counted in collected
effort; having a comfortable rest
area, food & drink provided,
policy of recycling waste, annual
bonus, free parking, purchase of
time-saving devices
Low energy light bulbs,
recycling policy, verbal
reminders to recycle waste
10
Key comments from British
respondents (n=15)
Compassion, religious undertones,
honour, devotion to employer and
to job, empathy, being fair,
cooperating
A good work ethic; Integrity with
the organisation in terms of
business practise; Being dedicated
to personal values/ to a service or
to a product; “Trust is the most
sacred quality in an organisation
(like a sacred oath)”
Responsibility, duty, sacrifice,
devotion, honour, wellbeing
(unanimous responses across the
sample)
Vague notions; approximately a
couple of hours per week.
Low energy light bulbs, recycling
policy, car share, adhering to a
‘green policy’
Average age 44years old (90% male) 39 years old (90% female)
Profession/
occupation
Chefs, bar staff, waiting staff Catering staff and auxiliary
workers
Generally speaking, the food and catering industry is not renowned for its sacred doctrine,
which is why it provided an interesting illustration of the extent to which the sacred is present
in today’s business world.
The most striking observation in France is that every employer bar one provides low energy
light bulbs and makes provision to recycle waste. The one employer who did not provide low

energy light bulbs had in fact installed lighting that switched off automatically after a few
minutes if no activity was detected. In the French sample, the employers regularly remind
staff to use the correct waste bins for recycling materials. Interviewees claimed to travel to
and from work through either an informal car share scheme among co-workers or by public
transport; the French government subsidizes 50% public transport costs to encourage workers
to leave their car at home. There was some awkwardness noticed during the opening question
when talking about spirituality and sacred with the French participants. For many, the subject
seemed taboo in the work context, giving the impression that it was being repressed or that it
may only relate to esoteric spheres. However by the second question, the conversation flowed
quicker and with greater ease when respondents were able to describe in their own words the
definition of ‘sacred’. This typicallyled to political discussions along the lines of what should
be done by government to instil a sense of well-being at work. The general feeling from
French respondents was that today’s business world has lost many of the paternalistic values
that it used to promote in the 1950s and 1960s, in particular loyalty, commitment, rigour and
honesty.
In Britain, the most remarkable and unexpected observation was that there was greater
emphasis on the sacred dimension of business practise – that is, at an organisational level –
than the individual’s interpretation of sacred. In other words, the British sample seemed more
reticent to discuss their personal interpretation of sacred – or perhaps they merely felt that
sacred did not apply to personal circumstances. In the British sample, the respondents were
predominantly female; this reflects the nature of recruitment in the food and catering industry
in Britain. The notion of sacrifice was expressed among the British sample but not the French
sample. More research is needed to explore the possible relationship between gender and high
proportion of female respondents in Britain and the notion of ‘sacrifice’. The average age of
the respondents was slightly younger in Britain than in France. Again, more research is
needed to further investigate potential generational issues. There may be other factors to
consider too, such as socio-linguistics. During the interviews, the word ‘sacred’ used by
English-speakers seems to infer ‘religious conviction’ whereas in the French sample, it seems
to symbolise a different connotation, more ideological or philosophical than religious. This
was an unexpected finding and it perhaps underscores the speed at which language evolves
and the differences that are emerging in ‘faux amis’ i.e. words that look similar but have
different meanings. While the notion of socio-linguistics is outside the scope of this study, it
is nevertheless a factor that needs to be taken into consideration in a cross-cultural enquiry.
Conclusions and implications
The investigation explored different manifestations of the sacred in today’s business world in
France and Britain, focusing on the food and catering industry. The literature indicated that
there may be disparity between different national groups concerning the perception of sacred
and sacred values with the workplace. The pilot study suggested that this was not as apparent
as the literature suggested.
A deeper study is now needed to investigate the influence of gender, age and occupation in
people’s interpretation of ‘the sacred’ in today’s business world. Equally important is to
explore the notion that cultural values may impact on an individual’s view of sacred. This is
our focus for 2012.
11

References
Acquier, A., Gond, JP. Et Igalens, J. (2011) La religion dans les affaires: la RSE, Fondapol,
mai, p. 48
Acquier, A., Gond, JP. Et Igalens, J. (2005) Des fondements religieux de la responsabilité
sociale de l’entreprise à la responsabilité sociale de l’entreprise comme religion, Centre de
Recherche en Gestion, Toulouse, Cahier de recherche N° 2005 – 166, Mai
Aggeri, F., Pezet, E. et al. (2005) Organiser le développement durable, Paris, Vuibert.
Akrich, M., Callon M., et al. (1998) A quoi tient le succès des innovations? Deuxième
épisode: L'art de choisir les bons porte-parole, Gérer et Comprendre, septembre-octobrenovembre
Ashmos, D. and Duchon, D. (2000) Spirituality at work: A conceptualization and measure,
Journal of Management Inquiry, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 134-145
Atran, S. and Axelrod, R. (2008) Reframing Sacred Values, Negotiation Journal, vol. 24, pp.
221-246
Basit, Tehmina (2003) Manual or electronic? The role of coding in qualitative data analysis,
Educational Research, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 143–154
Belk, R.; Wallendorf, M. and Sherry, J. (1989) The Sacred and the Profane in Consumer
Behavior: Theodicy on the Odyssey, Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 16, pp. 1-38
Blackwell, Roger; Miniard, Paul and Engel, James (2006) Consumer Behaviour (10 th ed.) Thompson
South-Western
Bowen, H.R. (1953) Social Responsibilities of the Businessman, Harper, New York
Commission des Communautés Européennes (2001) Livre vert, promouvoir un cadre
européen pour la responsabilité sociale des entreprises, Bruxelles, p.31
Crane, A. (2000) Corporate greening as amoralisation, Organization Studies, vol. 21, no. 4
Déjean, F.; Gond, JP. et al.(2004) Measuring the unmeasured: an institutional entrepreneur
strategy in an emerging industry, Human Relations, vol.57, issue 6, pp. 741-764
Dixon, T. (2008) The Invention of Altruism: Making Moral Meanings in Victorian Britain,
Oxford Press: British Academy Postdoctoral Fellowship Monographs
Economist (2011) Corporate culture: The view from the top, and bottom, The Economist Print
edition, September 24 th
Epstein, E. M. (2002) The Field of Business Ethics in the United States: Past, Present and
Future, Journal of General Management, vol. 28, issue 2, pp.1-29
Freeman, E. (1980). Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach, Boston: Pitman
12

Fry, L. W. (2005) Ethics and Corporate Responsibility. In: Giacalone, R.A. and Jurkiewicz,
C.L., (Eds.), Positive Psychology in Business Ethics and Corporate Responsibility,
Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing. Ch.3, pp. 47-83
Gee, E.G. (2010) Opportunity and Purpose: Outreach’s Changing Mission, Journal of Higher
Education Outreach and Engagement, vol. 14, no. 3
Giamporcaro, S. (2004) L'investissement socialement responsable en France : Un outil au
service d'une action politique par la consommation ? Sciences de la Société, no. 62, pp. 169-
189
Gond, JP and Boxenbaum, E. (2004) Studying the diffusion of SRI: Bricolage and translations
across cultural contexts. Paper presented at annual conference of EGOS (European Group on
Organisational Studies), Ljubljana, 1-3 July
Gond, JP et Leca, B. (2004) La construction de la notation sociale des entreprises, ou l'histoire
d'Arese, Sciences de la Société, vol. 62, pp. 189-207
Grint, K. (2010) The Sacred in Leadership: Separation, Sacrifice and Silence, Organization
Studies, vol. 31, issue 1, pp.89-107
Hall, E. and Hall, R. (1995) Understanding Cultural Differences, Intercultural Press, Maine
Hofstede, G. (1991) Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, McGraw-Hill,
London
Holt, D. B. (2004) How Brands Become Icons: The Principles of Cultural Branding, Harvard
Business School Publications
Hosmer, L.T., (1995) Trust: The Connecting Link between Organizational Theory and
Philosophical Ethics, Academy of Management Review, vol. 20, no.2, pp. 379-403
INSEE (2010) Les revenus et le patrimoine des ménages – Insee Références - Édition 2010
(online), France. Available at: http://www.insee.fr/fr/publications-etservices/sommaire.asp?codesage=REVPMEN10
(accessed 05 September 11)
Jacoby, S. M. (1997). Modern Manors: Welfare Capitalism Since the New Deal. Princeton,
N.J.: Princeton University Press
Kitchin, T. (2002) Corporate Social Responsibility: A Brand Explanation, Brand
Management, vol.10 (4-5), 312-366
Koenig, H.G., McCullough, M.E. and Larson, D.B. (2001) Handbook of Religion and Health,
Oxford University Press, New York, NY
Kramer, R.M. (2009) Rethinking trust, Harvard Business Review, vol. 87, no. 6, pp. 69-77
13

Larson, Mitchell; Ward, Karen Wilson, John (2010) Banking from Leeds, not London:
regional strategy and structure at the Yorkshire Bank, 1859–1952, Accounting, Business &
Financial History, vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 117-133
Le Monde (2011) Secours populaire : la pauvreté s'est aggravée en France en 2011(online)
France. Available at: http://www.lemonde.fr/societe/article/2011/08/30/secours-populaire-lapauvrete-s-est-aggravee-en-france-en-2011_1565561_3224.html(accessed
03 October 11)
Lewis, J.D., Weigert, A. (1985) Trust as a Social Reality, Social Forces, vol. 63, no.4 pp.
967-985
Lips-Wiersma, M. and Nilakant, V. (2007) Practical Compassion: Towards a Critical Spiritual
Foundation for Corporate Responsibility, Academy of Management Annual Meeting
Proceedings, pp. 1-6
Lusch, R. F. and Vargo, S, L. (2006) The Service-Dominant Logic of Marketing: Dialog,
Debate and Directions, New York: Sharpe
Lyubomirsky, S., King, L. and Diener, E. (2005) The benefits of frequent positive affect:
Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, vol. 131, no. 6, pp. 803-855
Marietta, M. (2008) From My Cold, Dead Hands: Democratic Consequences of Sacred
Rhetoric, The Journal of Politics, vol. 70, no. 3, pp. 767–779
Martin, R. L. (2002) The Virtue Matrix, Harvard Business Review, March, pp.69-75
Masters, K. (2007) Religiosity/spirituality and behavioral medicine: investigations concerning
the integration of spirit with body, Journal of Behavioral Medicine, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 287-
289
Matten, D. and Moon, J. (2004) ‘A Conceptual Framework for Understanding CSR’, In
Corporate Social Responsibility Across Europe: Discovering National Perspectives of
Corporate Citizenship, ed. Andre Habisch, Jan Jonker, Martina Wegner and Rene
Schmidpeter, p.335-56, Berlin: Springer
Middlemiss, N. (2002). Authentic Not Cosmetic: CSR as Brand Enhancement, Brand
Management, vol.10 (4-5) pp.353-61
Morgan,J. (2005) The Workplace Religious Freedom Act of 2005, Employee Relations Law
Journal, vol. 31, no.3.
Morgan, R. M. and Hunt, S. D. (1994) The Commitment-Trust Theory of Relationship
Marketing, Journal of Marketing, 58(2), pp.20-38
Parameshwar, S. (2005) Spiritual Leadership through Ego-Transcendence: Exceptional
Responses to Challenging Circumstances, The Leadership Quarterly, vol. 16, pp. 689-722
Pasquero, J. (1995) Ethique et entreprises: le point de vue américain. Le management
aujourd'hui, une perspective nord-américaine, Québec, Presses Universitaires de Laval
14

Peterson, C. and Seligman, M. E. P. (2004) Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and
classification, Washington, DC: American Psychological Association/New York: Oxford
University Press
Phipps, S. (2011) Mary, Mary, quite contrary: In a male-dominated field, women contributed
by bringing a touch of spirituality to early management theory and practice, Journal of
Management History, vol. 17, issue 3, pp. 270-281
RMC Info (2011) Islam et République en concurrence en banlieue…(online) France.
Available at: http://www.rmc.fr/blogs/lesgrandesgueules.php (accessed 06 Oct 11)
Rousseau, D. M. (1996) Psychological Contracts in Organizations: Understanding Written
and Unwritten Agreements. Newbury Park, CA: Sage
Scott, A. and Robert, A. (2008) Reframing Sacred Values, Negotiation Journal, vol. 24, issue
3, pp.221-246
Stephany, D. (2003) Développement durable et performance de l’entreprise: Bâtir
l’entreprise DD, Edition Liaisons, Paris
Tombaugh, J.; Mayfield, C. and Durand, R. (2011) Spiritual expression at work: exploring the
active voice of workplace spirituality, International Journal of Organizational Analysis, vol.
19, no. 2, pp. 146-170
Trompenaars, F. and Hampden-Turner, C. (1997) Riding the Waves of Culture:
Understanding cultural diversity in business, 2 nd ed. Nicholas Brealey, London
Tyler, T. (2003) Trust within Organisations, Personnel Review, vol. 32, issue 5, pp.556-68
Vandermerwe, S. (1993) From Tin Soldiers to Russian Dolls: Creating Added Value through
Services, Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann
Webb, J. (2004) Organizations, Self-identities and the New Economy, Sociology, vol. 38,
issue 4, pp. 719-738
15