Ohio University College of Business Communication Standards

Ohio University
College of Business
Communication Standards
Prepared by:
Professional Communication Faculty
Carrie Brokaw
Steve Flaherty
Theresa Moran
Laura Myers
Jan Ross
Mary Tucker
Chris Yost

Table of Contents
Section 1: Business Writing Skills
Section 2: Business Letters and Memos
Section 3: Report Guidelines
Section 4: Presentations
Section 5: Employment Communications

Section 1: Business Writing Skills
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Table of Contents
Section 1: Business Writing Skills
"POWER OF THE PRINTED WORD" .............................................................................. 3
ELEMENTS OF STYLE........................................................................................................ 6
STAGES OF EFFECTIVE BUSINESS WRITING ............................................................................ 6
READER SENSITIVITY ............................................................................................................. 6
GUIDE TO DOCUMENT REVISION ................................................................................. 7
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION CRITERIA - 7CS........................................................................ 8
SENTENCES AND LINES PER PARAGRAPH................................................................................ 8
READABILITY ......................................................................................................................... 9
CONCISE VERBS VS. NOMINALIZED VERBS........................................................................... 11
WORDY PHRASES ................................................................................................................. 12
TRANSITION WORDS............................................................................................................. 13
PARALLELISM....................................................................................................................... 13
TITLES AND NUMBERS.......................................................................................................... 13
REGIONAL USAGE/SLANG .................................................................................................... 14
PROOFREADING GUIDELINES ................................................................................................ 14
PRODUCT EVALUATION ........................................................................................................ 14
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With permission:
International Paper Company
"Power of the Printed Word"
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How To Write A
Business Letter
by
Malcolm Forbes
Adapted from thoughts of Malcolm Forbes,
Founder of Forbes Magazine
A good business letter can get you a job interview, get you off the hook, or get you money. It's
totally asinine to blow your chances of getting whatever you want with a business letter that
turns people off instead of turning them on. The best place to learn to write is in school. If you're
still there, pick your teachers' brains. If not, big deal. I learned to ride a motorcycle at 50 and fly
balloons at 52. It's never too late to learn.
Over 10,000 business letters come across my desk every year. They seem to fall into three
categories: stultifying if not stupid, mundane (most of them), and first rate (rare). Here's the
approach I've found that separates the winners from the losers--it starts before you write your
letter:
Know what you want:
If you don't, write it down--in one sentence. "I want to get an interview within the next two
weeks." Then, list the major points you want to get across--it'll keep you on course. If you're
answering a letter, check the points that need answering and keep the letter in front of you while
you write. This way you won't forget anything--that would cause another round of letters. For
goodness' sake, answer promptly if you're going to answer at all. Don't sit on a letter--that invites
the person on the other end to sit on whatever you want in return.
Plunge right in:
Call the reader by name--"Dear Mr. Chrisanthopoalos" not "Dear Sir, Madam, or Ms."--and be
sure to spell it right. That'll get him (thus, you) off to a good start. (Usually, you can get the
name just by phoning the company--or from a business directory in your nearest library.)
Tell what your letter is about in the first paragraph using one or two sentences. Don't keep your
readers guessing or they might discard your letter--even before they finish it. People who read
business letters are as human as you and I. Reading a letter shouldn't be a chore, reward readers
for the time they give you.
Write so readers enjoy it:
• Write the entire letter from the reader’s point of view. What's in it for the reader?
Beat the reader to the draw by answering the questions and objections that might arise.
• Be positive. The reader will be more receptive to what you have to say.
• Be nice. Contrary to the cliche, genuinely nice guys most often finish first or very near it.
I admit it's not easy when you've got a gripe. To be agreeable while disagreeing--that's
an art.

• Be natural. Write the way you talk. Imagine the reader sitting in front of you--what
would you say? Business jargon too often is cold, stiff, and unnatural. Suppose I came up
to you and said, "I acknowledge receipt of your letter and I thank you." You'd think,
"Huh? You're putting me on." The acid test--read your letter out loud when you're done.
You might get a shock--but you'll know for sure if it sounds natural.
• Don't be cute or flippant. The reader won't take you seriously. This doesn't mean
you've got to be dull. You prefer your letter to knock 'em dead rather than bore 'em to
death.
In your communication:
1. Have a sense of humor. That's refreshing anywhere--a nice surprise in a business letter.
2. Be specific. If I tell you there's a new fuel that could save gasoline, you might not
believe me. But suppose I tell you this: "Gasohol"--10% alcohol, 90% gasoline--works
as well as straight gasoline. Since you can make alcohol from grain or corn stalks, wood
or wood waste, coal--even garbage, it's worth some real follow-through. Now you've got
something to sink your teeth into.
3. Lean heavier on nouns and verbs, lighter on adjectives. Use the active voice instead
of the passive. Your writing will have more guts. Which of these is stronger? Active
voice: "I kicked out my money manager." Or, passive voice: "My money manager was
kicked out by me." (By the way, neither is true. My son, Malcolm Jr., manages Forbes’
money--he's a brilliant moneyman.)
Give it the best you've got:
When you don't want something enough to make the effort, making an effort is a waste. To make
the effort:
• Make your letter look appetizing -- or you'll strike out before you even get to bat. Type
it on good-quality "8 1/2 x 11" stationery. Keep it neat. Use paragraphing that makes it
easier to read.
• Keep your letter short -- to one page, if possible. Keep your paragraphs short. After all,
who's going to benefit if your letter is quick and easy to read? You. For emphasis,
underline important words.
• Make it perfect. No typos, no misspellings, no factual errors. If you're sloppy and let
mistakes slip by, the person reading your letter will think you don't know better or don't
care. Do you?
• Be crystal clear. You won't get what you're after if your reader doesn't get the message.
• Use good English. If you're still in school, take all the English and writing courses you
can. The way you write and speak can really help--or hurt. If you're not in school (even if
you are), get the little 71-page gem by Strunk & White, Elements of Style. It's in
paperback. It's fun to read and loaded with tips on good English and good writing.
• Don't put on airs. Pretense invariably impresses only the pretender.
• Don't exaggerate. Even once. Your reader will suspect everything else you write.
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• Distinguish opinions from facts. Your opinions may be the best in the world. But
opinions are not gospel. You owe it to your reader to identify opinions from facts. The
dumbest people I know are those who “Know It All.”
• Be honest. It'll get you further in the long run. If you're not, you won't rest easy.
• Edit ruthlessly. Somebody has said that words are a lot like inflated money--the more
words that you use, the less each one is worth. Right on. Go through your entire letter
just as many times as it takes. Search out and annihilate all unnecessary words, and
sentences--even entire paragraphs.
Sum it up and get out:
The last paragraph should tell the reader exactly what you want the reader to do--or what you're
going to do. Keep it short and sweet. "May I have an appointment? Next Monday, May 16, I'll
call your secretary to see when is convenient for you." Close with something simple like,
"Sincerely." And for heaven's sake sign legibly. The biggest ego trip I know is a completely
illegible signature. Good luck; I trust you will get what you're after!
MALCOLM FORBES
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Stages of Effective Business Writing
Elements of Style
To produce good writing, you have to make the information fit the document and style that
best communicates to readers. Technical and business writing consists of special documents
such as memos, reports, manuals, and instructions. It usually requires several stages of text
development:
• Brainstorm what the communication must include.
• Cluster your ideas into topics.
• Outline your topics, including subtopics.
• Write a rough draft.
• Revise by editing your work.
• Proofread carefully.
• Produce the final draft.
Reader Sensitivity
Be positive:
Being reader-friendly means treating readers well. You can do this by putting readers in a
positive spotlight as much as possible. Minimize use of negative language, especially toward
your readers. Use positive language instead.
Emphasize what readers can do instead of what they cannot do:
Instead of writing: “You are not eligible for the discount,”
Write: “Members are eligible for this discount. To become a member, please complete and
submit this form.”
State facts instead of assigning blame:
Instead of writing, “You did not include a check in your recent mortgage payment mailing,”
Write: “We did not find a check in your recent mortgage payment mailing.”
Avoid leading with negative information:
Instead of writing: “Your insurance is being cancelled effective January 31.”
Write: “Our company policy enables customers to qualify for automobile insurance as long
as they have a safe driving record. Customers who have been cited at fault in two or more
accidents or who have received two or more speeding violations within a six-month period
are immediately placed on probationary status. Any additional accidents or speeding
citations within the following six months will result in the cancellation of that customer’s
automobile insurance.”
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Be polite:
Politeness means being courteous, civil, considerate, and respectful to the reader. Politeness
is achieved by using proper language when addressing the reader. The appropriateness of the
language used is really a factor of the relationship that exists between writer and reader.
If the writer and reader do not have a personal relationship, then, in most situations, courtesy
titles are used, such as Mr., Mrs., Ms., or Dr. These titles should be used if the
communication is external--the writer is communicating with someone outside his/her
organization. If the writer and reader are part of the same company or organization, then
polite language depends upon their respective positions in the hierarchy. Superiors can more
easily address subordinates on a first-name basis, ignoring courtesy titles. Subordinates
should have a personal relationship with superiors before addressing them without using
courtesy titles.
Be fair:
Successful companies are aware of the diversity of the world marketplace and the importance
of being inclusive of groups that comprise their customers. From a purely capitalistic
perspective, avoiding all types of discrimination in company language makes good business
sense because it appeals to as many customers as possible. Therefore, it is good practice to
avoid making assumptions about gender-specific social roles, to include information about
race and age only when it is relevant to the purpose of the message, and to avoid stereotyping
people with disabilities and diseases.
Guide to Document Revision
According to Mary E. Guffey, author of Business Communication: Process and Product,
2003, the revision process includes:
1. Revising to improve the content and sentence structure;
2. Proofreading to correct grammar, spelling, punctuation, format, and mechanics; and
3. Evaluating to analyze whether the message achieves its purpose.
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Effective Communication Criteria - 7Cs
Clarity: Apply the KISS formula—“Keep it Short and Simple.”
Choose short, familiar, conversational words.
Construct effective sentences and paragraphs.
Achieve appropriate readability--and listenability.
Avoid unfamiliar words, abbreviations, slang or jargon.
Completeness: Answer all questions asked.
Give something extra, when desirable.
Check for the five Ws and any other essentials.
Conciseness: Shorten or omit wordy expressions.
Include only relevant statements.
Avoid unnecessary repetition, long sentences, relative pronouns,
expletives, abstract subjects, and passive verbs.
Correctness: Use the right level of language.
Include only accurate facts, words, and figures.
Maintain acceptable writing mechanics.
Choose nondiscriminatory expressions.
Apply all other pertinent C qualities.
Concreteness: Use specific facts and figures.
Put action in your verbs.
Choose vivid, image-building words.
Avoid relative words, indefinite phrases, and abstract words.
Consideration: Focus on "you" instead of "I" and "we."
Take an interest in the reader, show how the reader will benefit.
Emphasize positive, pleasant facts.
Apply integrity and ethics.
Avoid negative words.
Courtesy: Be sincerely tactful, thoughtful, and appreciative.
Omit expressions that irritate, hurt, or belittle.
Apologize good-naturedly.
Use words and phrases that set a positive tone.
Make the reply easy.
Sentences and Lines per Paragraph
A paragraph is a set of related sentences, indicated by indenting the first sentence or by
leaving a blank line between paragraphs. In professional writing--where time is money-writing
needs to be as simple and straightforward as possible. Therefore, keep sentences
short, and use the active voice. Paragraphs are most effective when they are crisp, clean,
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short, and to the point. Most importantly, good business paragraphs develop one idea at a
time.
In business letters and memos, one-sentence paragraphs are not uncommon, especially in the
first and last paragraphs. In reports, one- and two-sentence paragraphs make the report seem
too choppy.
The number of lines in a paragraph can be used to judge proper length. Paragraphs in letters
and memos are easiest to read if they do not exceed 4-5 printed lines. In reports, paragraphs
of 7-9 lines are acceptable. Longer paragraphs always appear difficult and uninviting to
read.
Check the words per sentence in your document for conciseness. If your average sentence
length is too long, try these techniques to reduce the length: (1) Check for wordiness-eliminate
all unnecessary words. (2) Change passive sentences to active sentences. (3)
Break long sentences into two or more sentences. (4) Use a vertical list for a series of items.
Items 3 and 4 are especially useful if you have any sentences over 40 words.
If your average sentence length is short, your writing may be choppy. Check to see how
many sentences have fewer than 10 words and combine some of your short sentences into
complex or compound sentences, as shown below.
The company usually does not give semi-annual raises. However, all employees will
receive a raise in June.
Revision: Although the company usually does not give semi-annual raises, all
employees will receive a raise in June. (complex sentence with a
dependent clause)
Revision: The company usually does not give semi-annual raises, but all employees
will receive a raise this June. (compound sentence with two independent
clauses joined by a conjunction)
Readability
Too many passive sentences should be avoided in business writing. An analysis of wellwritten
business letters and memos reveals that about 80 percent of the verbs are active. In
other words, only one out of five sentences should be passive. If your work contains more
than 20 percent of passive sentences, please revise the sentences using active verbs. In
general, the active voice is more effective in business communications than the passive voice
for two reasons: (1) The sentences are usually more concise. (2) The writing is more
interesting because the subject of the sentence is taking the action implied in the verb.
Passive: The decision was made by the manager at the last moment.
Active: The manager decided at the last moment.
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Note how using the active voice makes the sentence shorter and how the subject (the
manager) is doing the action (decided). With the passive voice, the sentence is longer and
the subject (decision) is not doing the action (made). To make passive verbs active, ask
yourself who or what did the action. Move that person or thing to the beginning of the
sentence as the subject and change the verb as necessary.
Also, if the subject of a passive sentence is a nominalization (sometimes called a
camouflaged verb), consider using the verb form of the nominalization for the verb of your
sentence. For example, in the passive sentence example, decision is a nominalization and is
the subject of the sentence. In the active sentence, decided is the verb.
Nominalizations are created from verbs by the following word endings: -ion, -ment, -ance,
and -ence. Obviously, many business words are nominalizations, such as information,
depreciation, amortization, assistance, insurance, discussion, application, and liquidation. In
many instances you will need to use these words; but, when you can use their verb form, do
so. Even when a nominalization is not the subject of a sentence, try to revise using the verb,
as shown in this example.
Please let us know when we can be of assistance to you.
Revision: Please let us know when we can assist you.
Replacing assistance with assist makes the sentence shorter and more action-oriented.
A working knowledge of passive voice is necessary when considering the tone of your
message. Unless you need to use the passive, avoid it whenever you can. However, the
passive is often used to improve the tone of a communication and to de-emphasize who took
the action if that is not important.
Poor: You did not complete all the items on the form.
Better: All the items on the form were not completed. (Better tone)
Poor: The construction company finished the building on Wednesday.
Better: The building was finished on Wednesday. (This example is better,
assuming that it is not important or it is implied who finished the work.)
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Concise Verbs vs. Nominalized Verbs
Use Concise Words Avoid Normalized Verbs
analyze make an analysis of
act take an action
assume make assumptions about
assist give assistance to
apply make an application
appear make an appearance
approve give approval to
announce make an announcement
believe hold the belief that
can be in a position to
conclude reach a conclusion about
consider give consideration to
correct is corrective of
depends is dependent on
discuss have a discussion of
desire have a desire for
decide make a decision to
end bring to an end
examine make an examination of
emphasize give emphasis to
estimate make an estimation of
infer draw an inference that
imply make the implication that
investigate make an investigation of
know make cognizant of
rely have reliance on
realize make a realization that
refer make reference to
repay make repayment for
recommend make a recommendation that
request make a request
represents is representative of
react have a reaction to
suggest make the suggestion that
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Wordy Phrases
Use single-word substitutes instead of phrases whenever possible without changing
meanings.
Wordy Concise
along the line of (salary) about (salary)
at this time now
consensus of opinion consensus
date of the policy policy date
due to the fact that because
during the year of during
few and far between seldom, scarce
for a price of for
for the purpose of for; to
for the reason that since; because
from the point of view of as
have need for need
in accordance with your request as you requested
in due course soon
in many cases often; frequently
in most cases usually
in order to to
in some cases sometimes
in spite of the fact that although
in (for) the amount of for
in the city of in
in the event that if
in the neighborhood of $60 about $60
in view of the fact that because
please don't hesitate to write please write
under date of dated
under the circumstances because
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Transition Words
And Consequently Therefore
Also For this reason After
On the other hand First, second, third As
Or Likewise Before
But Similarly In the future
However Finally Next
In contrast Furthermore Then
Nevertheless Moreover Until
On the contrary For example When
As a result For instance While
Because Indeed In conclusion
Parallelism
Parallel structure applies to words joined by a conjunction, joined by a conjunctive pair,
appearing in a series, and appearing in a listing.
Examples:
The whole day was spent returning phone calls, reading the mail, and dictating
correspondence.
When reading this report, you will:
• Learn the costs involved in old inventories.
• Appreciate the new computerized accounting system.
• Understand the new elements in the zero-based approach.
Titles and Numbers
Names of books, magazines and newspapers should be underlined or put in italics.
"Fortune and Business Week are important information sources."
"The Wall Street Journal had an article on that topic recently."
Numbers included in text vary according to their value and location.
• Numbers opening a paragraph or at the beginning of a sentence are written as words.
"Three hundred bankers rushed Wall Street today."
• Numbers one to ten (1 to 10) are entered in text as WORDS.
"I have three job offers in New York."
• Numbers above ten are placed in text as digits except when they open a paragraph.
"She left her son $4 million in cash and securities."
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Regional Usage/Slang
Regionalisms should be avoided in formal writing. For example, in this part of the country it
seems to be common practice to omit "to be," as in, "The job needs done."
Since there is no verb in that phrase, it is not a complete sentence. In business writing,
including assignments for this class, use "The job needs to be done."
Proofreading Guidelines
• Proofread everything, including titles, subtitles, words, punctuation, capitalization,
indented items, and numbers.
• Concentrate on each word. If necessary, read your document backwards to check
spelling. Then read sentences and paragraphs out of order. This helps you read what
you actually have typed instead of what you believe you have typed.
• Cover the document with a piece of paper so you can read only one line at a time.
This will help you overcome your eyes' tendency to move on too quickly.
• Read aloud to someone who will follow along on another copy of the document.
• Examine all numbers and totals. Recheck all calculations and look for misplaced
commas and decimal points.
• Make sure all quotation marks, brackets, dashes, and parentheses come in pairs.
• Double check all highlighted material.
• Keep a list of all repeated errors. See if you find a pattern that will help you
proofread future documents more effectively.
• Ask co-workers to proofread your document and to initial it when they are confident
they have uncovered all mistakes.
Product Evaluation
• Ask yourself, “Does this communication achieve its purpose?”
• Obtain feedback from others about the quality of the communication.
• Encourage feedback from the receiver about the quality of your communication.
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Section 2:
Business Letters and Memos
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Table of Contents
Section 2: Business Letters and Memos
BASIC PAGE FORMATTING IN MS WORD................................................................... 3
SETTING MARGINS ................................................................................................................. 3
CREATING SECTION BREAKS .................................................................................................. 4
CREATING HEADERS AND FOOTERS........................................................................................ 5
BLOCK LETTER STYLE WITH OPEN PUNCTUATION (COB STANDARD) .......... 6
GUIDELINES FOR FORMATTING MEMOS .................................................................. 7
INTERNAL LETTERHEAD MEMO .................................................................................. 8
PLAIN PAPER MEMO ......................................................................................................... 9
INFORMATIVE/POSITIVE COMMUNICATION ......................................................... 10
BAD NEWS OR NEGATIVE COMMUNICATION ........................................................ 11
PERSUASIVE OR SALES COMMUNICATION............................................................. 12
THE INDIRECT PATTERN FOR PERSUASIVE TASKS ................................................................ 12
THE DIRECT PATTERN FOR PERSUASIVE TASKS.................................................................... 13
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Basic Page Formatting in MS Word
Appropriate document format is an important component of business writing, and different
types of documents require different formats. This section demonstrates some of the basic
page formatting functions available to you in MS Word.
Setting Margins
Word’s default margins are 1.0 inch for the top and bottom and 1.25 inches for the right and
left sides of the page. To change margins, use the Margins tab of the Page Setup dialog box,
shown below.
Follow these steps to change the margins within your document:
1. Position the cursor where you want the margin changes to take effect.
2. Select File, Page Setup to open the Page Setup dialog box.
3. Click on the Margins tab.
4. Use the Top, Bottom, Left, and Right “spin box” controls to set the amount of white
space on the top, bottom, left, and right of the document.
5. If you want to, use the Header and Footer spin box controls to adjust the size of the
header or footer from the top or bottom of the page.
6. Set the Apply To option to Whole Document (default) or This Point Forward. “This
Point Forward” applies to margin settings from the selected point of insertion to the end
of the document.
7. Click OK to return to the document.
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Creating Section Breaks
You will want to insert a section break to apply different page formatting within a document.
To insert a section break:
1. Position the cursor at the point where you want the break to begin, and select Insert,
Break to open the Break dialog box.
2. In the Section Break Types area, select one of the following options to specify where
you want the new section to begin:
a. Next Page
b. Continuous
c. Even Page
d. Odd Page
3. Choose OK to insert the section break.
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Creating Headers and Footers
Headers and Footers are useful for including page numbers, document titles, company
letterhead, and additional pieces of information that need to appear on each page of a
document. They are also useful for including information in your document without
compromising your required margins and additional page settings.
Use the following process to create Headers and/or Footers:
1. Select View, Header/Footer from the Menu Bar to display the header (footer) toolbar
and text boxes.
2. Make any necessary changes to the header (footer), including typing text and using the
Insert Date, Insert Page Numbers, and Insert Time buttons to place field codes in the
header (footer).
3. If you need to switch from the header to the footer, or vice versa, simply click the
Switch Between Header and Footer button on the toolbar.
4. If you wish to include different information on another page’s header (footer), insert a
Section Break (Next Page) before the new page. Then turn off the Same As Previous
button by selecting it, and type the new information into the new page’s header (footer).
5. If you wish to view the next or previous page’s header (footer), simply select Show
Next or Show Previous.
6. When you’re finished editing your document’s headers (footers), click the Close button
on the Header / Footer toolbar and return to your document.
Source: Courter, G., & Marquis, A. Mastering Microsoft Office 2000, Professional Edition,
2000.
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Block Letter Style with Open Punctuation (CoB standard)
March 25, 2003 line 13 (2”) or 1 blank line below letterhead
2 to 10 blank lines
Mr. C. G. Everett, President
Visual Design, Inc.
2000 Coast Highway
Santa Barbara, CA 90909-9898
1 blank line
Dear Mr. Everett
1 blank line
SUBJECT: BLOCK LETTER STYLE
1 blank line
This letter illustrates the block letter style, the accepted letter style for use by students in the College of
Business. All typed lines begin at the left margin. The date is usually placed two inches from the top edge of
the paper or two lines (one blank line) below the last line of the letterhead, whichever position is lower. Please
notice that the letter is single-spaced with a blank line between each paragraph.
1 blank line
This letter also displays “open punctuation.” No colon follows the salutation, and no comma follows the
complimentary close. While this style is efficient and thus has been accepted by the CoB as its standard, many
people remain unfamiliar with this punctuation style and consider it to be “incomplete.” The alternative style is
entitled “mixed punctuation.” Mixed punctuation includes a colon after the salutation and a comma after the
complimentary close. Take note that while a comma following the salutation is perfectly correct in informal,
personal communication, it is improper to use a comma within business communication. Open punctuation
dictates no punctuation at all following the salutation; mixed punctuation requires a colon.
If a subject line is to be included, it appears two lines below the salutation in all capital letters. The word
“SUBJECT” is optional. Most readers will identify this statement in this position as the subject without the
label. The complimentary close appears two lines below the end of the last paragraph. Three blank lines are
used to provide space for the written signature followed by the typed name of the sender with typed title
following on the next line. Both lines of this signature block are typed at the left margin in the block format.
Reference initials follow two lines below the title. Format of the reference initials may vary, but current
adaptation uses only lower case initials of the keyboardist. If writers key their own correspondence, no
reference initials are used. This option is becoming more widely used as more writers key their own work.
When an enclosure or attachment accompanies a letter, a notation to that effect appears two lines below the
reference initials. This notation may be spelled out (Enclosure or Attachment), or it may be abbreviated (Enc.,
Att.). The number of enclosures may be indicated, and specific enclosures may be identified (Enclosure: May
5, 2001 Adjusted Invoice).
Sincerely
Catherine Smart
Account Manager
jsr
Enclosure
3 blank lines
1 blank line
1 blank line
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Guidelines for Formatting Memos
To: Name and title (the title also serves as a record for reference)
From: Your name, title (sign your initials for verification)
Date: (also serves as a chronological record for future reference)
Subject: Guidelines for Formatting Memos
An introductory paragraph provides the purpose of the memo and outlines the topics to be
covered. The guidelines on this page show and tell you one professional way to format a
memorandum that utilizes headings. Headings are used when more than one topic is covered
in the memo. It’s important to pay attention to the subject line, topic headings, paragraph
spacing, second-page notation, and memo verification.
Subject Line
Utilize the subject line above to forecast or summarize the memo's content in the subject line.
A clear, concise subject title helps readers to focus on the subject and to gauge its
importance. A precise heading also makes filing by subject easier.
Topic Headings
When discussing a number of subtopics related to your subject, include headings (as we do
here). Headings help you organize, and help readers locate information quickly.
Paragraph Spacing
Do not indent the first line of paragraphs. Single space within paragraphs, and double space
between paragraphs.
Second-page Notation
When the memo exceeds one page, begin the second and all the subsequent pages with a
header. Place this information in Word’s header function. For example, when you are writing
a memo to Dr. Baxter, your header might look like this:
Dr. Baxter
June 12, 20XX
Page 2
Memo Verification
Don't sign your memos. Initial the "From" line after your name; this will verify that you are
the sender.
A conclusion paragraph is needed to tie the memo topics together and, when appropriate, to
ask for action and/or create goodwill.
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Internal Letterhead Memo
QuadCommunications, Inc.
Interoffice Memo
DATE: April 19, 2003
TO:
1 blank line
Russell B. Smart, Vice President
1 blank line
FROM: Lynne Rusley, Marketing Director
1 blank line
SUBJECT: SCHEDULING MANAGEMENT COUNCIL SPEAKERS
2 blank lines
This memo illustrates a hard-copy style, which is a memo written using letterhead. Leave
two blank lines between SUBJECT line and first line of memo text. This paragraph should
announce good news directly and cordially. If a list is used, list data in columns with
heading for easy reading as follows:
1 blank line
Date Speaker Topic
November 14 Dr. Mary Jean Lush Successful Performance
Appraisals
January 12 Jeanette Spencer Conducting Legal
President, Spencer & Employment Interviews
Associates
March 13 Dr. Karen S. Powell Avoiding Sexual
Colorado Consultants Harassment Suits
1 blank line
One space should be used before and after the list. This paragraph uses short, active-voice
sentences. If options are used, highlight with (1) and (2) as follows:
1 blank line
(1) Time Management for Today’s Managers
(2) Effective Use of Intranets and Web Sites
1 blank line
The final paragraph provides a deadline and the reason for the deadline. Additional tips for
writing a memo include: single space all memos, double space between paragraphs and use
one-inch margins. If a memo requires two pages, use a second-page heading that includes the
addressee’s name, page number, and date. Instead of a signature, your initials should be
handwritten after your typed name at the top of the memo. Include an enclosure line, if the
memo has an attachment.
1 blank line
Enclosure
2-8

Plain Paper Memo
MEMORANDUM (Optional Heading)
DATE: April 19, 2003 Line 13, Two inches from top of page.
1 blank line
TO: Russell B. Smart, Vice President
1 blank line
FROM: Lynne Rusley, Marketing Director
1 blank line
SUBJECT: SCHEDULING MANAGEMENT COUNCIL SPEAKERS
2 blank lines
This memo illustrates a plain paper style, which is a memo written on plain paper. The
memo should have one-inch margins. Leave two blank lines between SUBJECT line and
first line of memo text. This paragraph should announce good news directly and cordially.
If a list is used, list data in columns with headings for easy reading as follows:
1 blank line
Date Speaker Topic
November 14 Dr. Mary Jean Lush Successful Performance
Appraisals
January 12 Jeanette Spencer, President Conducting Legal
Spencer & Associates Employment Interviews
March 13 Dr. Karen S. McDowell Avoiding Sexual
Colorado Consultants Harassment Suits
1 blank line
One space should be used before and after the list. This paragraph uses short, active-voice
sentences. If options are used, highlight with (1) and (2) as follows:
1 blank line
(1) Time Management for Today’s Managers
(2) Effective Use of Intranets and Web Sites
1 blank line
The final paragraph provides a deadline and reason for the deadline. Additional tips for
writing a memo include: single space all memos, double space between paragraphs, and use
one-inch margins. If a memo requires two pages, use a second-page heading that includes
the addressee’s name, page number, and date. Instead of a signature, your initials should be
handwritten after your typed name in the heading. Include an enclosure line if the memo has
an attachment.
2-9

Informative/Positive Communication
Definition: The anticipated response of the reader is positive; the sales task is minimal.
Examples: Requests for information and/or action
Routine claim requests
Routine responses
When the Direct Pattern applies:
Frontload the opening.
Explain needed detail in the body.
Consider logical sequence.
Group like ideas.
Consider graphic display.
Remember to include reader benefits.
Provide a forward-looking, courteous closing.
Use end date if appropriate.
2-10

Bad News or Negative Communication
The content of the bad news or negative message will not be what the reader wants to hear.
The challenge is to clearly communicate the bad news while maintaining a goodwill
relationship between the writer and the reader.
When the INDIRECT pattern applies:
• Use a relevant, short buffer
Use a Natural transition to paragraph two
Be careful – don’t appear to be saying “yes”
• Explain reasons
Present in terms of reader benefits
Avoid hiding behind company policy
• Don’t apologize – explain
Avoid placing blame in the midst of explanation
• Refuse
Use positive language
Use subjective mood and passive voice
Imply refusal by referring to what can be done
Avoid putting refusal in its own paragraph
• If applicable, deflect by offering alternative solution
Compromise
Offer substitution
• Close with a forward-looking thought
Don’t refer to the negative
Point to a different, yet related, reader benefit
2-11

Persuasive or Sales Communication
Prewriting steps are necessary to help identify the best choice of pattern:
1. Analyze your purpose. What do you want the reader to do or think? What features or
benefits of your product/service are you selling?
2. Anticipate the reaction of the reader. What level of persuasion is needed?
3. Choose central theme and appeals.
4. Identify obstacles and strategies to overcome those obstacles.
The Indirect Pattern for Persuasive Tasks
Gain Attention
1. Make the first sentence interesting enough to motivate the reader to continue reading. A
rhetorical question is often effective; other effective openers include an unusual fact, an
unexpected statement, or some statement about which the reader and writer can agree.
2. Keep the opening paragraph short--often just one sentence--to draw in the reader.
3. Make sure that the opening sentence relates to the main topic of the message. Don't mislead
the reader.
4. When appropriate, relate the opener to a reader benefit.
5. Consider “devices” such as envelopes, color, and graphics.
Build Interest
1. Don't specifically make your request until you've presented some of the reasons.
2. Devote the major part of your message to justifying your request. Give enough background
and evidence to enable the reader to make an informed decision.
3. Use facts and statistics, expert opinion, and examples to support your proposal. Ensure that
your evidence is accurate, relevant, representative, and complete. Avoid obvious flattery,
emotionalism, and exaggeration.
4. Use an objective, logical, reasonable, and sincere tone.
5. Present your evidence in terms of either direct or indirect reader benefits.
2-12

Reduce Resistance
1. Do not ignore obstacles to your request. Instead, show that, even when considering such
obstacles, your request is reasonable.
2. Subordinate the discussion of obstacles by position and amount of space devoted to the
topic.
Motivate
1. Although implied earlier, save the specific request for later in the message.
2. Make the desired action clear and easy for the reader to take. Include end date if
appropriate.
3. Ask in a confident tone. Consider restating key benefit.
4. End on a forward-looking note, continuing to stress reader benefits.
The Direct Pattern for Persuasive Tasks
1. Use a direct organizational plan when strong persuasion is not necessary (that is, when your
audience is predisposed to listen objectively to your request, you are writing a long or
complex proposal, or there are no obvious obstacles to your proposal).
2. Present your recommendation, along with the criteria and brief rationale, in the first
paragraph.
3. Continue by presenting credible evidence and minimizing obstacles; end on a forwardlooking
note that continues to stress reader benefits.
2-13

Section 3: Report Guidelines
3-1

Table of Contents
Section 3: Report Guidelines
REPORT PLANNING PROCESS ..........................................................................................................3
BUSINESS REPORT SEGMENTS ........................................................................................................4
INTRODUCTORY ELEMENTS OF THE FORMAL REPORT ..............................................5
REPORT OUTLINES ..................................................................................................................................6
REPORTS IN THE IMPERSONAL STYLE .....................................................................................8
QUALITIES OF WELL-WRITTEN REPORTS............................................................................10
LETTER OR MEMO OF TRANSMITTAL.....................................................................................11
SAMPLE LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.........................................................................................12
SAMPLE MEMO OF TRANSMITTAL ............................................................................................13
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.......................................................................................................................14
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY (SAMPLE WITHOUT HEADINGS) ...........................................15
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY (SAMPLE WITH HEADINGS) .....................................................16
FORMATTING GUIDELINES .............................................................................................................18
EXAMPLE: COB REPORT HEADINGS .........................................................................................19
CREATE A TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................................................20
TRANSITION IN A LONG, FORMAL REPORT.........................................................................21
EXAMPLES OF LEAD-INS, SUMMARIES, AND TRANSITIONS.....................................22
REPORT GRAPHIC AIDS......................................................................................................................23
ANCILLARY PAGES................................................................................................................................24
APPENDICES ......................................................................................................................... 24
REFERENCES......................................................................................................................... 24
CHICAGO MANUAL STYLE (CMS) DOCUMENTATION ...................................................25
INSERT A FOOTNOTE OR ENDNOTE ..........................................................................................25
PAGINATION (COLLEGE OF BUSINESS STANDARD) .......................................................26
REPORT CHECK SHEET ......................................................................................................................27
3-2

I. Define the Problem and Purpose
A. What needs to be determined?
B. Why is the issue important?
C. Where is the trouble?
D. How did the problem begin?
E. What information is needed?
Report Planning Process
II. Write the Report’s Purpose Statement
A. Clarify goal of investigation:
1. Inform
2. Analyze
3. Recommend
B. Write a one-sentence purpose statement.
III. Analyze Report Audience
A. Who wants the report?
B. Who will read the report?
C. Who is the primary audience?
D. What is the size of the audience?
E. What is the level of knowledge and interest of the reader?
F. What is the reader's point of view?
G. How much detail is expected?
IV. Determine Ideas
A. Determine audience members’ needs.
B. What do they need to know?
C. What do they want to know?
D. Brainstorm ideas to be researched.
E. List main ideas & subtopics.
F. Identify facts needed for research.
V. Collect Needed Information/Material
A. Primary Research
B. Secondary Research
VI. Sort, Analyze, and Interpret Information
VII. Prepare Outline of Report
3-3

Business Report Segments
Formal Informal
Transmittal letter or memo
Cover
Title page
Table of contents
List of illustrations
Executive summary
Body
Introduction
Text
Conclusion
Recommendations
Appendices
Related Documents
Computer Printouts
Questionnaires
Interviews
Notes/References
Title page
Table of contents
Executive summary
Body
Introduction
Body
Conclusion
Recommendations
References
Introduction
Body
Conclusion
Recommendations
References
The above segments can be arranged differently depending on the purpose of your report.
Examples of other constructions can be found under Report Outlines, starting on page 3-6.
3-4

Introductory Elements of the Formal Report
The following elements can be used in the introduction section of a formal research report;
usually this information is compacted to one introductory section of 1-3 paragraphs, with no
subheadings.
Authorization and Purpose
Refer to the person who requested the report and the purpose of the report. This can be one
sentence in a short report. Use a verb to convey the purpose, such as “presents,” “analyzes,”
“compares,” “evaluates,” etc.
Problem or Background
Explain why the company needs the report--what happened in the past or what is happening
now that has brought about this problem. State how the report will help to solve the problem.
If this section is more than one-half page long, consider placing it after the introduction.
Scope
If you narrowed the report, explain what is included and what is not included. Doing so will
keep the reader from wondering why you omitted certain topics.
Methodology (or Sources)
Explain how you gathered the data for the report. Use general terms here, such as textbooks,
brochures, interviews with personnel managers, or questionnaires to consumers. Specific
information about secondary sources is placed in the bibliography.
Limitations
If you had research problems that affect the quality of the report, explain them here. Perhaps
a low percentage of questionnaires were returned or some valuable sources were not
available at the library. If you do not explain these problems, the reader may conclude that
you did an unacceptable job of researching the topic.
Presentation Plan
State the main topic and the subtopics of the report (in the order the subtopics will be
discussed). These subtopics are the major divisions of your report and present a “roadmap”
for the reader.
3-5

Report Outlines
Informational Analytical
Your supervisor asks you to write a report
on a personal computer. He/she merely
wants information on the hardware,
software, and user friendliness of the
computer. No recommendation on its
appropriateness for the company is
requested.
I. Introduction
A. Purpose
B. Background
C. Methodology
D. Presentation Plan
II. Hardware
A. Memory
B. Keyboard
C. Screen
III. Software
A. Word Processing
B. Accounting Functions
C. Graphics
IV. User Friendliness
V. Summary
3-6
Your supervisor asks you to write a report
on a personal computer. In addition to
information about its hardware, software,
and user friendliness, he/she wants a
recommendation on its appropriateness for
the company. Your supervisor would
prefer a direct style with recommendations
up front.
I. Introduction
A. Purpose
B. Background
C. Methodology
D. Presentation Plan
II. Recommendations
III. Hardware
A. Memory
B. Keyboard
C. Screen
IV. Software
A. Word Processing
B. Accounting Functions
C. Graphics
V. User Friendliness
VI. Conclusions

Comparative Analytical
Your supervisor asks you to write a report
on two personal computers and to
recommend the one that is better suited to
the company's needs.
I. Introduction
A. Purpose
B. Background
C. Methodology
D. Presentation Plan
II. Recommendation
III. Hardware
A. Memory (compare both
computers)
B. Keyboard
C. Screen
IV. Software
A. Word Processing
B. Accounting Functions
C. Graphics
V. User Friendliness
VI. Conclusions
3-7
Feasibility
Your supervisor asks you to write a report
on the feasibility of computerizing the
accounting functions of the company.
Presently, all accounting procedures are
done manually.
I. Introduction
A. Purpose
B. Background
C. Methodology
D. Presentation Plan
II. Recommendation
III. Present Method
A. Costs
1. Equipment
2. Employee
B. Employee Training
C. Efficiency
IV. Proposed Method
A. Costs
1. Equipment
2. Employee
B. Employee Training
C. Efficiency
V. Conclusions
A. Costs (compare both methods)
B. Employee Training Methods
C. Efficiency Training Methods

Reports in the Impersonal Style
The impersonal style of writing means that first person pronouns (I, we, our, etc.) and second
person pronouns (you and your) are not used. Some organizations write in the impersonal
style because it draws attention away from the person doing the action. In some cases, the
action taken is more important than who performed the action, as illustrated in the following
sentences.
We completed the project three weeks early. (Focuses on who completed the action)
The project was completed three weeks early. (Focuses on the action taken rather
than who did it)
I gathered the information in this report from journals and newspaper articles.
(Focuses on who did the research)
The research for this report came from journals and newspaper articles. (Focuses on
how the research was gathered)
Another good reason for using the impersonal style is that the writing is usually more
concise, as shown below.
I surveyed 200 employees and found that 65 percent of them prefer the cafeteria
benefits plan. (wordy)
Of the 200 employees surveyed, 65 percent prefer the cafeteria benefits plan.
(concise and de-emphasizes who took the action)
However, the impersonal style has its drawbacks. First, if you must refer to yourself, you
have to say "the writer" or "the author," which is awkward writing. Second, it often leads to
using passive verbs and "it is" phrases, both of which may lead to wordiness. Note these
problems in the following examples.
Poor: The authors recommend that the company purchase five PCs for the personnel
department. (awkward)
Poor: It is recommended that the company purchase five PCs for the personnel department.
(wordy)
Poor: It is believed that the project will be completed on time. (passive verb)
To overcome these problems associated with the impersonal style, try these suggestions:
1. Focus on the action, not who performed the action.
2. Use nouns as subjects, not pronouns (I, we, he, she, it, etc).
3-8

Examples:
Poor: We painted the walls a light color, which led to a reduction in the accident rate.
(focuses on who painted)
Good: Painting the walls a light color led to a reduction in the accident rate. (focuses on
the action taken)
Good: The new light color on the walls reduced the accident rate. (uses "color" as the
subject)
Poor: Based on the above conclusions, it is recommended that the company purchase
this property for the new facility. (uses the "it is" construction)
Good: As the conclusions show, purchasing this property for the new facility is a wise
decision. (focuses on the action)
Good: As the above conclusions show, the company should purchase this property for
the new facility. (uses "company" as the subject)
3-9

Qualities of Well-Written Reports
1. Use specific words and figures for a fair and convincing report.
2. Identify information sources, except for information that is considered to be common
knowledge.
3. Avoid emotional writing (glowing adjectives and adverbs) that reflects your opinions.
4. Present facts impartially. Show both sides when necessary.
5. Use concrete nouns as subjects of sentences.
6. Place action in verbs, not nouns (nominalizations).
7. Use active verbs when possible.
8. Avoid the subjunctive mood when possible. Instead of using would, could, and might,
use will, can, or may.
9. Write in the present verb tense when possible. For facts that are still considered to be
true, use the present tense.
10. Omit your opinions unless your supervisor asks for your views. Then, clearly state your
opinions. In reports written in the impersonal style, refer to yourself as the author. For
example, "In the author's opinion. . . ." Alternately, for personal style reports, you might
write: “I believe…”
11. Keep sentences within 16-20 words and paragraphs 7-9 lines.
12. Define any technical terms in the introduction, text, or appendix when you first introduce
the word.
13. Highlight the main idea of a graphic aid before showing it, and put any additional
interpretation after the graphic aid.
14. Use headings for the different sections of the report.
15. Use parallel construction in the headings.
16. Starting with the second section of the report, use an introductory paragraph before any
side headings (A, B, C, etc.) and a summary and transition paragraph at the end of that
section. Note: the summary and transition paragraphs do not have side headings.
17. List and number conclusions and recommendations if you have more than one.
18. Include no new information in the Conclusions or Summary section.
19. Number every page of the report--including the appendices--using the Word
header/footer function.
20. Include a fly page for the appendix. If you have more than one appendix, prepare a fly
page for each one.
3-10

Letter or Memo of Transmittal
The letter or memo of transmittal presents your report to your audience. (In a book, this
section is called the preface). The letter of transmittal says what you’d say if you were
handing the report directly to the person who authorized it, so the style is more informal. For
example, the writer would use personal pronouns (you, I, we) and conversational language.
The College of Business communication standards request that the letter or memo of
transmittal be attached by paper clip to the top of the report. When requested to insert the
letter or memo of transmittal within the report, place it directly after the title page.
If your report will be widely distributed, you may decide to include the letter or memo of
transmittal with only selected copies so that you can make certain comments to a specific
audience. If your report discusses layoffs or other issues that affect people in the
organization, you might want to discuss your recommendations privately in a memo of
transmittal to top management. If your audience is likely to be skeptical of or even hostile to
something in your report, the transmittal letter or memo is a good opportunity to
acknowledge their concerns and explain how the report addresses the issues they care about.
The letter or memo of transmittal begins with the main idea, officially conveying the report
to the readers and summarizing its purpose. Such a letter may begin with a statement such as
“Here is the report you asked me to prepare on…” The rest includes information about the
scope of the report, the methods used to complete the study, and the limitations that became
apparent. In the middle section of the letter, you may highlight important points of the report,
make comments on side issues, give suggestions for follow-up studies, and offer any details
that will help readers understand and use the report. You may also wish to acknowledge help
given by others. The concluding paragraph is a note of thanks for having been given the
report assignment, an expression of willingness to discuss the report, and an offer to assist
with future projects.
Examples of a letter and memo of transmittal are provided for you. Remember that a memo
format is used for communication within the same company and a letter format is used when
the communication is sent to someone outside your organization.
3-11

Sample Letter of Transmittal
Green Group #5
Copeland Hall 301 (740) 566-8178
Athens, OH 45701 Fax: (740) 566-8179
___________________________________________________________________
September 19, 2002
Dr. Hugh Sherman
Tyco International Inc.
One Tyco Park
Exeter, NH 03833
Dear Dr. Sherman:
As requested by Tyco International, our consulting firm prepared a report to recommend a
corporate strategy for maintaining either its healthcare equipment line or fire and security
products. The decision to drop the healthcare line was based upon the following criteria:
• Industry overview/growth
• Porter’s Five Forces model
• Current position within the industry
• Synergies between divisions
• Financial data
The fire and security line has a larger industry influence, as illustrated by its presence as a
global leader in three of the five product lines and by its current contracts in the industry.
Because Tyco is not a global leader in the healthcare industry, it would be more beneficial to
drop the healthcare product line. By selling the healthcare equipment line, Tyco can focus on
strengthening its remaining business operations.
Thank you for the opportunity to analyze Tyco’s portfolio and to recommend its strategic
direction. Please call when we can be of further assistance.
Sincerely,
Tigers Group 10
Eddie Kojak
Tessa Lui
Brett Townsend
Anna Sims
3-12

MEMORANDUM
DATE: January 18, 2003
Sample Memo of Transmittal
Optional heading; can be omitted.
1 to 1½ inch top margin before date.
TO: Cheryl Bryant, Director, Recycling Program
Office of Associated Students
FROM: Alan Christopher
Always initial your memos above the end of your last name.
SUBJECT: INCREASING PARTICIPATION IN SUN COAST UNIVERSITY’S
RECYCLING PROGRAM
Here is the report you requested December 10 about the status of Sun Coast University’s
recycling program, along with recommendations for increasing its use. The study included
both primary and secondary research. The primary study focused on a survey of members of
the Sun Coast University campus community.
First paragraph announces report and
gives broad overview of research.
The campus recycling program is strong. Yet, my research shows that we should be able to
increase participation and achieve our goal of setting an excellent example for both campus
residents and the local community. Recommendations for increasing campus participation in
the program include educating potential users about the program and making recycling on
campus easy.
Second paragraph highlights report findings and recommendations.
My focus group, especially Suzy Quartz and Joe Smith, made this research stronger by
assisting me in questionnaire development. My business communication class helped me to
pilot test the survey instrument and collect the research data. The enthusiasm and support of
my peers contributed greatly to the success of this This paragraph acknowledges others’ help.
OAS research project.
Please call, Ms. Bryant, when I may provide additional information or answer questions.
Also, let me know when I can assist you in implementing some of the recommendations in
this report by developing promotional Final paragraph establishes warm tone by using the name of
materials for our recycling campaign.
the receiver, including first-person pronouns and
volunteering to help. Offers to answer questions and looks
forward to follow-up actions.
Adapted from: Thill, J. V., & Bovee, C. L. (2003). Excellence in Business Communication,
240, 257. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
3-13

The Executive Summary
Executive Summary Structure
Executive Summary
Names of presenters
Purpose, direct overview and major
recommendation(s) of the document
being summarized.
Key evidence
Key evidence
Key evidence
Closing summary and reiteration of
major recommendation(s).
Executive Summary
Title
Only included if summary is not part of
a larger document
Remember...
General statement
of the major focus
Evidence
Closing
The Executive Summary should be short and as complete as
possible.
The suggested average length is one single-spaced page, but
the summary can extend to two pages.
References are never cited within the Executive Summary.
The reader should be able to make a decision based only on the
Executive Summary.
3-14
What is it and what does it do?
The Executive Summary is an overview of another
document or presentation.
It provides the executive (reader) with a clear enough
understanding to make a decision based only on the
Executive Summary.
It can stand alone, if necessary, in conveying key
points, recommendations, and conclusions.
How would I write an Executive
Summary?
Be familiar with the entire original.
Capture the main recommendation(s) in one or two sentences.
Capture key evidence, such as financial and marketing data that
supports your recommendations, as quickly and directly as
possible.
Use appropriate topic headings to guide the reader through the
document.
Follow the order of the original as closely as possible.
Reiterate the main idea.

The Smoothie Shoppe #
Executive Summary (Sample without Headings)
The Smoothie Shoppe LLC, 6 North Court Street, will offer the best combination of fresh,
tasty, and healthy smoothies with an international flavor of exotic fruits. Smoothies will be
priced at $3.50 for 16 oz. servings. This combination of price and product will make
customers think of The Smoothie Shoppe to meet all of their health snack needs.
The main objectives of this business are to:
• generate revenue for investors.
• capitalize on the proximity of the business location to the target market.
• enhance awareness among customers of smoothie health benefits.
• offer unique products to the Athens, Ohio market.
• meet or exceed customer expectations through superior customer service.
These objectives will be achieved through promotional programs, consistent and widereaching
advertising, and grass roots involvement with the community.
The keys to success in achieving our goals are the:
• promotion of the nutritional benefits of our exotic fruits.
• delivery of exceptional customer service.
Financial pro-formas of The Smoothie Shoppe’s first three years of operation indicate
immediate net profit and consistent growth in the future, as illustrated in Figure I.
$250,000
$200,000
$150,000
$100,000
$50,000
$0
Highlights (Planned)
2004 2005 2006
Figure I
Net Sales
Gross Margin
Net Income
The Smoothie Shoppe LLC will require $40,000 in external funds to cover start-up expenses.
The four investors of White Team Four will contribute $5,000 in total capital, with the
remaining necessary funds coming in the form of a note from Copeland Bank and Trust. A
loan of $40,000 is budgeted at this time to allow for any start-up cost overruns that may arise.
3-15

Executive Summary (Sample with Headings)
Clear Communication #
The purpose of this executive summary is to give an overview of the article, “Clear
Communications and Feedback Can Improve Manager and Employee Effectiveness,” by
Stephen Xavier. This article appears in the summer 2002 issue of Employment Relations
Today. In this article, Xavier discusses the importance of communication in the workplace.
He offers advice for improving manager and employee effectiveness through two key areas:
clarifying roles and responsibilities and delivering valuable feedback.
Clarifying Roles and Responsibilities
Xavier describes how to clarify roles and responsibilities within an organization. He gives an
example of how to test the way in which employees and managers prioritize their tasks. The
test requires employees and managers to list their current projects by level of importance.
Xavier states that most managers find that employees have difficulty in organizing their
workloads and often lose track of which tasks are urgent.
To help solve this problem, managers should outline specific standard operating procedures
(SOPs) for their employees. They should assess these SOPs periodically and encourage
employees to ask questions. Most importantly, managers should be clear about their
expectations for employees. Xavier provides a few guidelines for managers to follow:
1. Know the employees’ roles, responsibilities, and capabilities.
2. Plan delegation of tasks to employees in advance whenever possible.
3. Use clear and concise communication when unexpected situations arise.
Time management is also a key element in clarifying roles and responsibilities. Employees
and managers must work together to budget time effectively.
Delivering Valuable Feedback
Feedback also plays a vital role in improving employee performance. Feedback should share
information with employees, whether by giving corrective guidance, or rewarding employees
for a job well done. Feedback should always be delivered in private and managers should
always be well prepared. Xavier presents a seven-step model of feedback for managers:
1. Clearly state the purpose of the feedback.
2. Describe the action or behavior that you observed.
3. Describe your reaction to what you observed.
4. Give employees an opportunity to respond.
3-16

5. Offer specific suggestions for improvement.
6. Summarize the conversation.
7. Plan a follow up meeting to revisit the issue in 60 to 90 days.
Clear Communication #
Offering both positive and negative feedback regularly will build employee trust and will
assist employees in being more accountable. When employees respond to negative feedback,
managers should expect one of three possible reactions: denial, justification, or
accountability. It is imperative that managers listen to employees’ reactions. Feedback is
meant to be constructive and should not overwhelm employees. A manager should
concentrate on one or two issues at a time.
In this article, Xavier gives three types of employees and explains how to effectively
communicate feedback to them. The seven-step model of feedback should be followed when
acknowledging star performers and motivating average performers. When increasing the
productivity of poor performers, the seven-step model is also required, but the levels of depth
and intensity should be modified.
Conclusion
Managers should clarify employees’ roles and responsibilities and offer both positive and
negative feedback. Employees should be offered realistic rewards for a job well done. This
will develop confidence in managers, generate loyalty to the organization, and boost
motivation and performance. Negative feedback should encourage employees to improve.
Managers should also accept feedback from the employees because feedback benefits
everyone. Overall, when employees have clearly-defined roles and responsibilities and
receive valuable feedback from managers, the organization will become more effective.
3-17

Line 7
1”
Formatting Guidelines
1”
Formal Report
Line 4 header #
1.25” 1”
3-18

Example: COB Report Headings
FIRST-LEVEL HEADINGS
The title of your report, book, or article is the first-degree heading. Since you have only one
title, no other heading should be written in the same form. As illustrated here, the title uses
the superior form and position.
Second-Level Headings
If you use solid capitals centered on the page for the first-degree heading (title), a good
choice for the second-degree headings (usually Roman numbered in the outline) is caps and
lowercase.
Third-Level Headings
To distinguish the third-degree headings from their superiors, you may put them at the left
margin above the text, bold them for emphasis and write them in caps and lowercase (as
shown here).
Fourth-Level Headings. For a fourth-level heading, you may place headings on the same
line with the text. Capitalize each word. These headings definitely need to be underscored or
bolded and separated from the first sentence by a period, as shown.
Fifth-level headings can be integral parts of the first sentence of the first paragraph about a
topic. Underscoring OR italicizing will emphasize these headings sufficiently without
further distinctions in form.
Advice: Before writing your report, create a report outline like the one below. Doing so will
help you organize your topics and table of contents. Note that the report layout above does
not include numbers and letters used in the outline itself.
I. Introduction (Second-Degree Heading)
Example Report Outline
II. Recommendations for Strategic Growth (Second-Degree Heading)
A. Go Global (Third-Degree Heading)
1. European Market (Fourth-Degree Heading)
a. Interviews (Fifth-Degree Heading)
b. Surveys (Fifth-Degree Heading)
2. Pacific Rim (Fourth-Degree Heading)
3-19

Create a Table of Contents
The easiest way to create a table of contents is to use the built-in outline level formats or
heading styles. If you are already using outline-level formats or built-in heading styles,
follow these steps:
• Click where you want to insert the table of contents.
• On the Insert menu, point to Reference, and click Index and Tables.
• Click the Table of Contents tab.
• To use one of the available designs, click a design in the Formats box.
• Select any other table of contents options you want.
If you aren't currently using outline levels or built-in styles, do one of the following:
Create a Table of Contents from Outline Levels
• On the View menu, point to Toolbars, and click Outlining.
• Select the first heading that you want to appear in the table of contents.
• On the Outlining toolbar, select the outline level that you want to associate with the
selected paragraph.
• Repeat steps 2 and 3 for each heading that you want to include in the table of
contents.
• Click where you want to insert the table of contents.
• On the Insert menu, point to Reference, and click Index and Tables.
• Click the Table of Contents tab.
• To use one of the available designs, click a design in the Formats box.
• Select any other table of contents options you want.
Create a Table of Contents from Custom Styles
If you've already applied custom styles to your headings, you can tell Microsoft Word which
styles to use when it's building the table of contents:
1. Click where you want to insert the table of contents.
2. On the Insert menu, point to References, and click Index and Tables.
3. Click the Table of Contents tab.
4. Click Options.
5. Under Available styles, find a style you've applied to headings in your document.
6. Under TOC level, to the right of the style name, enter a number from 1 to 9 to
indicate the level you want that heading style to represent.
Note If you want to use only custom styles, remove the TOC level numbers for the built-in
styles, such as Heading 1.
1. Repeat steps 5 and 6 for each heading style you want in the table of contents.
2. Click OK.
3. To use one of the available designs, click a design in the Formats box.
4. Select any other table of contents options you want.
3-20

Transition in a Long, Formal Report
The first part in an overall transitional plan is
the introduction. The reader is told the
report’s purpose, what will be covered, and
the order in which it will be covered.
A lead-in paragraph is needed at the
beginning of each subtopic section to remind
the readers where they are in the plan given
in the introduction. These introductory
paragraphs present the subtopic and sections
to be discussed, point the way through the
section, and relate the topics of the sections
to
the overall plan of the report.
A summary at the end of each subtopic
section summarizes that topic’s main points.
The summary must be in a paragraph by
itself
or combined with the transition.
A transition at the end of each subtopic
section tells the reader what the next major
section
will include.
A final conclusion or summary section
brings the report to a close. Here, previously
written section summaries are brought
together. If the report is an indirect
analytical or feasibility report, the report
ends with a recommendation. In a direct
report, recommendations will appear
after the introduction. No new information
should appear in this final section.
3-21
I.
Introduction
Authorization, purpose, problem or
background, scope, methodology,
limitations, results (direct report), plan
of presentation
II. (Heading for First Subtopic)
Lead-in paragraph
Facts (subsections)
Summary
Transition
III. (Heading for Second Subtopic)
Lead-in paragraph
Facts (subsections)
Summary
Transition
IV. (Heading for Third Subtopic)
Lead-in paragraph
Facts (subsections)
Summary
Transition
V. Summary (or Conclusions and
Recommendations)

Hardware
Examples of Lead-Ins, Summaries, and Transitions
(Lead-In paragraph)
The quality of the hardware features should be considered before purchasing the computer.
These features include the memory, the keyboard, and the screen. (Facts about these features
are listed under subsections.)
(Summary paragraph)
The 486 computer comes with a standard 4 MB of memory, which is expandable to 8 MB.
The keyboard has a standard layout with 12 function keys across the top and a 10-key
number pad on the right. The monitor has a 13-inch screen. (Transition)The specific software
capabilities needed by the department are discussed below.
Software
(Lead-In paragraph)
The accounting department needs software programs which are able to do word processing,
create spreadsheets, and display graphics. The graphics applications contain a wide variety
of templates and drawings which may be incorporated into word processing documents.
(Facts about software are listed under each subsection.)
(Summary paragraph)
Using the capabilities of the word processing programs, documents can be produced that look
like they have been typeset. The graphics capabilities of the computer allow free-hand
drawings. (Transition) Although software versatility is important, the company should also
consider the user friendliness of the computer.
User Friendliness
(Lead-In paragraph)
(Facts about user friendliness are discussed.)
(Summary)
(Transition)
3-22

Report Graphic Aids
Effective graphics enhance reports by clarifying, simplifying, and emphasizing data. Tables
organize precise data into rows and columns. Bar and line charts compare data visually. Line
charts are especially helpful in showing changes over time. Pie charts show a whole and the
proportion of its components. Organization charts, pictures, maps, and illustrations serve
specific purposes.
In developing graphics, evaluate the audience, purpose, and topic to determine the number
and kinds of graphics. All graphics should be accurate and ethical. For effective use of
graphics:
1. Use graphics only when it will enhance the material for the reader.
2. Place the graphic aid after the introduction and before the interpretation and provide a
more detailed interpretation after the graphic aid, when needed.
Good Example:
As Table 1 shows, IBM is the only company featured in the book, In Search of
Excellence, that showed improvement in both return on sales and return on equity
from 1979 to 1984.
(Place Graphic Aid here.)
The remaining companies showed either no change or a decline in return on sales
and/or on equity…
Poor Example:
Table 1 shows an update on some of the “Excellent” companies featured in In Search
of Excellence.
Label each graphic aid. Provide all the information needed to understand the graphic
aid without reading the report.
Source: Adapted from Guffey, M. E. (2000). Business communication: Process & product,
Third Edition. Cincinnati, OH: South-Western College Publishing.
3-23

Appendices
Ancillary Pages
• Identify each appendix with letters if more than one (Appendix A, Appendix B, etc.),
and continue report pagination.
• Prepare a fly page for each appendix. A fly page should include the identifying letter
and the specific title for the content. For example:
Appendix A:
Ohio University Recycling Program Survey
• Refer to each appendix in the body of the paper.
• Put the appendices in the order in which they are introduced in the body of the paper.
References
• Use Chicago Style format for endnotes and Bibliography.
• Alphabetize Bibliography.
3-24

Chicago Manual Style (CMS) Documentation
The College of Business requests the use of CMS endnotes and a Bibliography for
documenting research sources.
CMS Documentation Resources:
1. http://www.bedfordstmartins.com/online/cite7.html
2. Maimon, Elaine P., and Peritz, Janice H. A Writer’s Resource. Boston: McGraw Hill,
2003.
Insert a Footnote or Endnote
Microsoft Word automatically numbers endnotes, whether you use a single number format
throughout a document, or different number formats within each section in a document.
When you add, delete, or move notes that are automatically numbered, Word renumbers the
footnote and endnote reference marks.
Single number format
1. In print layout view, click where you want to insert the note reference mark.
2. On the Insert menu, point to Reference, and then click Footnote.
3. Click Endnotes.
By default, Word places endnotes at the end of the document. You can change the
placement of endnotes by making a selection in the Endnotes box.
4. In the Number format box, click the format you want.
5. Click Insert.
Word inserts the note number and places the insertion point next to the note number.
6. Type the note text.
7. Scroll to your place in the document and continue typing.
As you insert additional footnotes or endnotes in the document, Word automatically applies
the correct number format.
3-25

Pagination (College of Business Standard)
Every page in the report--except the cover--should have a number (this includes appendices).
Number the rest of the pages consecutively beginning with the title page. Your instructor
may prefer that you omit the page number from the title page. Number all pages, except
artwork for figures, in Arabic numerals in the upper right-hand corner. The number should
appear at least 1 inch from the right-hand edge of the page, in the space between the top edge
of the paper and the first line of text. (The default setting in most word processing software
is ½ inch from the top of the page, which is acceptable.) If a page must be inserted or
removed after numbering is competed, renumber the pages; do not number inserted pages
with, for example, “6a” or make other repairs.
Manuscript page headers should be used to identify each page with the first two or three
words from the report title. Place the page header in the upper right-hand corner to the left of
the page number. (Do not use your name to identify each page.) Use the automatic functions
of your word-processing program to cause the headers and page numbers to print out in the
same location on each page. (Do not type these manuscript page headers repeatedly in your
word-processing file.)
Example:
REPORT WRITING
Prepared for:
Professor Teach
MIS 200
Submitted by:
John Q. Student
Due Date
3-26
Report Writing 1

1. Writing/Organization/Formatting
a. Prefatory Pages
Report Check Sheet
b. Supplementary/Ancillary Pages—References Page and Appendix(es)
c. Introduction and Summary/Conclusions
d. Headings, Pagination
2. Quality/Writing Style
a. Completeness—include all essential information.
b. Conciseness—shorten or omit wordy expressions; include only relevant statements;
avoid unnecessary repetition.
c. Concreteness—use specific facts and figures; put action in verbs.
d. Clarity—use short, familiar, conversational words; construct effective sentences and
paragraphs; achieve appropriate readability and listenability.
3. Graphics/Tables
4. CMS Endnotes and Bibliography
5. Correctness
a. Punctuation/Grammar
b. Word Usage, Spelling, Proofreading
3-27

Section 4: Presentations
4-1

Table of Contents
Section 4: Presentations
EFFECTIVE PRESENTATIONS......................................................................................... 3
TYPES OF ORAL PRESENTATIONS................................................................................ 4
IMPROMPTU ............................................................................................................................ 4
EXTEMPORANEOUS................................................................................................................. 4
SCRIPTED................................................................................................................................4
DEVELOPING AN EFFECTIVE ORAL PRESENTATION............................................ 4
POWERPOINT TIPS........................................................................................................... 10
ORAL PRESENTATION NOTES...................................................................................... 13
OVERCOMING FEAR OF SPEAKING BEFORE A GROUP....................................... 14
4-2

Effective Presentations
Delivering an effective presentation is a matter of “know-how:”
Know The Material –You will be more relaxed if you are confident in your understanding of
the subject matter. Your audience will probably figure out if you are “winging it” and your
credibility will suffer, no matter how smooth your performance appears to be.
Know What You Wish To Accomplish With Your Presentation – Are you trying to inform,
persuade, train, or entertain your audience?
Know Your Audience – As much as possible, discern the level of the audience’s
understanding of your subject matter. Is this a new topic or are there informed listeners in
your audience? Also try to determine the audience’s predisposition to your message. Are the
audience members interested in what you have to say? Is the audience friendly, neutral, or
hostile to your message?
Know Where You Are Going – Organize your thoughts into main points, and then present
your main points in a logical order. Make the presentation listener friendly by forecasting
what you are going to say before you say it (Preview) and reminding them of what you said
at the conclusion (Review). Organization is the key to educating your audience members,
rather than confusing them.
Know When To Use Visual Aids – Visual aids, including charts, graphs, props, and
PowerPoint presentations, can be valuable demonstrative tools that enhance your
presentation. Critically evaluate your use of visual aids to make sure you are enhancing, not
detracting from the most important media – YOU!
4-3

Impromptu
Types of Oral Presentations
In an impromptu presentation, you would speak without preparation, develop content, and
choose words as you are speaking. In a business setting, this does not necessarily mean that
you have no prior knowledge of the topic. Knowing your subject matter is the best way to
prepare for impromptu situations. For example, at a meeting your Vice President asks you
to bring the group “up to speed” on the new inventory system being implemented by your
department. Your response to his or her query is, in essence, an impromptu presentation
developed at the moment but based on (hopefully!) familiar information.
In some circumstances, you may be asked to give an opinion or respond to an idea that you
have not considered before. Try to draw on prior experiences or similar situations to
formulate a response. Organizing your thoughts into a logical sequence and responding in a
clear and confident manner enhance your credibility and make you appear thoughtful and
knowledgeable.
For College of Business presentations, speaking from notes is not permitted unless otherwise
specified by your instructor.
Extemporaneous
For extemporaneous presentations, you have some preparation time. Many business
presentations will fall into this category. Typically, the presenter will speak from an outline
of pre-determined main points and with a planned introduction, but without scripting each
word to be spoken. With some practice, presenters often find that extemporaneous
presentations are more natural and conversational than scripted presentations.
For College of Business presentations, speaking from notes is not permitted unless otherwise
specified by your instructor.
Scripted
In a scripted presentation, the speech is planned and each word is written out in manuscript
form. A scripted presentation may be appropriate for formal presentations or for highly
detailed/technical information. Although use of a full manuscript may increase precision, a
downside is that presenters usually sound as though they are reading to, rather than talking
with, their audiences.
Developing an Effective Oral Presentation
4-4

Getting Organized: Factors to consider when planning a presentation
A. Define your Purpose: What do you want to accomplish with this presentation?
1. Informative
2. Persuasive
3. Demonstrative
4. Entertainment/Honor/Roast
B. Analyze your audience
1. Who is your audience?
a. Are they peers, your supervisors, or associates who report to you?
b. Are they friendly, hostile, neutral, or uninterested?
c. What is the audience’s prior knowledge of and interest in the subject matter?
d. What are the audience members’ beliefs or preconceptions about the subject
matter?
1. Where are you speaking?
a. Physical location
b. Acoustics
c. Kinetics
d. Distractions
e. Media capabilities (audio/visual, computer and online availability)
C. Organize a Plan—Answer these questions:
1. How much time is allotted for my presentation?
2. How much time will I have to prepare? Is this presentation Impromptu,
Extemporaneous, or Scripted?
3. Will there be a Question and Answer session following my formal presentation or
will I accept questions during the presentation?
4-6

Content: A method of organizing your presentation
Please Note: This outline is intended to represent the standards for oral presentations
adopted by the College of Business at Ohio University. It is expected that all oral
presentations will contain the following elements, unless your instructor specifies a different
format.
A. Introduction: An effective introduction introduces you to the audience, captures the
audience’s attention, and previews the main points you will be covering in your
presentation.
1. Attention Getting Device (AGD): After a brief introduction of yourself, start with
an interesting fact or anecdote, a short story, or other information that will engage
the audience.
2. Concise Statement of Purpose: Tell your audience what your presentation is about
and what you hope to accomplish. The key here is brevity! This short statement of
purpose is analogous to a topic sentence in a paragraph.
3. Background: Sometimes it will be necessary to provide background information or
history leading up to your presentation (i.e. what makes this presentation
necessary).
4. Scope: Carefully define the parameters of your presentation. This may help you
toremain focused and deter your audience from asking questions that are outside of
the focus of your presentation.
5. Definition of Terms: Define new or unusual terms and titles that will be used
throughout the presentation. If a word or title is used only once, it may be more
appropriate to define it as it is used.
6. Plan of Presentation (Preview): Outline your main points. In other words, tell your
audience what you are going to tell them. If you have been asked to make
recommendations, state them briefly here.
B. Body:
1. For a typical presentation of one hour or less, you should organize your ideas into
topics. These are your main talking points. For a typical presentation, three main
points are preferable, but depending on the topic, two to four main points are also
acceptable.
2. Argument: Each main point should include evidence that supports your conclusion
or recommendation.
3. Try to use plain language and simplify difficult concepts whenever possible. Too
much detail is confusing and can be counterproductive. A bored or confused
4-7

audience will not care about your purpose and is less likely to respond favorably to
your recommendations.
4. Transitions Between Main Points: How will you segue from main point to main
point? A plain statement of transition is always appropriate for a business
presentation (e.g. “Now that I have explained my plan to eliminate lost voice mail
messages, let’s talk about my suggestions to further personalize responses to
customer service calls.”)
C. Conclusion:
1. Review: BRIEFLY summarize your main points. One sentence per main point is
usually sufficient.
2. Restate Purpose: Paraphrase your own Concise Statement of Purpose from your
Introduction.
3. Recommendation, Motivation, or Call to Action: Depending on the purpose of your
presentation, you may be asking your audience to learn new information, take
action, or accept a particular belief. Be positive and focus on why your
recommendations are beneficial to the audience or, at the very least, the right thing
to do.
D. Questions and Answers:
Delivery
1. Anticipate Questions When Planning.
2. Briefly Repeat The Question. Restating or paraphrasing the question helps to make
sure you understand the question and gives you a few seconds to collect your
thoughts before answering.
3. Never Make Up Answers.
4. Avoid Ending Your Presentation With An "I Don't Know" Response.
5. Do Not Be Defensive Or Aggressive. Most audience members are friendly or
neutral. If an audience member is hostile, remaining calm in the face of hostility
will improve your credibility with other audience members.
A. Use of Notes: It is expected that all presentations will be delivered WITHOUT the
use of notes unless otherwise specified by your instructor. An outline or handout
may be appropriate for financial information or highly technical information.
B. Word Usage: Plain language and short sentences help your audience follow your
message. Avoid jargon and unnecessarily “fussy” words (e.g. rumbustious instead of
noisy).
4-8

C. Vocals: Try to maintain even breathing, since this will help eliminate “squeaky
voice” syndrome.
D. Non-Verbals: Be aware of what your body language is saying.
1. Eye Contact: Make deliberate eye contact with members of your audience and
hold the contact until finishing an entire sentence.
2. Smile: Match the smile to the situation. Whereas a presentation about budget
cuts may not warrant a constant smile, a pleasant and open expression is usually
appropriate. Frowns can be interpreted as unwillingness to consider other ideas
or lack of conviction in your own ideas.
3. Hands and Gestures: Keep your hands lowered at your sides or in front of you
when making open handed gestures. Avoid putting your hands in your pockets,
swinging arms around, crossing arms in front of your chest, or clutching a
podium or microphone stand.
4. Feet: Do not move your feet unless you are taking a few steps. Movement
should be with purpose, not just shuffling around. Avoid shifting your weight
from foot to foot.
5. Posture: Stand up (or sit up!) straight. Slumping makes you look less alert,
decreases your oxygen, and compromises your circulation (which makes you feel
less alert).
4-9

PowerPoint Tips
A well-executed PowerPoint presentation can make you appear professional, polished, and
technologically savvy. A poorly executed PowerPoint presentation can be distracting,
annoying, and confusing to your audience and make you appear unorganized and illprepared.
So what constitutes a well-prepared PowerPoint presentation?
• Less Is More.
A slide should complement your presentation, not distract from it. A slide should not be
a written text of your oral presentation.
Use slides to emphasize main points, clarify difficult concepts, or to highlight important
names, titles, and definitions
• One idea per slide.
Put only one idea on each slide. A complex idea can be divided into component parts on
additional slides.
• Put small amounts of text on screen – “Rule of Seven.”
Text should be limited to bullet lists or short phrases; no more than 7 lines of text per
slide and no more than 7 words per line. If more text must be used, break it up into
component parts and phrases.
• Evaluate the need for handouts.
In some circumstances, it may be appropriate to print the slides as a handout for the
audience. This is especially helpful if the information contained in the slides is highly
technical or detailed. A separate handout may be more appropriate for financial
information, rather than a PowerPoint slide. Consider whether you want to distribute the
handouts at the beginning or conclusion of the presentation.
• Make text large enough to be read easily.
Use 36 point type. No smaller than 24 point.
The person in your audience who is positioned farthest from the screen should be able to
read tables and graphic headings.
• Display only one or two typefaces on screen at the same time.
Use Helvetica, Times, or Arial
4-10

The audience reads text on the screen in phrases. If a font interferes with that process
and causes viewers to look at the letters instead of the words, they may not be able to
finish reading the text before it disappears from the screen. Too many typeface styles
and your audience will have difficulty giving their attention to the content of the text.
• Choose only two or three styles of text.
Use underlining and italic type sparingly. Use “fancy" text sparingly. Do not use all
capital letters.
Use underlining and italic type only when you want to emphasize a particular word or
phrase. Use the "fancy" styles even more sparingly; they are very difficult to read.
• Separate your text from the background.
Use black to shadow your text. Make your text bold-face.
Surround the edges of text or individual characters with black. It provides the sharpest
contrast and separation between text and backgrounds. Boldfacing your text will also
make it easier to read. Keep the high contrast between the text and the background (e.g.
white text on black background, or black text on white background). There is nothing
more difficult than trying to read text that blends in with the background.
• If color is desirable, select warm colors for graphics and text.
Use yellow, white, and gold for text colors.
Warm colors come forward in space. Therefore, warm colors should usually be chosen
for graphics and text to bring them visually forward and attract the eye.
• If color is desirable, make backgrounds in cool tones.
Make your background dark blue. Black or dark gray can also be used.
Generally, backgrounds should not dominate a scene. Cool colors tend to recede in
space. Use cool colors for backgrounds.
• Use one background per topic/section/presentation.
Your choice of background can contribute to effective organization of your presentation.
Use one background for one topic or section, and then change the background when you
change the topic or idea.
• Leave text on the screen long enough.
Text should be left on the screen long enough for the average viewer to read it twice out
loud before it is removed. Do not use Timed Advance feature to move forward in your
presentation.
4-11

• Text movement should be motivated.
Move text only if you want to draw attention to it, or build a bullet list. Do not move text
simply for variety or to add special effects.
• Use graphics/clip art sparingly.
Too many graphics on a single slide make it appear too "busy" and detract from the
actual content itself. Use an appropriate graphic only to enhance a slide.
• Practice your PowerPoint presentation on the equipment you will be using.
When you create your presentation, you view the colors and graphics with the
capabilities of your computer’s graphics card and monitor. The graphics and color
capability of the projector that you use may vary. It is best to test your presentation on
the equipment you will be using ahead of time in case adjustments to graphics and color
are necessary.
• Use sound effects sparingly
Sound effects usually distract from the presentation and are often viewed as
unprofessional. Use the sound effects feature only if substantive to the presentation, not
for variety or to demonstrate your PowerPoint skills.
• Save disk space by using Hypertext
If you refer to use a graphic frequently in your presentation, it may be helpful to place the
graphic at the end of your presentation with a Hypertext access. This will keep the size
of your presentation more manageable.
4-12

Oral Presentation Notes
Oral presentations require thorough preparation and thoughtful planning to assure effective
delivery. Here is an outline of things to keep in mind:
I. Preparing the Presentation
A. Analyze the Audience
B. Write a Purpose Statement
C. Outline the Presentation (Can be Topical, Chronological, Spatial,
Inductive, or Deductive)
II. Preparing Visual Aids
A. Types (Transparencies/slides, Flip pad, White board, Handouts)
B. Guidelines (Type size and font, Parallel construction)
C. Text Visuals Outline the Presentation
D. Handouts of Financials, Graphs, Tables, etc., to Assist Audience
III. Delivering the Presentation
A. Speak Extemporaneously
B. Use Good Eye Contact
C. Vary Your Voice
D. Use Effective Body Movement
E. Answer Questions Effectively
4-13

Overcoming Fear of Speaking before a Group
1. Know the material well (be an expert).
2. Practice your presentation (pilot test, and possibly videotape yourself).
3. Use involvement techniques (participation).
4. Learn participants' names and use them.
5. Establish your credibility early.
6. Use eye contact to establish rapport.
7. Take a course in public speaking.
8. Exhibit your advance preparation (via handouts, etc.).
9. Anticipate potential problems (and prepare probable responses).
10. Check the facilities and AV equipment in advance.
11. Obtain information about the group in advance (through observation or questionnaire).
12. Convince yourself to relax (breathe deeply, meditate, and/or talk positively to
yourself).
13. Prepare an outline and follow it.
14. Manage your appearance (dress comfortably and appropriately).
15. Rest up so that you are physically and psychologically alert.
16. Use your own style (don't imitate someone else).
17. Use your own words (don't read).
18. Put yourself in your audience member’s shoes (they're asking, "What's in it for me?”).
19. Assume they are on your side (they aren't necessarily antagonistic or hostile).
20. Provide an overview of the presentation (state the end objectives).
21. Accept some fears as being good (energizing stress vs. destructive).
22. Introduce yourself to the group in advance (via a social context).
23. Identify your fears, categorize these feelings as controllable or uncontrollable, and
confront your fears.
24. Give special emphasis to the first five minutes (super-preparation).
25. Imagine yourself as a good speaker (self-fulfilling prophecy).
26. Practice responses to tough questions or situations.
4-14

Section 5:
Employment Communication
5-1

Table of Contents
Section 5: Employment Communication
IMPORTANCE OF RESUME ITEMS AND FORMATS.................................................. 3
ACTION STATEMENTS, DESCRIPTORS, AND WORDS............................................. 4
LETTERS IN THE APPLICATION PROCESS................................................................. 6
COVER LETTER FORMATTING TIPS............................................................................ 7
COVER LETTER CONTENT .............................................................................................. 8
SAMPLE: ENHANCED RESUME....................................................................................... 9
SAMPLE: SCANNABLE RESUME................................................................................... 10
FUNCTIONAL RESUME TEMPLATE ............................................................................ 11
CHRONOLOGICAL RESUME TEMPLATE .................................................................. 12
5-2

Importance of Resume Items and Formats
American Association of Personnel Administrators (AAPA) (1999 Survey)
Percentage of respondents who considered
resume items important
Resume Item 1989 1994 1998
Name, address, telephone number 100% 100% 100%
Degree 100 100 100
Name of college 100 100 100
Titles of jobs held 99 99 99
Names of previous employers 98 97 100
Special aptitudes, skills 90 91 95
Job, career objective or Profile Statement 73 84 92
Awards, scholarships, honors, achievements 88 89 91
Grade point average 85 89 91
Willingness to relocate 74 82 90
Work experience accomplishments (learning, contributions) 72 81 89
Professional organizations 67 74 84
College activities 85 83 84
References shown on resume 79 51 32
Note saying that references would be supplied on request 35 21 20
Summary of qualifications 25 42 72
Reasons for leaving jobs 54 37 29
Name of high school 20 14 4
High school grades 18 15 5
High school activities, awards 19 14 5
List of college courses completed 42 34 21
Social security number 32 35 18
Religion, race 10 5 1
Photograph 16 11 2
Marital status 30 19 2
Height/weight 25 11 1
Church involvement 13 8 0
Birthdate 21 17 3
Health 34 19 6
Resume Format
Preference for traditional, chronological format 78 81 88
Preference for functional, skills-oriented format 22 19 12
5-3

Statements
Action Statements, Descriptors, and Words
Acted as liaison to…
Administrated plan created to…
Chaired a task force to develop…
Conducted management activities of…
Conducted studies on…
Created financial plan used to…
Cut production time by xx percent by…
Developed new procedures to…
Directed activities which…
Discovered problems which…
Generated increased morale of team by…
Held the best closing rate of xx percent…
Improved productivity by…
Descriptors
active
adaptable
aggressive
alert
ambitious
analytical
attentive
broad-minded
conscientious
consistent
constructive
creative
dependable
Words
accelerate
adapt
administer
analyze
approve
coordinate
conceive
conduct
complete
control
create
delegate
develop
demonstrate
determined
diplomatic
disciplined
discrete
economical
efficient
energetic
enterprising
enthusiastic
extroverted
fair
forceful
imaginative
effect
eliminate
establish
evaluate
expand
found
generated
increase
influence
implement
initiate
interpret
improve
launch
5-4
Interviewed candidates seeking…
Managed, organized, staffed, and trained…
Marketed new concept in…
Performed financial analysis designed to…
Provided services which…
Rated in top ten performers for xx years…
Recruited talent for…
Reduced expenditures by…
Sold xx,xxx units in two months by…
Supervised a staff of…
Traveled extensively too…
Wrote market plan designed to…
Wrote proposal that achieved…
independent
logical
loyal
mature
methodical
objective
optimistic
perceptive
personable
pleasant
positive
practical
productive
lead
lecture
maintain
manage
motivate
organize
participate
perform
plan
pinpoint
program
propose
prove
provide
realistic
reliable
resourceful
respective
self-reliant
sense of humor
sincere
sophisticated
systematic
tactful
talented
traveler
recommend
reduce
reinforce
revamp
revise
schedule
set up
solve
structure
streamline
supervise
support
train
work

Letters in the Application Process
COVER LETTER
1. Identify the position you are applying
for and how you learned of it.
2. Indicate why you are applying for this
particular position.
3. Describe your main qualifications.
4. Refer the reader to enclosed resume.
5. Request the next step in the
employment process--personal
interview. Make it clear you will
contact the employer to arrange the
interview.
APPLICATION LETTER
1. Show how your background fits a
particular job or company.
2. Emphasize your skills and experience.
3. Rely on careful research; a form letter
will not do.
THANK YOU LETTER
1. Recall the interview, date and
discussion. Thank individuals for their
time and expertise.
2. Emphasize your continuing interest in
the position you discussed; OR, if you
are no longer interested, politely
indicate reasons for your decision.
3. Describe any pertinent qualifications
or experience you failed to mention in
the interview.
4. Close with a positive statement such as
"I look forward to hearing from you."
LETTER OF ACCEPTANCE
1. Accept the offer.
2. Refer to offer letter.
3. Give your travel plans and anticipated
arrival time.
4. Express your appreciation and pleasure
at joining the company.
5. Include your address and telephone
number.
5-6
LETTER OF ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
1. When offer is received,
a) acknowledge receipt.
b) express your appreciation.
c) give the date you expect to make
your decision.
2. When rejection is received,
a) acknowledge receipt of letter.
b) thank company for considering
your application.
LETTER OF INQUIRY ON STATUS
1. Request status of application.
2. Recap history of application; stress
your skills or interest again.
3. State why you need clarification of
status of application.
4. Include thanks for cooperation.
LETTER DECLINING OFFER
1. Decline offer.
2. Express your appreciation for the offer
and for the company's interest in you.
LETTER SEEKING INFORMATION
1. Indicate interest in the company, its
products and services.
2. Ask for specific materials or the
opportunity to meet with someone on
an information basis.
3. Express your appreciation for the
cooperation you receive; take
responsibility for follow-up.

Address (home or campus)
City, State, zip
Telephone Number
Date of Letter
Contact’s Name
Contact’s Title
Contact’s Department
Employing Organization
Street Address
City, State, Zip
Dear Mr. /Ms./Dr. Contact’s Last Name:
Opening Paragraph:
• Type individually; never use a form letter
• Address to a specific person
• Use 8-1/2 x 11 paper only
• Use standard white bond paper
Body Paragraph(s):
• Use bullet points for emphasis
• Graphically lay out paragraphs
• Center key accomplishments
• Display job related courses as a group
Closing Paragraph:
• Ask for the interview
• Be bold, convincing and assertive
• Express positive match
• Refer to attached resume
Sincerely,
Type Full Name
P.S. Sometimes used for emphasis
Limit to one brief sentence
Cover Letter Formatting Tips
3 blank lines
1 blank line
1 blank line
• Use perfect grammar and spelling
• Stick to one-page limit
• Provide ample margins and white space
• Center on page for appearance
1 blank line
• Limit total letter to a five-paragraph maximum
• Limit paragraphs to a five-sentence maximum
• Emphasize accomplishments and recognitions
• Highlight skills that match job
1 blank line
1 blank line
3 blank lines- Sign Full Name
1 blank line
1 blank line
Encl(s).
• Resume enclosed (always)
• Other supporting documentation enclosed (occasionally)
• Portfolio (if appropriate for profession)
• References (To Whom It May Concern letter rarely used here)
• Unofficial transcript (rarely used at this point)
5-7
• Make employer’s reply easy
• Advise that you will call on a specific date
• Ask a friend to proofread your letter

Address
City, State, Zip
Telephone Number
Date of Letter
Contact’s Name
Contact’s Title
Contact’s Department
Employing Organization
Street Address
City, State, Zip
Dear Mr./Ms./Dr. Contact’s Last Name:
Opening Paragraph:
• State purpose
• Capture attention
• Name position seeking
• Use recommender’s name
• Use name of mutual friends
Body Paragraphs:
• Create interest
• Show enthusiasm
• Stress skills
• Use self-descriptive words
• Use action verbs
• Emphasize excellence
• Show commitments
honored
• Present confident tone
• Humanize
Closing Paragraph:
• Close strongly
• Stay confident
• Make response easy
• Restate solid match
Sincerely,
Type Your Full Name
Enclosure: Resume (Always Attach)
Cover Letter Content
3 blank lines
1 blank line
1 blank line
1 blank line
• Tell a brief story
• Give rationale for
decisions
• Illustrate personality Point
to achievement
• Don’t repeat resume
• Use adverbs for time
constraints
• Put adjectives with
activities
1 blank line
• Refer to resume
• Call for appointment soon
• Initiate follow-up plans
• State your next step
1 blank line
3 blank lines – Sign name
1 blank line
5-8
• Consider opening with a question
• Mention source of lead
• State top credentials
• Be assertive
• State performance levels
• Identify how skills
obtained
• Build credibility
• Create warmth
• End at three paragraphs –
maximum!
• Give reasons for interest
• Give specific dates
• Avoid “if you have…”
• Take charge
• Ask for the interview

Sample: Enhanced Resume
Lucinda Cree
8080 Humphrey Way
Arlington, VA 22205
(703) 975-2804
Email: lcree@nmu.com
Profile Computer systems generalist with specialties in medical insurance and malpractice
insurance.
Accomplishments
• Worked with both internal and external customers to implement, develop and refine a
medical malpractice policy rating, billing and collection system for 8,000 policies
totaling $100 million in premiums
• Installed database system in 3 outside medical malpractice insurance companies
providing ongoing service to external and internal customers
• Expanded the policy services system to include issuance and billing of corporate policies.
• Designed and oversaw development of system for tracking commissions payable to
brokers, reducing expenses by more than 20%
• Worked closely with finance to ensure timely and accurate accounts receivable, resulting
in reducing average collection time by 15 days
Skills
• Knowledge of Unix operating system
• Comprehension of DOS, Word Perfect 5.0, and Lotus 1-2-3 on PC-based platform
• Knowledge of programming languages: C and COBOL
• Strong oral and written communications skills
• Excellent administrative and supervisory skills
Employment
Supervisor, Department of Information, National Medical Underwriters, Chicago, IL
Customer Service Liaison, National Medical Underwriters
Education
B.S., Biology, University of Virginia, 2003
Continuing Education courses in Management Information Systems, Department of
Electrical Engineering and Computer Systems at George Washington University
Source: Potter, Ray. (1996) Electronic Resumes That Get Jobs. New York: Macmillan Co.
5-9

Lucinda Cree
8080 Humphrey Way
Arlington, VA 22205
(703) 975-2804
Email: lcree@nmu.com
Sample: Scannable Resume
Profile Computer systems generalist with specialties in medical insurance and
malpractice insurance.
Accomplishments
Worked with both internal and external customers to implement, develop and refine a
medical malpractice policy rating, billing and collection system for 8,000 policies
totaling $100 million in premiums
Installed database system in 3 outside medical malpractice insurance companies
providing ongoing service to external and internal customers
Expanded the policy services system to include issuance and billing of corporate policies
Designed and oversaw development of system for tracking commissions payable to
brokers, reducing expenses by more than 20%
Worked closely with finance to ensure timely and accurate accounts receivable, resulting
in reducing average collection time by 15 days
Skills
Knowledge of Unix operating system
Comprehension of DOS, Word Perfect 5.0, and Lotus 1-2-3 on PC-based platform
Knowledge of programming languages: C and COBOL
Strong oral and written communications skills
Excellent administrative and supervisory skills
Employment
SUPERVISOR, Department of Information, National Medical Underwriters, Alexandria, VA
CUSTOMER SERVICE LIAISON, National Medical Underwriters
Education
B.S., Biology, University of Virginia, 2003
Continuing Education courses in Management Information Systems, Department of
Electrical Engineering and Computer Systems at George Washington University
5-10

(Line One)
(Line Two)
(Line One)
(Line Two)
(Accomplishment 1)
(Accomplishment 2)
(Accomplishment 3)
Functional Resume Template
Name
Address
City, State, Zip
Telephone Number (Home)
Telephone Number (Work)
Objective (Optional)
Background Summary
Accomplishments
Work Experience or Employment History
(Company Name) (City, State) (Employment Dates)
(Division or Area of Company)
(Job Title)
(Company Name) (City, State) (Employment Dates)
(Division or Area of Company)
(Job Title)
(School) (City, State)
(Degree/Major)
Education
(Optional)
Optional headings include Community Involvement, Self-Development, Awards, Leadership
Activities, Technical/Computer Skills.
5-11

(Line One)
(Line Two)
(Line One)
(Line Two)
Chronological Resume Template
Name
Address
City, State, Zip
Telephone Number (Home)
Telephone Number (Work)
Objective (Optional)
BACKGROUND SUMMARY
WORK EXPERIENCE OR EMPLOYMENT HISTORY
(Company Name) (City, State) (Employment Dates)
(Division or Area of Company)
(Job Title)
(Responsibilities: Bullet or Sentence format)
(Major Accomplishments – Optional)
(Company Name) (City, State) (Employment Dates)
(Division or Area of Company)
(Job Title)
(Responsibilities: Bullet or Sentence format)
(Major Accomplishments – Optional)
(School) (City, State)
(Degree/Major)
EDUCATION
(OPTIONAL)
Optional headings include Community Involvement, Self-Development, Awards, Leadership
Activities, Technical/Computer Skills.
5-12