Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008 - EU ...

Migration in the 

Russian Federation: 

A Country Profile 2008 

Russia

The opinions expressed in the report are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect 

the views of the International Organization for Migration (IOM). The designations employed 

and the presentation of material throughout the report do not imply the expression of any 

opinion whatsoever on the part of IOM concerning the legal status of any country, territory, 

city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning its frontiers or boundaries. 

IOM is committed to the principle that humane and orderly migration benefits migrants 

and society. As an intergovernmental organization, IOM acts with its partners in the 

international community to: assist in meeting the operational challenges of migration; 

advance understanding of migration issues; encourage social and economic development 

through migration; and uphold the human dignity and well-being of migrants. 

Prepared by: 

Alin Chindea 

Magdalena Majkowska-Tomkin 

Heikki Mattila 

Isabel Pastor 

Edited by: 

Sheila Siar 

Publisher: International Organization for Migration 

17 route des Morillons 

1211 Geneva 19 

Switzerland 

Tel: +41.22.717 91 11 

Fax: +41.22.798 61 50 

E-mail: hq@iom.int 

Internet: http://www.iom.int 

_____________________________________________________ 

ISBN 978-92-9068-483-1 

ISBN 978-92-9068-517-3 (Migration in the Black Sea Region: Regional Overview, 

Country Profiles and Policy Recommendations) 

© 2008 International Organization for Migration (IOM) 

_____________________________________________________ 

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval 

system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, 

recording, or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher. 

94_08

Migration in the 

Russian Federation: 

A Country Profile 

October 2008

Contents 

List of tables and figures......................................................................... 7 

Acronym list............................................................................................. 7 

Foreword.................................................................................................. 9 

Executive Summary: General Assessment of Migration Issues........ 13 

1. Immigrants......................................................................................... 17 

1.1. Number of immigrants .............................................................................17 

1.2. Status of immigrants .................................................................................19 

1.3. Main countries of origin of immigrants ....................................................28 

2. Emigrants........................................................................................... 33 

2.1. Total number of emigrants ........................................................................33 

2.2. Status of emigrants ....................................................................................34 

2.3. Main countries of destination ..................................................................38 

3. Remittances ....................................................................................... 41 

3.1. Quantitative aspects of remittances ..........................................................41 

3.2. Qualitative aspects of remittances ............................................................46 

4. Migrant communities/diasporas...................................................... 47 

4.1. Description of relationship between diasporas and country of origin ......47 

4.2. Migrant communities/diasporas’ organizations by country 

of destination ..............................................................................................53 

5. Irregular migration .......................................................................... 55 

5.1. Numbers/estimates of irregular movements .............................................55 

5.2. Figures and information on return migration flows ..................................57 

5.3. Figures and information on trafficking ....................................................58 

6. Assessment and analysis of migration issues................................... 65 

6.1. Government institutions responsible for migration policy ......................65 

6.2. International legal framework in place relevant to migration ..................67 

6.3. Migration policies in place ......................................................................72 

6.4. Labour migration issues ............................................................................75 

6.5. Policies to address irregular migration .....................................................81 

6.6. Policies to address trafficking in human beings ........................................83 

6.7. Refugees, asylum seekers and internally displaced persons, 

and relevant policies in place ....................................................................88 

6.8. Other important migration actors in the country ......................................89 

7. Annex: Some Additional Migration Statistics ................................ 95 

Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

list of tables 

Table 1. Population born outside of the Russian Federation 

(in thousands; as of 9 October 2002) .................................................18 

Table 2. Foreign citizens and stateless persons (as of 9 October 2002) ..........19 

Table 3. Asylum applications in the Russian Federation, 2004-2007 ..............19 

Table 4. Residence permits issued in the Russian Federation, 2004-2007 ......21 

Table 5. Temporary residence permits issued in the Russian Federation, 

2004-2007 ..........................................................................................21 

Table 6. Persons who received the forced resettlement or refugee status, 

1992-2006 ...........................................................................................22 

Table 7. Refugees and forced resettlers (persons) ............................................23 

Table 8. Forced resettlers (by place of former residence) ................................24 

Table 9. Distribution of foreign workers (by types of economic activity) .......25 

Table 10. Foreign workers in Russia (by main countries of origin) ................26 

Table 11. Distribution of foreign workers in Russia 

(by duration of work period) ............................................................27 

Table 12. Distribution of foreign workers (by gender) ....................................27 

Table 13. Immigration flows to the Russian Federation by country of 

departure, 1997-2006 .......................................................................29 

Table 14. Immigrants in Russia by ethnic origin in 2002-2006 .......................31 

Table 15. Distribution of immigrants age 14 and older, by educational 

status ...............................................................................................32 

Table 16. Emigration from the Russian Federation in 1997 and 2000-2007 

by year and country of destination ..................................................33 

Table 17. Distribution of refugees and asylum seekers from Russia by 

country of asylum ............................................................................34 

Table 18. Russian citizens who migrated for employment abroad 

(by gender) .......................................................................................35 


(by educational status) .....................................................................35 


(by duration of employment period) ................................................35 

Table 21. Russian citizens who migrated for employment abroad in 2006 

(by type of economic activity) .........................................................36 

Table 22. Russian citizens who migrated for employment abroad in 

2005-2007, by destination countries ................................................36 

Table 23. Occupation of Russian citizens who migrated for employment 

abroad ...............................................................................................37 

Table 24. Russian citizens who migrated for employment abroad, 

by category of occupation ................................................................38 

Table 25: Selected countries of residence of Russian emigrants .....................38 

Table 26. Russian emigration by countries of destination and by year, 

2000-2006 ........................................................................................39 


Table 27. Educational status of emigrants 14 years and older, 2002-2006 ......40 

Table 28..Amount of incoming migrant remittances to Russia .......................41 

Table 29. Remittances to and from the Russian Federation, 2000-2006 .........42 

Table 30. Remittances sent via money transfer systems in 2006 .....................43 

Table 31. Violations of the Migration Law of the Russian Federation ............57 

Table 32. IOM assisted voluntary returns to the Russian Federation, 

2005-2006 .........................................................................................57 

Table 33. Differences in GDP and standards of living among the 

CIS countries ....................................................................................75 

Table 34. Economically active population ......................................................78 

Table 35. Average annual employment by type of economic activities ...........79 

Table 36. Number of unemployed persons in the Russian Federation, 

1992, 1995, and 2000-2006 .............................................................80 

Table 37. Unemployment by age and educational attainment in 2006 

(as of end of November; percentage of the total) ............................81 

Table 38. Statistics on crimes related to trafficking in people, 2004-2007 ......86 

Table 39. Asylum applications in the Russian Federation, 2004-2007 ............89 

list of figures 

Figure 1. Net migration to Russia, by ethnic group, 1992-2003 (in %) ..........28 

Figure 2. Changes in average commission 

(for transactions from Russia via payment systems) ........................45 

Figure 3. Trafficking routes used in taking people out and into the 

Russian Federation ...........................................................................63 


aCronYM list 

BSEC Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation 

CBR Central Bank of Russia 

CIS Commonwealth of Independent States 

FMS Federal Migration Service 

ILO International Labour Organization 

IOM International Organization for Migration 

MIA Ministry of Internal Affairs 

MTO Money transfer operators 

NGO Non-governmental organization 

RCP Regional Consultative Process 

UN United Nations 

UNDP United Nations Development Programme 

UNFPA United Nations Population Fund 

UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees 

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund 

UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 

USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 

WGCC Working Group on Combating Crime 


foreWorD 

International migration is a prominent feature of globalization and one of 

the defining issues of this century. Increasingly, migration entails economic, social, 

demographic, cultural, security and environmental effects on both sending 

and receiving societies. The task of formulating effective and coherent approaches 

for the management of international migration poses formidable challenges 

and frequently has led to regional initiatives such as Regional Consultative Processes 

(RCPs). 1 These initiatives – which address a wide range of migration issues 

including migration and development, integration of migrants, smuggling of and 

trafficking in persons, irregular migration and so on – often reflect the different 

migration agendas of governments even though the challenges they face may be 

similar in nature. 

Within this context and considering its proactive role in various RCPs, the 

International Organization for Migration (IOM) signed a Memorandum of Understanding 

with the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) 

in 2006. One of the main aims of this agreement is to enhance cooperation in 

addressing irregular migration and combating trafficking in persons in the Black 

Sea region, an area that experiences significant migration challenges as a transit, 

origin, and destination hub for migrants. Consequently, in 2007, IOM launched 

the “Black Sea Consultative Process on Migration Management”, a joint project 

with the BSEC’s Working Group on Combating Crime (WGCC) (Particularly its 

Organized Forms). 

The project aimed to contribute to effective migration management in the 

Black Sea region as well as combating irregular migration through strengthened 

regional cooperation and capacity building of relevant authorities in all twelve 

member states of the BSEC. 2 Specifically, IOM has drafted national Migration 

Profiles for those countries where such documents did not exist, and has reviewed 

and updated existing Profiles. 3 

Why country Migration Profiles? A concept and tool promoted by the European 

Commission, the Profiles are an evidence-based approach to assess the 

migration situation in a country. IOM has adopted and further developed this 

1 Regional Consultative Processes bring together representatives of states, international organizations and, in 

some cases, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) for informal and non-binding dialogue and information 

exchange on migration-related issues of common interest and concern. 

2 Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Georgia, Greece, Moldova, Romania, the Russian Federation, Serbia, 

Turkey and Ukraine. 

3 Within the framework of the Slovenian presidency of the European Union, IOM prepared Migration Profiles 

for the Western Balkan Countries including BSEC members Albania, Serbia and Turkey. 


concept and has since implemented it in various regions such as the Balkans, 

Western and Central Africa, and Latin America. The intention is to contribute 

towards greater coherence of national migration policies and enhanced regional 

cooperation. This requires appropriate compilation of internationally comparable 

data among other features such as national coordination and cooperation among 

involved authorities and pursuit of an active international cooperation at bilateral, 

regional and global levels. The Profiles, using a common template, allow for 

comparability despite data limitations 4 and different national contexts. 

Furthermore, to ensure the legitimacy and recognized value of the Profiles, 

the BSEC member states and the BSEC WGCC provided substantial feedback 

on the Profiles. Drafted in IOM’s office in Budapest and coordinated with IOM’s 

Research Unit at IOM Headquarters in Geneva and the respective IOM office in 

each of the BSEC countries – to ensure high-quality – the Profiles also offer a 

set of policy recommendations for effective migration management in the region. 

These were thoroughly discussed during an expert meeting of the BSEC’s WGCC 

in Istanbul on 10 September 2008. Subsequently, the recommendations were approved 

by the BSEC’s Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs that convened in 

Tirana on 23 October 2008. 

This set of Profiles is the result of intensive cooperation between many 

individuals within IOM and among IOM and other stakeholders. The input of the 

following people is highly appreciated: Christine Aghazarm and Verónica Escudero, 

Research Unit in IOM Geneva, as authors of the regional overview and for 

their extensive review of all the Profiles, Frank Laczko, head of the Research and 

Publications in IOM Geneva, for his supervision throughout the project, IOM 

staff in IOM offices in all the BSEC countries, and the dedicated finance and administrative 

colleagues in IOM Budapest. Special thanks to IOM’s 1035 Facility 

who funded this project. Moreover, particular gratitude is warmly given to the 

Organization of the Black Sea Economic Organization as the associate organization 

in this project, especially the Permanent International Secretariat who kindly 

arranged the meetings related to the implementation of the project. Not least, 

IOM gratefully acknowledges the support of the BSEC Member States in the 

production of the Profiles, above all for their input to their specific country profile 

and the endorsement of the regional migration policy recommendations. 

Argentina Szabados, Regional Representative 

Alin Chindea, Project Coordinator 

International Organization for Migration 

Mission with Regional Functions for Central and South-Eastern Europe 

4 For a discussion on the quality and limitations migration data, see the regional overview. 

10 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008

ussia – basic facts 

Population (July 2007) 141,377,752 (estimate) 

Total Area 16,995,800 sq. km 

GDP per Capita PPP USD 12,200 

Human Development Index (HDI) Rank 67 of 177 

Net Migration Rate 0.28 migrant(s)/1,000 population 

Sources: CIA World Factbook; United Nations Development Programme Human Development 

Report, 2006. 

Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008 

11

exeCutive suMMarY: general 

assessMent of Migration issues 

From the beginning of the 20 th century until the disintegration of the Soviet 

Union, migration flows concerning Russia took place mainly within the borders of 

the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). Exceptions to this were during 

the two World Wars and the civil war (1917-1922), which accompanied movements 

of refugees and displaced persons, repatriations, and mass deportations. 

After the end of the Soviet Union, the first half of the 1990s was characterized 

by the so-called forced migration or forced resettlement towards the Russian 

Federation, basically from countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States 

(CIS) and Baltic States, the sharp reduction of emigration streams to these states, 

and the booming emigration to “far abroad” or outside of the former Soviet Union. 

This far-abroad emigration was mostly ethnic in character: Germans, Jews 

and Greeks, and Russians living in the large cities were mostly the ones to leave. 

There were many scientists and representatives of art among emigrants in that 

period. 1 

However, during the second half of the 1990s, there was a reduction in 

the streams of refugees and forced immigrants from the countries of the former 

Soviet Union. Immigration lost its forced nature, and more and more migrants 

started to move into Russia for social and economic reasons. The diversity of 

emigration (by countries, by regions of origin in Russia, and by ethnic composition) 

decreased as well. 

In the 2000s, the main factors influencing migration in Russia have been its 

more favorable economic development compared to most of the other CIS countries 

and the growing problems of demographic development in Russia. 

Nowadays, Russia is facing similar migration challenges to most other 

European countries. These challenges include: how best to use immigration (today 

and in the future) to compensate for the declining population, labour force 

shortages, and emigration of working age citizens; how to fight against irregular 

forms of migration and trafficking in human beings; and how to overcome antiimmigrant 

sentiment, xenophobia, and ethnic conflict, problems closely linked 

with migratory movements. 

1 Vladimir , Mukomel and Nikita Mkrtchyan (2008) Expert memorandum drafted for this Country Profile; Commissioned 

by IOM Office in Moscow; January 2008. 


1

The vast territory of the country, its numerous administrative sub-regions, 

and ethnically diverse population also create special problems, such as keeping 

sparsely populated areas inhabited. The long land borders of nearly 20,000 km 

pose special challenges for controlling migration flows. 

Also, the common past of the CIS as former Soviet Republics, where the 

Russian language is generally spoken and a visa-free regime prevails, gives a 

special characteristic to the nature of migration to and from Russia. 

Ivakhniouk (2006) 2 lists the following features that characterize much of 

the “migration system” in the CIS area: 

• historical ties 

• geographical proximity, ‘transparent’ borders (visa-free movements) 

• common transport infrastructure 

• psychological easiness to move (language, former common territory) 

• demographic complementarity 

• mutual interest towards common labour market 

• large-scale irregular migration 

• regional cooperation aimed at coordinated migration management. 

Following the disintegration of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, about 

25 million ethnic Russians found themselves living in the other CIS countries and 

in the three Baltic Republics. 3 

Meanwhile, between 1989 and 2002, Russia received 10.9 million migrants 

from the former Soviet Republics (the current CIS and the Baltic States). 4 A large 

part of these Russians had to move under some degree of pressure, with many 

of them even fleeing conflicts including those in South Ossetia, Abkhasia, and 

Tajikistan. In Russia, they were therefore called “refugees”’ or “forced migrants” 

(also “forced resettlers”). 

During the same period, 4.1 million persons moved in the opposite direction, 

5 that is, from Russia to the newly independent former Soviet Republics. 

Thus, Russia’s net immigration figure with the Former Soviet Union (FSU) Re- 

2 Ivakhnyuk, Irina (2006) “Migration in the CIS Region: Common Problems and Mutual Benefits”, An expert 

paper presented at the International Symposium on International Migration and Development, United Nations 

Population Division, 28-30 June 2006, Turin, Italy. 

3 Tishkov, Valery, Zhanna Zayinchkovskaya and Galina Vitkovskaya (2005) “Migration in the Countries of 

the Former Soviet Union”, A paper prepared for the Policy Analysis and Research Programme of the Global 

Commission on International Migration. 

4 Ibid. 

5 Ibid. 


publics in the same period was 6.8 million. These people resettled in numerous 

communities all around the Russian Federation, and their resettlement was for 

many years the main priority of the Russian migration authorities, most notably 

the Federal Migration Service (FMS) created in June 1992. 6 

According to Tishkov et al. (2005), since mid-1990s, such forced migration 

in the CIS region has gradually decreased, while at the same time economically 

motivated migration has grown. Ivakhniouk (2006) confirms 7 that during the last 

15 years, the nature of migration flows in the CIS region shifted “from primarily 

forced migrations to voluntary economic migrations”. The strongly varying economic, 

social and political development in the CIS countries has generated large, 

mostly economic migration flows primarily towards Russia (see more on this in 

Section 6.4 on labour migration). 

The increased mobility of various ethnic groups of the Central Asian countries 

of the CIS, and their employment in the Russian Federation, has led to an 

expansion of migrant ethnic communities and intensive formation of “new diasporas” 

resulting in growing ethnic confrontations of a socio-cultural variety. 

Partly linked to the recent large labour migration, Russia and the whole 

CIS region have become transit and residence areas for large numbers of irregular 

migrants, thus new and more effective methods are being sought to deal with the 

situation. 

The need for active migration policy has been acknowledged at the highest 

level. For instance, the then Russian President, Vladimir Putin, announced in 

March 2005 the need for adjusting Russia’s migration policy as a result of the 

rapid decline in the country’s population. 8 The President was quoted as saying 

that the state’s migration policy needs to be adjusted and be closely linked to 

important tasks of socio-economic development, with the main task at present to 

create additional conditions for attracting skilled labour. The President also stated 

that those migrants falling into the shadow economy largely have done so due to 

the cumbersome procedures in place for obtaining legal employment in Russia. 

In recent years, Russian authorities have launched numerous proactive migration 

policy initiatives, in their attempts to increase the recruitment of highly 

skilled professionals from abroad, as well as to encourage Russian expatriates 

6 Voronina (2006). 




8 Interfax New Report, 17 March 2005. 


1

to return and to diminish irregular migration, through facilitation of immigration 

procedures and imposition of sanctions to employers hiring undocumented 

labour, improved migration databases and new passports with electronic and biometric 

features, and increased cooperation among CIS countries in migration issues. 

New migration legislation has also been in force since January 2007. 


1. iMMigrants 

1.1. Number of immigrants 

Stock ............................................................................. 12,080,000 (2006) 9 

As percentage of total population .........................................8.4% (2006 ) 10 

Gender ratio .............................................................57.8% female (2005) 11 

The United Nations Population Division (UNPD) ranks Russia second to 

the United States in the list of countries with the largest numbers of immigrants: 

United States – 38.9 million immigrants 

Russian Federation – 12.1 million 

Germany – 10.1 million 

Ukraine – 6.8 million 

Many of the foreign-born residing in the current Russian Federation were 

born in other states of the former USSR (Table 1). Therefore, for a large share 

of the foreign-born in Russia, the figure reflects the changed geopolitical status 

of their country of birth, rather than international migration to Russia. The total 

number of citizens from other states and of stateless persons is much lower 

(Table 2). 

9 United Nations Secretariat, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (October 2006) 

International Migration. The number of international migrants generally represents the number of persons born 

in a country other than that in which they live. 

10 Ibid. 

11 World Bank, Development Prospects Group (2005) Migration and Remittances Factbook. 


1

Table 1. Population born outside of the Russian Federation 

(in thousands; as of 9 October 2002) 12 

Country no. 

Azerbaijan 846 

Armenia 481 

Byelorussia 936 

Georgia 629 

Kazakhstan 2,585 

Kirghizia 464 

Latvia 103 

Lithuania 86 

Moldova 278 

Tadzhikistan 383 

Turkmenia 175 

Uzbekistan 918 

Ukraine 3,560 

Estonia 67 

Other countries 466 

Total 11,977 

Source: The 2002 Census in the Russian Federation as presented by Rosstat in 2005 

12 Rosstat of the Russian Federation, Moscow (2005) Results of the 2002 Census in the Russian Federation, Vol. 

14, Total Final Figures of the 2002 Census in the Russian Federation. 


Table 2. Foreign citizens and stateless persons (as of 9 October 2002) 13 

no. (in thousands) 

as percentage of the 

russian population 

Total no. of foreign citizens 1,025.4 0.7 

Their country of citizenship: 

Other than CIS 119.1 0.1 

Azerbaijan 154.9 0.1 

Armenia 136.8 0.1 

Byelorussia 40.3 0.0 

Georgia 52.9 0.0 

Kazakhstan 69.5 0.1 

Kyrgyzstan 28.8 0.0 

Moldavia 51.0 0.0 

Tadzhikistan 64.2 0.0 

Turkmenia 6.4 0.0 

Uzbekistan 70.9 0.1 

Ukraine 230.6 0.2 

Stateless people 429.9 0.3 

Source: The 2002 Census in the Russian Federation as presented by Rosstat in 2005 

1.2. Status of immigrants 

Refugees/asylum seekers 

Situation at the end of 2006: 

Refugees ...........................................................................................1,425 14 

Asylum seekers (pending cases)............................................................291 

Table 3. Asylum applications in the Russian Federation, 2004-2007 

2004 2005 2006 2007 (June) 

315 292 1,170 291 

Source: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), 2007. 

According to the Law on the Legal Status of Foreign Citizens in the Russian 

Federation of July 25, 2002, No. 115-FZ, foreign citizens may temporarily 

13 Ibid. 

14 UNHCR (2007) Statistical Yearbook 2006, Trends in Displacement, Protection and Solutions, Geneva December 

2007. The first figure refers to “Persons recognized as refugees under the 1951 UN Convention/1967 

Protocol, the 1969 OAU Convention, in accordance with the UNHCR Statute, persons granted a complementary 

form of protection and those granted temporary protection”. 


1

stay, 15 temporarily reside, and permanently reside in the Russian Federation. The 

number of temporary residence permissions (for a period of three years) is allocated 

by quota. 16 Residence permits are issued for a five-year period with possible 

extension. Prior to the receipt of a residence permit, a foreign citizen is obliged 

to live in the Russian Federation for at least one year on the basis of a temporary 

residence permit. 

Forced migrants may seek, according to the Law of the Russian Federation, 

temporary refuge, refugee status, or displaced person status. 17 

Simplified procedure sfor the acquisition of nationality is in force between 

the Russian Federation and the Republics of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. 

18 In addition, separate categories of immigrants may also obtain Russian 

citizenship through a simplified procedure. 19 

Permanent residence status 

The number of people issued residence permits in 2006 totaled 16,699. As 

of October 2007 this figure was 12,217. 

15 The period of a foreigner’s temporary stay in the Russian Federation is defined by the validity period of his/her 

visa. Temporary stay that does not require a visa but the duration of stay should not be longer than 90 days. 

16 Quotas are distributed among subjects (regions) of the Russian Federation. Quotas are not extended to individual 

categories of foreign citizens. A quota of 140,790 for part-time residence has been approved for the 

year 2008. 

17 The status of forced migrants can be given to internal migrants as well as to Russian citizens who are forced 

to leave the place of their residence outside of Russia. 

18 Federal Law of 2 January 2000, No. 18-FL. 

19 These include foreign citizens and stateless persons who have at least one parent with Russian Federation 

citizenship and living in the territory of the Russian Federation; who had the citizenship of the USSR; who had 

resided or is residing in the former republics of the USSR and did not receive the citizenship of these republics 

and thus remain stateless persons; who are citizens of the former republics of the USSR; who had received 

professional or higher education in the educational institutions of the Russian Federation after 1 July 2002; 

who were born in the territory of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic and had citizenship of the 

former USSR; who are married to the citizen of the Russian Federation for at least three years; and who are 

not capable of working and have a legally capable son or daughter over the age of 18 who are citizens of the 

Russian Federation. (The Federal Law on Amendments to the Federal Law on the Citizenship of the Russian 

Federation, 11 November 2003, No. 151-FL). 


Table 4. Residence permits issued in the Russian Federation, 2004-2007 

Temporary residence status 

Year no. 

2004 43,828 

2005 18,862 

2006 16,699 

2007 (as of October) 12,217 

Source: Federal Migration Service. 

The number of people issued temporary residence permits in 2006 totaled 

150,716. As of October 2007, the figure reached 167,347. 

Table 5. Temporary residence permits issued in the Russian Federation, 2004-2007 

Refugees/asylum seekers 

Year no. 

2004 120,756 

2005 170,267 

2006 150,716 

2007 (as of October) 167,347 


Refugees – 445 persons (as of November 2007) 

Applied for refugee status – 1,872 persons (January-October 2007) 

Recognized as refugees – 113 (January-October 2007) 

Applied for temporary asylum – 1,042 persons (January-October 2007) 

Received temporary asylum – 359 persons (January-October 2007) 


21

Table 6. Persons who received the forced resettlement or refugee status, 1992-2006 20 

total of forced 

migrants 

1992 160,341 

1993 323,244 

refugees 

22 Migration in the Russian Federation: A Country Profile 2008 

forced 

re-settlers 

1994 254,518 85,811 168,707 

1995 271,950 46,409 225,541 

1996 172,672 19,824 152,848 

1997 131,130 5,751 125,379 

1998 118,227 510 117,717 

1999 79,126 381 78,745 

2000 59,196 277 58,919 

2001 41,958 134 41,824 

2002 20,504 51 20,453 

2003 4,726 58 4,668 

2004 4,291 42 4,249 

2005 8,939 25 8,914 

2006 7,177 42 7,135 


20 FMS press release. Moscow, 1993-1999; Information and Statistics Collected Book No. 1, the FMS. Moscow, 

2002; Population and migration in the Russian Federation. Moscow, the Goskomstat of Russia, 1994-2006.

Table 7. Refugees and forced resettlers 1 (persons) 

of which 

refugees (since 

20 March 1993) 

resettlers (since 

1 July 1992) 

total since the start 

of registra-tion as of 

1 January 20072 1995 2000 2003 2004 2005 2006 

Total 271,977 59,196 4,726 4,291 8,914 7,177 118,116 117,711 405 

Out of them, former 

permanent residents of 

Azerbaijan 12,963 619 82 41 20 18 2,486 2,468 18 

Armenia 1,653 58 - 2 5 3 215 215 - 

Belarus 188 - - - - - 7 7 - 

Georgia 10,778 4,297 2,537 1,889 60 16 17,302 17,202 100 

Kazakhstan 88,689 29,026 828 348 224 110 42,971 42,971 - 

Kyrgyzstan 17,769 1,115 85 35 14 10 2,879 2,879 - 

Latvia 5,427 106 10 6 2 4 472 472 - 

Lithuania 719 22 6 1 1 8 82 82 - 

Moldova 2,688 509 12 8 5 3 944 943 1 

Russia 3 34,871 9,712 414 1,522 8,380 6,876 23,827 23,827 - 

Tajikistan 26,982 3,387 256 161 58 27 9,179 9,169 10 

Turkmenistan 4,574 279 29 33 17 6 1,133 1,133 - 


Uzbekistan 59,212 9,352 410 201 94 54 15,582 15,575 7 

Ukraine 2,262 392 8 2 5 8 519 517 2 

Estonia 3,171 127 15 2 6 - 244 244 - 

31 195 34 40 23 34 274 7 267 4 

Other territories or those 

not specified 

Source: Federal Migration Service, http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/2007/b07_12/05-10.ht 

1 Data from the FMS on the number of citizens of the Russian Federation and foreign citizens given corresponding official status in its territorial bodies. 

2 Excluding those taken off the records. 

3 Excluding data on forced re-settlers from the Republic of North Ossetia-Alania to the Republic of Ingushetia and on those who applied to the FMS in connection with 

events in the Chechen Republic in 1994-1996 and 1999-2001. 

4 Including 240 persons who were formerly permanent residents of Afghanistan; Rwanda, 7; Israel, 5; Iraq, 5; Vietnam, 3; Serbia, 3; and one person each from Iran, 

Pakistan, Uganda, and Ethiopia. 

23

Table 8. Forced resettlers (by place of former residence) 

1998 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 

Total 956,874 880,394 782,215 625,639 491,898 352,796 237,998 168,253 117,711 

Belarus 304 253 174 102 65 28 12 7 7 

Kazakhstan 234,205 309,155 290,698 259,827 216,891 150,423 99,500 66,020 42,971 

Moldoa 14,015 10,614 9,458 6,989 5,483 3,950 2,128 1,404 943 

Russia* 194,332 157,425 140,657 112,367 82,289 61,382 46,706 36,375 23,827 

Kyrgyzstan 63,606 44,433 35,498 23,907 16,197 10,999 6,092 4,265 2,879 


Tadzhikistan 126,625 96,056 83,040 59,190 44,342 31,563 17,683 12,158 9,169 

Turkmenistan 14,564 14,552 12,709 9,588 6,084 3,332 1,917 1,376 1,133 

Uzbekistan 135,579 122,369 100,606 80,306 64,907 48,319 33,015 22,257 15,575 

Azerbaijan 68,383 45,275 36,698 20,740 14,003 9,161 5,025 3,322 2,468 

Armenia 4,621 3,283 2,579 1,616 1,183 601 390 295 215 

Georgia 60,884 41,915 40,507 30,361 27,488 25,199 22,278 18,868 17,202 

Latvia 18,680 14,861 11,888 7,679 4,392 2,305 1,029 614 472 

Lithuania 2,771 2,279 1,881 1,093 754 485 196 109 82 

Estonia 11,636 10,519 9,023 6,320 3,753 1,993 659 339 244 

Other territories 

or those 

70 167 186 189 167 103 69 23 7 

not specified 

Source: Population and Migration in the Russian Federation. Moscow, the Goskomstat of Russia, 1997-200. 

* the Chechen Republic, the Republic of Ingushetia, and the Republic of North Ossetia-Alania.

Table 9. Distribution of foreign workers (by types of economic activity) 

2005 2006 

no. % no. % 

Total 702,500 100.0 1,014,013 100.0 

Building 272,122 38.7 414,084 40.8 

Industry and mining operations 48,725 6.9 72,245 7.1 

Agriculture, hunting 33,438 4.8 72,646 7.2 

transport, communication 32,972 4.7 46,990 4.7 

Trade and services 213,933 30.5 270,944 26.7 

Other types of economic activity 101,310 14.4 137,104 13.5 

Source: the Federal Migration Service 


25

Labour migrants 

Table 10. Foreign workers in Russia (by main countries of origin) 

2004 2005 2006 

no. % no. % no. % 

total 460,364 100.00 702,500 100.00 1,014,013 100.00 

from Cis 

countries (total) 

Including: 

Azerbaijan 

221,862 48.19 343,665 48.92 537,722 53.03 

9,844 2.14 17,302 2.46 28,319 

Armenia 17,000 3.69 26,169 3.73 39,760 3.92 

Georgia 3,789 0.82 4,314 0.61 4,928 0.49 

Kyrgyzstan 7,988 1.74 16,228 2.31 32,981 3.25 

Moldavia 22,689 4.93 30,613 4.36 50,958 5.03 

Tadzhikistan 23,282 5.06 52,602 7.49 98,736 9.74 

Turkmenistan 304 0.07 1,499 0.21 704 0.07 

Uzbekistan 24,101 5.24 49,043 6.98 105,061 10.36 

Ukraine 108,615 23.59 141,777 20.18 171,292 16.89 

from other 

countries (total) 

including: 

Afghanistan 

238,502 51.81 358,835 51.08 476,291 46.97 

2,521 0.55 2,874 0.41 3,840 0.38 

Bulgaria 2,268 0.49 1,815 0.26 1,547 0.15 

Bosnia and 

Herzegovina 

1,583 0.34 2,084 0.3 3,667 

Vietnam 41,816 9.08 55,554 7.91 69,076 6.81 

Germany 1,506 0.33 2,132 0.3 3,094 0.31 

India 2,109 0.46 2,729 0.39 3,802 0.37 

Italy 758 0.16 909 0.13 1,097 0.11 

China 94,064 20.43 160,569 22.86 210,784 20.79 

Korea (PDRK) 14,736 3.2 20,057 2.86 27,666 2.73 

Korea Republic 466 0.1 968 0.14 1,321 0.13 

Latvia 1,158 0.25 1,176 0.17 1,128 0.11 

Lithuania 4,429 0.96 3,894 0.55 3,428 0.34 

Poland 1,328 0.29 1,432 0.2 2,141 0.21 

Serbia and Montenegro 

7,504 1.63 9,777 1.39 13,661 

Great Britain 1,449 0.31 2,168 0.31 3,193 0.31 

United States 1,943 0.42 2,859 0.41 3,724 0.37 

Turkey 48,007 10.43 73,695 10.49 101,407 10.00 

Philippines 112 0.02 692 0.1 2,559 0.25 

Finland 1,259 0.27 1,290 0.18 1,264 0.12 

France 1,137 0.25 1,614 0.23 2,576 0.25 

Source: Federal Migration Service 


2.79 

0.36 

1.35

Table 11. Distribution of foreign workers in Russia (by duration of work period) 

2005 2006 

Up to 3 months 2,260 2,683 

3-6 months 34,764 5,590 

6-9 months 17,663 14,206 

9-12 months 391,477 547,633 


Table 12. Distribution of foreign workers (by gender) 

2004 2005 2006 

No. % No. % No. % 

Male 379,186 82.4 591,235 84.2 858,506 84.7 

Female 81,178 17.6 111,265 15.8 155,507 15.3 


1.3. Main countries of origin of immigrants 

As indicated earlier, in the early to mid-1990s, the main migration flows 

to the Russian Federation consisted of ethnic Russians who moved from other 

former Soviet Republics, often fleeing discrimination or ethnic conflicts, and 

therefore were known as forced migrants or forced resettlers in the Russian Federation. 

Since 2000, the top 10 source countries have been Ukraine, Kazakhstan, 

Belarus, Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Armenia, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and 

Moldova. 21 

21 World Bank, Development Prospects Group (2008) Migration and Remittances Factbook. 


27

10.00% 

6.00% 

Figure 1. Net migration to Russia, by ethnic group, 1992-2003 (in %) 

1.50% 

15.70% 

Source: Valery Tishkov , Zhanna Zayinchkovskaya and Galina Vitkovskaya (2005) Migration in the countries of the former 

Soviet Union, Global Commission on International Migration, p.13. 


66.80%

Table 13. Immigration flows to the Russian Federation by country of departure, 1997-2006 

1997 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 

597,651 359,330 193,450 184,612 129,144 119,157 177,230 186,380 

Arrivals to the 

Russian Federation, Total 

of which from: 

CIS countries 571,903 346,774 183,650 175,068 119,661 110,374 168,598 177,657 

Azerbaijan 29,878 14,906 5,587 5,635 4,277 2,584 4,600 8,900 

Armenia 19,123 15,951 5,814 6,802 5,124 3,057 7,581 12,949 

Belarus 17,575 10,274 6,520 6,841 5,309 5,650 6,797 5,619 

Georgia 24,517 20,213 9,674 7,128 5,540 4,886 5,497 6,806 

Kazakhstan 235,903 124,903 65,226 55,706 29,552 40,150 51,945 38,606 

Kyrgyzstan 13,752 15,536 10,740 13,139 6,948 9,511 15,592 15,669 

Moldova 13,750 11,652 7,569 7,562 6,391 4,816 6,569 8,649 

Tajikistan 23,053 11,043 6,742 5,967 5,346 3,339 4,717 6,523 

Turkmenistan 16,501 6,738 4,402 4,531 6,299 3,734 4,104 4,089 

Uzbekistan 39,620 40,810 24,873 24,951 21,457 14,948 30,436 37,126 

Ukraine 138,231 74,748 36,503 36,806 23,418 17,699 30,760 32,721 

from non-CIS countries 25,748 12,556 9,800 9,544 9,483 8,783 8,632 8,723 

Australia 57 27 25 22 30 42 30 28 

Afghanistan 208 288 171 107 82 55 60 86 

Bulgaria 750 245 255 238 212 125 118 109 

Germany 2,379 1,753 1,627 1,962 2,692 3,117 3,025 2,900 


29

Greece 183 182 124 150 224 182 200 176 

Israel 1,626 1,508 1,373 1,670 1,808 1,486 1,004 1,053 

Canada 73 50 74 70 103 87 99 77 

China 2,861 1,121 405 410 346 212 432 499 

Cuba 110 37 42 22 23 12 17 12 

Latvia 5,658 1,785 1,283 990 906 819 726 766 


Lithuania 1,785 945 758 722 535 339 360 371 

Poland 247 61 56 53 39 48 55 48 

Syria 483 358 260 144 101 56 68 67 

United States 668 439 432 455 484 518 396 411 

Turkey 176 164 184 144 112 77 86 172 

Finland 140 83 97 136 125 141 129 137 

Sweden 32 14 28 19 22 16 23 32 

Estonia 3,483 786 535 534 445 446 432 347 

Other countries 4,829 2,710 2,071 1,696 1,194 1,005 1,372 1,432 

Sources: Goskomstat (The Central Statistical Office of the Russian Federation) website; Demographic Yearbook of Russia, Moscow, 2006; Population and 

Migration in the Russian Federation in 2006, Moscow, 2006.

A significant part of migrants moving for permanent (primary) residence 

to Russia are Russians (ethnic Russians from other regions of the Former Soviet 

Republic who are entitled to Russian citizenship) arriving from other CIS countries 

or who belong to ethnic minorities of the Russian Federation. The majority 

of them have Russian citizenship. The following table describes the ethnic origin 

of those immigrants. 

Table 14. Immigrants in Russia by ethnic origin in 2002-2006 

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 

Total 184,612 129,144 119,157 177,230 186,380 

Russians 99,683 66,076 65,831 92,576 82,647 

Tatars 7,708 5,782 4,039 6,330 8,171 

Other nations and 

ethnic groups of the 

Russian Federation 

5,567 3,768 3,382 3,763 4,068 

Azerbaijanis 2,921 1,884 1,196 2,489 5,345 

Armenians 7,491 5,757 3,547 7,157 11,358 

Belarusians 2,819 1,833 1,820 2,544 2,028 

Georgians 1,451 968 609 811 1,055 

Kazakhs 1,946 1,304 1,452 2,022 1,862 

Kirghiz 428 276 403 1,332 2,394 

Moldovans 1,263 981 807 1,385 2,033 

Tadjiks 1,481 1,004 639 1,305 2,550 

Turkmen 218 311 219 231 285 

Uzbeks 2,020 1,597 1,130 2,069 3,880 

Ukrainian 17,699 11,225 8,886 13,623 13,564 

Koreans 1,577 1,295 985 2,162 2,870 

Germans 2,523 1,913 2,342 2,974 2,438 

Other nationalities, 

living mainly outside of 

the Russian Federation 

Nationalities have not 

been specified 

4,077 2,986 2,148 3,565 3,546 

23,740 20,184 19,767 30,892 36,286 

Source: Population and migration in the Russian Federation. Moscow, the Rosstat, 2004-2006 


1

Table 15. Distribution of immigrants age 14 and older, by educational status 

educational status 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 

Total 158,505 111,883 104,550 155,056 163,687 

Higher professional 

education 

Including Doctors of Science 

(PhD specialists) 

Candidates of Sciences 

(PhD specialists) 

Incomplete higher education 

Secondary vocational 

education 

General secondary 

education 

Basic secondary education 

Primary education or no 

education 

Educational status not 

specified 

28,561 22,185 20,563 29,357 31,118 

40 29 35 38 54 

206 161 60 79 86 

4,254 3,193 3,210 4,973 5,083 

47,620 33,250 31,797 48,180 48,554 

53,084 37,210 32,713 48,561 50,608 

19,283 12,566 12,387 18,689 18,313 

5,703 3,479 3,880 5,296 3,958 

Source: Population and Migration in the Russian Federation, Moscow, the Rosstat, 2002-2006. 


6,053

2. eMigrants 

2.1. Total number of emigrants 

..................................................................................... 11,480,137 (2005) 22 

As percentage of total population .............................................8% (2005) 23 

Table 16. Emigration from the Russian Federation in 1997 and 2000-2007 by year and 

Departures 

from the RussianFederation, 

Total 

of which to: 

country of destination 

1997 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 

232,987 145,720 121,166 106,685 94,018 79,795 69,798 54,061 

CIS countries 146,961 82,312 61,570 52,099 46,081 37,017 36,109 35,262 

Azerbaijan 4,302 3,187 2,170 1,704 1,771 1,336 1,274 1,366 

Armenia 2,578 1,519 1,362 1,114 1,098 654 620 686 

Belarus’ 18,928 13,276 11,175 8,829 7,016 5,671 6,034 6,318 

Georgia 3,286 1,802 1,339 964 939 740 691 593 

Kazakhstan 25,364 17,913 15,186 13,939 14,017 12,504 12,437 11,948 

Kyrgyzstan 6,296 1,857 1,333 1,080 959 656 473 605 

Moldova 5,715 2,237 1,660 1,385 1,234 907 786 636 

Tajikistan 2,474 1,158 993 827 922 549 434 424 

Turkmenistan 1,532 676 352 272 251 168 125 112 

Uzbekistan 7,370 3,086 1,974 1,400 1,130 717 595 648 

Ukraine 69,116 35,601 24,026 20,585 16,744 13,115 12,640 11,926 

to non- CIS 

countries 

86,026 63,408 59,596 54,586 47,937 42,778 33,689 18,799 

Australia 297 176 184 144 146 167 209 167 

Afghanistan 146 25 18 7 17 2 11 11 

Bulgaria 668 180 163 133 156 160 124 116 

Germany 48,363 40,443 43,682 42,231 36,928 31,876 21,458 8,229 

Greece 886 314 204 190 186 157 155 139 

Israel 12,873 9,407 4,835 2,764 2,048 1,733 1,745 1,408 

Canada 1,333 841 812 725 701 783 628 552 

China 1,222 658 156 151 86 154 456 196 

22 World Bank Development Prospects Group (2005) Migration and Remittances Factbook. 

23 Ibid. 


Cuba 89 27 15 6 8 8 2 3 

Latvia 636 365 311 256 259 226 211 223 

Lithuania 1,162 376 262 293 268 282 213 228 

Poland 376 135 84 80 72 57 76 84 

Syria 256 54 60 66 58 55 54 42 

United States 9,087 4,793 4,527 3,134 3,199 2,919 4,040 3,109 

Turkey 356 104 96 80 88 60 85 78 

Finland 923 1,142 980 1,110 737 910 737 695 

Sweden 151 195 148 162 151 158 110 132 

Estonia 702 385 402 321 351 265 225 270 

Other countries 

Source: Goskomstat website 

6,500 3,788 2,657 2,733 2,478 2,806 3,150 3,117 

2.2. Status of emigrants 

Refugees ...........................................................................159,381 (2006) 24 

Asylum seekers...................................................................20,670 (2006) 25 

Table 17. Distribution of refugees and asylum seekers from Russia by country of asylum 

Country of asylum refugees 


asylum seekers 

(pending cases) 

Total 159,381 20,670 

United States 86,914 680 

Germany 25,347 506 

Austria 8,723 6,977 

Poland 6,024 1,814 

France 5,945 1,914 

Belgium 5,425 730 

Other countries 21,003 8,049 

Sources: UNHCR, 2006 

24 UNCHR (2006) Statistical Yearbook 2006. Global Trends: Refugees, Asylum-seekers, Returnees, Internally 

Displaced and Stateless Persons. Figures represent end-of-2006 statistics. Data are provisional and subject 

to change. Status as of 15 June 2007. The figure refers to “Persons recognized as refugees under the 1951 

UN Convention/1967 Protocol, the 1969 OAU Convention, in accordance with the UNHCR Statute, persons 

granted a complementary form of protection and those granted temporary protection”. 

25 Ibid.

Labour migrants 

Suspended licenses - 1, cancelled licenses - 4 (as of January-October 

2007) 

Table 18. Russian citizens who migrated for employment abroad (by gender) 

2005 2006 2007 (as of June) 

Total 60,926 65,747 39,074 

Male 50,722 52,185 30,243 

Female 10,204 13,562 8,831 


Table 19. Russian citizens who migrated for employment abroad (by educational status) 

2005 2006 2007 (as of June ) 

Total 60,926 65,747 39,074 

Higher professional education 20,880 20,901 11,916 

Secondary vocational education 23,786 23,381 13,379 

General secondary education 15,821 20,857 13,705 

No general secondary education 439 608 74 



(by duration of employment period) 

2006 2007 (as of June) 

Total 65,747 39,074 

Up to 6 months 43,834 27,180 

6 months - 1 year 14,949 9,728 

1-2 years 1,651 258 

2-3 years 1,843 373 

3 years and more 3,470 835 



Table 21. Russian citizens who migrated for employment abroad in 2006 (by type of 

economic activities 

economic activity) 


employment 

before leaving russia abroad 

no. % no. % 

Total 65,747 100.00 65,747 100.00 

I. Employment by economic activity 46,197 70.26 65,747 100.00 

Fishing and fish farming 3,178 4.83 3,238 4.92 

Transport and communications 39,794 60.53 44,758 68.08 

- Of which transport 39,771 60.49 44,738 68.05 

Education 261 0.40 90 0.14 

Health care and social services 186 0.28 132 0.20 

Other utility, social, and personal services 1,501 2.28 3,085 4.69 

Other economic activities 535 0.81 13,723 20.87 

Other economic activities 1,025 1.56 14,186 21.58 

II. Unemployed before leaving abroad, 

except for never been employed before 

5,456 8.30 Х Х 

III. Never been employed before 14,094 21.44 Х Х 


Table 22. Russian citizens who migrated for employment abroad in 2005-2007, 

by destination countries 

2005 2006 

2007 

(as of June) 

Total 60,926 65,747 39,074 

Including: CIS countries, total 478 1,697 907 

Other countries, total 60,450 64,050 33,454 

Antigua and Barbuda 666 1,053 344 

Bahamas 815 1,877 1,119 

Belize 1,629 1,831 787 

Belgium 961 569 183 

Germany 3,272 3,419 1,738 

Greece 2,884 2,221 1,102 

Italy 544 586 178 

Cambodia 1,731 1,849 785 

Cyprus 10,492 8,875 4,156 

Korea, Republic 542 607 359 

Liberia 3,955 3,963 1,803 

Luxembourg 600 586 240 

Malta 4,424 4,416 2,157

Marshall Islands 897 1,121 632 

Netherlands 2,428 2,386 1,421 

Norway 1,963 2,006 945 

Panama 1,090 1,590 552 

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 

1,854 1,307 645 

Singapore 839 972 417 

United Kingdom of Great Britain 

and Northern Ireland 

2,428 1,630 819 

United States of America 7,409 13,457 8,614 

Japan 2,619 1,603 965 

Other countries 6,408 6,126 3,493 


Table 23. Occupation of Russian citizens who migrated for employment abroad 

before departure abroad abroad 

2005 2006 

2007 

(as of June) 

2005 2006 


2007 

(as of June) 

Total 60,926 65,747 39,074 60,926 65,747 39,074 

Supervisors 10,711 11,056 6,836 10,890 11,040 6,818 

Specialists 16,768 16,999 9,499 17,715 16,898 9,305 

Office workers 

(technical personnel) 

101 496 248 134 475 243 

Workers 24,013 22,897 10,533 32,187 37,334 22,708 

Others 9,333 14,299 11,958 

Source: Federal Migration Service

Table 24. Russian citizens who migrated for employment abroad, 

by category of occupation 


2005 2006 2007 (as of June) 

Total 60,926 65,747 39,074 


Those working in foreign-flag vessels 

45,283 47,940 25,657 

Seasonal workers 198 157 37 

Students during vacations 8,250 14,214 11,644 

Probationers 445 471 133 

Others 6,750 2,965 1,603 


2.3. Main countries of destination 

According to the Development Prospects Group 26 of the World Bank, the 

top 10 destination countries of migrants from the Russian Federation are Ukraine, 

Kazakhstan, Belarus, Israel, Uzbekistan, United States, Latvia, Germany, Moldova, 

and Estonia. 

Table 25: Selected countries of residence of Russian emigrants 

Country no. Year source 

United States 340,175 2003 US Census 1 

Germany 662,000 2006 Eurostat 

Ukraine 3,613,240 2001 UKR Census 2 

Latvia 2,801 2006 Eurostat 

1 US Census Bureau (2003) Foreign-Born Population of the United States from the American Community Survey 

2003, http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/foreign/datatbls.html 

2 State Statistics Committee of Ukraine (2001), http://www.ukrcensus.gov.ua 

26 World Bank, Development Prospects Group (2007) Migration and Remittances Factbook.

Table 26. Russian emigration by countries of destination and by year, 2000-2006 

Countries 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 

Total 145,720 121,166 106,685 94,018 79,795 69,798 54,061 

CIS countries 82,312 61,570 52,099 46,081 37,017 36,109 35,262 

Azerbaijan 3,187 2,170 1,704 1,771 1,336 1,274 1,366 

Armenia 1,519 1,362 1,114 1,098 654 620 686 

Belarus 13,276 11,175 8,829 7,016 5,671 6,034 6,318 

Georgia 1,802 1,339 964 939 740 691 593 

Kazakhstan 17,913 15,186 13,939 14,017 12,504 12,437 11,948 

Kyrgyzstan 1,857 1,333 1,080 959 656 473 605 

Moldova 2,237 1,660 1,385 1,234 907 786 636 

Tadzhikistan 1,158 993 827 922 549 434 424 

Turkmenistan 676 352 272 251 168 125 112 

Uzbekistan 3,086 1,974 1,400 1,130 717 595 648 

Ukraine 35,601 24,026 20,585 16,744 13,115 12,640 11,926 

Other countries 63,408 59,596 54,586 47,937 42,778 33,689 18,799 

Australia 176 184 144 146 167 209 167 

Afghanistan 25 18 7 17 2 11 11 

Bulgaria 180 163 133 156 160 124 116 

Germany 40,443 43,682 42,231 36,928 31,876 21,458 8,229 

Greece 314 204 190 186 157 155 139 

Israel 9,407 4,835 2,764 2,048 1,733 1,745 1,408 

Canada 841 812 725 701 783 628 552 

China 658 156 151 86 154 456 196 

Latvia 365 311 256 259 226 211 223 

Lithuania 376 262 293 268 282 213 228 

Poland 135 84 80 72 57 76 84 

United States 4,793 4,527 3,134 3,199 2,919 4,040 3,109 

Finland 1,142 980 1,110 737 910 737 695 

Sweden 195 148 162 151 158 110 132 

Estonia 385 402 321 351 265 225 270 

Others 3,973 2,828 2,885 2,632 2,929 3,291 3,240 

Sources: Demographic Yearbook of Russia, Moscow, 2006; Population and Migration in the Russian Federation in 2006, 

Moscow. 


Table 27. Educational status of emigrants 14 years and older, 2002-2006 

educational status 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 

Total 89,589 79,380 66,759 59,228 46,398 

Higher professional education 16,479 14,463 12,675 12,215 10,798 

Including doctors of sciences 22 14 23 19 23 

Candidates of sciences 83 59 53 52 42 

Incomplete higher education 2,666 2,633 2,187 1,889 1,611 

Secondary vocational education 24,658 22,009 18,624 16,250 12,598 

General secondary education 29,569 26,184 21,434 19,085 13,613 

Basic secondary education 12,236 10,690 9,046 7,609 5,488 

Primary education or no education 3,981 3,401 2,793 2,180 1,495 

Educational status not specified 795 

Source: Population and Migration in the Russian Federation, Moscow, the Rosstat, 2002-2006. 


3. reMittanCes 

3.1. Quantitative aspects of remittances 

The low proportion of remittances as a percentage of Russian GDP (0.3% 

in 2006) 27 demonstrates that this phenomenon is currently of minor importance 

for the Russian economy. 28 However, the continuous growth of remittances in 

the past five years indicates that it might increase in proportion in the coming 

decade. This trend can already be observed in the region of the CIS countries. 29 

But, as shown in Table 30, the outward remittance flows from Russia to migrants’ 

countries of origin has grown much steeper than the inward flows sent by Russians 

abroad. 

Table 28. Amount of incoming migrant remittances to Russia 30 

Year remittances (million usD) 

2003 1,453 

2004 2,495 

2005 2,918 

2006 3,091 

2007 (estimate) 4,000 

Source: World Bank 

27 Ibid. 

28 Central Bank of the Russian Federation (2005), Cross Border Remittances, Russian Experience, p. 8, http:// 

www.adb.org/Documents/Events/2005/ADB-IADB-MIF-UNDP/cbr-the-russian-experience.pdf 

29 Quillin, Bryce, Carlo Segni, Sophie Sirtaine and Ilias Skamnelos (2007) Remittances in the CIS Countries: A 

Study of Selected Corridors, Chief Economist’s Regional Working Paper Series, Finance and Private Sector 

Development Department, Vol. 2, No. 2, p. 5. 



1

Table 29. Remittances to and from the Russian Federation, 2000-2006 31 

remittances (million usD) 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 

Inward remittance flows 1,275 1,403 1,359 1,453 2,668 3,117 3,308 

of which 

Workers’ remittances 


- 363 232 300 1,098 820 983 

Compensation of employees 500 624 704 814 1,206 1,714 1,647 

Migrants’ transfer 775 416 423 339 364 583 678 

Outward remittance flows 1,101 1,823 2,226 3,233 5,188 6,989 11,438 

of which 

Workers’ remittances 

- 421 788 1,306 2,672 3,051 4,587 

Compensation of employees 232 493 507 958 1,464 2,921 6,038 

Migrants’ transfers 867 908 931 969 1,052 1,017 813 

Sources: World Bank, Development Prospects Group. 

Tables 27 and 28 above report the officially recorded remittances. The 

true size of remittances, including unrecorded flows through formal and informal 

channels, is believed to be larger. 

For comparison, Table 29 below shows the amount of remittances as registered 

by the Central Bank of Russia (CBR). The CBR records the remittances 

of physical persons as performed by selected (most important) money transfer 

systems 32 and the Postal Service of Russia. 


32 Including 16 international payment systems (Western Union, MoneyGram, and others).

Destination 

country 

Table 30. Remittances sent via money transfer systems in 2006 

remittances 

from russia 

(million usD) 

share (%) 

source 

country 

remittances 

to russia 

(million usD) 

share (%) 

Total 6,005 100.0 Total 1,304 100.0 

Uzbekistan 1,000 16.7 United States 190 14.6 

Tadzhikistan 957 15.9 Kazakhstan 154 11.8 

Ukraine 927 15.4 Uzbekistan 92 7.0 

Armenia 604 10.1 Ukraine 88 6.8 

Moldova 525 8.7 Germany 62 4.8 

Kyrgyzstan 438 7.3 Italy 50 3.9 

Georgia 344 5.7 

United 

Kingdom 

44 3.3 

China 278 4.6 Kyrgyzstan 44 3.3 

Kazakhstan 86 1.4 Spain 42 3.2 

Other 

countries 

Source: Central Bank of Russia. 

405 6.7 

Other 

countries 

481 36.9 

Data from CBR shows an increase in remittances from Russia in 2006 by 

64 per cent in comparison with the outward remittances in 2005, and by 120 per 

cent from the level in 2004. Remittances to Russia grew slower at a rate of 25 per 

cent from 2005 to 2006 in comparison to 68 per cent in 2004. 

Comparing the figures of the World Bank and the Russian Central Bank 

on the total amounts of registered remittances into and out of Russia in 2006 (the 

only year shown in the CBR data), the World Bank totals are much larger, perhaps 

due to the different methodology used. 

As to the bilateral data on the total amounts of remittance flows between 

Russia and individual countries, the CBR figures from 2006 are, however, close 

to those presented by the World Bank. 33 The bilateral remittance figures of the 

World Bank are actually estimates calculated by the World Bank and the University 

of Sussex Development Research Centre, using migrant stocks and incomes 

both in the countries of destination and origin of the migrants. 

Thus, according to such calculations published by the Development Prospects 

Group of the World Bank,34 the most important remittance-sending coun- 

33 These data are estimated using assumptions and arguments as explained in Ratha and Shaw (2006), South- 

South Migration and Remittances, Development Prospects Group, World Bank. http://www.worldbank.org/ 

prospects/migrationandremittances. 

34 Ibid 


tries or source countries of migrants’ remittances to Russia in 2005 were Ukraine 

(USD 1,220 million), Kazakhstan (USD 461 million), Israel (USD 212 million), 

Belarus (USD 189 million), United States (USD 166 million), Uzbekistan (USD 

111 million), and Germany (USD 78 million). 

Meanwhile, the key countries receiving remittances from Russia in 2005 

were Armenia (USD 484 million), Azerbaijan (USD 432 million), Moldova (USD 

340 million), Tadzhikistan (USD 268 million), Ukraine (USD 309 million), Belarus 

(USD 168 million), Georgia (USD 201 million), Kyrgyzstan (USD 138 million), 

and Kazakhstan (USD 122 million). 35 

The World Bank figures do not include remittances from Russia to China 

and Uzbekistan. Citizens of these two countries occupy the first and third places, 

respectively, by the number of persons officially engaged in the economy of Russia 

(see Table 29). In 2006, Uzbekistan was the foremost recipient of remittances 

from Russia, estimated at more than one billion US dollars, 36 and this is expected 

to increase further in 2007. 

During the period January-September 2007, the remittances received by private 

persons in Russia were USD 1,193 billion based on CBR data. Remittances 

sent by physical persons from Russia amounted to USD 6,317 million (including 

USD 5,733 million sent to the CIS countries). The main recipient countries were 

Uzbekistan (USD 1,100 million), Tadzhikistan (USD 1,080 million), Ukraine 

(USD 925 million), Armenia (USD 629 million), Moldova (USD 536 million), 

Kyrgyzstan (USD 476 million), and Azerbaijan (USD 445 million). 

Individual transfers 

According to CBR data, the average amount of remittance transfers from 

the CIS countries show a steady increase during the last couple of years. In 2006, 

the average transfer rose to USD 511 from USD 457 in 2005, and further to USD 

531 in the third quarter of 2007. The average amount of remittance transfer to 

Uzbekistan was USD 593; to Tadzhikistan, USD 541; to Ukraine, USD 445; and 

to Moldova, USD 558. According to experts at the CBR, the reason for the higher 

average amount of remittance transfer to Uzbekistan and Tadzhikistan compared 

with that in Ukraine is because the transfers to Uzbekistan and Tadzhikistan are 

consolidated transfers, meaning the money resources of several people are given to 

one authorized representative who transfer the remittances as a single amount. 37 

35 Ibid. 

36 Mukomel and Mkrtchyan (2008), Ibid. 

37 http://www.cbr.ru/search/print.asp?File=/statistics/crossborder/cross-border_06.htm 


Several factors have contributed to the recent growth of individual amounts 

sent from Russia. First, the steady growth of wages in Russia (the average wage 

increased from 5,500 rubles in 2003 to 14,406 rubles in November 2007) has 

made larger transfers possible. Second, the strengthening of the ruble-dollar exchange 

rate (the ruble appreciated by 23% in 2003-2007) has made the dollar 

figure larger. Third, it is believed that the increased trust and confidence to the 

payment systems and the decrease in the amount of transfer commissions have 

contributed to the growth of the individual transfers. In 2006, the average commission 

charged to the client by the transfer systems for sending remittances 

abroad was 3.7 per cent of the transferred amount. Given the average transferred 

amount of between USD 500 and USD 600, the average commission was about 

USD 20. As illustrated in Figure 2, the commission has considerably decreased 

over the last few years. The greatest decrease was from USD 100 to USD 200. 

On average, the amount of commission decreased by 7 and 13 per cent in 2006, 

compared to 2005 and 2004, respectively. 

8% 

7% 

6% 

5% 

4% 

3% 

Figure 2. Changes in average commission 

(for transactions from Russia via payment systems) 

2% 

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 

2003 2004 2005 2006 

Source: http://www.cbr.ru/search/print.asp?File=/statistics/crossborder/cross-border_06.htm named Transboundary operations 

of natural persons according to RF Central Bank 


3.2. Qualitative aspects of remittances 

Formal transfers are made through money transfer systems and through the 

Russian Postal Service. Money transfer operators (MTOs) represent a growing 

market given the improvements in macroeconomic conditions, the proliferation 

of advanced technologies, and the liberalization of such markets in the country 

and in the region. 38 Nevertheless, many transfers occur through other channels, 

such as financial and credit institutions with links to organized crime organizations, 

or using the services of Russian nationals in order to escape the widespread 

phenomenon of migrant workers falling prey to swindlers. 39 

As previously mentioned, the amount of remittances being sent to Russia 

in 2006 was 0.3 per cent of the GDP. 40 In-kind remittances were also sent. These 

remittances were of greatest importance to vulnerable groups such as pensioners, 

single persons, and one-parent families, among others. Generally, remittances 

were important sources of income in the beginning of the 1990s, when the standard 

of living sharply decreased immediately following the fall of Communism 

and emigration from Russia was about ten times higher than today. 

As to the specific use of the received money transfers, no data were found 

as to their use for investment vis-à-vis consumption. 

Aside from the transfer payment system (MTOs, Russian Postal Service) 

and banking system, traditional transfer channels (for example, bringing the 

money by hand) are used. According to CBR estimates, the share of the money 

personally brought through the border in 2005 did not exceed 20 per cent of the 

officially registered transfers. 

In Russia , remittances that are directed outside the country have received 

much more public attention than the flows from abroad into Russia. As the remittance 

flows out of the country have grown much larger than the money known to 

have been sent to Russia, this has made the mass media, politicians, and officials 

critical of remittances given the seeming imbalance between the amount received 

by and sent from Russia. Experts, however, point out that remittances only play a 

marginal role in weakening the external balance of payments. 

38 Quillin, Bryce, Carlo Segni, Sophie Sirtaine and Ilias Skamnelos ( 2007) op. cit., p. 5 

39 Tishkov, Valery, Zhanna Zayinchkovskaya and Galina Vitkovskaya (2005) Migration in the Countries of the 

Former Soviet Union, op. cit., p.29. 

40 World Bank, Development Prospects Group (2006) 


4. Migrant CoMMunities/Diasporas 

With approximatively 20-25 million people, the Russian diaspora is one of 

the largest in the world. The Russian population and other ethnic groups based 

for the most part in the territory of Russia is believed to reach up to 23 million, 20 

million of whom to live in the states of the former USSR 41 and about 3 million in 

other countries, mostly in the United States and Canada. 42 

4.1. Description of relationship between diasporas and country 

of origin 

The relationship between Russian authorities and Russians living abroad 

has evolved through structures of financial support and social organizations providing 

support. 43 So far, no elaborate network structures have been created, and 

the only official links that exist between the diaspora and the country of origin 

appear to be through the support of veterans, pensioners, and socially vulnerable 

Russian groups living abroad. Further evidence to the weakness of this official 

relationship can be found in the increasingly important role played by American 

and European foundations dealing with the young Russian-speaking elite, 44 as 

well as by other organizations in the countries of destination that are involved 

with Russian communities at the economic, cultural and scientific levels. 

Russia’s severe demographic decline 45 has led the authorities to make efforts 

in attracting Russians of the diaspora to return to their homeland, focusing 

their attention on the emigrant elite. 46 However, the appeals from compatriots to 

the diaspora to return have met only limited success. 47 

The state policy concerning compatriots abroad goes as a separate item in 

the federal budget. The expenditure related to implementation of the State pro- 

41 According to the census in the CIS countries and Baltic republics, the Russian population is about 18.2 million 

and about 2.1 million are other ethnic Russians. 

42 Kabuzan, V. (1996) Russians of the World, Russian Baltic Information Center “BLITZ”, St. Petersburg, p.21. 

According to other estimates, their number may be 10-12 million people. 

43 Yatsenko, Elena (2007) Russia’s Diaspora Capital: Key Actors and Conditions for Accumulation, Eurasia 

Heritage Foundation, http://www.eurasianhome.org/xml/t/expert.xml?lang=en&nic=expert&pid=1361 

44 Ibid. 

45 From 148 million in 1992 to 142 million in 2006. See World Bank, Development Prospects Group (2007) 

Migration and Remittances Factbook. 

46 Heleniak, Timothy (2002) Russia Beckons, but Diaspora Wary, Migration Policy Institute, http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/print.cfm?ID=56 

47 Ibid. 


gramme for rendering assistance with regards to willful compatriot migration to 

the Russian Federation is financed by another item in the budget. 

Government and other agencies dealing with the Russian diaspora 

• Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation 

The Ministry promotes development of relations and contacts with compatriots 

living abroad. It carries out protection of legitimate rights and interests of 

compatriots living abroad, according to the norms of international law. 

32/34, Smolenskaya-Sennaya ploshad 

Moscow, 119200, Russia 

Tel.: +7 (495) 244-16-06 

http://www.mid.ru 

Correspondence and private issues department (MFA reception desk) 

Tel.: +7 (495) 244-22-83, fax: +7 (495) 244-34-48 

E-mail: ministry@mid.ru 

• Governmental Commissions for Affairs of Compatriots Abroad 

The Commission is a coordinating body of the Government of the Russian 

Federation providing coordination support for the activities of federal executive 

authorities and executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian 

Federation. The administrative responsibility for the commission lies with the 

Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia. 

• Interdepartmental Commission for Implementation of the State Programme 

on Assisting Willful Migration to the Russian Federation of the 

Compatriots Living Abroad 

This is a collegial body that controls the State programme on assisting 

willful migration to the Russian Federation of compatriots living abroad, and also 

monitors its implementation. 

The Commission’s organizational support is carried out by divisions of the 

Administration of the President of Russia while system support is provided by 

the FMS of Russia. 


• Russian Center of the International Scientific and Cultural Cooperation 

under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia (Roszarubezhcenter) 

The Roszarubezhcenter’s principal activities are: 

o providing information support for the external and internal policy of Russia 

and assisting in the formation of positive perception of the image of modern 

Russia in the global community 

o assisting in the development of comprehensive connections of compatriots 

with the historical motherland and interaction with the Russian-speaking diasporas 

abroad 

o strengthening of positions of the Russian language in the world 

o preserving the high reputation abroad of the national system of higher education 

o conducting cultural and educational activities abroad and assisting in the development 

of business and cultural relations of Russia with other countries 

o assisting in the development of scientific, technical and business cooperation 

of Russia with foreign countries. 

14, Vozdvizhenka Street, Moscow 

Tel.: +7(495) 290-12-45 

http://www.rusintercenter.ru/ 

http://www.rusintercenter.ru/?lang=ru&menu=70 (for the Roszarubezhcenter’s 

foreign representations and Russian centers of science and culture). 

• Federal Migration Service (FMS) of Russia 

The FMS participates in the implementation of the state policy of the Russian 

Federation concerning compatriots abroad. 

16, Zhitnaya Street, Moscow, 117049, Russia 

Tel.: +7(495) 923-89-45 

http://www.fms.gov.ru 

• Ministry of Regional Development (Minregion) of the Russian 

Federation 

The Ministry arranges the implementation of regional programmes for assisting 

willful migration to the Russian Federation of compatriots living abroad. 


10/23, Sadovaya-Samotechnaya Street 

Bdg 1, Moscow, 127994, Russia 

Tel.: +7(495) 980-25-47 

Fax: +7 (495) 699-38-41 

http://www.minregion.ru/ 

• Ministry of Education and Science (Minobrnauki ) of the Russian Federation 

11, Tverskaya Street, 125993, Moscow, Russia 

Tel.: +7(495) 629-70-62 

Fax +7(495) 921-70-48 

http://www.mon.gov.ru 

• Federal Education Agency (Rosobrazovanie) 

The Agency organizes selection of youth from among the compatriots living 

abroad for studying in higher and vocational educational institutions in the 

Russian Federation. It also arranges Russian training in the countries of residence. 

51, Lyusinovskaya Street, 113833, Moscow, Russia 

Telephone: +7(495) 237-97-63 

http://www.ed.gov.ru 

• Ministry of Culture and Mass Communications (Minkultury) of the 

Russian Federation 

7, Kitaygorodskiy proezd, 193693, Moscow, Russia 

Tel.: +7(495) 925-11-95 

http://www.mkmk.ru 

• Federal Agency for Press and Mass Communications (Rospechat) 

5, Strastnoy Boulevard, 127994, Moscow, Russia 

• Committee for the Affairs of the Community of Independent States of 

the Council of Federation of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation 


26, Bolshaya Dmitrovka Street, 103426, Moscow, Russia 

Tel. : +7(495) 692-07-18 ; Fax: +7(495) 692-59-36 

http://www.council.gov.ru/committee/item540.html 

• Committee for the Affairs of the Community of Independent States and 

Relations with Compatriots of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly 

of the Russian Federation 

1, Okhotniy Ryad Street, 103265, Moscow, Russia 

Tel.: +7(495) 692-59-95, 692-22-35, 692-53-18 

http://www.duma.gov.ru 

• Human Rights Commissioner (Ombudsman) of the Russian Federation 

47, Myasnitskaya Street, 107084, Moscow, Russia 

Tel.: +7(495) 207-34-12 факс: +7(495) 207-39-77; 

+7(495) 207-53-37 (press service); +7(495) 207-42-90 (international department) 

E-mail: press-sl@ropnet.ru 

http://wwwombudsman.gov.ru, 

• Moscow Government 

13, Tverskaya Street, 125032, Moscow, Russia 

36/9, Noviy Arbat Street, 121205, Moscow, Russia 

Tel.: + 7 (495) 777-77-77 

http://www.mos.ru 

Department of the International Relations 

Tel. : +7(495) 725-04-82 

http://www.moskvaimir.mos.ru/dms/activity/support 

Department of the Relations with the CIS countries and Baltic Republics, 

the Compatriots Abroad Division 

Tel.: +7(495) 957-01-50 


1

• St. Petersburg Government 

The Saint Petersburg Administration, Smolniy, 191060 

Fax: +7 (812) 576-78-27 

E-mail : gov@gov.spb.ru 

http://www.gov.spb.ru 

External Relations and Tourism Committee: http://www.kvs.spb.ru/ru 

Relations with national associations of Saint Petersburg 

and compatriots abroad: 

Tel.: +7(812) 576-71-59, 70-85 

Fax: +7(812) 576-45-84 

• “The Russian World” Foundation 

The Foundation (http://www.russkiymir.ru/) was formed according to Decree 

No. 796 (21 June 2007) of the President of Russia. Its founders on behalf of 

the Russian Federation are the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry 

of Education and Science. 

• “The Rodina” (Motherland) Association (http://www.association-rodina. 

ru/site/) 

• “The Russia and Compatriots” Foundation (http://www.russiane.org) 

Information support and communication 

• “The Russian Line” Information Agency (http://www.rusk.ru) 

• Network Center for the Russians Abroad (http://www.russkie.org/) of the 

Institute for the Russians Abroad 

• Compatriot Information Portal (http://compatriot.su/) of the Institute of 

the Eurasian Research Development Foundation 

• Compatriot Portal (http://www.russedina.ru) 


4.2. Migrant communities/diasporas’ organizations by country 

of.destination 

(Please note the lists below do not purport to be exhaustive or representative. 

IOM does not take responsibility for the accuracy of the contact details.) 

Worldwide 

• USSR Russian Net Community (http://www.saumita.com/ussr/cindex.html) 

• American RU (http://www.americaru.com/) 

Diaspora organizations abroad 

• International Council of the Russian Compatriots (http://www.msrs.ru) 

• For a list of organizations of the Russian compatriot abroad, 48 see.: 

o the website of the Moscow House of the Compatriot (http://www.mosds. 

ru/Soot/soot_org1.shtml) 

o the Materik Portal (http://www.materik.ru/index.php?section=diaspora) 

Migrant community/diaspora organizations in Russia 

For a list of migrant organizations, see the website of the Forum of Resettled 

Organizations (http://db.ngo.ru/fair.nsf/MigrantByTitle?OpenView&count 

=1000). 

Migrant communities, as a rule, are organized according to ethnicity. Many 

migrants take part in the work of national cultural autonomies (NCA) and national 

cultural centers. A total of 17 federal NCAs and over 350 regional NCAs have 

been created according to the Federal Law on the National Cultural Autonomy 

No. 74-FL of 17 June 1996, and many national cultural centers also function 

today. 

For a list of NCAs, see the website of the Center of Interethnic Cooperation.(http://www.interethnic.org/CNO.htm). 

48 The compatriots abroad, according to the Russian law, are understood as follows: the citizens of the Russian 

Federation permanently living abroad; the persons having the citizenship of the USSR and living in the new 

independent states; natives (emigrants) of Russia and the USSR; and descendants of the persons belonging 

to the abovementioned groups, except for the descendants of persons of the eponymous ethnic groups of the 

foreign states (The Federal Law About the State Policy of the Russian Federation Concerning Compatriots 

Abroad, 24 May 1999, No. 99-FZ, Article 1, Part 2). 


5. irregular Migration 

5.1. Numbers/estimates of irregular movements 

Irregular immigration into the Russian Federation 

Russia is primarily a destination country for irregular migrants; secondly, 

a transit state for those on their way to Western and Central Europe; and thirdly, 

a country of exit for Russian citizens who intend to live or work irregularly in 

other countries. 

The major route of irregular migrants arriving in Russia is through the 

southern borders—the states of Central Asia and Trans-Caucasus, of which Russia 

has agreements for crossing t on visa-free terms. 

The CIS countries are estimated to be the main sources of irregular migration 

to the Russian Federation. As for other source areas abroad, Southeast Asia 

is said to be prominent. Along the nearly 20,000 km land border of the Russian 

Federation, the borders with China, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan are said to be 

among the most preferred sections for illegal crossings into Russia. As transit 

migrants from the CIS and from elsewhere try to make their way through Russia 

to Central and Western Europe, the illegal crossings in the Western borders are 

often much more difficult. This “asymmetry of the borders” is one of the reasons 

why many irregular migrants planning to transit through Russia get “stuck” in the 

country. 49 

In 2007, the number of irregular migrants reportedly decreased due to the 

new migration law which came into force and the modification of procedures of 

reception of temporary stays and labour permits. According to the FMS, irregular 

migrants in 2006 totaled 10 to 15 million, but this was said to have gone down to 

5-7 million in 2007. 50 However, some experts considered these figures for 2006 

and 2007 overestimated. 

Indeed, World Bank researchers cite estimations that vary between 3 and 

3.5 million of irregular migrants currently living in Russia. 51 According to pre- 

49 ICMPD (2005) 

50 FMS Director K. Romodanovskiy, 18 December 2007. 

51 Quillin, Bryce, Carlo Segni, Sophie Sirtaine and Ilias Skamnelos (2007) Remittances in the CIS countries: A 

Study of Selected Corridors, op. cit., p. 7. 


vious estimates of the Russian Ministry of Labour, 52 about 3-5 million irregular 

labour migrants were residing in the Russian Federation or nearly eight per cent 

of the Russian working-age population. Additionally, estimates of the Russian 

Federal Border Service indicate some 1.5 million irregular migrants from Southern 

and Central Asia, and Africa residing in the Russian territory. 53 Also, based 

on the figures of the FMS, over 93,000 employers were using the services of 

irregular foreign workers in 2004, and about 713,000 foreign citizens fall in the 

category of irregular workers. 54 

Ivakhnouk (2006) 55 presents a larger estimate of 5–15 million irregular 

migrants (in general terms, not only irregular labour migrants) in all the CIS 

with “the most part in the Russian Federation”. Ivakhniouk points out that the 

development of the private sector in Russia in the 1990s and its growing need 

for labour, as well as the migration flows from CIS countries given their high unemployment 

rate and lower salaries (such as Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, 

Ukraine, and Moldova), have propelled irregular migration into Russia spontaneously. 

Unfortunately, there has been no full documentation of its extent. 

With insufficient channels for regular labour migration and lack of official 

migration infrastructure and legislation, a large irregular regional labour market 

has developed. This situation has also been taken advantage of by international 

networks of criminal organizations specializing in human trafficking. Human 

traffickers are said to be benefiting from the gaps in national legislation on migration, 

the lack of official migration infrastructure, and the highly bureaucratic 

procedures for getting job permits, amidst the growing demand for migrant labour 

in Russia. 

As to the main sources of irregular foreign labour, the Federal Ministry of 

Labour reports the Caucasus countries, China, Vietnam, and the Central Asian 

countries. 56 

52 Cited in ICMPD (2005): Overview of the Migration Systems in the CIS Countries. 

53 Ibid. 

54 Ibid. 




56 Cited in ICMPD (2005), Ibid. 


Table 31. Violations of the Migration Law of the Russian Federation 

Violations to stay (residence) 

regulation 

2005 2007 2007 (as of June) 

1,514,759 1,403,261 282,074 

Illegal labour activity 49,938 54,280 3,008 

Violations to immigration 

regulation 

Source: Information Analysis Center, MIA of Russia. 

1,103 649 218 

5.2. Figures and information on return migration flows 

Inflows 

Table 32. IOM assisted voluntary returns to the Russian Federation, 2005-2006 

return from: 2005 2006 total 

Austria 26 72 98 

Belgium 210 159 369 

Czech Republic 20 41 61 

Finland 2 2 

Germany 399 407 806 

Hungary 7 3 10 

Ireland 3 6 9 

Italy 13 3 16 

Lithuania 16 16 

Netherlands 98 104 202 

Norway 66 65 131 

Poland 25 402 427 

Portugal 19 8 27 

Serbia and Montenegro 3 3 

Slovakia 21 12 33 

Spain 5 5 

Switzerland 10 4 14 

United Kingdom 39 64 103 

Ukraine 1 1 

Other 3 1 4 

Total 977 1 360 2 337 

Source: Provisional statistics from IOM’s AVR Service Area, IOM Headquarters, Geneva, January 2008 


Outflows 

Based on the records of the FMS, the number of foreign citizens deported 

from Russia (in thousands of persons) is 80.3 for 2005, 55.8 for 2007, and 24.0 

for 2007 (January to October). 

5.3. Figures and information on trafficking 

According to the former Interior Minister of the Russian Federation Anatoly 

Kulikov, Russia is a provider, “transiter”, and consumer of human merchandise. 

For migrants from CIS countries, Russia is a consumer, and for those who 

are inclined to seeking sexual services abroad, it is a provider. More than 500,000 

Russian-speaking women are said to have been trafficked for sexual exploitation. 

57 Estimates of the yearly number of trafficked Russian women vary from 

35,000 to 57,750. 58 

Numerous reasons have been given to explain the presence of human trafficking 

in Russia, such as: 

• the practically transparent state borders between Russia and the CIS countries 

• the increase in migration flows outside and inside of Russia 

• the developed internal human trafficking system in Russia as one of the 

spheres of criminal business activities, including the use of forced labour 

• the globalization of organized crime due the existence of stable channels of 

“deliveries”. 

Similarly, migration reports note that Russia is both a country of origin and 

of destination for human trafficking. Tishkov et al. (2005) 59 estimate that some 

50,000 women from Russia are involved in illegal sex trade in Western countries, 

and an equal number from China and Southeast Asia is also reportedly involved. 

Additionally, Ivakhniouk (2006) 60 claims that men, women, and children from 

57 1. http://gzt.ru/society/2008/02/12/220004.html 

2. The Coordinator of the Inter-Agency Working Group is E. Mizulina, Permanent Representative of the State 

Duma in the Constitutional Court of Russia. 

3. From 2004 the Legislative Committee of the State Duma was renamed into the Committee of civil, criminal, 

constitutional and procedural legislation. 

58 United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) (2004) Transport of Women and Children from Russia with the 

Goal of Sexual Exploitation, Moscow. 

59 Tishkov, Valery, Zhanna Zayinchkovskaya and Galina Vitkovskaya (2005) “Migration in the Countries of 

the Former Soviet Union”, A paper prepared for the Policy Analysis and Research Programme of the Global 

Commission on International Migration. 





poorer CIS countries are trafficked to Russia for labour exploitation. The author 

adds that “hundreds of thousands” of Tajik, Kyrgyz, Moldovan, and Uzbek migrants 

are taken to Russia for seasonal employment in construction and agriculture. 

Their seasonal earnings provide sustenance to the families they left behind 

while they endure hardships and sufferings such as the violation of their human 

rights and exposure to serious health risks. 

Tishkov et al. confirm that in Central Asia, trafficking also occurs frequently 

among men, who are sold for slave labour in Russia. The problem of trafficking 

to Russia of young girls and women, in particular those from Moldova and 

Ukraine, is also said to have increased. 

Since 1999, IOM has been collecting statistical information on victims of 

trafficking that the organization has assisted in its return and rehabilitation programmes. 

Although not all IOM-assisted victims have been entered into IOM’s 

database, figures at the end of 2007 point to nearly 12,800 victims assisted. As the 

information is collected only from victims who have benefited from IOM’s programmes, 

the sample can be regarded as incomplete and not representative of the 

total number of trafficking victims. Still, the IOM data can give relevant information 

particularly on the profile of the potential victims to be targeted in prevention 

activities. The data can likewise reveal information that can support law enforcement 

officials in apprehending and prosecuting criminal organizations. 

At the end of 2007, the IOM database contained information on 233 victims 

of Russian origin. A total of 222 were female and only 11 were male. These 

Russian victims had ended up in 23 different countries of destination, which were 

in the regions IOM has a good coverage of counter-trafficking programmes and 

where the data on the victims were gathered. These regions and destination countries 

include the Balkans (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Kosovo, FYRoM, 

and Albania), East and South Eastern Europe (Ukraine, Belarus, Bulgaria, Cyprus, 

Greece, Moldova), the Middle East (Turkey, United Arab Emirates), and 

the Caucasus and Central Asia (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazahstan, and 

Kyrgyzstan). In Western Europe, Italy, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland figured 

among the destination countries. The victims who ended up in the Balkans had 

arrived through many different routes, with Hungary, Romania, Ukraine, Croatia, 

Bulgaria, and even Sweden and Argentina being used as transit countries. 

For the 233 Russian victims in the database, Turkey was by far the most 

important country of destination, with almost half of the victims (111 persons) 

having ended up there. The other destination countries had much lower figures, 

with Belarus (22), the Russian Federation (19 victims of internal trafficking), and 


the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (18 Russian victims) following after 

Turkey. 

Recruitment 

In the sample (233 Russian victims), 62 per cent were recruited through 

personal contact, nine per cent through newspaper advertisement, one per cent 

(two victims) through internet advertisement, and four per cent through other 

methods. For the remaining 25 per cent, the recruitment method was not included 

in the information and therefore was unknown. In 18 per cent of the 233 cases, the 

sex of the recruiter was not registered, but in 51 per cent of the 191 known cases, 

the recruiter was female, and in 45 per cent, male, while both men and women did 

the recruitment in four per cent of the cases (eight victims). 

Giving the applicants false promises of an overseas job was the predominant 

method used by recruiters. In 66 per cent of the sample for whom there was 

information of the promised jobs, the jobs mentioned included waitressing, dancing, 

selling, child care, agricultural work, and begging. Prostitution was signified 

to 23 victims (10%) and sweatshop labour to 7 victims. However, as many as 

205 or 88 per cent of the sample ended in sexual exploitation, 18 (nearly 8%) in 

forced labour, while 3 victims faced both types of exploitation. Another 7 victims 

suffered yet other types of exploitation. 

Profile of victims of trafficking 

For the profile of the 233 Russian victims, the database revealed that 17 

(7.3%) were minors, 134 (58%) fell in the age bracket 18-24, 51 (22%) in the age 

bracket 25-30, and only 31 (13%) were over 30 years. 

In 189 victims (81%), the educational level was known. Twelve (5%) had 

finished only primary or elementary school, 76 (33%) reached middle school, 57 

(24.5%) had a high school diploma, 176 (93%) had finished technical training, 

and 26 (11%) had university studies. 

The marital status was known in 204 cases and unknown for the remaining 

29. A total of 143 victims (61%) indicated that they were single, 36 were divorced, 

4 were separated, and 5 were widows. Only 14 were married and 2 were 

living in common law relationships. No less that 74 or almost 32 per cent of the 

233 victims had indicated that they had children, and 12 of them had more than 

one child. 


Out of 233, 133 said that they worked in Russia at the time of the recruitment 

while 13 did not. For 87, there was no information given. For the 133 who 

worked, 77 were office employees (either in private or public sector), 9 worked in 

the industrial sector, and the rest in agriculture, domestic work, and sex industry. 

A total of 179 answered to the question of the economic situation of their 

families. Only one of them characterized it as well-off while 44 (25%) described 

it as standard, 106 (59%) as poor, and 28 (16%) as very poor. 

Trafficking routes 

Experts identified several basic routes used by “transporters” in taking 

people out of the Russian Federation: 

The Baltic route through Lithuania, as well as the Central European route 

through Warsaw and Prague are regarded as the easiest methods to transport illegal 

migrants to Germany, Scandinavia and other European countries, and the 

United States. Recently, these countries have substantially tightened their crossborder 

travel rules. Nonetheless, European countries and the United States remain 

main destination countries for human trafficking out of Russia. 

The Caucasus (or Georgian) transit route is made easier by the weak borders 

with Turkey. 

Experts note that the majority of irregular migrants, including women and 

children, have beentransported via Georgia into Turkey, Greece, and the Mediterranean 

countries for sexual and labour exploitation. 

Large resorts in Europe and Asia and armed conflict zones or regions where 

military and peacekeeping forces are stationed (in this case primarily those in 

the Balkans) are regarded as notable trafficking hubs for sexual exploitation of 

women. Routes through Egypt and into Israel as well as other Middle Eastern 

countries are also common. In particular, many women and children are taken 

from the southern regions of Russia to the United Arab Emirates for sexual exploitation. 

Evidence of trafficking for labour exploitation has been found in countries 

with large Russian diasporas such as in Germany, Turkey, Portugal, and other 

southern European countries to which labourers are primarily transported for the 

harvest of citrus fruit and other agricultural work. 


61

China-bound human trafficking is divided into the China-Siberia and the 

China-Primorsky Region routes. Russia’s policies in the early 1990s, to attract 

greater Chinese tourists and to harbour good neighbouring country relations, resulted 

in a large influx of Chinese citizens settling in Russia’s far-east region. 

Chinese criminal groups have become a large problem for the law enforcement 

authorities of the Primorsky and Khabarovsk Regions and neighboring areas. The 

Chinese trafficking business has enormous potential. It is extremely stable, is 

geared to long-term activity, and is organized more like a business activity than 

a traditional criminal group activity. In contrast, the Russian human trafficking 

business is not marked by stability and is oriented more towards immediate profit, 

with its working slogan often being “grab a buck and lay low”. For this reason, 

Russian organized criminal gangs engaged in human trafficking adopt particularly 

harsh manners and methods of control. 

Russia is also a destination country for human trafficking routes from CIS 

countries and poor Asian regions. Almost all CIS states are involved in the trafficking 

of people into Russia as origin countries. The most vulnerable populations 

are those from Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Georgia, Armenia, Moldova, 

and Ukraine. For all these countries, Russia is one of the main destination countries 

for human trafficking for the purpose of labour and sexual exploitation. 61 

61 E.V. Tiurukanova and the Institute for Urban Economics (2006) Human Trafficking in the Russian Federation, 

Inventory and Analysis of the Current Situation and Responses. Report conducted for the UN/IOM Working 

Group on Trafficking in Human Beings, Moscow, pp.23-25. 


Figure 3. Trafficking routes used in taking people out and into the Russian Federation 

Source: http://www.undp.ru/index.phtml?iso=RU&lid=1&cmd=publications1&id=54 Human Trafficking in the Russian Federation. Inventory and Analysis 

of the Current Situation and Responses/Report conducted by E.V. Turukanova and the Institute for Urban Economics for 

UN/IOM Working Group on Trafficking in Human Beings, Moscow 2006. p. 25 


6

6. assessMent anD analYsis of 

Migration issues 

6.1. Government institutions responsible for migration policy 

Agencies responsible for migration policy and contacts with expatriate 

community 

The Federal Migration Service (FMS) is the key agency responsible for 

the migration policy in the Russian Federation. It functions under the Ministry of 

Internal Affairs (MIA). The jurisdiction of the FMS covers the following: 

• general strategy of the state migration policy 

• registration of citizens of the Russian Federation in their place of stay and 

residence within the border of the country and control of citizens’ and officials’ 

compliance with the rules of registration 

• registration and issuance to foreign citizens and stateless persons of entry 

and residence documents 

• control of compliance by foreign citizens and stateless persons with the residence 

and temporary stay regulations of the Russian Federation 

• prevention of illegal migration 

• execution of the law of the Russian Federation with regard to refugees and 

forced immigrants, and granting of political asylum to foreign citizens and 

stateless persons 

• control and supervision of external labour migration, engagement of foreign 

workers in the Russian Federation, and employment of citizens of the Russian 

Federation abroad. 

The FMS is located in Moscow. Each of the constituent entities of the Russian 

Federation has a territorial branch of the Service. 

16, Zhitnay Street, 117049, Moscow, Russia 

Tel.: +7(495) 923-89-45 

http://www.fms.gov.ru 


6

The Ministry of Health and Social Development develops state policy 

in the field of labour migration and prepares reports on the practicability of engagement 

and use of foreign labour. 

3, Rakhmanosvkiy pereulok, GSP-4, 127994, Moscow, Russia 

Tel.: (495) 628 4453 

http://www.mzsrrf.ru 

The Federal Labor and Employment Service (Rostrud) has control and 

supervision functions in the field of labour, employment, and alternative civil 

service, rendering of state services in the field of assistance of employment of 

the population and protection against unemployment, and labour migration and 

settlement of collective labour disputes. Its work is coordinated by the Ministry 

of Health and Social Development of the Russian Federation. 

1/2, Birzhevaya ploshad, 109012, Moscow, Russia 

Tel.: +7(495) 298-84-36 

http://www.rostrud.info 

Other key offices involved in migration policy 

• Office of the President of Russian Federation 

103132, Moscow, 

Ilinka Str, 23 

• State Duma of Russian Federation 

103265, Moscow, Mokhovaya, 7 

Tel.: +7(495) 692-80-00 

Fax:+7(495) 203-42-58 

E-mail: stateduma@duma.gov.ru 

• Ministry of Foreign Affairs 

119200 Moscow, Smolenskaya-Sennaya, 32/34 

Tel.: +7 (495) 244-16-06 

Fax: +7 (495) 244-34-48 

E-mail: ministry@mid.ru 

• Federal Security Service 

101000, Moscow, Kuznetskiy most,22 

Tel.: +7 (495) 924-31-58 

E-mail : fsb@fsb.ru 

http://www.fsb.ru 


• Ministry of Interior 

119049, Moscow, Zhitnaya St., 16 

Tel: + 7 (495) 622-66-69 

http://www.mvd.ru/contacts/10000005/ 

• Office of Prosecutor General 

125993, ГСП-3, Moscow 

Bolshaya Dmitrovka, 15а 

Tel.: +7 (495) 692-26-82 

6.2. International legal framework in place relevant to migration. 

According to Voronina(2006), 62 as of 2006, there were more that 10 federal 

acts, over 100 presidential decrees, parliamentary resolutions, and ministerial 

acts, and dozens of international and intergovernmental agreements that together 

form the migration legislation of the Russian Federation. 

The main laws regulating international migration into the territory of the 

Russian Federation include the Scheme of Exit from the Russian Federation 

and Entry into the Russian Federation (dated 15 August 1996, No. 114-FL, with 

amendments effective 18 July 1998, No. 110-FL), the Law on the Legal Status 

of Foreigners in the Russian Federation (dated 25 July 2002, No. 115-FL, with 

amendments effective 18 July 2006, No. 110-FL), the Law on Russian Federation 

Citizenship (with amendments effective 11 November 2003, No. 151-FL), 

and the Law on Migration Registration of Foreigners and Stateless Persons in 

the Russian Federation (dated 18 July 2006, No. 109-FL). The migration policy 

of Russia is also reflected in decrees of the President such as: On Involvement 

and Application of Foreigners’ Labor Force in the Russian Federation (dated 16 

December 1993, No. 2146) and On Measures for Assistance in Voluntary Resettlement 

to the Russian Federation of Compatriots Residing Abroad (dated 22 

June 2006, No. 637). Most issues of the migration policy are also addressed in 

regulative acts of the Russian Federation government. 

Russia ratified the UN Convention on the Status of Refugees and its 1967 

Protocol in 1993. It is also a party to a number of international treaties and agreements 

in the sphere of migration management. 

62 Voronina, Natalia (2006) “Outlook on Migration Policy Reform in Russia: Contemporary Challenges and 

Political Paradoxes”, in Roger Rodriguez Rios (ed.) Migration Perspectives – Eastern Europe and Central 

Asia, IOM Technical Cooperation Centre for Europe and Central Asia, Vienna. 


6

International agreements on resistance to illegal migration 

• Agreement on cooperation of members of CIS in the struggle against migration 

(Moscow, 6 March 1998) 

• Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government 

of the Republic of Uzbekistan on cooperation in the struggle against 

illegal migration (Tashkent, 4 July 2007) 

• Protocol between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government 

of the Republic of Latvia on establishment of a working group on 

issues of illegal migration (Moscow, 28 June 2006). 

International readmission agreements 


of the Republic of Lithuania on admission and return of persons residing 

illegally in the territory of the Russian Federation and in the territory 

of the Republic of Lithuania ((Vilnius, 12 May 2003). 

• Agreement between the Russian Federation and the European Association 

on readmission (Sochi, 25 May 2006) 

• Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the 

Government of the Kingdom of Norway on readmission (Moscow, 8 June 

2007) 


of the Republic of Uzbekistan on readmission (Tashkent, 4 July 

2007) 

• Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Cabinet 

of Ministers of Ukraine on readmission (Kiev, 22 December 2006) 

International agreements on citizenship problems: 

• Agreement among the Republic of Belarus’, the Republic of Kazakhstan, 

the Kyrgyz Republic, and the Russian Federation on simplified procedure of 

obtaining citizenship, effective 26 February 1999 


• Agreement between the Republic of Kazakhstan on simplified procedure of 

obtaining citizenship by citizens of the Russian Federation arriving in the 

Republic of Kazakhstan for permanent residency and by citizens of the Republic 

of Kazakhstan arriving for permanent residency in the Russian Federation, 

effective 20 January 1995 

• Agreement between the Russian Federation and the Kyrgyzstan Republic on 

simplified procedure of obtaining citizenship by the citizens of the Russian 

Federation arriving in the Kyrgyzstan Republic for permanent residency, and 

by the citizens of the Kyrgyzstan Republic arriving in the Russian Federation 

for permanent residency, and on abatement of previous citizenships, effective 

28 March 1996 

• Agreement between the Russian Federation and Turkmenistan on adjustment 

of dual citizenship, effective 23 December 1993 

International agreements on international citizens’ reciproсal travels 

• Agreement among the Government of the Russian Federation, Government 

of the Republic of Belarus, Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan, 

Government of the Kyrgyz Republic, and Government of the Republic of 

Tajikistan on citizens’ reciprocal free-of-visa- travel, effective 30 November 

2000 


Government of the Azerbaijan Republic on citizens’ reciprocal free-of-visa 

travel, effective 3 July 1997 


of Armenia on citizens’ reciprocal free-of-visa travel, effective 25 

September 2000 


of the Republic of China on citizens’ reciprocal free-of-visa travel, 

effective 29 February 2000 


Government of the Republic of Moldova on citizens’ reciprocal free-of-visa 

travel, effective 30 November 2000 


6


of Ukraine on citizens’ reciprocal free-of-visa travel, effective 16 

January 1997 

International agreements on labour force migration 

• Agreement on cooperation in labour force migration and social maintenance 

of migrant workers, effective 15 April 1994 (signed under CIS), ratified on 

24 April 1995, No. 47-FL. The Protocol on insertion of amendments and additions 

to the Agreement was signed on 25 November 2005 and came into 

force on 15 December 2006 


of the Republic of Armenia on labour activity and social maintenance 

of the Russian Federation citizens working in the territory of the Republic 

of Armenia, and of citizens of the Republic of Armenia working in the 

territory of the Russian Federation, effective 19 July 1994 


of the Republic of Belarus on labour activity and social maintenance 

of citizens of the Russian Federation working in the territory of the 

Republic of Belarus, and of citizens of the Republic of Belarus working in 

the territory of the Russian Federation, effective 24 September 1993 


of the Federal Republic of Germany on employment of persons 

working for hire, targeted at improvement of their professional and language 

knowledge (The Agreement on Employment of Guest Workers of 17 May 

1992) 


of the Kyrgyztan on labour activity and social protection of working 

migrants, dated 28 March 1996 (came into effect on 15 January 1998, ratified 

on 14 November 1997, No. 139-FL, with amendments, Protocol of 22 

September 2003, ratified on 3 January 2006, No. 3-FL) 

• Agreement between the Russian Federation and the Government of the People’s 

Republic of China on temporary labour activity of citizens of the Russian 

Federation in China and the citizens of the People’s Republic of China 

in the Russian Federation, dated 3 November 2000 


• Agreement between the Russian Federation and the Government of the People’s 

Republic of China on cooperation in mutual development of forest resources, 

dated 3 November 2000. 

• Agreement between the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic 

of Lithuania on temporary labour activity of citizens, dated 29 June 

1999 

• Agreement between the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic 

of Moldova on labour activity and social maintenance of citizens of 

the Russian Federation and the Republic of Moldova, working outside the 

boundaries of their states, dated 27 May 1993 (with amendments, Protocol 

No. 105, dated 12 February 1994) 


of the Republic of Poland on principles of labour activity of the 

Russian citizens in the territory of Poland and Polish citizens in the territory 

of the Russian Federation, dated 15 March 1994 


of the Slovak Republic on organization of citizens’ employment under 

contractual agreements and on employment assistance to citizens, dated 

13 February 1995 (came into effect on 27 March 1995) 


of Ukraine on labour activity and social maintenance of the citizens 

of Russia and Ukraine working outside the borders of their countries, dated 

14 January 1993 


of Switzerland Confederation on exchange of probationers, dated 2 

September 1993 


of the Republic of Tajikistan on labour activity of citizens of the 

Russian Federation in the Republic of Tajikistan and citizens of Tajikistan in 

the Russian Federation, dated 16 October 2004 (ratified on 3 January 2006, 

No. 2-FL) 


of the Republic of Uzbekistan on labour activity and protection of 


1

ights of labour migrants who are citizens of the Russian Federation in the 

Republic of Uzbekistan and the rights of labour migrants who are citizens 

of the Republic of Uzbekistan in the Russian Federation, signed on 3 July 

2007 

6.3. Migration policies in place 

Voronina (2006) 63 divides the post-Soviet period of the Russian migration 

policy into the following stages: 

• 1992 – 1994 Formation 

• 1995 – 1999 Expanding spheres under regulation and development 

of migration legislation 

• 1999 – 2002 Period considered by many as negative progress (the 

FMS was dissolved) 

• 2002 – 2004 Focus on combating irregular migration and restrictive 

policies 

• 2005 Reform of migration policy 

In the early years after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the first priority 

of the Russian migration authorities was to address the consequences of the large 

“return” migration of Russians from the former Soviet Republics. 

In May 1992, the Council of Ministries of the Russian Federation approved 

the first National Long-Term Migration Programme. The main goal of the Programme 

was to provide assistance to refugees and involuntary migrants (Russians 

who came from the former Soviet Republics). The main components of the 

Programme included support for resettlement, housing, employment, and health 

care. The Programme was approved and its implementation started before the 

Russian Federation created its own migration legislation. 64 

Over the first half of the 1990s, various components of migration legislation 

were created, including presidential decrees in 1993-94, namely, On Recruitment 

and Employment of Foreign Labour Force in the Russian Federation and its 

complementary decree in 1994. The first Federal Migration Programme, created 

likewise by a presidential decree in August 1994, was the first attempt to comprehensively 

address the whole variety of migration issues. 

63 Voronina, Natalia (2006) “Outlook on Migration Policy Reform in Russia: Contemporary Challenges and 

Political Paradoxes”, in Roger Rodriguez Rios (ed.) Migration Perspectives – Eastern Europe and Central 

Asia, IOM Technical Cooperation Centre for Europe and Central Asia, Vienna. 

64 Voronina, Natalia (2006), Ibid. 


The Federal Migration Service, first created in 1992, was in existence until 

its dissolution in 2000, to be restored again in 2002 under the MIA. According 

to Voronina (2006), this new administrative affiliation demonstrated the focus 

towards combating irregular migration. 

In recent years, Russia’s migration policy has increasingly addressed the 

need for labour immigration to Russia, such as by searching for measures that 

would ease the geographical constraints and the skills shortages (see Section 6.4) 

and mismatch in the labour markets, facilitating the legalization of undocumented 

workers through smooth and non-bureaucratic procedures, attracting economic 

migrants, facilitating permanent immigration and resettlement, and assisting in 

the integration of immigrants. 

The Action Plan for the Implementation of the Programme on Socio-economic 

Development of the Russian Federation for 2006-2008 included the development 

of a Concept for National Migration Policy, which was enacted by the 

State Duma in 2006 and has been implemented since 2007. This coincided with 

the entry into force of the new migration legislation in 15 January. 

This new migration policy concerns three categories of migrants: temporary 

labour migrants from the CIS countries, for whom access to labour markets 

and registration of their residence has been made easier; immigrants, for whom 

the procedures for obtaining permits for residence have been liberalized; and 

compatriots, for whom benefits are being provided while repatriating. 

Taking into account public opinion on the negative attitude towards migrants, 

and especially demographic and labour market concerns, one key priority 

is the promotion of the return of compatriots. In 2007, the 12 pilot regions under 

the Federal Programme on rendering assistance to voluntary return to the Russian 

Federation of compatriots living abroad started to take part in the programme. 

The regions of Eastern Russia that are suffering from labour force deficit 

are considered to be the regions of first priority. As of 1 December 2007, 4,800 

Russians abroad (altogether 12,000 persons when family members included) were 

accepted to participate in the Federal Programme, however only about 400 persons 

did actually return. The Russian authorities expect these figures to rise. 65 

Lately, the improvement of migration policy is being realized in Russia, 

which is aimed at enhancing the responsibility of employers in resisting the irregular 

employment of foreign workers, who, along with measures for simplifying 

65 Initially, the plan was to resettle up to 50,000 people (Mukomel and Mkrtchyan 2008). 


procedures of obtaining work permits and registration for working migrants, are 

urged to help reduce the quantities of irregular migration in the Russian Federation. 

Measures are being simultaneously taken for improving practical methods 

of setting quotas for the intake of labourers in the industrial sector. In 2007, the 

Government of the Russian Federation approved a quota of 6,000 persons in the 

issuance of invitations to foreign citizens for entry into the Russian Federation 

for the purpose of labour activity from states with which Russia has established 

a visa-free regime. With other states that do not fall under Russia’s visa-free regime, 

the quota is set at 308,800 persons. The approved quotas are distributed 

among subjects of the Russian Federation. 66 

According to the law, Russian citizens should be given priority for local 

employment while a cap on the permitted share of employment exists for foreign 

citizens to work in certain fields. In 2006, the Government put limitations to a 

foreigners’ access to certain established trade fields. 67 

The Concept of Migration Processes Regulation in the Russian Federation 

68 has set the following goals: 

• provision of steady development of national economy and demographic policy 

• national security in the Russian Federation 

• meeting the demands of the Russian economy in human resources 

• rational distribution of population over the territory of the country 

• use of intellectual and labour potential of migrants for prosperity of the Russian 

Federation. 

Meanwhile, the principle directions of activity for migration processes 

regulation as outlined in the Concept are: 

• maintaining control over immigration processes in the Russian Federation 

• building up the conditions for integration of forced migrants in the Russian 

Federation 

• recruitment of immigrants to work in the Russian Federation to provide the 

national economy with labour resources 

• entering of the Russian Federation into the international labour market and 

the process of regulation of economic migration 

66 Mukomel and Mkrtchyan (2008). 

67 Resolution of the Russian Federation Government No. 683 dated 15 November 2006. 

68 Approved by the Russian Federation Government Decree No. 256-r dated 1 March 2003. 


• building up of conditions for voluntary return to their former residential 

places of Russian nationals, who left their places of permanent residence in 

the Russian Federation by force and are now living in other territories of the 

country 

• keeping and developing relationships with compatriots abroad 

• optimization of internal migratory processes and promotion of effective usage 

of labour resources 

• creation of conditions for the maintenance and further formation of populations 

in the northern, eastern, and cross-border regions of the Russian Federation 

• rendering of assistance for the voluntary migration of compatriots from the 

CIS member countries and the Baltic countries. 

6.4. Labour migration issues 

Russia’s economic development has in recent years outperformed the other 

CIS countries (see Table 32) and increasingly made Russia a destination of intra- 

CIS labour migration flows. 

Table 33. Differences in GDP and standards of living among the CIS countries 

Cis country 

gDp per capita 

(usD) 

percetage of population living on 

less than usD 2 per day 

Armenia 1234.0 49 

Azerbaijan 2585.9 9 

Belarus 3316.2 2 

Georgia 1765.8 16 

Kazakhstan 4386.1 25 

Kyrgyzstan 507.7 25 

Moldova 917.4 64 

Russian Federation 6330.8 8 

Tajikistan 411.5 43 

Turkmenistan 3888.6 44 

Ukraine 2020.6 46 

Uzbekistan 498.6 72 

Sources: IMF. World Economic Outlook Database, April 2006; UN Population Reference Bureau, World 

Population Data Sheet, 2005, presented by Ivankniouk (2006)69 


paper presented at the International Symposium on International Migration and Developmen, United Nations 



Thanks to the generally favourable economic development in Russia, the 

employment situation has steadily improved in the last years, as the succeeding 

tables on the economically active population and on unemployment show. 

The size of the economically active population has steadily risen as well as the 

demand for immigrant labour due to the declining population. Registered unemployment 

has clearly dropped in the last years—by 29 per cent, from over seven 

million in 2000 to less than five million in 2006 (see Table 36). 

Although the tables below do not reflect any dramatic changes in the division 

of the labour force between the different sectors of economic activity, Russia 

seems to face the lack of professionals needed in the modern services-oriented 

economy. 

With its growing dependence on an immigrant labour force, Russia is facing 

the same situation as many other European countries: there is a generous 

supply of an unskilled undocumented immigrant labour force, most of which is 

quite ill-matched to the labour force demands. The domestic labour force also 

cannot satisfy the current needs for professionals of modern business, production, 

and related business and personnel administration, marketing and information 

technology (IT). In Russia, the situation is typical as in many countries: there 

is a shortage of engineers, IT specialists, industrial, technical and managerial 

staff, commercial and marketing professionals, and related administrative support 

staff: This is illustrated in a list published by a Russian labour market news 

website (http://www.rhr.ru) that presents Russia’s most in-demand professionals 

at the beginning of 2007: 

1. Human resources manager 

2. Marketing manager 

3. Director of production 

4. Personnel director 

5. Manager of production 

6. Internet project manager 

7. Client relations manager 

8. Senior secretary 

9. Bookkeeper 

10. Programmer 

Since January 2007, the new legislation regulating access of foreign citizens 

to the Russian labour markets has become effective. The procedure for the 

issuance of labour permits to foreign citizens arriving in the Russian Federation 

has been considerably simplified. The notice procedure covers employers as well, 


wherein they are given the right to hire foreigners even without a foreign labour 

engagement permit. 

In 2007, the number of foreign citizens who are legally carrying out labour 

activity in the territory of the Russian Federation rose from 1,014,000 in 2006 to 

2,150,000 as of January-September 2007. The number of foreign citizens registered 

by migration 70 authorities has been much higher—over six million people 

as of January-September 2007. This may be explained by the fact that even if 

a significant part of foreign citizens arrive in Russia primarily not for labour 

activity, many of them most probably end up being engaged in irregular labour 

activity. 71 

Together with measures for the liberalization of engagement and application 

of foreign labour, efforts aimed at strengthening the administrative responsibility 

for combating irregular engagement and use of foreign labour and working 

without a labour permit were executed. The administrative penalties for violation 

of regulations of stay and residence of foreign citizens and stateless persons, 

and for regulation of engagement and use of foreign labour in the territory of 

the Russian Federation were significantly increased to up to 800,000 rubles or 

about 22,000 euros per worker. This resulted in a significant decrease in offences 

in the irregular engagement of foreign workers and hiring them without labour 

permits, 72 from 67,108 in 2005 and 68,703 in 2006 to 9,632 in the first half of 

2007. 73 

70 Mukomel, Vladimir and Nikita Mkrtchyan (2008): Expert memorandum drafted for this Country Profile, 

Moscow, January 2008. 

71 Ibid. 

72 Articles 18.10 and 18.15 (before 2007, Parts 1 and 2 of Article 18.10) of the Code of the Russian Federation 

on Administrative Offences. 

73 Source: Information Analysis Center of the MIA of Russia. 


Economically 

active 

population, total 

of which: 

Table 34. Economically active population* 

1992 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006** 

Thousand persons 

75,060 70,740 72,332 71,411 72,421 72,835 72,909 73,811 74,187 

employed 71,171 64,055 65,273 65,124 66,266 67,152 67,134 68,603 69,189 

unemployed 3,889 6,684 7,059 6,288 6,155 5,683 5,775 5,208 4,999 

Men 39,197 37,338 37,499 36,905 36,997 37,206 37,079 37,511 37,643 

of which: 

employed 37,161 33,726 33,754 33,527 33,709 34,199 34,177 34,710 35,012 

unemployed 2,036 3,613 3,745 3,378 3,288 3,007 2,902 2,801 2,631 

Women 35,863 33,401 34,833 34,506 35,423 35,629 35,831 36,300 36,544 

of which: 

employed 34,010 30,330 31,519 31,596 32,557 32,953 32,958 33,893 34,176 

unemployed 1,853 3,072 3,314 2,910 2,866 2,676 2,873 2,407 2,368 

Economically 

active 

population, total 

of which: 

As percentage of the total of economically active population 

100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 

employed 94.8 90.5 90.2 91.2 91.5 92.2 92.1 92.9 93.3 

unemployed 5.2 9.5 9.8 8.8 8.5 7.8 7.9 7.1 6.7 

Men 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 

of which: 

employed 94.8 90.3 89.8 90.8 91.1 91.9 92.2 92.5 93.0 

unemployed 5.2 9.7 10.2 9.2 8.9 8.1 7.8 7.5 7.0 

Women 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 

of which: 

employed 94.8 90.8 90.5 91.5 91.9 92.5 92.0 93.4 93.5 

unemployed 5.2 9.2 9.5 8.5 8.1 7.5 8.0 6.6 6.5 

Source: Goscomstat www.gks.ru 

* Data for 1992 and 1995 are as of the end of October; for 2000 to 2006, as of the end of November. 

**Data since 2006 include the Chechen Republic. 


Table 35. Average annual employment by type of economic activities 

in thousand persons as percentage to the total 

2004 2005 2006 2004 2005 2006 

Total employment 66,407 66,792 67,017 100 100 100 

by type of economic activities: 

Agriculture, hunting and forestry 7,430 7,381 7106 11.2 11.1 10.6 

Fishing, fish farms 113 138 133 0.2 0.2 0.2 

Mining and quarrying 1,088 1,051 1036 1.6 1.6 1.5 

Manufacturing 11,787 11,506 11,255 17.7 17.2 16.8 

Electricity, gas and water supply 1,900 1,912 1,917 2.9 2.9 2.9 

Construction 4,743 4,916 5,075 7.1 7.4 7.6 

Wholesale trade and commission 

trade; repair of motor 

vehicles, motorcycles; personal 

and household goods 

10,843 11,088 11,315 16.3 16.6 16.9 

Hotels and restaurants 1,152 1,163 1,183 1.7 1.7 1.8 

Transport and communication 5,293 5,369 5,423 8.0 8.0 8.1 

of which communication ... 940 951 ... 1.4 1.4 

Financial intermediation 835 858 928 1.3 1.3 1.4 

Real estate, renting and business 

activities 

Public administration and defence; 

compulsory social security 

4,825 4,879 4,936 7.3 7.3 7.4 

3,447 3,458 3,579 5.2 5.2 5.3 

Education 6,125 6,039 6,014 9.2 9.0 9.0 

Health and social work 4,488 4,548 4,603 6.8 6.8 6.9 

Other community, social and 

personal service activities 

Source: Goskomstat www.gks.ru 

2,330 2,460 2,492 3.5 3.7 3.7 


Table 36. Number of unemployed persons in the Russian Federation, 1992, 1995, and 

Total number of 

unemployed, in 

thousand Persons 

Out of them: 

Students, 

pensioners 

2000-2006 

1992 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 

According to the results of the Sample survey on employment* 

3,888.6 6,684.3 7,059.1 6,287.9 6,154.7 5,683.3 5,775.2 5,208.3 4,998.7 

In thousand persons 717.5 520.3 686.5 726.9 633.1 645.6 777.3 610.5 517.1 

In per cent 18.5 7.8 9.7 11.6 10.3 11.4 13.5 11.7 10.3 

Women 

In thousand Persons 1,852.9 3,071.7 3,314.2 2,910.2 2,866.3 2,675.9 2,873.2 2,406.9 2,367.8 

In per cent 47.6 46.0 46.9 41.5 46.6 47.1 49.8 46.2 47.4 

Rural residents 

In thousand Persons 639.2 1,396.2 1,894.7 1,834.6 1,939.8 1,870.9 1,876.6 1,956.6 2,097.5 

In per cent 16.4 20.9 26.8 29.2 31.5 32.9 32.5 37.6 42.0 

Number of 

unemployed 

registered by 

government employment 

offices, ** 

in thousand Persons 

Out of them: 

Women 

In accordance with the data of the Federal Labour and Employment Service 

(end of year) 

577.7 2,327.0 1,037.0 1,122.7 1,499.7 1,638.9 1,920.3 1,830.1 1,742.0 

In thousand Persons 417.0 1,454.7 714.8 763.2 1,012.6 1,106.2 1,272.6 1,199.5 1,132.5 

In per cent 72.2 62.5 68.9 68.0 67.5 67.5 66.3 65.5 65.0 

Rural residents 

In thousand Persons 101.7 671.7 325.3 388.1 603.0 732.8 890.8 891.2 890.0 

In per cent 17.6 28.9 31.4 34.6 40.2 44.7 46.4 48.7 51.1 

Ratio of number of 

unemployed registered 

by government 

employment offices 

to total number of 

unemployed, in per 

cent 

14.9 34.7 14.8 17.8 24.4 28.7 33.3 35.1 34.8 

Source: Goskomstat www.gks.ru 

* Data for 1992 and 1995 are given as of the end of October; for 2000 to 2006, as of the end of November. 

**Data since 2006 include the Chechen Republic. 


Table 37. Unemployment by age and educational attainment in 2006* 

(as of end of November; percentage of the total) 

total Men Women 

Unemployed – total 100 100 100 

By age, in years: 

Under 20 9.5 8.8 10.4 

20 – 24 21.6 21.9 21.3 

25 – 29 13.9 14.4 13.3 

30 – 34 9.3 9.1 9.6 

35 – 39 10.0 10.7 9.2 

40 – 44 10.0 9.3 10.7 

45 – 49 12.2 12.5 11.9 

50 – 54 8.4 7.9 9.0 

55 - 59 3.8 4.1 3.6 

60 - 72 1.3 1.4 1.1 

Mean age of unemployed, 

in years 

34.1 34.2 34.1 

Unemployed – total 100 100 100 

including those with 

education: 

higher professional 10.7 8.7 13.0 

incomplete higher professional 

2.1 1.9 2.3 

secondary professional 17.3 13.0 22.1 

primary professional 17.6 20.0 14.9 

secondary (complete) 

general 

37.0 39.8 33.8 

basic general 13.5 14.8 12.1 

primary general, without 

primary general 

1.8 1.9 1.8 

Source : Goskomstat, see www.gks.ru 

* Data according to returns of the sample survey on employment, including data on Chechen Republic. 

6.5. Policies to address irregular migration 

The combat irregular migration through international cooperation is considered 

to be one of the priority areas of the MIA. 

During the last years, some policy documents on intergovernmental cooperation 

for combating irregular migration were elaborated. Such documents 


81

include the Concept of Cooperation between the CIS member countries against 

illegal migration approved by the Resolution of the Council of Heads of CIS 

member countries on 16 September 2004 in the city of Astana, and the Programme 

of Cooperation for 2006-2008 between CIS member countries against 

illegal migration approved by the Council of Heads of CIS member countries on 

26 August 2005 at the city of Kazan. 

Close cooperation between foreign partners in the fight against irregular 

migration is as before being practiced by the internal security services of the Russian 

Federation in the framework of the Agreement on Cooperation between the 

CIS member countries against illegal migration signed on 6 March 1998, and of 

succeeding documents adopted as the Agreement’s continuation. 

Recent measures to facilitate the issuance of work permits especially for 

citizens of other CIS states, and the simplification of procedures to obtain foreign 

workers, have contributed to the strong increase of legally employed foreigners, 

while the estimated numbers of undocumented foreign workers have decreased. 

These measures to simplify the bureaucracy have been linked with tougher employer 

sanctions. In 2007, more than 166,000 employers were found violating 

regulations in hiring foreign citizens and were sanctioned by fines or even by 

temporary suspension of their business up to 90 days. 74 

Cooperation with the other CIS states has been intensified. In January 2008, 

the Council of Heads of Migration Services of the CIS Member States was created. 

The Council has an ambitious agenda to promote more favourable attitudes 

on migration in CIS countries by promoting and facilitating legal migration and 

cooperation against irregular migration. The director of the Russian FMS is the 

first Chairman of the Council. 75 

Furthermore, the Russian authorities have launched a new database in December 

2007 to improve migration information, and are continuing the development 

of the Government Information System on Migration Records. 76 New 

passports have been developed with electronic components that allow better management 

and control of migration flows. Further development work is underway 

to include biometric data into travel documents. 

The Russian Federation has signed or ratified a number of international 

instruments related to irregular migration. As previously mentioned, in March 

74 From FMS, reported in Mukomel and Mkrtchyan (2008). 

75 Idem. 

76 IOM Moscow and FMS of the Russian Federation. 


1998, the Agreement on cooperation between the CIS member-countries in their 

struggle against illegal migration (Federal Law of 12 July 2000, No. 97-FL) was 

ratified. 

Also, on 12 December 2000, the Russian Federation signed the UN Convention 

Against Transnational Organized Crime, adopted on 15 November 2000, 

and the complementary Protocol against the smuggling of migrants by land, sea 

and air. 

In Article 6 of this Protocol to the Convention, each member state shall 

take legal and other measures against three specified variants of smuggling or 

related facilitation of illegal entry or stay. At present, only one offence is mentioned 

in the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation as corpus delicti in the 

“Organization of Illegal Migration” (Article 322.2). 

6.6. Policies to address trafficking in human beings 

In 2000, Russia signed the UN Convention against Transnational Organized 

Crime and its supplementing Protocol on Trafficking in Persons, which was 

ratified in March 2004. During this period, Russia also legally defined trafficking 

in human beings within its criminal code and has initiated steps toward responding 

to trafficking issues. Fora such as government interagency meetings and 

anti-trafficking conferences like the All-Russian Assemblies of Anti-Trafficking 

NGOs have fostered dialogue among decision makers and practitioners in the 

establishment of strategies to better combat trafficking in human beings. 

In order to create a special legal basis for the prevention of human trafficking 

in the Russian Federation, an Inter-Agency Working Group (WG) was 

established under the auspices of the Legislative Committee of the State Duma in 

2002. 77 Members of Working Group (the State Duma deputies, representatives of 

various ministries and departments, and non-government organizations) initiated 

and developed the draft Federal Law on Prevention of Human Trafficking, which 

determines the legal and organizational regulations for the prevention of human 

trafficking in the Russian Federation and the means of coordination of activities 

of executive federal agencies, public institutions, and unions. The draft Law also 

determines the legal status and state guarantees for the victims of human trafficking. 

The provisions of the draft Law were discussed during the parliamentary 

hearings in February 2003 and March 2006. At present. the Working Group is 

77 Mukomel, Vladimir and Nikita Mkrtchyan (2008): Expert memorandum drafted for this Country Profile, 

Moscow, January 2008. 


83

carrying out the revision and upgrading of the existing draft Law based on the 

comments and amendments proposed by participating ministries, state departments, 

and political parties. 

In 2003, Federal Law No. 162-ФЗ on Introducing Changes and Additions 

to the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation was adopted in Russia. With 

the adoption of this Law, Russian law enforcement authorities received a legal 

basis for the criminalization and prosecution of trafficking-related offences. The 

Law envisages criminal liability for trafficking in persons (Article 127-1), use 

of slave labour (Article 127-2), involvement of minors in prostitution (Article 

240, part 3), the organization of prostitution (Article 241), and the manufacture 

and distribution of materials or objects with pornographic depictions of minors 

(Article 242-1). The Law defines trafficking in persons as “the buying and selling 

of a person or other actions committed for the purpose of his exploitation in the 

form of recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring, or receipt”. The Law 

differentiates against the criminal liability for trafficking in persons. Depending 

on the gravity of the crime (committed with regard to two or more persons, with 

the use or threat of force, etc.), the punishment might be up to 15 years of imprisonment. 

The Law defines slave labour as “the use of person’s labour with regard to 

whom power characterized by the right of ownership is exercised, in the event 

when a person, for reasons beyond his control, cannot refuse doing the work 

(providing services)”. The maximum punishment of imprisonment is up to 15 

years. 

The criminal liability for involvement of minors in prostitution was increased 

to up to eight years of imprisonment, and the criminal liability of organization 

in the engagement of other persons in prostitution was broadened. Aggravating 

circumstances includes the use or threat of force, the use of authority of 

an official position, and the deliberate use of minors for engaging in prostitution, 

among others. 

The Federal Law of 20 August 2004 No. 119-ФЗ on State Protection of 

Victims, Witnesses and Other Parties to Criminal Proceedings which entered into 

force on 1 January 2005 plays an important role in combating the criminal business 

of human trafficking. It enacts a set of state-guaranteed security measures 

for the protected persons. In accordance to the Law, claimants, witnesses, and 

victims shall be eligible for government protection. 


The Law creates normative and legal bases for the protection of victims 

of human trafficking and members of their families through relocation to a different 

permanent place of residence, issuance of new documents, change of appearance, 

personal protection and protection of home and property, provision of 

special individual protection, communication and security alarm devices, protection 

of confidential information on the protected person, transfer to a new job or 

educational institution, and temporary relocation to a secured shelter (Article 6, 

Chapter 2). 

To enhance the coordination of anti-trafficking activities, a programme of 

cooperation of CIS member states in combating trafficking in persons for 2007- 

2010 78 was adopted on 28 November 2006 in Minsk in which.specialized units 

have been created within the Ministry of Interior 79 and regional departments 

with the purpose of preventing, detecting, and investigating criminal cases in the 

sphere of irregular migration, trafficking in persons, and use of slave labour. The 

methods used in the investigation of trafficking-related crimes were worked out. 

The methods contain criminal qualification of trafficking in humans, investigation 

procedures of trafficking-related cases, ways of cooperation, tactical characteristics 

of some initial investigative actions, and subsequent and final stages of 

investigation. 

Russian authorities are increasing their efforts towards strengthening antitrafficking 

response and improving corresponding legislation. In particular, the 

State Duma Committee for Civil, Criminal, Arbitral and Remedial Legislation is 

drafting three alternative bills for enriching the definition of trafficking in human 

beings..It is also proposed that a new article on Trafficking in Minors be added 

as well as increasing the length of imprisonment for trafficking in minors. The 

Committee intends to give the bills their first reading in early 2008. 80 

Furthermore, the leaders of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and 

the Interior Ministry are calling for better international cooperation and exchange 

of information, experiences and best practices on combating human trafficking, 

with emphasis on the key role of the UN in the prevention of human trafficking 

worldwide. 81 

78 http://cis.minsk.by/main.aspx?uid=8046 

79 According to Article 151 (Investigative Jurisdiction) of the Criminal Procedural Code of the Russian Federation 

in the criminal cases for crimes, envisaged by Articles 127.1 and 127.2, a preliminary investigation shall 

be conducted by the investigators of the internal affairs bodies of the Russian Federation. 

80 http://www.rosbalt.ru/2008/02/12/455755.html 

81 http://www.rian.ru/world/20080213/99134102.html, http://gzt.ru/world/2008/02/15/200652.html 


85

Table 38. Statistics on crimes related to trafficking in people, 2004-2007 82 

(The table below contains data on trafficking violations with reference to relevant laws or 

articles in the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation indicated below as CC RF.) 

article CC rf 

2004 

number of 

registered crimes 


number of persons 

called to account 

127-1 1 17 4 

127-2 2 8 5 

240 3 276 100 

241 4 976 656 

2005 

127-1 60 24 

127-2 20 10 

240 390 100 

241 1,030 741 

2006 

127-1 106 45 

127-2 19 15 

240 548 262 

241 1,376 967 

2007 

127-1 104 55 

127-2 35 22 

240 575 273 

241 1,570 1,049 

1 Article 127.1 of the Criminal Code – Trafficking of Human Beings 

2 Article 127.2 of the Criminal Code – Use of Slave Labour 

3 Article 240 of the Criminal Code – Attraction to Prostitution 

4 Article 241 of the Criminal Code – Organization of Prostitution 

82 Statistics from the Main Center for Information and Analysis of the Interior Ministry of the Russian Federa- 

tion.

The law enforcement authorities of the Russian Federation actively cooperate 

with law enforcement agencies in other countries, with Russian and international 

NGOs, and with the UN and other international organizations, including 

the IOM (see main actors in Section 6.9). 83 

Examples of counter-trafficking projects 

Many anti-trafficking projects in the Russian Federation are carried out by 

local NGOs. However such project-based activities have certain weakness. Typically, 

the length of such projects is no more than one year. Furthermore, there is 

little coordination between the different projects, resulting in some overlap of 

activities as well as existence of serious gaps. Since anti-trafficking activities and 

support to victims of trafficking of the majority of NGOs are based on international 

donor support, the lack of stability, continuity, and sustainability will be a 

main concern until government agencies and public entities start supporting these 

projects with financial, information, and other types of assistance. 

At the same time, in order to strengthen understanding, coordination, and 

collaboration in counter-trafficking , a UN and IOM working group was established 

in 2004, with UN agency membership including the ILO, UNFPA, UN- 

ODC, UNDP, UNICEF and the UN Resident Coordinator’s Office in the Russian 

Federation. Thus, to support efforts of both government and non-government 

structures to combat trafficking in human beings in the Russian Federation as a 

country of origin, transit, and destination, IOM spearheaded three anti-trafficking 

projects: 

1. Prevention of human trafficking in the Russian Federation (funded by the 

European Commission and the United States and Swiss governments). The 

main components of the project are: 

• Policy Advice: improving the legislative framework and the state policies 

regarding human trafficking, including the national capacity to 

assess and measure this phenomenon in Russia 

• Prevention: strengthening the capacity of the relevant law enforcement 

agencies to combat human trafficking; raising awareness among 

the risk groups, general public and relevant Russian authorities, NGOs 

and diplomatic missions of foreign states 

83 E.V. Tiurukanova and the Institute for Urban Economics (2006) Human Trafficking in the Russian Federation, 

Inventory and Analysis of the Current Situation and Responses. Report conducted for the UN/IOM Working 

Group on Trafficking in Human Beings, Moscow, http://www.undp.ru/index.phtml?iso=RU&lid=1&cmd=p 

ublications1&id=54 


87

• Reintegration: building the capacity of the national authorities and local 

NGO networks to protect and reintegrate victims of trafficking. 

2. Combating Trafficking in Human Beings in the Russian Federation (funded 

by Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA). The 

main components of the project are: 

• Provision of equipment to Federal Counter-Trafficking Department/ 

Unit/Focal-points 

• Counter-trafficking educational programme 

• Networking visits to countries of origin 

• Law Enforcement Conference in Moscow/Saint Petersburg 

2008/2009 

• Youth group capacity building and engagement. 

3. Reintegration assistance to victims of trafficking from the Russian Federation 

(funded by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation or 

SDC). The main components of the project are: 

• establishment of a safe house facilitating long-term assistance and 

support to up to 20 victims of trafficking (women victims of sexual 

exploitation) 

• launching of a project development contest for NGOs focusing on 

counter-trafficking services with as many as four NGOs receiving 

funding for the selected projects 

• creation of a reintegration fund providing assistance to up to 75 former 

victims of trafficking. 

6.7. Refugees, asylum seekers and internally displaced persons, 

and relevant policies in place 

Shortly after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian Federation, 

having joined the UN Convention on Refugees of 1951 and the Protocol of 1967, 

could not completely fulfill its obligations to the UN Convention due to financial 

constraints. Refugee status was granted mainly to citizens of CIS and Baltic 

countries; applicants from foreign countries were granted refugee status only in 

exceptional cases. Russia adopted the Law on Refugees (of February 1993, No. 

4528-1) and on Asylum Seekers (19 February 1993, No. 4530-1). 84 

84 In 1995, the new version of the resolution “On asylum seekers” was adopted (by Federal Law of 20 December 

1995, No. 202-FL). Following this, in 1997, the new version of the resolution “On refugees” (Federal Law 

of 28 June 1997, No. 95-FL), was adopted, putting the national legislation in better alignment with the UN 

Refugee Convention. 


Since July 1992, more than 1,623,000 people have been granted refugee 

and asylum seeker status. On 1 January 2001, 445 people were provided with 

refugee status and 117,711 with asylum seeker status, out of whom 23,827 persons 

were considered internally displaced persons. 85 

The FMS of Russia projects that in 2008-2010, the number of applicants 

for refugee status and who will obtain this status will increase. This projection 

goes as well to the number of persons who will be given temporary asylum. 

Russia has unfulfilled financial obligations to persons who have received 

the status of asylum seekers. Nevertheless, in 2007, 1,287 families of asylum 

seekers were provided with housing; in 2006, 306 families received this type of 

support. For 2008, the federal budget envisages to allocate RUR 1129.2 million 

(about USD 46 million) for the purchase of housing for asylum seekers. 

In 2007, the government rendered support to citizens who suffered in the 

Ossetian-Chechen conflict—a total of 655 families and 68,661 persons who were 

returned to the places of their former residence in the territory of the Chechen 

Republic. A total of 309 families received reimbursement for the lost of their 

housing and/or property. 

Table 39. Asylum applications in the Russian Federation, 2004-2007 

2004 2005 2006 2007( June) 

315 292 1,170 291 

Source: UNHCR, 2007. 

6.8. Other important migration actors in the country 

International actors 

Delegation of the European Commission to the Russian Federation 

19017, Moscow 

Kadashevskaya nab., 14/1 

Tel.: (+7 495) 721 20 00 

Fax (+7 495) 721 20 20 

E-mail: Delegation-Russia@ec.europa.eu 

85 These figures do not include data on persons forcibly moved to the Ingushetiani Republic from the Republic 

of North Ossetia-Alania, as well as those who applied to the FMS for refugee and asylum seeker status, due to 

events in the Chechen Republic in 1994-1996 and 1999-2001. 


89

International Organization for Migration in Moscow (IOM) 

2-ya Zvenigorodskaya St., 12 

Moscow, 123100 

Tel.: (495) 797-8722; (495) 253-1335 

Fax: (495) 253-3522 

http://www.iomrussia.ru; http://www.iom.int 

International Labour Organization (ILO) 

107031 Moscow 

Petrovka 15, apt. 23 

Tel.: +7 (495) 933-0810 

Fax.: +7 (495) 933-0820 

E-mail: moscow@ilo.org 

United Nations Office for Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 

Regional Office for Russia and Belarus 

28 Ostozhenka, Moscow, Russia, 119034 

Tel.: +7(495) 787 2121 

Fax.: +7(495) 787 2129 

E-mail: office@unodc.ru 

United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs 

(OCHA) in the Russian Federation 

6 pereulok Obukha Moscow 105064 

Tel.: (+7 495) 956 6405 

Fax: (+7 495) 956 6355 

E-mail: ocharf@un.org 

http://www.ocha.ru 

Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights 

(UNHCHR) 

119034 Moscow 28 Ostozhenka St., 

Tel.: +7(495) 787 21 00 

Fax +7(495) 787 2101 

http://www.unrussia.ru 

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) 

Moscow 

Ostozhenka St. 28, 119034 

Tel.: 7(495) 787 21 00 

Fax: 7(495) 787 21 01 

E-mail: office@undp.ru 


St. Petersburg 

Fontanka St. 21, 191011 

Tel.: (812) 570 59 19 

Fax: (812) 570 55 47 

E-mail: unoffice@peterlink.ru 

Vladikavkaz 

Tel.: (8672) 45 14 26 

Fax: (8672) 54 60 97 

Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky 

Karl Marx Av. 29/1, Room 207 

Tel: (41522) 91 9 70 

Fax: (41522) 90 827 

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) 

4/17 Pokrovsky Blvd., Building 1, Office 19/20101000 

Moscow, Russian Federation 

Tel.: +7 495 933 8818 

Fax: +7 495 933 8819 

E-mail: moscow@unicef.org 

http://www.unicef.org/russia/ru/ 

Collective Security Treaty Organization 

103012, Moscow, Varvarka St, 7, 

Tel.: +7(495) 625-7620, (495) 606-9771 

E-mail: odkb@gov.ru 

National Actors 

NGOs working against trafficking in human beings 

A very large number of NGOs are working in counter-trafficking in the 

Russian Federation. The following list, compiled by the IOM Office in Moscow, 

shows some of NGOs that are active in different parts of the Russian Federation 

Yekaterinburg, Sverdlovskaya oblast – “Ekaterina” 

Contact person: Ermakova Lyudmila Mikhaylovna 

Tel.: 8 (343) 220 30 28 

E-mail: lusy@etel.ru, lusy@isnet.ru 


1

Astrakhan - “Oratorium” 

Contact person: Perepyolkin Eduard 

Tel.: 8 (906) 457 09 34 

E-mail: oratorium@inbox.ru 

Petrozavodsk, Karelia- Karelskiy Centre for Gender Studies 

Contact person: Boychenko Larisa Dmitrievna 

Tel.: 8 (8142) 773 919 

Moscow- “Coalition Angel” 

Contact person: Kuzbit Oleg Romanovich 

Tel.: (495) 915 43 74, 783 5865 

E-mail: program@angelcoalition.org, okouzbit@nagelcoalition.ru 

http://www.angelcoalition.org 

Moscow- “Sisters” 

Contact person: Mokhova Mariya Lyvovna 

Tel.: 7 (095) 901 02 01 

E-mail: syostri@gmail.com; maha64@mail.ru 

Moscow- “Kesher” 

Director: Svetlana Yakimenko 

Tel.: 8 (095) 254 99 58, 8 (916) 128 25 58 

E-mail: svetakesher@online.ru, svetakesher@inbox.ru,www.projectkesher.org 

Khabarovsk, Far East – Winrock 

Director: Shchetinina Olga Petrovna 

Tel.: (4212) 30 63 73, 31-08-18, 30-85-67 

E- mail: oschetinina@success.winrock.ru 

Vladivostok, Far East – “Far Eastern Crisis Centre” 

Director: Bazhenova Svetlana Kupriyanovna 

Tel.: (4232) 43 20 33, (4232) 903312 

E-mail: fe-centre@mail.ru 

Aksinya 

Contact person: Irina Mardar 

Tel.: 8-926-4538351 


Kazan- “Fatima” 

Contact person : Galitskaya Marina 

Tel.: (843) 2536085, (843)2464401 

E-mail : Fatima@bancorp.ru 

Novosibirsk- “Siberian Women’s League” 

Contact person: Head of the Council Yurtayeva Larisa 

Tel.: (383) 208 09 91 

E-mail: liga@online.nsk.su 

Chelyabinsk- “Women’s Commonwealth” 

Contact person: Vasilyeva Larisa Semyonovna 

Tel.: (3512) 62 00 96 

E-mail: vls05@mail.ru 

Irkutsk- “Angara” 

Contact person: Uralova Svetlana Valentinovna 

Tel.: (3952) 38 79 02, 39 78 35, (3952) 46-55-09 

E-mail: uralova@inbox.ru 

Saratov- “Women’s Crisis Centre” 

Contact person: Pylayeva Oksana Yuryevn 

Tel.: (8452) 27 91 70 

E-mail: gamerazum@rambler.ru 

Murmansk- “Crisis Centre- Priyut” 

Contact person: Shtylyova Lyubov Vasilyevna 

Tel.: (8152) 22 71 36, 22 68 75 

E-mail: krc@unis.ru 

Nizhniy Novgorod- “Russian Children’s Fund” 

Contact person: Dernova Nina Ivanovna 

Tel.: (8312) 33 14 80 

E-mail: dernova@infonet.nnof.ru 

Yaroslavl- “Center for Sexual Culture Formation” 

Contact person: Shelkova Valentina Anamovna 

Tel.: (4852) 55 66 91; Fax: 55 50 64, 53 13 21 

Mobile: 33 13 46; Hotline: (8910) 973 13 46 

E-mail: ovsnnk@mail.ru, ovsnnk@rus21.ru 


Krasnoyarsk- “Verba” 

Contact person : Palchik Natalya Borisovna 

Tel. : (3912) 34 25 38 

E-mail : palchiknata@mail.ru 


7. annex: soMe aDDitional Migration 

statistiCs 

Annex Table 1. Foreign citizens and stateless persons who obtained temporary asylum 

and were registered with the Federal Migration Service of Russia, 2001-2007 

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 

Families Persons Families Persons Families Persons Families Persons Families Persons 

Total 725 1,232 723 1,228 599 1,061 584 1,020 700 1,174 

Including 

near-abroad 

countries 

Far-abroad 

countries 

9 14 7 12 8 13 13 26 44 75 

716 1218 716 1,216 591 1,048 571 994 656 1,099 

Source: Federal Migration Service (http://www.fms-rf.ru/about/ofstat/vu_stat/vu_reg_count.php) 

Annex Table 2. Conferment of Russian citizenship, 2005-2006 

2005 2006 

Acquired the Russian citizenship 493,948 365,255 


In a simplified procedure 376,948 283,004 

In a common procedure 614 152 

According to the international treaties 116,376 82,099 

Out of those who acquired the citizenship: 

Adults 316,517 273,960 

Children under 18 96,298 90,145 

Students 15,774 11,798 



Annex Table 3. Principal indicators of temporary labour migration to Russia, 2005-2007 

Employers with permits to engage foreign 

labour 

2005 2006 


2007 (January 

to october) 

35,886 45,205 27,830 

Foreign labour permits issued, total 44,323 56,379 21,200 

Foreign workers employed during the 

reporting period 

702,500 1,014,013 2,024,069 

Including from the CIS countries 343,665 537,722 1,663,404 

Foreign labour permits issued to foreign 

citizens, total 

430,147 583,609 1,871,752 

Including from the CIS countries 238,115 317,398 1,611,805 

Organizations licensed to employ the 

Russian citizens to work abroad as of the 

end of the reporting period 

Source: Federal Migration Service, http://www.fms.gov.ru/about/ofstat/stat_1_rd/index.php 

558 616 600 

Annex Table 4. Number of engaged foreign labour and average monthly salary in 2006 by regions of 

the Russian Federation* 

subjects of the russian 

federation 

number of employed 

foreign workers 

average monthly nominal 

salary accounted in 2006, 

roubles. 

the Russian Federation – total 1,014,013 10,727.7 

Central Federal District 

the Belgorod Region 4,284 8,428.1 

the Bryansk region 974 6,385.7 

the Vladimir region 4,358 7,515.5 

the Voronezh Region 3,539 6,666.7 

the Ivanovo Region 1,439 6,545.2 

the Kaluga Region 4,991 8,483.8 

the Kostroma region 1,481 7,492.4 

the Kursk region 1,256 7,150.6 

the Lipetsk Region 1,833 8,617.1 

the Moscow region 85,067 11,752.4 

the Orel region 853 6,786.6 

the Ryazan Region 5,430 7,763.1 

the Smolensk Region 911 7,827.6 

the Tambov region 1,188 6,267.5 

the Tver region 3,670 8,115.1 

the Tula region 4,115 7,723.3 

the Yaroslavl region 3,378 9,012.8 

City of Moscow 355,384 18,698.6

North-western Federal District 

the Republic of Karelia 2,187 10,706.7 

the Komi Republic 2,961 14,247.3 

the Arkhangelsk Region 2,426 11,901.2 

the Vologda Region 4,226 10,777.6 

the Kaliningrad Region 8,492 9,373.5 

the Murmansk Region 1,453 10,612.1 

the Novgorod Region 1,536 14,983.9 

the Pskov Region 1,458 8,843.8 

St. Petersburg 34,811 6,974 

The Leningrad region 12,983 12,978.9 

Southern Federal District 

Republic of Adygeya 190 6,350.7 

Republic of Dagestan 1,684 4,884.4 

Republic of Ingushetia 103 6,720.2 

Kabardino-Balkarian Republic 103 5,862 

Republic of Kalmykia 628 5,626.6 

Karachai-Circassian Republic 94 6,051.8 

Republic of North Ossetia-Alania 630 5,893.8 

Chechen Republic 2 8,078 

Krasnodar Territory 22,455 8,065.2 

Stavropol Territory 3,364 6,844.1 

the Astrakhan region 3,943 8,193 

the Volgograd region 7,673 7,679.4 

the Rostov region 3,642 7,485.3 

Privolzhsky Federal District 

Republic of Bashkortostan 13,475 8,474.8 

Republic of Marij El 103 6,526.1 

Republic of Mordovia 899 6,362 

Republic of Tatarstan 14,784 8,839.1 

Udmurtian Republic 2,817 7,881.6 

Chuvash Republic 316 6,407.2 

the Kirov Region 707 9,584.7 

the Nizhni Novgorod Region 11,919 7,187.7 

the Orenburg Region 4,693 8,147.9 

the Penza Region 1,157 7,752.8 

the Perm Region 9,106 6,492.3 

the Samara Region 7,883 9,630.5 

The Saratov region 951 7,170.8 


The Ulyanovsk region 2,213 6,733.9 

Uralian Federal District 

the Kurgan Region 737 7,267.7 

the Sverdlovsk Region 52,845 10,942.5 

the Tyumen Region 9,634 2,3854 

the Chelyabinsk Region 15,707 26,936.8 

the Khanty-Mansijsk Autonomous 

District 

the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous 

District 

Siberian Federal District 


29,348 32,929.6 

26,443 9,364.9 

Republic of Altai 765 7527 

Republic of Buryatia 3,525 9,333.6 

Republic of Tuva 408 8,956.8 

Republic of Khakassia 332 9,511.5 

Altai Territory 5,861 6,149 

Krasnoyarsk Territory 22,805 12,454 

the Irkutsk region 12,901 11,069.1 

the Kemerovo region 5,027 10,328.4 

the Novosibirsk region 12,786 9,120.5 

the Omsk region 5,649 8,980.7 

the Tomsk region 1,667 11,495.1 

the Chita region 20,569 10,039.4 

Far East Federal District 

the Republic of Sakha Yakutia 14,861 16,154.6 

The Primorskiy Territory 37,900 10,887.3 

Khabarovsk Territory 13,643 12,512.6 

the Amur region 18,454 11,069 

the Kamchatka Region 549 19,692.4 

the Magadan region 1786 18,516 

the Sakhalin Region 16,816 19,001.7 

the Jewish Autonomous Region 6,326 9,829.1 

the Chukotka Autonomous District 4,451 25,113.8 

Source: Federal Migration Service; Social and Economic Situation in Russia, January 2007, Rosstat, 2007 

* Data by autonomous areas, except for the Khanty-Mansi and Yamal-Nenets Autonomous Areas, are included in 

relevant areas.

Annex Table 5. Immigrants at age 14 and older, by citizenship 

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 

All migrants 158,505 111,883 104,550 155,056 163,687 

Russian citizens 142,731 94,425 93,293 142,108 149,212 

Foreign citizens 13,225 14,738 9,063 10,303 9,931 

Stateless persons 2,549 2,720 2,194 2,645 1,728 

Not indicated 2,816 

Source: Population and Migration in the Russian Federation. Moscow, the Rosstat, 2004-2006 

Annex Table 6. Remittances from and to Russia sent through money transfer systems 

Remittances from 

Russia 

Including.: non-CIS 

counties 

and the Postal Service of Russia, 2003-2007, in million dollars 

2003 2004 2005 2006 

2007 (Januaryseptember) 

1,310 2,070 3,549 6,005 6,317 

… … 323 622 584 

CIS countries … … 3,226 5,382 5,733 

Remittances to Russia 588 777 1,041 1,304 1,193 

Including: non-CIS 

counties 

… … 645 746 592 

CIS countries … … 396 559 600 


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