Translation 2783

ARCFf7V.
FISHERIES AND MARINE SERVICE
Translation Series No. 2783
Marine mammals (handbook)
By M.V. Ivashin, L.A. Popov, and A.S. Tsapko
Original title:
Morskie Mlekopitayushchie (Spravochnik)
0
From: Marine iaiammals, 1-303, 1972
Translated by the Translation Bureau(JMM)
Multilingual Services Division
Department of the Secretary of State of Canada
Department of the Environment
Fisheries and Marine Service
Arctic Biological Station
Ste. Anne de Bellevue, P.Q.
1973
244 pages typescript
. --^4 . ._.

DEPARTMENT OF THE SECRETARY OF STATE
TRANSLATION BUREAU
MULTILINGUAL SERVICES
DIVISION
TRANSLATED FROM — TRADUCTION DE
INTO — EN
AUTHOR — AUTEUR
«Russian
English
M, V. Ivashin, L. A. Popov, and A. S. "Ilsarko
SECRÉTARIAT D'ÉTAT
BUREAU DES TRADUCTIONS
DIVISION DES SERVICES
MULTILINGUES
F )3
TITLE IN ENGLISH — TITRE ANGLAIS
Marine Mammals Handbook
• TITLE IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE (TRANSLITERATE FOREIGN CHARACTERS)
TITRE EN LANGUE éTRANG2RE (TRANSCRIRE EN CARACTLRES ROMAINS)
Morskie Mlekopitayushchie (Spravochnik)
'REFERENCE IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE (NAME OF BOOK OR PUBLICATION) IN FULL. TRANSLITERATE FOREIGN CHARACTERS.
RéFéRENCE EN LANGUE ÉTRANG2RE (NOM DU LIVRE OU pUBLICATLON), AU COMPLET, TRANSCRIRE EN CARACT'ÈRES ROMAINS.
Morskie Klekopitayushchie (Spravochnik)
'ERENCE IN ENGLISH — RéFéRENCE EN ANGLAIS
Marine Mammals ilandbook
PUBLISHER— éDITEUR
"Pishchevaya Promyshlennost"
PLACE OF PUBLICATION
• LIEU DE PUBLICATION
YEAR
ANNÉE
DATE OF PUBLICATION
DATE DE PUBLICATION
VOLUME
ISSUE NO.
NUMéRO
PAGE NUMF3ERS IN ORIGINAL
NUMéROS DES PAGES DANS
L'ORIGINAL
1-303 .
NUMBER OF TYPED PAGES
NOMBRE DE PAGES
OkTYLOGRAPHIéES
Moscow, USSR 1972
448
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SOS-200.10.6 (RE v 2/68)
7830-21-02945333

DEPARTMENT OF THE SECRETARY OF STATE
TRANSLATION BUREAU
ree-
SECRÉTARIAT D'ÉTAT
BUREAU DES TRADUCTIONS
MULTILINGUAL SERVICES
DIVISION
,
CANADA
DIVISION DES SERVICES
MULTILINGUES
CLIENT'S NO , DEPARTMENT LivisiculaRAricri CITY
N 0 DU CLIENT MINISTÉRE DIVISION/DIRECTION VILLE
. .._
165267 -nvironment Fisheries ::.ervice
07 7/1 V/ 11
BUREAU NO. LANGUAGE TRANSLATOR (INIIIALS)
N° DU BUREAU LANGUE TRADUCTEUR (INITIALES)
165E0 *Russian Jtilli ,OCT - 5 1973
Morskie Mlekopitayushchie (Spravochnik) (:arine
Izd, "Pishchevaya Fromyshlennost", Moscow, 1JS3R, 1972
-_andbook)
UNED11D TP\t4LATON
Fer
TRADUCTIC.1 N Ntsr);.1
Informaiion f,zi-L ulonicn Y
ina 599.5 +. 599.745ç03)
11:ARII;IE MAMMALS
V. Ivashin, L. A. Popov, and A. S. Tsapko
Edited by Prof. P. A. Noiseev
•
This manual describes the pinnipedes and cetaceans of the
world's oceans, from order to species level. It distinguishes three
main geographical regions: the northern parts of the Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans and the waters of the Arctic Ocean adjacent to these,
and the southern hemisphere. Within these regions the distribution
and migrations of marine mammals are described, and the principal
features of their biology '(reproduction, diet, mode of life, etc.)
are discussed. Information on the- history of scaling ant. whaling,
on the present stocks of the animals, and on current methods whereby.
their taking is rer.5u1ated is provided. roblems of sealing and
•
whaling organization and of the processin of seal and whale products
are briefly discussed, .-)pecial attention is given to the principal
economic species of marine mammals.'
This manual is desined far fisher:, , specialists and students
in fishery colleL.es. It contine 17 tables, C 9 illustrations, and
560 bibliocyaphical items.
Pevicwers: A. B. Yablokov, iThnd. iol . c. m. M.
z,leptsov, Tech. bc. A. M. Golovin.
illustrations by P. P. Pondakov.
2*
;aulbor Uto marin indicate titi sol:responeinG
in tha

V 2
I I!TTf O:UUCTI011
Marine maitl;:lal:s are ag-roun of animals adapted to life in an
aquatic environment. aotae of, them (0etn.cea, and oirenia) spend their
entire life in the water, while others (linnipeciia and sea otters)
spend part of the time on dry land or on ice.
It is. rec'rconed that at »resent 119 species of marine tr.^:autals,
including E31 species of Cetac'ea, 32 s»ecies of. i'inrli.heciia, 5 species
of ^;irenia, and one species of Carnivora live in the wox•ld'., oceans.
Marine mammals have long been hunted in many parts of the
Pacific Ocean. I)urinU the 18th and 19th centuries the developr.tent
of the whaling industry (mainly for riz,ht and sperut.whaleü) and of
hunting of fur seals and harhdcar seals was Coverned mainly by the
market for their products (chiefly oil and fur) and by the availability
of the animals for mass slaughter. ?-iuntin- by the natives.
of coastal districts was of a subsistence character, the . procïucts
being only for local needs ^food, clothine-,,, heat, light, etc.).
Seal and whale products are of (;rF:at importance even to--day.
For instance, in our national economy the hides of common and fur
seiJ,1S are used in the production of h1.gh-E;raC:e fur t;oO:a Û; ccal _^. :.1
is used for medical and technical purposes, and seal meat is used on
fur farms.
The blubber of baleen whales is used in the manufacture
of margarine, lard, fat-compounds, and otller products.; the flesh is
used as hit^-^an food and as animal food on fur farms, or is [,,round into
meal for feedinL livestock. In addition various i•thale products are
used in the cosmetic, perfume, steel--ma'cinE, metallur,;ica,l, texcile,
,and other industries.
From the late 1920' s to the early 10,60's 1•roi•ld-^,, ide whaling
produced 3E30,000-500,000 tons of i'-rhale oil annually. In recent years.
whale-oil production has shrunk to 200,000-250,000 tons, but there
has been a marked increase in the value of non-oil products frc:^:
baleen whales: frozen mea.t, liver, and peritoneum, concenl;x•atec: sou.ps,
and other products, I•rllich have two or t ltr(:e ti;ac':à the vr^ltre of hie
oi7.. 1'rol.^, a sin^;le blue whale unit (s ee pa,::e ) obtain
nroducts valued at 22,000 ruble s, not more tL,cc^ 2 5,, of 4/Ili,l1
is repre:>onted by l.he oi.l. ','hc;
vr;li.ic;L! IJ 100 I,r> 'I;'ia 11i.l1..i.u;t

..... 3
'r'he world--wide sea.linC' industry to-day supplies domestic and foreign
fur and' lee.ther markets with more t^ra.n 600,000 col:lmon and fur seal
hides and thousancl.s of tons of seEl.l oil and meat, worth tens. of
millions of rubles.
In our country secl.lin.; and whe.lirl„ 1-lave :reo.ctled 1;riàe development
only clurin,, the -ears of soviet power. At present these are
tcc^lnic^.11y-equi;l, ed irldustries, provided ;; J_th moâérrl sllips, factoryshi-()s,
and. aviation. - Our sealers and wizalers opoa:ate in inany parts
of the wo.rld' s oceanû. In cer.toi n seasons the wilalers ha-+re te.l>en up
to 20,000 or 21 , 000 whales, from which up, to -120, OOJ tons of oil and
tens of thousands of tons of frozen meat and feedinu,-meal have been.
4
proceswed, the total value of the ^ar.oducts beinis tons of millions
of rlibles.
Soviet sealers take annually more than 100,000 valuable fur
hides of common and fur seals to meet the heavy âeinands of the domestâ.c
and international markets, and also more than '100,000 hides for
tannin;;, with tens of thousands of centners of blubber clnd meat,
having a total value of several million rables.
A result of the value placed on products
obtained
from marine 1?l?S_lilla ].s tvas that even in the 18th ccntury, with rel^..t--
ively poor whali,ng techniques, 3rey whales were killed off in the
North Atla.ntic, and sea--cows (order Sirenie.) were exterminated in
the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. The dovel.o-c)Inqnt of the
whalin^; industry, the improvement of techniques, the heavier de;.land
for sol:le kinds of whale nroducts, the easy aece"cAbility of the e.nimals,
and the uoslAbility of rapid transit of products !'ror.l the whal.in^,
areas to any port in tlle world, led to increased killing. The
consequence was that by the end of last century baleen 1•rlrales and
fur seals in both •tilc. northe3,.n and the southern hel:lispiieres, and
sE:a otters in the Pa ific Ocean, t•ierc• almost cornple--elJ wipecl out,
,incl the tialruc, :) tocl;s^ i.n the Arctic Ocean ^•rez•e serioucly reduccd.
:i:urin^, the n.: ::erlt ocn.Lury the n>tmbers of cor%,lon rorqual,,;, rey
1•lllc6les, ue7. ^lil.'^.].e:^, ;t.11^^ 17LU:It)b;li.:iC 1ialCLles llî•t.ve ;..1• CLLl;/• û.C:C^'i;E^.C:e(a.
of1'ï.']:Q(^,
by ::1011C'Z'11 1111aLi11„ cl.ll.:
with tllel.r. teci'ini.qu(Jls, are such tl:e.i; urlrC:si;]:ic.teci kil-lin,;
could le.)(! to e::ter. llin -tion oï ::n.zly l)corlo[11ic :S t•ecie:, of marine L,aul-
Illt^a.S. :o U7:. [r1.L1o 'Llll, indlit1Lry on a 7.'F1.Li.ei1o1 Llu]:C:f3 1•o"

4
regulation of the take have been introduced, based on knowledge of
various .
features of the animalsibiology.
Several international organizations have been created in
order to conserve and increase marine mammal stocks. The USSR is a.
signatory of the International Convention for regulation of whaling,
O
thlAgreement.for regulation of pelagic whaling in the.Antarctic, and
the Temporary Convention for conservation of fur peals in the morbeen
thern part. of the Pacific Ocean. An agreement has made between the
A
governments of the USSR and Norway on measures to'regulate the taking
of common seals and to conserve seal stocks in the northeastern part
of the Atlantic Ocean..
. The taking of pinnipedes and cetaceans in
the Soviet Union is governed by special regulations issued by the
Ministry of Fisheries of the. USSR.
This book is presented to readers as a reference manual.
• The systematic descriptions and nomenclature of Pinnipedia are taken
from K. K. Chapskii (1963), V. Scheffer (1958), and J., King (1964),
and those of Cetacea from A. G. Tomilin (1937) and P. hershkovitz
(1966). •
. In view of the limited size of the manual, principal attention
ha s been given to economic species of marine mammals; the biology
of animals whose economic value is small or whobe mode of life
has not yet been adequately studied is discussed briefly. Inform-
ation on the take of fur seals and harbour seals has been taken from
various published sources, and on that of whales from the records
of the Bureau of International Whaling atatistics.
The manual consists of two parts. The first deals with the .
biology of pinnipedes, sea otters, and cetaceans, and the second
gives brief information on the. techniques of hunting pinniPèdes and
and processing their primary products. The first part
was written by Candidates in Biological Sciences B. A. Popov (Fin- .
and Sea Otters) and M. V. Ivashin (Cetaceans); the second nipedes
part was written by S. Tsapko and V. IvaL;hin. .The authors
express sincere gratitude for review of -the work, for the illust•
rations, and for valued comments and advice to Prof,
Doctor of Biological
A. Moiseev,
iences; to A. V. Yablokov, Candidate in. Bio-
logical sciences; to A. 11. Golovin, Candidate in Technicni ;Jcionces;
am', to D.-
Vnvilovrkii, elv;incèr-technoloist. Comonts on the
manual will be Gratefully recrived by the autho2n.
cetaceans

. .
PART I
B]:OLOXTY OF I'IM-IIPJDi A A1lU GL'1.'AGA
l'innipedia and zjea. 0 tter ,
..... 5
Besides the order ï'innipedia, in this na,r.t of the manual we
s hall a.lEto discuss sev, otters --- valuable fur-bear.er.:^. that live in
the northcrn part of the Ia.cific Ocean. aea otters belonC; to the
order CarnivorE^, but SY)end a la.r•,e part of tileir life in the sea.
CI'LA:,-`l'ialt I
GLI:EMtLL CTLfi1tACTERIS`icICS OP `i'FLû OiiD::j'R PII•li,I]?.:IDIlI
The order Pinnipedia contains mam:ne.ls whose external appearance
and the features of N•those internal structure i.nd•icate profound
adaptation to an aquatic mode of life.
They are large animals with a spindle-shaped trunk, circular
in cross-section. The zoological body len[;th of adults of different
species varies from 1.2 to 6.5 metres, and the total weiUht from 35
kg to 3.5 metric tons. Their complete adaptation to the external
environment is evidenced by the absence of any strongly--projectino
parts of the body. The humerus and part of the radius and u1na, and
in some species also the whole of the tibia, are enclosed within the
cutaneous sac of the trunk.
The limbs have five well-develoned di,;its united within a
swimr.linn- membrane and converted into fin-like flippers' The hindlimbs
of wa.lxuses and. fur seals can be bent freely under the trunk
and enable the animals to move about on a hard substrate; the hindlimbs
^flip_>ers^ of seals cannot be bent towards the tY•unk, and take
no uart in move!:,ent on dry la.rid or on ice. •ahe claws are poorly
developed on the fore-limbs of walruses and fur aeals, in cont;•ast
to those of other seals, whose fore-limbs are p-rovided'with stron4,
1•lell-dc_veloï)ed claws.
The animals move in the water D^r means of
lateral st',:ol:e(3 and o scl.llation:; of the I1L1"lc.:•^11.!I^b , 11111.].i; the front
flippers serve as steerinl, 'l'I.e tail is vei•y siiort, ^ilcdc in
some :3'lecies .^C•;;'. Ylall'll;;e:;i is scarcely visible.
In mo ,{ s:^ecic:. "tlle2.•e 18, no cx^tc7•,,^l e^^.7• t^uL tllr^.t
roe:; not n.ffec l; the E1.CLlte11^::S.i^, of ::ow::l pr,rc,c:T)tion.
lleir. ilen.rinu is
fu71.,y
(111 o tc• i.u bo1;i, -i I., r, l!(1 wr::tor. - UnciC) i: we i. c, 2: 1 i!E" cr:r open.int;3
ore covr^rod by ;.1O,,nn of the con trac tion of
c7.o:;:Ln„ nutsc,lc:: .

• 6
The eyes are large, .with flat cornea and sPherical lens.
ViSion is good, es•:.ecially in the water, on account of the pupil's
capacity for wide dilatation.
The lacrimal glands are poorly developed;
the sense of smell is good, but function:, only in the air.
The tactile function is performed by vibrissae located on both sides
of the end of the muzzle.
The fur coverins' of adults is usually short, dense, and
are stiff, and not well differentiated into guard
smooth. The hairs
hairs and underfur,.excent in fur seals. vost new-born :_eals are
covered with dense luxuriant fur. ' There are wide variations in the
colour of seals' fur'covering.
The skull is vertically compressed; the zygomatic arches- are
wide; the facial part of the skull is shortened; end the brain-case
is fairly capacious. The teeth are differentiated . into incisors,.
canines, and molars, and serve mainly for seizing .and holding prey. -
In some members of the order (walruses) the upper• canines are greatly
developed and converted into tusks, which serve for defence and for
obtaining food from the sea-bottom. The teeth'are long-lasting,
especially in the seal species that feed on fish; in the species .
that feed on benthic organisms the teeth rapidly wear away and fall
out. The milk•teeth are small, and fall out at an early age. The
number of . teeth varies from 10 to 36. The tooth formula is expressed
thus: incisors 3-1; canines 1; premolars 47j . ; molars 27 0.
2-0 1 4- 3 1-0
The cerebrum is fairly large; the hemispheres have numerous
convolutions, almost covering the cerebellum. brain's capacity
for reflex and intellectual activity is very high.
• The uterus is bicornuate; the placenta is zonary and deciduate;
usually the female gives birth to . a single pup, twins being
very rare. In most species the testes are located under a layer of
skin end fat and are invisible externally; in male Otariidae they are
contained in a conspicuous scrotum; possession of an es ,:enis is
characteri:,tic of ail species. hoproduction takes pi ose fl ot more
than once a year 0.n most walruses, once in two years). '
Tho femnle::; of mont pinnipedo spocien b7;come neYually mature
at the ar;c: of three or four yeare .i, but the m-jor i.ty of tne:a s. in tu
nun Lion one Ca' Lus ycqt.L15 lotu e.
six yearn ()id. maLul Leiu part in le»ro- reproduce when four to

..... 7
The presence of a thick layer of subcutaneous fat, which acts
as a heà.t-insulator, i s characteristic of most members of the ordèr.
,:.'he thickness of the subcutaneous fat layer may ic:e.ch 8-10 cm cùrinthe
period of hi ;hest nutrition of the animals. i,el;osi'tion of the
fat layer takes place mostly during a period of intensive feeding
(usually in the.:;ummc.^r and autumn, but in some suecies in winter).
Different species feed on fishes, on crustaceans, and on molluscs.
During the breedin ;and moultii,;; periods ^^innipede., remain
for, a fairly long time on solid sub:;trate., --- ice or dry land --
forming lar^ egroups or rookeries.
k'innipedes are distributed mainly in the cold and 'temperate
waters of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and in the Arctic and. lrntarctic
Oceans.
^ome of them live in inland bodies of.fresh water
t,Lakes Jsai>,cal, Onega, Ladoga, and baima) and also of salt water (Caspian
Sea).
A smaller number of snecies live in warm waters off the
coasts of Africa, Austra.lia,''aouth America, and the 14editerranea.n.
1=inni.pédes are of n,reat value to the national economy., being
the subject of awicîely-»developed marine--rnamma.l industry; some hun-=
dreds of thousands of the animals-are taken each year in,all parts
of their range, but mostly in the Atlantic an6 ïacific Occ:ans. The
chief products of the industry are valuable raw furs, leather, oil
(used medicinally and as food), and meat (used. as human food by the
natives of Arctic regions and as animal. food on fur fEti:ms).
The order 11inninedi.a includes three families: Otariidae
(eared seals), Odoba.enidae ^^^a.lruses), and. i-hociciae (true seal.s).
::',AttED 'Sc,l,Là (boa-Lions and. Fur. -oeals) -- 0`l'Ai,I]:i)rlej
7
The principal external distinguishinL, features of seals of
this family are: small external •ee.r pinna, covereci wit;i fur; sharp
muzzle, bearing six or seven rows of long ;:nooth vibrissao; f1e,-ible
neclc.
The front flippers have an acute-a,nr;led wini;-like shape, usu--
al.ly without clax•;s.
The hind flipper, a.x•ticu:lctite on a i:aei;atar;:r^1
joint, are lar^-;ol.y devoid of hair., and tei:mi.nr^.tc in a frinc;e of .31cin
clrlw, s..l.c arel1:•.d.evoloi>cd only. 011' the 't117•ee c-ntval
dip-its. 'l'}-ie tail is conical in cha.pe. testes li.i: in a cle .rlyvisible
::c.l.'o'tL11n,
The colourin,^,; is d.r:lr.'k, rrlmo:;t uriifo:c•ni in l;onc.
I,emhc7•.' of., thi... I'1111i.l,t.y are mo,, t].y

8
differences in body length-between males and females.- The minimum .
length Cd an adult is 1.2 metres, the maximum 3.8.metres.
These seals are distributed in the cold and tem -nerate waters
of the Pacific Ocean (northern fur seal, northern sea-lion, and California
see-lion), and in the coastal waters of iouth America, Australia,
tk)w Zealand, ,Douth Africa, and Antarctic territories Çsouthern
sea-lions and southern fur seals).
The family consists of six zonera.
Genus Callorhinus -- the northern fur seal. The only member
of this enus is the northern fur seal. ,verage body length is up
to 200 cm; males and females differ markedly in body size. The fur
covering is clearly differentiated into guard hairs end dense woolly
underfur. The adults are dark-brown with grey streaks, and new-born'
pups are black. Where are 34-36 teeth. These animals. are found - on
the.east and west coasts of the northern part of the Pacific Ocean,
and form shore rookeries on the Komandorskie, Pribylov, and Kurile
Islands and on Tyulenii Island.
Genus lumetopias -- the northern sea-lion. -iLepresented by a
single species, the northern sea-lion. The largest member of the
family, body length of males reaching 3.8 metres. The fur covering
is not differentated, and there is no .dense woolly underiur. Whe
colour is mostly uniform rUsty-brown t varyinu considerably with aue
and sex. Distributed in coastal waters of the easter» and western.
parts of the Pacific Ocean (northern regions).
Genus zialophus tac California sea-lion. henresented by a.
single species, the California sea:- lion. Body lentà reaches 2.5
metres. Pur covering without underfur. • uolour cinnamon-brown of
variouc tints. Teeth 34-36. Does not occur in soviet territorial .
waters. Pound along the Californian coast of North :q.lorica and in
the southeastern part of the Sea of Japan.
Gonuu Arctoeellhalus -- the southern fur seal. 2his genus is
re.precented. by seven snecies*: 3outh rnerican, ,outh Afican,
1;crae investiators U,ice and
',..;cheffer, 1 .)66) doubt thl>tt
the Wasmaninn fur socl iG n independent si.ecies and combine - it with
the Australian species.
Zcaland, Australinn, Tilmanian, and hergueleu Cur, and ,hilipps'
or CupLHlulle fur Leal. .2he gei n ts is disi,ributeh in .co;..st:d waLers

......9
of Ûouth Africo., -I^outh America, Ai.i: tralia, and t!ic i:ew 2ecLland islands,
and also occurs in the l.ntarctic Islands, truadalu-ne Island, etc. The
adult males -.tt2.in a. length of more than 200 cr.i, but the fe;lales are
considerably :sl.laller. '1!lie basic colou-,.' is dark-,,, rey. nie fur coverint'
is differentiated into huard hairs and underfur,
Genus Otari,e. -- the South American sea-lion. i,e,)resented. by
a sin^.,le speeies, c;.istributed in the west,crn, .,outilern, and especially
the eastern u.irts of the coe.;^t of ;jouth Arlei:ica. Ac:,.ult males attain
a length of about 250 cm; difference in body len;;th between males and
females is well marked. Basic colour is cinnamon-brov:n with variations
from dark to light tonetis; the pups are black.
Genus iTeophoca^lr --•- the Australian and. *11.ew Zealand s.ea-lion.
il D. !'1. Ri ce and V. B. Scheffer (1963') separate the New
Zealand sea-lion into an independent venus , s-l:ocarcto:^.
Represented by two species, Australian and 1Iew Zea1and, sea-lions.
The former species is distributed on the coa--t and in coastal waters
of ^jouth and West Australia, and the latter in i;etir Zealand and adjacent
islands. The Australian sea-lions are larger than the i:ew
Zealand ones. 1•ia.ximurn body length of males of the former species
is up to 360 cm, and that of the latter up to 330 cm. The females
are usually smaller. The adults are cinnamon-brown in colour, the
males having a. yellow mane; the pups are dark-brown.
Amons• all members of the fe.m9.1y otà.riide.e the zlost important
economically is the northern fur seal, uhic.h is taken by :3oviet and
U.S: sealers in its shore rookeries in the Pacific Ocean.
WALRUSES ---- ODOEA.I..^Nll)A:c,
The walrus family contai.ns a single genus, Odobo.enus. -L'hese
are lar,,e, massive animals, maximum body length of males bein8l more
than 400 clll . üi.ffererlces in body length bet;acen i:,e-^les and females
exist, but are not so marked as in the .fc:mily Ota.riida.e. The rear
flippers ai'ticl.tl

•
10
The head is massive, with a blunt muzzle that bears smoath
vibriasae arranged in more than twelve rows, - The upper jaw contains
large downward-pointing canines, nossessed by both males and females.
There is no external ear pinna. There are 18 teeth.
The tail is a scarcely-noticeable cutaneous projection. The
lie under a layer of.skin and fat, there being no scrotum.
ihe female has two pairs of mammae.
There are warty,outgrowths on
testes
the neck, shoulders, and breast of adult males. The hair covering .
is sparse and predominantly rust-coloured. A peculiarity of internal
structure is a pair of sac-like evaginations in the pharyngeal region,
observed only in adult males.
The walrus is a typical dweller in the seas of tne North At-.
lantic, Pacific, and Arctic Oceans, i.e. of Arctic regions. The •
animals are bioloi,;ically assoaiated with ice-floe s .
and coastal resting-places.
DecauSe of serious diminution of walrus stocks in all
areas of their range, their economic value is restricted to fulfilment
of the needs of local native populations in the Arctic.
Pinnipedia.
The genus contains only one species.
TRUE OR EARLIAsS SEALS -- PHOCIDAA
The family Phocidae contains most of the suécies in the order
The range of body lengths is wide, from 120 to 650 cm.
In the great majority of seals there is little difference in body
. .
size between males and females. The most characteristic external .
features are: the rear flippers are extended behind the body, do not
articulate at the tarsal joint, and are hot usable for movement on .
a firn substrate; there is no external ear at all. The head is compressed
in front; the upper lip bears from six to ten rows of vib-
rissee with wavy ekes.
• , . •
The front and rear flippers are completely covered with fur
and have no cartilaginous fringe. The claws are well 'develope d .
are located at the edge of tac flippers. ale front flippers are '
shorter titan the rear ones.
and
The rear flippers arc capable of con7.
.siderable fan-like exuansion; the outer digits girst and • fifth) , of
the flippers are the most developed.
are covered with a layer of skin and fat.
The tail is short; te testes
The colourin,:; is extremely
varied, but the basic colour or most'seals is arey,' with vnrious

. .... 11
patterns of other colours. . t;ell,nct them on the ;:t1o:L^e. T he economic
value of the family is hic-h; most species, e:,IlE:cial.ly tl'lose that form
concentrations or rookeries on the ice at certain biolo^;ical periods,
constitute the, foundation of the sealing industry.
l'he family contains 1 -;enera, grouped in three subïarlilies:
1) I:'hocinae -- true seals, or those with ton incisors ^ six L;enera) ;
2) I•ionachina.e -- seals with ei„ht incisors ( five f.,enera); 3) Cysto--
phori.nac -- seals with six inci^,ors two C;eneta.) .
NU:t31^AI^iILY
OF TIiUL S1;AI,S -- 1'I[OC1:Pû11-;
Genus î';,rigna.thus -- the bearded seal.
La.r€;est member of the
sulifa.mily; body length un to 270 cm. ,'.olour of fur olive-brown. 1'he
It
longest digit on the front flipper is the t7ird; t3e vibrissae are
smooth, and hanC; over. the lower lip like a beai•cï.. l:i>4 feut^^:ius 1^i,.^re
two pairs of -mc.mme.c. Distribution is circumpolar in the i;orth :itlantic
and I'acific Oceans and in thé Arctic Ocean. The (;enus contains
a single species, the bearded seal.
Genus ï'hoca -- tne 'harbour seal.
In size it occupies an intcrmeü.iate
position in this subfamily, body lenr,tn of acïults being
ur to 215 cm. Its colourint; is characteristic: numerous patches or
streaks of cii-:nar:lon-brol•rn scattered over a. arey baclcr-round. `2 he
longest pha.la.n.[;es on the front flipj)ers are those of tr.e fil-st and
second digits. The females have a single pair of raa::l:liae. Distribution
is patchy, covering the tc,,apera,te and :,ub--: rctic belts of the
continental coasts of the Atlantic and Pacific Ùcean-,^, ct.ntJ also ::orae
l,nl.e,s in ;:nstern Ca.n,z.cla.
The _;;enu:: contains cz .;i.n;,1e sneci.e::, the
17arbour tlerll.
t cnu;.; „wl.ic,'.oel•u; -•-- 'h:c,, ,,r.cy :{c:n.1.. ^, .I:ca; t.i.vc^.l.y l lar e ,leal,
the body len,-;th of a^.u1.t males rc:actlin^; 1.?0 cla. It Itas a loü_;ar
;:tlout th;.ti o th I:r .,era,ls, Lite vaba:is,ol::.c are !.':L,-.Lt.t_tlUcl, W.i.Li l ti•r: vy ecir.•ce
1.,1t: ],oll_U.t [: Cll .L't:i oit 41a! r 1 .[.; ..•î: L'(.i c.1.-C' tlll>^ .L:1..1.•S; [.
; 2! 111

colour of the adults is grey with dark-brown and black spots of various
shapes and sizes; new-born pups are white.
12
The females have a
single pair of mamma°. Distribution is Patchy, restricted to the
seas of the North Atlantic and the Baltic L;ea.
a single species, the grey seal.
The genus contains
, Genus 2a! ,onhilus -- the C.reenland or harn seal. A nedium-
sized seal, maximum boy length being 190 cm.
the front flippers are the first and second.
2he longest digits on
The colourimI is characteristic
adults have large .ring-like patches of dark-brown or
black on a liEht-coloured background; the fur of new-born pups is
white. The females have a single pair of mammae.
This seal iS a
typical inhabitant of the marginal zones of drift-ice in the North
Atlantic and adjacent waters of the Arctic Ocean.
a single species, the harp
seal.
Genus Histriophoca -- the ribbon.seal.
The genus contains
A medium-sized seal,
maximum body length being 190 cm. The most characteristic distinctive
feature is the peculiar colouring of the.adults -- a monotone
dark background on the body, but in the sacral and cervical regions
and round the head there are,fairly wide ribbon-like closed white
rings.
pair of mammae.
The fur of ne.' -born pups is white. The females have a single
Anatomical features include an air-sac, formed from
an outgrowth of the trachea, in the males.
Listributed in trie northern
nart of the .gacific Ocean.
the ribbon seal.
Genus Pusa -- ringed seals.
The genus contains a Qingle species,
This genus contains the smallest
members of the .11bfamily Phocinae; the maximum body length of adults
being 170 cm.
,he colouring is varied, with a dark background predominating
UmonoLone or with•spots, stripes, and rings). New-born
pups are white.
The snout is usually short; the second and first
diits of the front flipners are trio longest. Èlie females of ail
in this genus have a single pair of mammae. hirk;ed seals species
are widely distributed in th-• waters of the àrctic Ocean, the horth
àtlantic Ocean, the northern part of the Pacific Obean, and the daltic
,Jeri,
and also in *inland waters -- the Oaspian, Sen and Lakes
T;aikal, Ladoga, Onec;a, and saima (in ifinland). .ei2roduction and
moultin,: take place on the ice. rids eL enus containsethree species;
the ringed seal or akihi, the nopinn seal, npnal
•
•

SIALS taI^_'H SIX INCISORS -- zjUJ3FltkILY CY;z•t'0F•H01tlî;A,-,'
Genus l.;ystonhora -- the hooded seal. it fairly large seal,
body length of adult males being up to 280 cm. 1)istinctive external
features are: the front part of the snout of adult males
possesses
a well--markéd cutaneous outgrowth -- a sac-like cavity, which in the
rel,-.i.xed
state hangs over the mouth, but which is capable of being
infltlted in the form of a se.c or crest; the first digit on the front
l'lip;)c:rs is the longost; the vi.brissae are f lat•l:enc.d, tritii w,,.tvy ed^-,es.
•1'he
basic colour of the adults varies from dark-6-rey to brown, with
irregularl,y-shaped patches of blackish-brown scattered over it. l^Iewborn
pups are bicoloured: the back and sides are light-g•rey with
bluish tints., and the belly is white. The fe::lales have a single pair
of mammae.
Distribution is restricted to the drift-ice zone of the
North Atlantic and adjacent parts of the Arctic Ocean. ,he genus
.conte.ins a single species, the hooded seal.
Genuo ,dirounga -- the. elephant seal. The lart;est member of
the order Pinnipedia. 'he body length of adult males exceeds 600 cm,
14
the females beinL,:; much smaller. At the end of the males snout there
is a peculiar cutaneous outgrowth or proboscis, which becomes prominent
at the end of the second year of the animal's life, and in the
adults attains, a length of 40 cm. When the seal is. disturbed the
proboscis inflates and increases greatly in size. The unir covering
is sparse and short, and its colour varies with age. The adults are
cinnamon-brown, the females being darker than the males; new-born
pups are çovered with soft bla.ck.hair. There are two geographical
races of elephant seals: the northern race is found on the_coasts of
Mexico and Southern California, and the southern race in sub--linta.rctic
regions, includin.- islands on which the animals breed (Kerguelen,
^,outh Geo-rk,ia, tt)(, Gouth Shetloncis, etc.). rhe ^;enus includes two
species, the. northern and southern elephant. seals.
âEALâ l•II'I.'II L^1GI-i`l' II:CI`-J013S -- 5111_-}?A;-II,Y IiOI:!1CIiItiA ^
Genu:, i•iori7c:Iiurî -- the morik sea1. iines:e are fairly
lar,:;e, the body len,;th of a,du].ts beinl; -about 240 crn (viediterranean
species) . :'.:c b clc^;ro^ind colour. of the aaults is ciiocolate-brown on
the b;1ok and I,rey on he belly, co:rnetii'ics wili Cc: i.e:Wboz:•n
pups are, black. In conLrcLot to othc:a: I,VuC: :.Urllo, Ln4 clawo on
11

the'rear flippers are very small and inconsplcuous;
-›
the vibrissae
are smoàth.. The females have two pairs of mammae. The genus cdntains
three species: 1) the Kediterranean monk seal, which is also
included. in-USSR fauna; 2) the (aribbean monk eal; 3) thellawaiian
monk seal. •_2he genus is distributed in three separate regionS of
the subtropical zones of the Atlantic and :èacific Oceans: 1) the
Eediterranean,,Adriatic, and Aegean beas, part of the Llack sea,and
the region of Ind Atlantic Ocean adjacent to North Africa; 2) the
West Indies and the Caribbean Sea; and 3) trie Hawaiian Islands area.
Cenus Lebtonychotes -- Weddell's seal.
1 4
The body length exceeds
300 cm.. The adult colouring varies considerably but the back
is usually dark-grey with scattered lighter patches of irregular
shape, and the belly is of lighter hue. The pups,are grey, with a ,
darker stripe along the back.
Distributed in the Antarctic and in
sub-Antarctic islands. The genus contains one species, Weddell's seal.
Uenus Lobodon -- the crab-eater seal. The body length of
adults exceeds 250 cm.
The adults are of a light silvery colour,
with temporary colouring (after the moult) of greyish-brown with
sparse dawk spots.
The embryonic coat of the young is soft and lux- '
uriant, greyish-brown. Distributed in Antarctic waters., keeping to
areas of pack-ice; in summer they approach the ice-foot of the continent.
In general this seal leads a pelagic mode of life. The
genus contains a single species i the crab-eater seal..
seal
Genus Hydrurga -- the leopard. L fairly large seal, the
A
body length of adults exceeding 300 cm. The trunk is long. and slender,
the. neck is thin, and the head is broad, with a snake-like mouth,
The adults are dark-grey on the back and slightly'lighter-coloured
on the sides, with scattered dark spots of irregular•Shape; the belly
is light-grey, almost white.
The embryonic coat of new-born pups is •
soft and luxuriant, dark-grey on the back with an almost-black .
:tripe
along the spine; the sides and belly are white, with-irregular dark
spots.
Widely distributed in sub-Antarctic waters, and also in .the
pack-ice region of Antarctica itnelf.
Genus Ommatobhoca hoss's seal. As witn otner .,,ntarctic
seals, the body is fairly large -- more tnan 250 cm long.
Yhe body
looks stumpy -- short and thick --•snd trie flij. ers are dieproportionately
1 onui Lie head J. s bronti ana ohorb; tac nnouL in rbunt...ed and
•

very short.
• •
15.
The adults are dark-grey with a darker stripe along,the
spine; the belly is light-coloured with pale »pots and streaks. Distributed
in the icy'rei.,:ions of the Antarctic, but is of fairly rare
occurrence. Tho genus contains a single Species, Ëoss's'seal.
Modern systematics includes 20 seal Genern,* represented by
32 species, in the order *Pinnipedia*. The large-st rababers of genera
* Belkin (1967) lists a new 33rd species,. the island seal or
antur (Phoca insularis sp. nova); W. Rice and B. ,cheffer (1968)
- also raise that form to species level as rhoca kurilonsis Junkae, 1942.
and species are found in the family Phocidae (13 genera, 18 species);
. there are•somewhat fewer in the family Otariidae (six•enera, 15 species).
The family Odobaenidae contains only one genus and one species.
All the pinnipedes in the world's oceans can be classified
according to the regions where they live into a few large geographical
groups;
pinnipedes of the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans;
pinnipedes of the northern part of the Pacific Ocean;
seals of'inland waters (Caspian Sea, Lake Baikal, Lake .
Ladoga, etc.); and
seals of the southern hemisphere.
. That classification of pinnipedes is justifiable and is convenient
for discussing the biologY of themarine mammals that inha-.
bit the various regions of the world's•oceans.
CRAPTÏ ,ifi 2
PIUIPEDIA OF TI1E NORTH ATLUTIU A-D AuCTIC
The Jorth Atlantic and the Arctic occupy a leadinG place
among the world's oceans.with respect to the numbers of pinninede
species thnt live in them.
The pinninedes found there are mostly
members of the . rhocidae family -- hall) seal, heeded seal, •
rinGed seal, benrded seal, harbo.Ar seal, and Grey seal; another
pinnipede tnat is found there is the •nlrus.
Althous;h the number of seal species in that reGion is not
particularly high, sono of them are the princii:al quarry of sealing
oh! po nnd shore-based sealinG. That is esecially the case with the
abuidnnt species the harp
seal, yhich forms three herds (the
\Juite uea, the jan mayen, and llte i,ewfounnland herds) ae(i which is

..... 16
one of the most important d,mong the world's mammals that are. hLinted
for commercial nuxi)oses. aeveral hundred thousand of these animals
are killed annually by various countries in all the re;ions inhabited
by them. _P•.nother abundant si.Decies.livin&^, in t:le North ..tl:^ntic
the hooded seal -- is imx,ortant in the maritime sealing illdustry,
especi ^.lly for Ilor^re^sealer.s. `T 'he rinUed seal is widely distributed
and fairly abundant alon- the whole Arctic coast, and although
it 3. , not huntecl from see,li.nr; chips it plays a sub:, t a.nt:ial x.•ole in
shorc;-bar,clcl huntir;O>, pavti,cula.r:l.y that by the local population of the
Arctic.
Other pinnipedes in that reE;ion, because of their s;ilall numbers,
are of minor importance in the total take. ';falrus-huntin.-
from ships is universally prohibited.
All the above pinnipede species occur in USâit and adjacent
waters, but the species of greatest economic im--)ortance in nort'tzern
reg-ions are the harp
sea]. (the White t;ea herd) and tiie ringed
seal; the latter is hunted along the entire boviet Arctic coast. The
bearded seal (which lives in the Arctic) and the grey and hzlrbnur
seo.ls (which are found mainly in the :1siLltic ;ekc.) do not play a sub--
It
sts,nti.cl role in coastal hunting; they are not abundant, and are taken
only in small numbers. Limited shooting of walruses is permitted to
meet the needs of local -residents.
Iiarp ^3eal (Pa^onhilus ,r.oenlandicus Erxl., 1777)
The basic colour of adult 11ctrp
seals is âlnlost white;
there is a single elonç;ated patch, darit-br.•:,wn or almost black, on
each side of the body; in shape the patch re^embles a closed wing
(Fig. 1).
The pups aie born in luxuriant white embryonic fur with
a greenish tinge and are called zelents,y ("greencoats"). !,'rom threo
to five days after birth the greenish tin,^e disappears and thc Lups'
colour becomes pure white (they are then called belli t•'whitecoats-).
_!^t
the age of four weeks the wllitecoats shed thuix cl^lbryonic fur and
acClui]:e a ^^ l^c:y, slao't,ted coat, . l^ei.n„ then crl].lt d^^rlc.i ('bl.llt ; ides )
that coat, with an^s,ular brown spots of small size scattered ove: a
lit^,ilt-^;t'e:l ilcclc^;.r.ouncl,
is retained by juveniles. .:ho:.e spots clisapuear
from the c,la jority of the seals after foul: or five ,r i^axs, and
tue ar19.:.:alc, i.llen acquire the adult colouri.n,;. 'l111e ul

z
CL
-._.. .^
10 A. ,y '
^....•.: ^il-^^ '`
'.
.^•^` ^: ^`^
+^ l
\\•.;r
•^ •7
..v
\ . ' ^n o •..
1y f ^i J
^e t . .
cL a
Pilo, i.
SIO.9l„b;
o - nlpoc:iwP cameir, 6•- naPacaan caw.a: 0-110,
IIOf,On03PB.1L11( TtoYCllb; 2- GC.7CK; d- SOXB)'W::A^
B - cep6q.
:I,'i8. -1. "is'x'p l seals. a) Adult male; b) adult female;
c) sexually--imnature juvenile; d) belek (,.'i;sitecoat) ; e) k_hokhlushlca
(intermediate sta^_;e between belek and. serka); f) serka (bluesides).
B0-90 cm. 'The body weight of adults is up to 160 lcg, and that of
new-born pups averages 8 kg.
The ha7'p
seal is a typical dweller in the cold waters
of the Atlantic Ocean and. the- marginal zonos of drift--ice in the
Arctic Oce1n. 'Ohe western boundary of its ranee
2) runs from
the C,ulf of ai;. Lawrence and ^\ewfoundlarrd to the I,a.brador ï'enin:;ula
and northwestward to L-affin Island as far @-.s Lancaster ..,ound; -the
nortl,e)2n boundax,y is the surl::Ier limit of dri:CT,-ice in the k^anadian
Arctic, running approtimal;ely along ti,e parallel of 60o I41, and in
the Gl.'eel,lc.nd ,io,t from IloTthCCt,:,L•ern (:rc?C:nicsll^.t to i;ilU nor.Gil1•leatel'I-L
i,i.7> of :,pit:,bc,r„es, and thi,rl cln:stwLaxd alon,, t,.(- ed! u o.f ire- 1"ield
north of
Land and the archipelo.p:o of oevc1•nayrr
').'}1F` efI,Stet`11 boullilfl7'y of the :L`élIl ;'e ].'uns a1oI1,:; Lite 1•/l'Si,i'I'il t:il1e ol' the
archipel _s.f;o of ,;i v.ex'rsr.yr,. `,uin1/FC. 'Pilo r^soutiscrs, baun,i:^:r.y i:l dotca:mj.Iied
l^y l:nk, Ilo:slti.nn of the c:cl,;c ot

• • 1 0
C.
'Ea' tStl' hi' of 1,,, ,
..„
. e• ..:;1
•a. .
C.
%43,;•
/ ,//•' / / '
/.,•••••,
i./„:/,
• • -
•• ,
•
• 1
.Led.
'•'.?
- t
•‘• ‘i
,•,. • 1:• • .'‘, 1 •
.•
elf
••• 9
• ••.-
.•-•
•
1,2; .
• 1,
'
• 7 ••:.
t„ •
O °
.;•>,/
:.,1111-of
Ilairpcilop".
• - . • ,
%
•
, • 771,
M
D'
•r.
2fr
I
Puc. 2..PK.upueipaitcuuc. rpeu.ianitc.Kôro (/) it XON.1:0ia (2).
Fig. 2. Ranges of harp seal (1) and of hooded seal (2).
Key: 1) jevernaya Zemlya. 2) Kara :Jea. 5) EcIvaya Zemlya.
4) White 'sea. 5) Snitzbergen. 6) Hudson Bay. 7) Laffin Island.
8) Greenland. •9) Jan Mayen Island. 10) Iceland. 11) Labrador
Peninhula. 12) Newfoundland.
puring the breeding and moultin, periou .„.,
the seals concentrate
in three relatively-iolated areas: 1) in the.i.ewfoundlabd and
Gulf of bt. Lawrence region (Newfoundland herd); 2 ;
in trie Jan mayen
region (Jan Layon herd); and 5 in the White Sea and adjacent parts
)
of the 2arents ea (White bea herd). In summer Lulu autumn the Seals
disperne within te limits of their rnnge. .‘.11
..ewfounelebd 110Yd
occupies the ro61on of ice-field edr,es between Lee eaJuLrn coasts
of the Ganadian Arctic and northwestern Greenlno; t.o Jan mayen
herd, the reï.;ion between northeastern Greeniane and "West -pitzbergen;
Lind the White lea herd disperses in the nortnern parts of Lee 'Barents
oea and the northwestern parts of the. Kara :)eb.
members of the White

..... 19
Sea and Jar,

' 20
The seals of tne White Sea herd send'the sumMer and autumn
in the marinal zone of the ice in the Barcnts and Kara .;eas, and
are usually found in flocks and groups in the vicinity of West
Spitzberen, in the bays of Lovaya Zemlya, and in-the.s . t.raits of
Franz-Josef Land and .evernaya Zemlya. Wnen trie ede of the ice
moves southward the seals migrate .
in search of food along the west
and east coasts of hovaya Zemlya and appear on the *Kanin coast in
late autumn and in the White Sea in january and ?Lbruary; at the end
of February they form.pupping rookeries in the White Sea, usually in
the southern part of the entrance channel.
.fter the end Of the
breeding season they move northward into the ice-field regions adjoining
the Barents Sea, where they form moulting rookeries. Sexu- •
ally-immatUre individuals from the open part of the Barents Sea also
come there. The moulting perio d . ends in late -.1.ḻay; the seals then
leave the ice and gradually migrate into the Arctic regions of the
Barents and Kara Seas, where they spend the summer and early autumn.
The pupping seasons of the different herds of harp seals
do not coincide in time. In the White Sea the females produce their
young mainly at tee end of February and the beginning of i•arch; in
'.iewfoundland, during the first days of i'iaroh; and at Jan ;.ayen Island,
at the end of the first-half of March. Tne time when seal-hunting
begins is restricted to the period of mass pupping: in the White Sea
it is March 1, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence arcn 5, • on the drift-le e .
east of hewfoundland 1Jarch . 10, and in the Jan hayen area i.iarch 20.
:Curing the formation of'pupPing rookeries the feales sélect
ice masses with patches of open water and crevaeses, and also firstyear
ice • packs with large and small blocks of ice or ice- fields with
hummocks, which serve as natural shelters for tue new-born pups.
The formation of pupping rookeries may last for several days; the
•
females that have puireed are gradually joined by other prenant
females, so tha . z.. the ages of 'tne pups in a rookery are not all the
same. .fhe latest-born pups are 11ually found on tue periphery of
tee rookery. . •
As a rule, eaeh female produces a
pu aLd rmains with
it un t!]. Ln, end of tue lactation peried, »tie ouratton of which has
been recorded as boin c; 16- 20, days. A female fceds.oniy her own pup. -
Ihmally sue feAs her pus two or three times durihu tire daylight part

.
21
of the day; some cases of suckling at night nave also'been obserVed.
The maximum duration of a single feeding is 25. or 30 minutes, and
the amount of milk consumed at each feedinc: by a pup a few days old
exceeds one litre.
'!ith the consumi;tion of so much milk, the fat content of'which
exceeds normally-developing pups increase rapidly in weight,
especiilly during te firs t half of tue 1L , ctation period 11 .1) to 2.5
or 5.0 kg per day). tue end of the lacLatiol. period their weight
has 'increased to three or four times that al, birth (in pups of the
White iea herd, up to 35 or 40 kg ; and the t_ickness of their fat
reaches 4-6 cm. _\mong the nor:.ally-developing pups one occasionally
comes upon individuals whose growth and development have been checked,
and which have been transformed into "stervelingsn underneurished
animals with abnormally lare heads and humped backs. The majority
of female seals in the White Sea herd complete lactation by the end
of the second ten days in illarch; those in the bewfoundland herd, somewhat
• ater; and those in the Jan Mayen herd, in the first ten days
in April.. The duration of tue lactation period is about three weeks.
• The mating period is preceded by fierce fighting among the
males. The seals-then form pairs, and spend the greater part of the
time in the water. Mating by the majority of the seals in the White
Sea 'herd begins about mid-arch and lasts two weeks, concluding at
the end of March. Copulation takes place both in the . water and on
the ice. The first to mate are primiparous young females, .which
appear in the area occupied by the males before the older females
have finished suckling their pups. -A very small number of females
mate for the first time before the age of three years, but most mate
at four or five years of age .. The males attain sexual maturity at
the age of five years. Haro ' seals are monogamous. The i)eriod
of gestation, together with the latent stage of embryonic development,
lasts about 11 months.
The . first sipyis of loosenimr of tac emoryonic fur appear in
pups aged 10-12 days, and by the age of 20 days (nt bne end of the
.second ten days in i,nrch) most of the pups on th) White jea ice are
in an intensiv-,:: moulting stage. 2he duration of tile moulting period
(countin,; from the time of loosening of the fur). - is Lwo. weeks. At
th P end of it tne pups al.e 30-55 days old.
•

4
..... 22
-The females cease to suckle during the period of intensive
moulting by the pups. Until the end of the moult the well-fed pups
do not move,about much, subsisting on tht:ir accumulated fat. After
completing the moult the pups in the serlca sta^,e remain on the ice
f.o.r. sonie time, eoncentra.tinT, near patches 0f' open wszter. and mig7ating
pas.•ively by drifting on ice-floes. At t'riat time they scarcely eat
at all, and tlieir state of nutrition declines. r;osi; of tne pups leave
the :i_ce-f7.oes n,Cter tlae,y have drifted into to twar;^ina,l zonr; of the
i.ce-field, and then be^;in active migration into the area:, of intensive
fatteni'r_n-.
In adults the ^aoulting period begins aftc:r the end of matin-.
The first r:ioultinr; rookeries are formed by adult males; later these
are joined by sexually-immature individuals arriving frc,m the open
sea;
the arrival of the lai;ter.extends over a period of time. Adult
females are the last to arrive for moulting. Thus practically the
entire seal herd is represented in the moulting rookeries, except for
young of the year. The moulting rookeries are characterized by considerable
concentration of the animals in relatively-small areas
located in the centre of large i ce masses.
In tile 'iiiîite Se a the lïiollltl.nc:,' rookeries begin to foï'iii in iate
I-larch and early April. It is beliéved that the entire seal herd is
congre{;ated on the ice at the beginninL, of i^,ay. At approximately the
same time, or somewhat later, the seals of the Newfoundland herd form
moulting rookeries on drift-ice to the northeast of .1+ewfc,undland and
southern Labrador. „eals living in the Gulf of St. Lawrence evidently
do not form complete rookeries in which animals of all age groups
occur, because du-rin^ April the ice in that are.-,. me.1 ts or is carried
into the open sea through.the straits, and the seals complete their
moult in the water. The formation of moulting rookeries by seals of
the Jan MGyeri herd begins later; at the end of April only congregation
o.f adul t males is observed there, and appa-rent-ly tiie peak of the
moultin,r, pei-iocl cor.qes only at the end of i.,a.y.- TI ►e^ da.te of tue end
of moul.tin,^; hi;.; not been adequately determ.inc(l. l t may apr,z i•antly
.i.'luctu)to ri.ccoa:dinr, to the condition of tne ice--field: when tua ice
break.; up enxly, hie period. spent by the on tne ic,i is less,
In 1;.ao l^lhitu .,ea the u"Ixli.est .di.si:ersal from moua.ti.r,,•:- rookeries has
4
been recorciuct -i t, I;r,e ^:üd of ;1i,ri1, ai id tti... l,til.e;;t .in i;,.e l'it^ct lla lf

of June. It appears that t h.:.!
23
seals do not lie on the ice until-they
have fihished moulting, but that the break-up of the ice hastens
their departure into the water.
After the end of the moult all. age groups of the • animals
feed intensively on the , Arctic margins of the ice-fields for seven
or eight months. During that period the seals, dividing into small
flocks and groups, wander over a large territory in search of food.
Their main food items, especially in summer, are small crustaceans
Euphausiacea and Amphipoda, also small cephalopeds, etc.
autumn and winter fishes predominate in the diet: Arctia cod (one of
the chief components of the diet), capelin, herring, and to a lesser
extent cod and redfish.
Seals can dive very deep in search of food.
Seal-hunting has been carried on in the Gulf of St. Lawrence' .
. and Newfoundland waters for more than 200 years. It reached a peak
in the middle of the 19th century (from 1830 to 1849 the annual take
averaged about 460,000 seals). During the second half of the century
the annual take did not exceed 280,000 seals; it fell sharply during
World War 1, and during the post-war period did not exceed 200,000. -
,In 1920-29 the average take was 144,000, and in 1950-39 it was 153000.
At the beginning of World War II the takea,gain fell sharply, .
and it regained the pre-war level only in 1948 (154,000). ror a long
time sealing in thiS area was carried on by 'Newfoundland ships, with
sporadic participation by ships front Denmark, Prance,..the U.S.A., and
other countries. Norwegian sealers began to operate there in 1938,
and Canadian sealers in 1957.
In
In 1961 and 1963 a ...,oViet ice-breaker
visited the ewfoundland r,:L.;ion for sealing; its take was 11,400 seals
in 1961 ,and 17,500. in 1963.
.rhe post-war period was marked by a rapid increase in the •
number of seals taken by CanaMan and Norwegian sealing vessels.
(Table 1). The greater part of the take in 1;ewfoundland waters was
by orwegian sealers.• In recent years Canada hns not anly Used ships
in the industry: since 1963 small aeroplanes and helicopters have .
been used in the Gulf of
Lawrence, land ing hunter.s on tue pup-
pinu /rounds and carrying awuy tu 0 products of Laeir operatians.
he numbers of seals taken by means of air transport fro 1965 to
1967 fluctuated between 16,000 . and 56,0ù0. ;11ore - La.Jea seal - nuntin
by loo: I J.L j 11 unto on Lilo 0On Li LU or Li IC CLUJ' o r
•

• • • . 2A^
IIO:Il1118
11i1C.leEfOCltll.lfl ;liR^lA'I!l f1iC^!.1fli1.lt:,Urp l'IO,:C:Lfl Cl'.ItTildll Il(!I)^IL1C:I)^I q r^a^loH^
O. I1;'..4tLl 11 .rUalçaa C u. ul::')l'ctlll7.^,
a lsna Cn. .I d t cl•tr..t i
1 Pa;i(m o, f l ,a}yt: an. •: ul
^
--»^------'----
--------
•^ 1:att,,,^r ---t::•^t.crtt.ṭ .î I

tê
were operating around Jan Mayen Island in 1073, and only one or two
25- .
:nglish•ships Durina more than a century the horwegian take only .
once reached 120,000 (in 1873, and during the following 100 years
it has not exceeded 50,000. From 1900 to 1909 the average annual '
take - was 15,700 seals; from 1910 to.1919, 20,700;- from 1920 to 1929,
25,900; and from 1930 -to 1939, 53,700. As in ()tiler parts, of the ilorth-
Atlentic,.the seal take at jan Mayen island fol], during tee years Of
World War II and rose aeln sherply durinc the post-wor puriod. J rom
1947 several tens of Borwegian sealing schooner; Visited•that region
every year; the greatest numbers of seals were taken durinF; tee first •
post-war years (33,000-59,000), alter which tee extent .
of the industry
declined (Table 2;. Up to 1955 only 1orwer1an Ghips took seals in
the Jan Mayen region, but from that year until 1,966 .joviet sealing
schooners alî:o operated there (see Table 2).
Ta6Auna• 2
)lo6brta rpeumas,uEoro Tlojl, u s R paUtio o. 5fu-Ma5eu ooc.fie 1915 r.
..... I ki)nentsi ..) CcA:P
i
.,
Brzro,
; ■-a,o6r.:q.i, .3 q- Aoe.a.ria. •TIM... r.opn
wiceo cy,lon ,,,,,, „..,,, ,l1:•:.."0 CY.:Ce 1. :s.:. roaon
1916 16 16,2 -- 16,2
1917 33 36,4 __ 34 ,1
1948 51 59,8 _- -- 5 3 ,8
1919 44 34,5 __ __ . 31 ,. 5
' 1950 41 33,3 -- -- 3 3,3
1951 56 52 ,7 -- -- 52,7
1952 18 44,7 __ -- 44,7
1953 38 33,9 _- -- 33,9
1954 40 29,1 __ 29,1
1955 45 37,4 2 3,0* 41,3
1956 43 15,8 14 11,6* 27,1
1957 40 16,6 14 12,9 29;5
1938 47 32,0 8 7,9' 39,9
1939 45 30,7 7 6,8 - 37,5
1060 41 99,9
-
I
3,2 33,1
1961 40
cs7 .)
1 9,2 8 • 8,0 .... ,...
1962 12 28,8 7 2 , 2 31,0
1933 43 14,8 8 1,9 16,7
1961 36 5,9 8 4,4 . 10,3 .
1965 38 21,1 7 6,2 30,3
1966 31 26,0 4 0,2 26,2
1967 23 21,1 -- -- 21,1
1968 23 21,3 -- 21,3
1907 .20 5,6 __ -- 5,6
/ PAICCTO C NCIN:1.1 ■ K`M , n06'01 ,0(0 r,06141`a.inen IleCK(V11. Z.1 CO teil
YABL2; 2. lake of Ilare
1,eien since 1945.
-cals in the inn riayen island
• Ley: 1 ; Year. 2) horway. 5) ho , of snips. 4; flo. of seals
tken ('000). 5, tUli. 6) Yotal ( 1 000). 7, *Vor:cuher witn hooded
seals, 01 Which some hundreds were taiam.

j.P,s in the I^ielifoundland region, the majority of ltar-n seals taken
^
1
at Jan Mayen Island were pups. The extent of pup kill during the
post-war period is shown b,, i,'orwèc,ian statistics. `l'he average annual
take from 1946 to 1965 was 35,400 seals, including 2E3, ^00 pups (E31i0)
and 6,900 adults and sexually-imms,tur,- individuals
In the White ;^ea. di.irin- th,_ Second half of the 19th century
the annual sea.l kill by coaotal rc•sidents on the shore and from boats
Was up to 50,000 or 60,000. From 1£375 to 1896 the nur.tbers so killed
fluctuated from 8,900 to 59,600 (Table 3). In 1097 seal hunting from
ma:ll small sail--boats, in addition to huntin- on the shore, began to
develop vigorously in the White Sea, and later steam-boats also were
used.
I
Ta6nttu:1 3
,V,rj5tava. rpett7a1i; cticra T10?e11A B Ge :o'f it FaptY!tet+a.t »opnx c 1875 no 19•10 r.,
761C. ro:h:C
(
C^Ua
 pycc: !:ü nl::,s!!:!.ea
-
3
J
6eperonoll cy7 ô uo!7 ncero
^
o. !:cr.!:fi
cyAWzon t!{.0-
"We."I
^^
Iho;o
--^ _
from
1875--1879 33,0 - 33,0 7,0 40,0
1850-1884 .28,0 28,0 9,3 37,31
1885-1.,Q9 17,8 - 17,8 17,3 â ^,1
JRIO_ 1.4^^-1 21,8 -- 21,8 26,1 -17,9
1893-1699 62,4 - 62,4 33,7 93,i
19011- 1904 37,0 - 37,0 54,9 . 91,9
l(^, U,- 14'09 ^1,6 - 21,6 66,2 h7,8
1910--•191ÿ .11,0 - 41,0 96,3 1;37,3
1915-1919 37,3 14,7 52,0 102,3 15.! ,3
192:,--- 1921 5,â 52,5 58,0 151,3 2,):?,3
192,5-1929 14,0 123,0 137,6 215,4 3 53,0
1930--19A 10,7 124,4 135,1 117,1 ! 3:",2
1935•-1939 12,1 1-16,0 158,1 32,3 17v,-1
! ^
TABLE 3. Take of 'Harp
1875 to 1939 ( '009j. '
Seals in White and Larents Seas
Key 1) Years. 2) Russian take. 3) On shore. 4) iiy ships.
5) Total. 6) Take by Norwegian ships. 7) Total.
Seal-hunting by itus=ian ice-breakers in tue White ,3ea*began
in 1918. -.-'rom 192-,j. to the beginning of World 'rlar 11 four or five
ice-breakinp, steamers were sent out every year for seal-hunting in
the White and Barents Seas. !•!ooden sealing vessels also took part
in the industry.
; orwel:;ia,n sealers ber.;a.n systematic hun Lin;,-of ha ri- seals
in the ',!hite :;ea in t!ka: late 1860's.
and the take of seals p.rr?c:uall,y inercase^i .
The nu:ubcz• of vessi ls ern:,loyed
l,ur^:i n,; th''. ycars o(' II li(:) 1:11il,;j did

not take seals in the Uhite and Larents Seas.
27
Soviet sealing also.
decreased, and the average take from- 1940 . to 1945 was 80,000 seals,
including 10,400 taken by shore hunting.
11, The first decade of post-war sealing was again marked by an - 19
increase in thc take of-seals (Table 4). Ice-breaking steamers took
part in the industry, and (from 1952)
. sealing schooners also. Nrom
four to>six ice-breakers operated from 1946- to 1952,• but later their
number decreased to from two to four, and in 1960-65 Only one icebreaker
accompanied the schooners into the White Sea ice. 'rhe number
of :::oviet sealing schooners operating was greatest in 1955 (16); the
nuMber going out.each year from 1956 to 1962 waa from seven to ten,
and in 1962-64 it was only five or six..
Since 1965, in order to •
restore the stocks of seals, tue Soviet Union has prohibited the use .
of sealing -
to 20,000 pups.
ships and has restricted the take by the local population
Norwegian hunting . of harp seals in the neutral.waters
of the White Sea was renewed in 1953. In 1955-57 froM 16 to 20 Seal- •
ing schooners visited that region each year, but in 1956-64 the numper .
fell to ten or eleven, and since 1965 only from five to seven shipd
of small tonnage have been engaged in sealing, their take being at
the 1953-55 level.
. Sexually-immature and adult animals (40-60) formed a large
proportion of the take by Soviet ships up to 1962, but after 1962 the
majority of the take consisted of pups (70-60'»); the local poimlation.
took only pubs in 1965-69 • t •
he
Intensive exploitagon of A
harD sel stocks in North' . 20
Atlantic waters made it necessary to obtain data on the absolute num-:
bers •of the animals and on the condition of their stocks
. Determination of seal numbers by the aeronhotograchy metnod
was first'oranized and applied by Soviet seientists in the White
Sea in 1926.. The results of aerophoto eçraphic surveys. of moulting
concentrations of seals., and analysis of the se: and 't ;e composition • •
of tne animals, made it possible to calculate tic se:... population at
5,000,000, excluding young of the year. 1:ne next c'encuses of :;eals
made by aerophoz.)craphy o£ moultilig• rookeries wuro oarricd out only
in 1952 and 1955, when 72 .:!,OU0 and 514,00 ,oals re,i,ectively were
photoHrph(d on Ldie ico.
ne total .ckn wort! u:iti.lzaued .at from
•

..... 28
roa
19•I6
151 7
19'14
TaG.,1nua 4
'IoGf^lva rpcnal,a cl;oro T l, a, n}t n Ec;lo',l n Fa;^emlcso^+ nlopnx
noc: ^ I:l:.ï r., iwc. ro:{oa
Z rcws!rca CC-'-P ,•
`; _. --- l l n^rcaa{:{ul
. -^
^QnCI'OC^{7`--I Ç)•;7e -v^17 I ACCI'O JrO>ltiCCa
-
-^^
S,Ij----- 71,1
c{,
8
151 , 3
1F1 , 1 ---
8,5 137,8 116,3 --
1 311 t,t,,lo
Y
79,1
161 , 1
115,3
1N1 41,r! 17:3,5 1:'3,•k •1
1950, 7,9 156,i3 19•1,7 - 1f11,7
1951 10,8 181,1 192,2 ► 92,2
1952 12,^ 109,3 121,5
1953 10,7 77,6 833 12,5 100,8
1954 2,.1 150,:1 152,3 13,4 1û6,2
1955 3,D 9 =1,•1 97,9 11,6 109,5
19:- 6 2,7 6n.3 E5,0 25,1 93,1
1957 3,9 103,9 107,8 ^^2,3 !31),1
1958 -- 113,0 113,0 15,1 12-s ,1
1939 2,3 96,3 98,6 8,6 Io-,,2
1950 3,8 89,3 93,1 10,7 103,5
1961 3,3 93,4 96,7 11,1 107,8
1962 12,7 106,9 119,6 8,3 127,9
1963 7,0 62,4 09,4 13,3 3^,;
1964 1119,3 13,4 62,7 1-1,5 77,`_'
1965 20.0 - 20,0 6,-1 2ù.4
19:ï6 20,0 - 20,0 12.2 32,
19^7 .(),o - 20.0 11,6 ',; , ^3 G
19G; 20,0 20,0 1,5,1 35,1
1969 21,6 --• 21,6 11,9 33,5
'l'A]3I,i z^. Take of 1-lr:r::-
Seas since 1949 ('000).
Seals in tiie Ik/hite and Barents
:•:ey: 1) Year. 2) USSIt take. j) Url shore. 4) By ships.
5) Total. 6) Take by i:orwegiarl ships. 7) Total. .
1.2 to •1.5 million. Later aerial pl•iotographic ^urveys were ,lladc in
1962, 1963, and 1967, when 179, 000, .165,000, and 334,600 ulou].tino
seals respectively were counted on the ice. An aerial plioto,,a.'aphic
count of adult females was also made durint; the pupping period in
1963, and showed that there were 60,000 arlimals on the ice; a:,urvèy
of the females Nves made
in 1967, only 70,000 fe:ilales being
then counted on the ice.
Por severA years Canadian investij:,ators have been carrying
out censuses of the "Newfou.rldlarld herd of llt.r!, seals by theaerophoto,;rs.phic
method. The ,^.erisl'pholo^,r^ph., axe taken durin;
the 1)1-eE.din„ period. 1950 and 1951 645,000 pubs 1d-1•e cou11-^Cü on
the ice, includin,c,-; 430,000 to the northeast of 14owfoullCll;:rld ( the so"
called "!front," ref;•ion) and 215,000 in the G1i11' of .;t..
'l'he
total sl;,:.cks were eet i;imated at 5-3 million '.k'he rc.,ul ts of ..
tlF)r.1.;1l (:111;Y•'vC."y.`3 ';1£lilE.' iti 1959 and 1960sl1C,17, ll :-I. i1C:c1'i?1,^e in the nlliaber

of puis to 365,000 (215,000 in the "front" region and 150,000 in the
In 1964 the number of pups was calculated at 550,000 (200,000
in the "front" region and 150,000 in the Gulf).
The numbers of the jan Mayen herd of harp
29
seals have not
been determined by aerial photographic surveys, • but the stocks in, that
region are considerably smaller,than those in the ewfoundland and
White Sea herds. !malysis of the statistics of i:orwegian sealing at
Jan Mayen Island and the age and sex composition of the animals shows
that in that area also there is a tendency to decrease in* the numbers.
Intensive post-war exploitation of the harp
seal stocks
. resulted in diminution of the stocks in all Sealing areas, which in
turn made it necessary to introduce sonie measures of internationa l .
regulation of the industry.
In 1957 an agreement was concluded between
the UUR and 1.orway "On measures for regulating seal-hunting and conserving
seal stocks in the-northeastern part of the Atlantic Ocean".
.That agreement is effective throughout the waters of the northeastern
part of the Atlantic .0cean east of Cape Farewell, in the Greenland
- and 1:orwegian .clas with Lonmark Strait and tile Jan layon Island region,
and also in the Parents boa.
ting reàulation are the harp
and the hooded seal.
The objects of conservation and of hun-
seal (White bea and Jan ayen herds)
In order to restore the numbers of the Uhite Sea herd'of
harp seals, in 1955 the Uoviet Union established a liMit of 100,000.
for ship-based sealing; since 1965 the take limit in the:aite Se.a.
has been reduced to 60,000, and killing of feaales during the breeding
period ha s been prohibited.
In 1965 the taking of seals by Soviet
ships was Prohibited for five years, and the take by tac coastal population
during that period was limited to 20,000 puPs, with prohibition
of the killing of *females. The Lorwegian mea:.ures for rbgulating
the killing of harp
seals in the larnts Sea were expressed in
limitation of the tonnage and numbers of ships used and in an earlier
closing date for the hantipg-beaeon (April 50„ with tn.. atm of protectinc
trie reproduetivo part of the liard in the monitin , . rookeries.
Unce . 1967 the !;.111ing of females during the breediw: period has been
prohtbited in time Jan Wayen Island rev,ion, end tho end of the hunting:
season ha. been fixed at May 5, which also proviees proteeLion for
aCtulL and .-exually-immature
beeal in
6
Lef:ulpon of nsrp
huntinu In the •.wfoundland Ton
whop Onhada, Lerway, aph UthiluirL ma&J a '1:11t1man';:i

aF;reementnj .
.-.. •'11• • .• ' 30
in accordance with which seal-hunting was permitted to
begin. in the Gulf of St. Lawrence on iarch 5 and in the lewfOundland
reion on 1.:arch.10.
In order to protect adult and Lexually-immature
animals in te moultin,rookerieb, in 1961 tii cluiJ.ng date of the
hunting senson was set on harch 5, in 1963 on AF,ril 30, and at the
present time on April 24. The killing of females during the breeding
period was prohibited.
A quota for the take by ships, was.fixed at
200,000 seals, including 50,000 for the Gulf of St..hawrence and
150,000 for the Eewfoundland and Labrador reuions. •
the males
Hooded Seal (Cystophora cristata trx1. ,
1117)
The chief external distinuuishing feature of this s -i.ecies is
possession of a peculiar cutaneous appendage, or sac, on
the head. The females do not. have that sac.
_that feature becomes
conspicuous in, the males' second year of life; in adults it attains
a length of 30 cm.' The sac is divided internally by an elastic sep-
tum into two parts, which are filled with air expelled from the lungs
when the nostrils are closed, the sac thon becoming inflated. The
sac is usually filled with air when a male is excited. When the
animal is at rest the sac hangs in folds over the muzzle, covering
the lower jaw. .
'
• ,.„..
c ■i4
Pur, 3.N
a — cuN:mt; (— ca ?.; Ka: -- —
Pig. 5. . u.)oded seal. a) ale; b) femele; c) pup.
The colourin of'tde hooded scal'also is characteristic.
basic colour of adult males and females' 5) .
The
i;; dark-rey, sometime's
with a brownish tint. -pots of va'iou ntZLS, resemplini;

..... 31
blots -of ink, are scattered •over the background colbur on. tne back
and sides. The lar,-,est spots are on the back and are as lar,^;e as the
palm of one's hand; their colour varies from dark-brown to blackishbrown.
The spots on the neck are smaller, rounded with vague outlines,
and usually walnut-sized. The head is black: There are small
dark-brown spots with narrow dark stz•ipes on the digits of ttie front
and rea.r flippers on both sides. The claws are lit,ht-brown. I., iie
belly is liglht--F;rey, with variations from darlcer to ligiiter tints.
s^ew-born pups and yearlings differ gruatly in colour from
older animals. The pups have already moulted at birth (tiie first
moult takos place in the uterus, and discs of liFht-^rey embryonic
fur are usually observed in the amniotic cavity and also in the newborn
pup's intestine). The basic colourin^ of the pup's post-embryonic
fur is dark-grey, with silvery and blue iridescence, as a result
of which the animal is called "bluesides" in 1^n,--lish. That coloùr
runs from •tiie lower edge of the nostrils below the eyes to the ear
opening, and then continues as a narrow stripe to the front flippers,
reaching the dir its; the back, the. 1;ides, the upper half of the rear
flippers, and the tail are üimilarly coloured. lhe. breast and abdomen
are white with a slight greyish tint, and the muzzle is black. '.1.'nere
are no spots: these appear only in the second year of life,. after
the first post-embryonic moult. The number of ùpots.is small in twoyear-olds,
but their number and size increase as tne seal grows older.
2^
Phociclae.
'i'he
hooded seal is one of lu-lie lar,^_:,e members of th, family
The zoolodical length of adult ::la.les. is up Lo 280 cm, and
of adult females 230 cm. On an average the :ales are it0 cn: longer
than the females. he length of new-born pu;ls is -M.:-10;i cm. he
weight of lare adult males exceeds 300 kg, tiiat of -females 160 kg,
and that of new-•born pups 25 kg.
The hooded seal is a typical pelagic animal, an inhabitant
of open a.roas of the sea and marginal drift-ic.e in the i^orth .ltlantic
(see Fi g. 2); it occasionally vi:,its the ::hore. The western limit
^
of hooded sea:L range runsr f rom the Gulf of. '3L. L cl^li .-llcç '.rlcl ,,L.:Wfounclland
to the labrador i cninc.u.La,, and thon north to lac.z..f'f z.n 1s7..T.nd as
4
fn.r as Lancaster ;.;trait. The northern lil,li.•L is dotc:rninod by the
location of the ice l,ia.1 „in, in suminer runl.f.r:c; r!'lorl ', -L h(;. csU Lil pzLra? lul
in 'L111; 1i,1.T1E^.l1.1.4111 AJ.'C'L.LI: l.l14 11, 'Llll: f1'i1Cl L..i 11ii ]:L 11^a:'11:t.`T'11

..... 32
coast of Gr.eenland to
the northwestern tip of Spitzbereen . and eastwinter
the southern limit of,the range is çiet-
ward to 50-52° L. In
errnined by the location
of the ice mari-,in, and iil ûui^mer by the
nres-,^nce of the animals
on the fishing banks of Newfoundle.nd, south-
Jan T,iayen Island, Deiunark ^tra.it, and the
erri Greennl4.nd, Icelaiad,
seals have occasionally been seen in the
Faeroe Islands. :iooded
norti:ern part of the White Sea in sprin,-.
it is believed that a single herd of hooded seal.s inhabits
the waters of the North Atlantic. During the brc.eding, period the
animals coizcentra,te in two regions of drift--ice. nortl-:east of hewfoundland,
and north and northwest. of Jan Mayen Island 'botween 71
0
and 74 0 N in the Greenland :;ea; the location of the rookeries may
vary in longitude according to ice conditions in a particular year.
Hooded seals make regular mass migrations. After tne end of
the breeding period the main body of Newfoundland hooded seals, predominantly
consisting of adults,. crosses Davis '.trait; in i,iay thèy
approach the southern part of West Greenland in two waves, then travel
along the coast to the south and, passing Cape Farewell, appear in
June and July in Denmark Strait, where they form moulting, rookeries.
After producing young and. mating trie Jan Nayen Island hooded
seals migrate south along the marr,in of the ice-field on the east
coast of Greenland and appear in the Angmar-ssalik reL.ion in.June,
forming moulting rookeries east and northeast of that_point on the
coast of southern Greenland. Some of the Jan ;•:ayeri hooded seals' also^
mif,'rate into the northern parts of tne Gr;-enla.nd :>ea, where they form
moulting rookeries on permanent fields of drift-ice many years old.
These migrations are charactc:rirtic of adult and seVually-immature
animals in the sprin E.,r, although the aC;e-composition of tac mi{;rating
groups in different parts of the hooded seal range has not yet been
fully investi^;ated.
At fi.r;,t the pups make pa^:;sive migrations on ice-floes, but
after transition to an inclependent mode of life, :..t the end of April,
nortiiwai:d. In
they make . for the open s.ea and ap,parently
summer the Jan l-iayon pups .are probably ('1i.:;tri.'outcd in the- ice-margin
zone between ;51)i.tzber(-,;an and Jan Mayen l:s:l.o.rid, and the i^,owfouiidland
pups in Da.vi.n
trc it.
1ftcr tik,: orid of ttio moult i',iic: liüucloil
1uave tne iontua.rlc

Strait ice in.late July, and do not formuass concentrations until
the beginning of the mating season. They disperse'tnrough the s tas
of the North Atlantic in search of food. The Newfoundland' hoode cl.
round Cape Farewell alain at the end of July and move alon g seals .
the coasts and the fishing bankt to . the southwestern coast of Greenland,
where they romain - some time feeding vigorously. Later they
53. •
cross Davis ;:trait and approach tne Labrador coast at the end of Septomber;
thence they gradually move towards the Grand banks of Newfoundland,
where they feed for some time, app(::aring in the breeding •
areas in February. The Jan Mayen hooded seals apparently fatten on
the fishint; banks in Denmark Strait, off northern Iceland and southeastern
Greenland, and in the Faeroe Islands region. It is possible
that at the onset of the breeding season tney move into the regions
of the ice massif in the Greenland Sea, where the puppin,;; rookeries
are usually formed..
'Ihe period of parturition among the females is. preceded by
fighting among the males, as a result of which the larger and stronger
male r o mains with a pregnant female.
A hooded seal family is formed
wnen the pup is born, and romains intact until lactation ends and
copulation begins. The majority of Jan ia.yen female hood-d seals
give birth within a fairly short period (from the middl e .
of lia.rch to
-the end of the month); the Newfoundland females give birth during
approximately the same period.
The hooded seal pupping . rookeries are usually formed in the
belt of large Arctic ice-floes brought by trie Polar current. These
floes are reoistant to break-up by stormy winds and ocean swell.
During the pupT'.ing period hooded seals do not form such close concentrations
on the ice as do harp seals. .ach family ueually
occupies a single ice-floe. • •
On the Greenland 3ea ice lactation mostly ends: in late 'harch
and early April; it lasts 16-18 days. Luring lactation a subcutaneous
layer of blubber rapidly accumulates on tue pups.
milk with a fat content of up to 60YJ, most of the pup:3 i
and their nt te of nutrition more than doubles.
Èeeding on
row quic4.y
Whereas the mass of
blubber under tue hide of a new-born pu?•has an average weight of -
9 kg, by the end of lactation it weighs 20 kg. • % -t the be.inning tue
proportion of the weight of the hide with blubbor attachod to ' the
PuP's total body weight varice from 22 .,, to 42,., but au tne end .of
lactation tt in from 50, to 70,. 11:1(1 body by 10, •

34
At the end of the lactatien period the families in the.hooded
seal pupping rookeries. break up.
The pups graduate to an indeuendent
mode of life, and the.mating period of the adults beins. The mating
period of the jan Mayen hooded seals begins in the first few'days of
April and lasts about two weeks. During that time the animals sol -dom •
climb out on the ice.
A very small proportion of the females mate
for the first time on attaining the age of throe years.
Gestation lasts about .a year. lost of tue males become sexually
mature by their fifth year, but begin to take an active part
in reproduction at the age of six years.
After mating the adults migrate into the moulting areas.
Denmark Strait the moulting period lasts from the second half of June
to Mid-July. Also present on trie moulting-i:;rounds are sexuallyimmature
indivdduals, which have apparently come from the areas where
they have been fattening to the Denmark Strait ice: 1-ups of the year
do not appear in the moulting rookeries, as they shed tneir fur fer
the first time in the embryonic state.
'The.seals find favourable conditions in the Denmark Strait
ice-fields for prolonged and undisturbed moulting, as the thick Arctic
ice persists there for a long time.
When economic exploitation of
that districtIegan in 1874 seals.were taken in the southern (63 ° h)
and northern (65-67 ° E) parts of it, where they usually formed meulting
rookeries. It was believed that • the southern rookeries were .
formed by'Newfoundland hooded seals and the northern ones .by jan
Mayen animals.
At the beginning of the 1930's the Norwegian sealers
no longer observed the southern rookeries, and in subsequent years
sealing was carried on only in the northern rookeries, the boundaries
of'which layapproximately in the area from 66 0 N to 68 0 h.
The moulting period ends in late July, and the hooded'seals
then leave the ice and begin feeding intensively. The adults keep •
feedinguntil the beginning of the breeding period. The areas where ,
these seals fat -ton intensively have not been fully investiu;nued.
thero have been occasional observations of uroups and ipoividsals
on the fishine; banks of Denmark '.3trait and of soutooastern, .:outhern,
and western Greenland, and ori Iceland, ivewfoundland, ene Lebrador,
• su ,Losting thet the principal items in their diet are b.21nic fishes
such as . cod, halibut, rujfish, and plaice. in alees wh 1fisninc
is enrviod on, hoodod sertis arc sometimes csunt in trrmi-neLs.
In

..... 35
When they bep;in to lead an independent life the: pups feed at
the ede.;es of tne. ice-fields, chiefly on small crustaceans, and also
on squids (Gona.tu:, fabricii) .
Hooded seals may live for more than 30 years. 'i'tleir most
d.anL;er.ous enemy is the xolar bear, whicli proyü on the pups, es ,ecially
on the drift-icc in the Gr.eenla.nd c.ea; during tire sea.ls' migration
period they also apparently fall victims to killer whales and Arctic
sh7.rks. : our.tcen species of helminttric parasites have been recorded
in hooded seals' internal orr;an.,.
Exploitation of' the ;pupping rookeries of hooded seals by
sealing shiUs be, a.n in the Jan I•layen xegion in 1B.47, and that of the
moulting rookeries in Dern.iark _,trait in 1874. The take of hooded
seals in the Jan Mayen region from 1047 to 1906 was very û•.aall, as
the chief objective of the sealing vessels of the various countries
was Greenland seals. Considerably larger numbers of hooded seals
were -taken in Denmark r_;trait, the total kill of them fror:r 1074 to
1906 beinU, 30,000-40,000. In subsequent years (1906-4-0) Denmark
Strait rem:1.ined as before tne principal area for the taxing of hooded
seals (5,000-15,000 every year), mostly by i•.orwegian sealinl; vessels.
During the w7r years sealiïrg was i,levitably n,;E;lected, and
the numbers of seals increased; the size of the post-war take then
increased, especially at Jan Mayen Island (Table 5). Norwegian pursuit
of hooded seals was most active in the Gr.eenland Sea. From 35
to 40 Norl•regia:n ships -book part in sealing every year. During the
period 1945-60 the Jan Mayen region accounted for 66-69;u of tne total
hooded seal take from all.ret,ions, ï;enma.rk :>trait for 21-23;.-, and
Newfoundland for 10-11;,.
The EorweLians ceased to operate in Denmark
Strait in 1961, and the proportion of trie total hooded seal take
attributed to the Jan Mayen region in 1961 65 was more than 901i:).
Most of -the hooded seals taken at Jan Eiyen Isla.nd were pups
( 60-80^,:^) . Altogether more than 970,000 hood.ed seals were killed by
Idori•regia.n sea,].ers in the Jin i4ayeri rer,,i.on from 19.,1.6 to 1967; during
the period 1946-61 more than 2'50,000 were killC,^d in Del'lmn.:ck :.;trait,
and more th:+ri 150,000 (by Canadian and l.oitret;ian sealersj in the
Newf our:dl and rt: gri o n.
Up to 1955 orll'y I;.orwcf;ia11 aealint;
Look hoodC. cl sc.^la
in tue J•-In 1;,,yk,11 rc(.,.ion. rom 19`jj that re ion 1iru', l,cc:ii v.i.cii:cici by

TaG:rar,i 5
poGu,ia xoxaama ( u il.le : ro.ion) 11c; i:crnrri it I

37
of the stocksof hooded seals and regulation of their exploitation -
are being enforced on the basis of an agreement between the USSR
•and 1:orway.
Ringed Seal (Fusa hisrida hr., 1775)
It iS believed that only one subsnocies of the ringed seal --
Fusa h. hisnida -- occurs in the liorth Atlantic and te Arctic Oceans.
In waters adjacent
to.the northeastern.part of the Atlantic
(Baltic Sea) there is another local subspecies; Eusa.h..botnica, or
the baltic ringed seal.
•
•••
••••:,
• • '
0
-
.
• :
•e fe"
-
-
-•
e
•
,r+.1.re,,..
- -.-_- •
,•,
• •
•••:.
• Fig. 4.
Pue. 4, Ko.ntiaras; Itepna (a), atot6a (6).
iUnged sel (a); akiba (b).
(Translator's 1,ote: Seo Chap. 5, par. 4, for reference to
(b) in this illustration.
The term •'akiba" apparently applies to•
the Eacific forms of this species.)
•
The ringed seal has'characteristic coloui;ing (Fig. 4).
colour of the back varies from brownish-grey with an olive tinge to
dark-grey and almost black. The belly is light-grey with a silvery
tinge. Light streaks are interwoven over the general background,
creating a lacy-network pattern in the form of oval rings.
The
Indivi-
. duals occur with deviations fro m f- ty.jical colour nenle, - tne ring
pattern in tnem being very poorly developed.
'Mere are no.difreroncos
in colour betwaen wIlen aild females.
•
The hair covering of adults is _tiff, and co n s its of Luard
hairs with low-den,.ity underfur. .i.ew-born pui a2e coverou witn
dehsv, long u;--4 fluky, white emnr;jonic fur. in, Uicir

..... jEi
euibr,yonic fur coverincr, the pups acquire a shorter, denser -coâ.t of 27
hair, with the. typical colourin;; of the adult coa.-L.
,he rir:;eci se^^.l is a, sma.ll seal: ihe zo,.loE;icv_l body lon-th
of adults is 120-150 cm, with a;:Zaximum of -170 ci,i; tnat of liew-born
pups is 55-65 cr^. The body weight of adul.ts is up to E30 k,-,, and that
of n..t•r-born pups up to 5 1:^;•
The rinf;ed seal is distributed t',lrou,,:nout the seas of the
T!orth Atlantic and, ^.rctic Oceans everywhere frort tiie (:cznadian Arc tic
on the west to the Bering, Sea on the east (i'iz,. 5 ')-
The precise
boundary where it comes into contact with the lierinU, Sea. variety is
unknown.
The c,outhern limit of its range in Canadian waters is the
northern uart of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It also occurs on the
northeastern coast of I'ewfoundla.nd; it is widely distributed off
northern Labrador and is com-:ion in the, westorn and eastern parts of
Hudson ]3a.y, around Baffin Island and other islands in the 6anadian
Arctic, and on the northern coast of Alaska as far as the Bering Sea.
It also occurs everywhere in coastal waters off western and eastern
Greenland.and around Spitzber.gen, but is not found on the coast.of
.Iceland.
The northern range limit of most of the animals coincides
with the lbcation of tne ed-a of the ice-i'icrld in summer, but ca.ses
of rinEed seals bein.^, observed in the North vole re,;ion are recorded.
Ringed seals are found in all the northerh seas whose waters
wash the coasts of the USSR and the Arctic islands and in waters adjacent
thereto.
In the western part of their range they innabit the
gulfs and bays of the kola Peninsula, the White Sea coast (being most
abtiindant in the kandalakshskaya,, 0nezhska,ya, uvinska,ÿa., and i•.ezenskaya
Da.ys), and the southern part of the Barents .,ea, and are com::lon in
Cheshs:•.aya Bay and the Pechora 3ea. In the southwestern part of the
Kara Sea, rin;ecl seols are fairly a.buirdant on the caste.-rn coasl; of
Belyi Island, in the flalyt;irl ';trait, and in liaid.aratsica,ya, iiay; they
also occur in 'l'a.zovsk.a,ya, and Obs:caya. Lays, on the coast of the Yamal
Peninsula., and in all the bays and inlets to the .^as•t. in *ttie Laptev
tiea. they are i'ouiid in all the bays, but are found in ' ;.;rc: •: tec;ti nur:iberù
in the l.a.x,;e a.t'ITm of t1-i,,, •tha.t peneta-atca de::p1y. into the continent
llqll as the ihata . nE,ûkii, Al.abarskii, Olenel:skii, Yan::ki'i, ai ,d other
inlets. `hey are coiu:.ton al:;o in all thc a.ec,ply-it;dcntect 1>nits of the
2t3
co,i.:, L.; of 'Lite •-..,, ,.JhuViOi, OLri(l hulr.c1-1 i .i.ulw.b:Lt

............,:e......,
,
e,,...,
, ; :- • i.,.
*e
en'
Cr.:7.7.3 ,
/..." • : , V
, ,
L:=L::::1'
- • '" ,,.....,•„,
: , ' • / - • *.-
... f
•
el!..,V. • .
.3 ......,.
It 4., 4L 4 • •
,
no
:-,
'■
i s.... -: 7-7: : ---- 2.- • :.?...'.':7.-.
/ '.. ' 7.=.::'-' -7._ :`,*: ' i. C C P ..!
' ----- ''.
• - !..è..i.:. P1-, „ !, •,1
. _..
•
.
:•.7: _,Y.- '.) : 7 -....• ' . • i . .
-0, •, d; .:7•-• - . ...-
: -77-:: ■;•','
,
-
":-...;'?:;' :
,:.....' y •,s ,i. . , ,.. f
-; ..' "
..
'..--
- •;!";.
..

. .
40
prefer to romain on an indented coast-line, in the bays and inlets
and in the estuarine reaches of rivers with low sandy islands. They
make only small periodic migrations, of.the nature of short journeys.
In most cases these journeys are associated with the pursuit of their
prey. (fishes). Instances are known of the seals ascending rivers
for fairly long distances (some tans of kilometres) in , -ursuit of
schools of fishes.
Ringed reals may also make passive migrations un drift-ice.
On tile whole, the subspecies leads a fairly•settled mode of life.
Most investigators believe that the pupping season is long, .
extending over the end of winter anci th
beginning 'of spring. The
time of pupping may vary greatly, depending on the locality in which
the seals live.
In the southern parts of the Canadian Arctic, for
instsnce, the pups are born mostly between March 15 and April 15; in,
higher latitudes.they are born somewhat later. It appears that in
the northern waters of the European part of the USSR the puppir4g
period may extend.from February to April, but in more northerly and
easterly parts of the Arctic the pups are born when •spring is at its
peak.
In the Baltic Sea, particularly in the Gulf of Finland, the
. pups appear in the second half of February and the first half of March.
The young are usually born in burrows or dens in the snow,
made by the females among ice hummocks and covered by a thick layer
of snow.
Sometimes, in addition to the dens, .several .paths are made •
in the snow, communicating between the dehs and the water. In areas
where cracks and crevasses •are formed in the ice the seals use these
patches of open water to come out on the içe, and where th a .
water is
frozen over they make air-holes to - come up to breathe. Luring • the
pupping period they do not form concentrated groups, and the dons are
usually located at considerable distances from one another.
• As a rule a. female produCes one pup, which she suckles in the.
den for about a month. J5 with other seal species, the pup gains
weight repidly durinu lactation.
About 10-15 days alter birth the •
embryonic hair begins to loo sen, and by the ai;e of une month the pup
has shod it altogether.
•;‘ating by the adults begins, apparently, lon g eefore the -
females have finished sucklin their pups. • he au.,ting period is •
proloncod ànd. in Cnnadian waters tin.) rut is utecv. d rrobi tho ond
•

..... 41
of i:a.rch to the middle of ];a y. Copulation may take place both on
the ice ' and in the water. After fertilization the:ce' is a pause in
the development of the ova, lasting for 3-3.5 months. ',,:4re total
duration of gestation is about 11 months.
r, very snall proportion of the females mate. on attaining the
a^,e of five years, and the r.e:,ir:.inder at six years of a.-e.' The major
ity of fertile females take an active part.in reproduction before
they are eight years old. it is believed. th.;t sexu'ally--matu-re females
do not mrite every year, and the percenta^e of barren females may
reach a hin,h fil,,ure.
The moulting period of ringed soals bec,;ins at the end of
sprin- and lasts all through tiie sumnier. At that tirae the animals
form scattered groups both on fast ice and on large drift-ice masses.
f'he period of most intensive feeding begins after the moult
is completed, although the anir_1^.ls also feed durinr; other bioloÛical
periods of tiieïr lives.
The principal items in tiieir diet consist
of various species of small pelagic crustaceans and small fishes.
The conipositioi: of the diet may vary according to the locality. Up
to 72 food items have been found in the stomachs of these seals in
eastern Canadian waters, the predominant items being .^uphausi.acea,
Mysidacea, Amphipoda, and shrimps; Arctic cod took a prominent place
among the fishes eaten.
In the waters of the Eux'onean North rir.;ed seals feed on small.
crustaceans and fishes. In some areas Arctic cod is the chief' fish
species eaten (more than 90;u). The seals also feed on sand eels,
capelin, smelts, and flatfish. Crustaceans predornina te in the diet
in summer and fishes in winter. In the White and barcnts .Aa..s rin;ed
seals also eat s-veral species of commercial fishes, such. as navaga
30
and herring; and in ,::ome rivers in the Kola Peninrula they pursue
salmon durint• the period of salmon mi(,-ration, formi.n,-; fairly larÉ;e
concentrations. It is believed that the total -cle.,_?..^;e done there to
valuabli: snecies of commercial fishes is ne^;1.i^,ibl.e. In the Baltic
Sea ri.n;;ecl Leal:-, eat Ûo].nton, -i^o..l.tic heri'int;, sprat;;, cod, 1)i.l e-perch,
ee7.:,, and whitefish, and ai)pai.-ently do some to commercial
fi^her:Ce,a in that ro.-ion. i,in^•rd seals feed iuainlyin coa:,tal waters,
but tire,y may dive to a dc.nth of up to 1U0 i.rutroa in i,oa:i.,ch of food.
in lirctic waters l,it,: c,riu.i onom,y o.t' tnc :i-,à.n,,cd :.(!al

. .'..42
polar bear, which preys mostly on this species. Arctic foxes also
attack ringed seals on fast ice. In the water these seals are preyed
upôn by sha.rks and. occasionally by. killer rrh^les, which do not ofton
visit high latitudes. ApparF^ntly some birds of prey (ravens, g'laucous
^ull.^-., and herr.in^ ^•u11s; may also attack the pups. ù out 27 cliffer--
ent species of helminthic pa.r,:Lsitey have been found in the internal
or,-,ans of rinGed seals of different subsuecies; cases are recorded of
seals dying as a result of mass infestation by helmintas.
Some a.uthorities estimate the stocks of ringed seals in the
seas of the Eorth Atlantic and !.rctic Oceans at a minimum of two
million.
The number of these seals in the ita.ltic Sea is reckoned at
a maximum of approximately 50,000.
Eeing abtu:dant inhabitants of the Arctic seas, ringed. seals
are an impôrtant quarry of coastal hunting by local residents and
.play a major role in their economy. They are ta ken in oviet waters
along the entire Arctic coast and also on the islands, but it is difficult
to estimate the annual kill, as a considera.hle part of it
remains on the spot and is used for local needs (especially along
the coasts of the kra Kara, Laptev, East Siberian, and Chukchi Seas).
54a5
The £i.illi'ûal kill of ringed seals in the 14h.ite and iâï'i:T1tS^i11iCtU atGâ
within the range of 5,000-10,000, x:vidently the stocks of ringed
seals are not fully utilized in the Soviet Arctic, and it is possible
to expand their exploitation to some extent.
In the Baltic Seathe total annual kill does not exceed a
few.thousa.nd animals, including scarcely more than 100Ô taken in
coastal .-;Lr.eas of the USSR.
The annual kill in the Canadian Arctic
also is unknown, as part of it is used by the local population (i:,skimos)
and only about 30,000 hides are delivered to cor.i t*!iercinl orL;anizations.
1'here ai2e no mea,sures for re, ulatin` the ta.tze of ringed
seals in •t-rie seas of the North Atlantic ai^d Arcti c Oceans.
•
Bearded Seal (h',riC.,•nathus barbatus Lrxl., 1777)
A single subspecies of the be3.rded setil is found in the seas
of the f:ort;i
and Arctic Occans, the Atl:..iitic bearded seal
E. b. barbatus. -i iiere is a certain disproportion in the body struc -
ture of this seal. .'he trunlc is a.r,d the head ^^l- - :1.

43
olive-brown and blackish-érey with érey stripes. 'ae belly is light-y
f2;rey, scimetimes with fairly numerous small spots and smears of vague
outline, scattered irregularly. .1:he sides ids() have occasiornil small
brown spots'. :rhere are several indistinct whitish spots on the upper
surface of the trunk and on the head. u.here ara no colour differences
• betwen males and females.
adults' vibrissae are •13..loothi long,
and of a muddy-white colour, and hang over the lower lis like a beard.
The claws on the front flipper are large and dark- .coloured,,with conspicuous
. transverse stripes. The fur of a •now-born pup is dark brown-
•ish-olive, the nairs being soft and long. whe pup acquires that fur
coat after its first (intra-uterine) moult, of the embryonic fur.
Plic. 6. Mopcuoil 3autt, aanan.
Fig. 6.
Bearded seal.
.
born pups is
.
The bearded .seal is fairly large. 'ihe maximum zoological
body length is up to 270 cm, but the usual body length of adults,
both male and female, is 200-250 cm. The average body length of new-.
about 120 cm. Bearded seals attain theii highest state
of nutrition in summer and autumn, and at that time they may weigh
280-300 kg and sometimes even more. Tilt. body weight of new-born
Pups is 25-50 kg.
Learded seals are found everywhere in tac seas of the Lorth
Atlantic and .Prctic Oceans, but the boundary between their range and
that of the .i , acific subspecies has not yet been fully determined; it .
is supposed that it extends into the eastern •jart ..of.the ast Sibe- .
rian ea and the :beaufort ;ea, In L;anadirm :,rotic waters along the
Atlantic coast they occur frocs tild summer limit of drift-ice in the -
north almost to .ewfoundland in the south; they are found in nudson
Bay, r affin Bay, Davis ;5 trait, and the coastal areas of.tne Labrador
ieninsula. 'fhoy aro also coin non off western, soutnern, and :.ioutheasttrn
trneniand, in the . 9ity,been archipe]ao, and on the north

..... 44
coast of Eorway. In Soviet territorial and adjacent waters they are
found in the Franz-Josef Land re,^-ion and alilon;:: the islands of that
archipela&;o; off' i;ovaya Gelillya and at Vaigach and r':ol(,,uev Islatids,
on the 1^ur.man coast, and in the Kara, Laptev, and. ',lhite Seas. Gcc4-
sionally they penetrate tue central Arctic to the 'L.orth role.
The principal habitats of bearded seals are shallow-water
and drift-ice zones adjoinin- them. 11hey usuarea.s,
coastal zones,
allÿ avoid deep wa.ter and open areas of the sea, as well as unbroken
fast ice that covers shore zones and islands in winter. They do not
form mass concentrations within their range, but s ia y separate.
Bearded seals do not undertake long mi^;ratiol,ls•; they do make
considerable journeys, botn active and pas„ive (with drift-ice), as
a res.ult of which they are sometimes observed far from the coasts.
It is possible that the migrations of bearded seals are seasonal and
are connected t•ritrl the presence of food and witu ice conditions in
the ro-:,ions inhabited by them. Instances have been recorded of
bearded seals entering river estuaries in summer. In the high latitudes
of the Arctic they are sometimes observed on the ice at a
v
considerable distance from open water.
The pupping season is very prolonE,ed. In the western part
of the Canadian Arctic the pups are born in _;'lpril and ]-Lay, but farther
south (on the Labrador coast) they appear somewhat earlier.
In the .lrThite, Kara, and Barents Seas puppinc; takes place from 14a.rch
to the beginning of June. Pupping is earlier in the more southerly,
and later in the more northerly, districts. The pups are born on
drift-ice, and. .1 female usually produces a single pup. During the
breeding i)eriod bearded seals do not form conspicuouG concentrations
on the drift-ice. .,ach female ttsually occunies a separate floe and
32
lies with her pup near its edge.
The lactation per.iod la.sts about four weék.s. i;uring lactation
the pul)s wei.c;ht re7)id1.,y, and by the tiJ,le of their body
weigllt reaches 30-60 k•:;.
l'lar.cii 1111t:i.1 Jl.une.*
The matinj;' period extends frolll th(: end of
^o:ne stut}loritio-, believe that femcJ.les that have produced
•young, are not impre; -nri.teù by the males in the sa:ne season, as the
rua:Les' ;IC;.•curl•]. m.,i;ivi'L,y ces:.t:jo.n bai.'o-re the end of 1,1:: lr,.cta--
tioil f'tlt(j onset of OVLllH.tioil. l:OnsE!Cjuc3Tt1;1.y ^:tilali^l,tI1 ilivl`Eltln
tÎJi] existence of a 'two-^yt'.ll'L' l'k` ')]'OOUC) L.lve Ç:1C.1.U il)
bearded 'sea.la, ^•:hicl: does not occur in other r:lE:mbe:r:, of tue i,llocida.e ^
1'r^rti7.,y. hc::Lcl tili:: olJ.i.n.i.ol^: i,lli'l't .1.11 'l:Ilu ":l:ùvc' c' i.r't:l.u,:r;Lr,l:cu;l L1:a•o
11; iJ• II l.i',II^IÎ' hlt i)); t.1 .IAt;/ 1,1 1;0 i1llli)lli; 111Q l l1 L l'•I 11.^. ii l'll1l•-Yl.1IlI'
cyclt, i:.1
of tile

45
Gestation lasts about 11 menths, including from one-anc17-onehalf
to . tbree months of diapause in the development of fertilized ovat,.very
sMall percentage of females mate at the ai:e.of four years, but
usually females begin to take an active part in reproduction when
they are six or seven years old.
The moultin period of adult and sexually-im .aature bearded
seals has not been fully.investigated. It is known that the moult
is much prolonged and that seals shedding their old hair are encountèred
from May to August. 1.1oulting takes place on the ice.
Unlike other members of the Ihocidae family, bearded seals
feed mainly on invertebrates -- . various species of shrimps, crabs,
and isopods, abundant species of ga$tropods and lamellibranchs, and
Gephyraea.
They also eat fish roe, and in Arctic regions a major
element in their diet is Arctic cod. The composition of their diet
varies according to the localitY and the season.
At the beginning
of winter their state of nutrition is verihigh and the thickness of
their subcutaneous fat layer reaches 5 cm, while'there is a high
concentration of vitamin A in their livers.
As a result the livers.
of bearded seals are not used for human food in autumn and winter,
as they cause poisoning. Bearded seals may dive to a depth of 90-100
metres in search of food.
. The duration of life of bearded seals is unknown, as the teeth
and claws wear away quickly. We can only surmise that, like other
Phocidae, bearded seals can .
live to the age of 30-36. years. Their
most dangerous enemy is the polar bear, especially for those that
live in the high Arctic; some losses may be suffered from predatien
by killer whales and sharks. Aghteen species of helminths have been
found -
infesting the intern1 organs of bearded seals4 their fleSh-is.
parasitized by Trichinella spl.ralis, which results in the infection
of humans with trichinellosis.
The numbers of the bearded seul populations of the i...orth Atlantic
and Arc tic seas are unknown.
On tee basis of very•roui:Ji calculr,
tions, it 11P.ri been sui . c.sted that the mô.ximum fi,ure fol the
stocks of Atlantic bearded seals is of the order of 100,000.
liOCRIMO of its small numbers the beardod . sc!al is not the
object of intensive huntini:. The size of the take of this species .
is mainly dutrmincu; by the needs.of . the local in Ire tic

..... 46
y
T1Gn{I1{a G
Cl'1LUQS1 Jll: I^I93 ^Ii1rCI!J:'0 :1n11!l^! IIUj1t.C>üCK!:AtN C'j;ll^it!
B f pel!n:iilltlCu^f1 IiU(1ttCüC!(1-1 {1 I]:1)^IIIlCI1Wl-1u=)SI\1 1[1i'.
,,^ 1^:1{IOlll^l i'{lfi'll>14'i.l _^_I •
3 f'p• una!c;ic> oc u i
' FS;1{Icuµeco hwpc.
} I^,pnl:x:ci:ue hmpst
tiroro
r [>
.
19-16
194'r
19-j8
19-19
1950
1951
19152
1J33
1954
1955
19.ïG
19^)7
19SS
1959
1 91G0
1961
1!if32
1963
196.1
1f,65
11,C,G
1957
1963
19G9
870
110
920
475
389
200
12311
J37s
342
6762
203
D
A
D
1197
63
51
76
3G4
497
324
13&1
558
2
47
17
G
Ti p)1 %! e v a!i u e. Il.^n 19 ;•n _19GG"rr_Dailo:! a0b1 l'ai 011.
25-1'.l
2:110
2G1:3
260 7
.11.11
1 '172
Il:10
30fh:i
1716
2•1:ïti
201i7
173
971
53 1
753-
6)7
15G3
'1 r G2
n0,1
G7G1
47
22S
G
TA13I,J-b' 6. `lta.lce of Bearded Seals by Tdorwegia.n Vessels in the
Greenland, i'^orwe^;ian, and Barents Seas (i o. of Sea.ls) .
Key: 1) Year. 2) Regions of operation^. Greenland and
Norwegian ^eas. 4) Barents Sea. 5) `l'o^a1. 6) 1.0 data. 7) do.
8) Note: '1.'he re,ions of opera-Lions in 1946-56 ar.e *unlcnot'rn.
districts. The total nuntber killed by the ::;skiinos of the Canadian
Aretic.is unknown, since the products remain on the spot and are used
for various economic purposes, and therefore are not r.ecorded. It
is possible that t ►te annual kill of bearded seals in.,those districts
amounts to some thousands. The 6•.r:eater part of the :tiil1 in Soviet
- 33
waters also is used. by the coastal populatio,l of 1lrctic districts.
Probably a few hundreds of the anima7.s 1re killed anriu.a].ly on the
coast of the Barents Sea. it is possible that the size of the local
kill in the 1ia.ra and ]_)aptev '.:eas is about that fi^;'ure, or higher.
Only 1`orwcf;i;,1n vc:.,::e].s etl^^t^;e in the t^^lcint;' Of buarded seals
in the i.,reorrland and â:ort:^e;;ian Seas and also alur!,:'; the E)d,,e of' the,
ice-field in th(. l,aronts f;ea, in spring. ^'he po..t-wax• i;ake by these
vessels is silown in Table 6.
Evide}^t].y the s ^ock;^ of be.a.rdl:d N^^^i..; in
rcl;ionù of

. , 47
the Arctic have begun to decrease, and in order to conserve the animais
and restore their numbers it has become necessary to regulate
the hunting of them and,,above all, to put an end to their killing
by Norwegian sealing vessels. Killing of bearded seals by ships is
forbidden in Soviet waters. Only the coastal population (except in
the White Sea) is permitted•to kill them.
Grey Seal (Halichoerus grypus Pabr.,. 1791)
The external distinguishing features . of this seal (Fig. 7)
are a long, high nose, somewhat bulging at the bridge, and large nostrils
that extend to the extreme tip of the nose. The basic colour.
is grey, shading from light to dark, with spots of various colours,
shapes, ruld sizes scattered through it. Io differences in colour .
between males and females, - or between grey seals inhabiting different
•regions. and islands, have been observed.
The embryonic fur of new-born pups is long, soft, and
creamy-white.
34
•
•
Pitc. 7. CeptAl
Fig. 7. Grey_seal.
These seals are fairly large: ti'.e maximum length of adult .
cm, that of females 215 cm, and tnat of new-born
males is up to 280
pups,110 cm. Sexual dimorphism is quite well shown - in body length,
the males averagins 40 cm more than the females. The maximm weight.
of adult males is 315 kg, that of females 250 kg, and that of newborn
.pups• 15 kg.
Yhe range of croy seals is discontinuous and is restricted
to three main regions. The West Atlantic . population (Pig. 6) occupies
the Calif of St. Lawrence and the islands tnereinnLicosti, the hagdalens,
lrince Idward .
:.able3. lR0t.I
fslrInd, Cape Wi:oton lslond, it. (";eor (e j3ay,
i.q.uolon, etc.).

I
3 n ,Y!I 11
. ^^•
^_ 7.:;__^_`r• ._..__._. ^^^_.^._
1311c, F. P.`.CI:i10t'.TJ/:11!Ci1Stc cel^(Dro T1041018 t: 3Q[)'I;;1I0Ï1 A ':ii 1I: il'(C.
F'ig. 8.
Range
of grey seal in. western Atlantic Ocean.
Key: 1) Canada. 2) Belle Isle. 3) Anticosti. 4) Gulf of
St. Lawrence. 5) Newfoundland. 6) Miquelon J:i3land. 7) U.S.A.
8) Nova Scotia. 9) Cape Breton Island. 10)3ablc Tsland.
The East Atlantic population (Fi g. 9) occupies mrtinly the
northern and western coasts of 13ritain and neignbourin,-, islands (the
most numerous colonies of breeding seals are located on liortli ito^^a
Island, the Urlcneys, the .>hetlands, the Hebrides, lcamsey Island,
Welsh isla.nds,, the Scillies, etc.); on the east coast the largest
rookery is on the F'ar•ne Islands. Grey seals occur in the Lnglish
Channel and also on the coasts of
France and Gema.ny. In the Scandinavian
countries they are common on the south coast of Iceland., on
35
the Faeroe Islands, on the north coast of l;orway, and on its islands
and in its fjords. The third (Baltic) population lives in the Baltic
âe,a,
trle Gulf
ma.in].y in the Gulf of 15ottuiia (its chief breeding area) and in
0f Finland. USSR waters contain members of both tlie •.^ast
Atlantic and the ï5altic populations. The former inhabit the Kola
T'eninsula (the Ainovy 7slhnds and the Sem' Vetrov archipelago) as far
ee,st as the crntritirrce to torr white 3' o:),
•tilo trc:atczn p..t.rt of Lia
and the latter tua 1,1aters of
n))d ,;,m:cre;nr).a :islr.l.udsj,
the CYu1C of Ri(,sl, the consts of the Latvi.an and Lithuanian S:;lt' : and
Kaliningrad irroviiice, and the (.,ulf of il'inlaritl as far as iieva :isciy.
vur.i.n,:, their annual life cycle (.;ri:y :^:^r).ls CIO not nlal.r, lor),r,^'
m:>.:as i1i,;A^ati.orls.
On the wlrol^!, howovcr, ^orl.)on.tl. .iIover)ont:, or ciiort

_.._
/'/:-'•`^'---__-----•---•-î^- - -_..___ I :
^ ^ ^^^..
%/ `\ Y ^/r .
/^/ i
^^/^'-^^
^n •^ '
. •
. ^
% ^/" rl^.. ^i,^:i
, •^'. ^.'/. •^' ir ,`^; . i • `^...w^^! •
t ^ ti•..t ,.! ... . ti
I
Z
j
, '.^.;^ i,"^•., ," 1 • ^ y ,";: .^ .
r^ 's•:rr.i _ ` : . ..r, ^ ^ 1..r ' 1 ' ^
^^•.'..
:(J` I•i .!"
•-
Baltic Sea.
r rltc. 9^. P'+clipoCrpat?e;utc ceporo T!o.1eu!r n I;>crotu; r,i .1r.i: n-
T;rrcc rt ]:aAr;iic:cWr nope.
Fige 9. Range of grey seal in ea.stern ;,tl.a)rtic Uceaii and
Key: 1) Iceland. 2,) Faeroe ]:.slands. 3) Fr(Yya Islands.
4) White ^,^ea,. 5) Shetland I,-lands, 6) Rona 1c,lnnd. ']) liebrides.
8) Orkney Islands. 9) F'arne Islands. 10) Tsamsey :island. 11) Scilly
I sles. '12) Baltic Sea.
journeys are characteristic of the species. `l'llese movements are
especially typical of the adults after the brcedinc_; per.ioa, when the
animals disperse through "their feeding'-grounds, but as pup-ging-time
approaches the females return to pa.rticular islands and stretches
of coast-line. It is believed that duri.n(; their firsi; two years of
life sexually-immature seals i•ai.nCer far from the breeding-grounds,
throughout the entire range. After their transition to an independent
mode of lifè the pups also make.J.ont^ journeys in various directions.
For instance, members of' the East Atlantic r!onulation 'born on the
northern and. eastern coasts of :,nj;lancl have been observed on the
coasts of eastern Scotland, tne ;;etherlaIids, i.or;/a.y, and Denmaz'k.
'I'up;; barn on the coast of northern I:ox`way have been recorded at diffe.r.ent
points in Britain and tue adjacent islands.
The brccding peri.od is precedecl by conceTltl',r.i.ion of so..uallyin2ture
anit;ials in the future
U.otci on, the ice ;:,.I;d on shaa:e,
'iRU fC:lllc.lcs e;ive birth
i^irih of I)u7is on flo;r,tin;, ice has been
observed arwnr° ,,nltic soals and also in t;ïrouns 01'_ tne zaIliUlLlls in the
c.ulf of :;t. Lat'rrencc (members of tue West Atl,^iAic population).
Pc:rnc.lc: t;rey sools of tnc: .,r.tic,t Atlantic ho^u]:c,I^.UII_ Lttlo.
of L,rey

• 50
seals living on the ice-free coasts of Nova Scotia Odes% Atlantic •
population) bring forth their young on. shore.
. The time of parturition varies. • Grey sepls living on the
coasts of Canada give birth from the end of December to tee end of
January, and those of the Baltic population in February and harch.
Although the females of the Ëast Atlantic population give birth mainly
during autumn and winter Ueptember-ecember j , in some districts 'pupping
may take place at other times. For instance, on the southwest
coast of Britain pups are born from June to October, and practically
all round the British Isles new-born pups may be obServed almost all
. year round. Females of the Baltic population give birth in the iceedge
area mostly in mid-i.larch, but on certain islands in the Barents
Sea lying near Kola Peninsula pupping takes place from the end of the
first ten days in November to mid-December.
A female usually produces a single pup at a birth, but twins
have been recorded. The weight of new-born pups varies. from 9 to 15
kg, and their length from 80 to 110 cm. During the lactation period,
which lasts for throe or four weeks, the pups gain weiuht rapidly
(the average daily increase being 2 kg. .By the end of lactation the
pups' weight reaches 40- 45 kg.
.The.pups beEin to shed their hair intensively nine orten
days after birth, and at the age of 25-27 days they• are free of their
embryonic fur. Their colouring after the moult varie, but the basic •
colour is grey with light or dark spots of various shapes and sizes;
sometimes the colour is uniform. Some of the pups may take to the
water before the moult is complete, but most of them enter the water
and swim away only after they are cuite free of their embryonic fur.
The mating period lasts two weeks, but it ex -t ends oVer the
same length of time as the pupping season. Oopulation may take place
either on land or on the ice, or in the wa .,_.er. Some females become
sexually mature by the age of throe years, but most of them begin to
breed at tue age orfive or six years. The males peceme most active
in 'reproduction when six or seven yeark; old. i -oung females breedini;
for the first time aie not obs,rved on tne pupinr; - ,rounes of adult
females; it is surmised that tney mate with youlu sexually—mature
males at sea, at . a die Lance from•the adult e ' breeeirour.ds. Les-
GaLiot.
011L 11 montns, j“cludin 2.5 or 5 mcnAnm or dupy in
dnv0101..dehL UI Llii! I;PLIIIttuG liven,

'
4
'
• 51
righting between the males takes place ib tile coastal rookeries
before - the females begin to produce young. Most investigators
believe that malerey seals are polygamous. The seals that breed -
on the ice on Canadian coasts, however, do not for.a harems, and only
one male is ever observed with a female and a pup.
It is possible
that the toporaphy of the land where the females congregate in
coastal rookeries encourages polygamy, but on the ice . the dispersed
distribution of the females leads to monogamy.
The moulting period in the life of grey seals has not been
thoroughly studied. It is kno•n that a moult takes plaee in winter
and spring on the coasts of the British Isles. The females begin to
1
moult in January and complete the change of coat in May, butthe - maes
A -
begin te moult in March. The moulting period of grey seals on the •
Canadian coasts lasts from March until June.
Thus the moulting
season is very prolonged, and does not coineide in different populations
of the seals. Lfter the moult is completed the seals abandon
their resting-places on the coasts and the. ice and begin to feed -
intensively, spending most of their time in the water.
They reed mostly on pelagic and deep-water fishes, The chief
items in the diet of the Atlantic grey seal population are cod, hake,
walleye pollock, sea perch, halibut, flounder, lamprey, salmon, herring,'
coalfish, caselin, and also various species of non-commercial'fishes.
In te Baltic Sea the seals eat eels, carp-bream, pike,-.baltic herring,
etc. They eat crustaceans, cephalopods, and various species of
bivalves much less often.
The grey seal is a fairly long-lived animal. Grey seals have
been found in natural conditions aged up to 35 Years, and in zoos
they have attained an age of 42 years. i.atural mortality among pups
up to one year old is-very high -- up to 60-A.
A considerable humber
of new-born pups die during severe storms, and others 'die from starvation
during trie lactation - period.•
i ho most danerous natural enemies are siiarks. C.rey seals
also suffer from several infectious eye and s:cin diseases. Yheir
internal orami are infested by 16 species of helminthïc parasites,
including one nematode species, PorrocajUm decii)jens; the adults are
hosts of that parasite, which also infests cod aLd othe.r fishes.
Yhe number of Irey serils in 11'prirts of tsr rgo is 110 t .*

great -- slin•.ht1y more than 50,000. •i`he East
..... 52
Atlantic population is
the most'nùmerous -- about 40,000, of which about 36,000 inhabit the
British Tslès and adjacent islands (the 1.arie .t rookeries beinf^ those
of ^!orth Rona. (9,000), the Farne Islands (4,000), and some others);
Iceland. and the Faeroe Islands tiave about 3,000, and the- coast of
i;orwa.y 2,000 to 3,000.
'_,L'he
nui.niber of grey seals in the West Atlantic populi..tion is •
much :.oma,llel?: 5,000 live on tne coast of Eastern Canada. 'Aie number
in the ^?a.ltic Soi, exclusive of Soviet waters, is over 5,000. The,
total number inhabiting Soviet waters in the Baltic and on the hurmanslc
coast. is ltnknown, but it is certain that the stocks in the
Baltic are lar`,er than those on the Kola Peninsula (the approximate
number of adult females on the Ainovy Islands and the Sem' Vetrov
archipelago has been estimated at 500-•800) .
larg•c.
14 (on some
Because of the7.r small nurnber.s the take of grey seals is not
They are hunted mostly by the local fiskiin,; population in
areas where the animals concentz:ate.during the breeding season.
There is licensed shooting of seals on the coasts of Great i:ritain,
its extent d::pendir,g on the nurnbérs of seals in certain rookeries •
the animals) .
islands the annual kill limit arnount-s to some hundreds of
In spite of the fact that grey seals cause some losses
to fisheries on the coasts of England and 'Scotland, and are the hosts
of helminths t;iai: paa'asitize commercial fish specius, ottler supplementar.y
mea^.ures are applied to conserve their stocks: in some years
taking of tlicm during the breeding period is prohibited. '. :'he
total
amount of the kill of grey seals by Sweden, Denlnark, and ,'inland in
the "Bal.tic Ùea is unknown; a few hundreds are taken annually in _:oviet
waters.
The principal rookeries on the coasts of tue Kola Peninsula
are located in the ;•_a.ndalaks ha lieserve and its branches `the .'{inovy
Islands and the Sem' Vetrov archipel,,-q!,-o), where the t.akinEf; of tiie
sciais is prohibi ted, as well as elsewhere on th^. a.ltic :iCa coast.
Harbvur Seal .__ (-iocc,. i^t. _^__ ..^.-._.. vitulina L. 50)
Inti:asj?eci.îir, dif1.'erentiatioii of the .'-sU].nMtJ.o .:COr1:1 Of t110
harha.ur seal has not yet been a.dequa,taly confirmed.
tlireu :ubci^::cics in Atlantic waters lia.. Dc:e„
The ^xi stenco. of
A't:l.r.nLi.c: 1'0r1,1 v. vi Litl.X.»,L, 1.ILe 'tile;c't t.:I.,UiL.i.c .i'0.i:.,l !.. v. 0o11c0l0r,

and the'form of the harbour seal that dwells in two lakes in Eastern
Canada, P. v. mellonae. .
•
The basic colour of adults is grey, with variations from
lighter to darker tones. Upon tnat background numerous small spots,
resembling smears, are scattered evenly (Fig. 10); the colour of the
spots is brown, sometimes almost black.
•
- 3
The spots extend to the flippers
and-the back of the head; they are smaller on the ventral side;
they are not sharply outlined. They are conspicuous on the light-grey
background but less so on tac dark-grey, and often overlap. There are
. no differences in colour between males and females. lae long, soft,
white embryonic fur is shed in the uterus of the mother or immediately
after birth.
The post-embryonic'fur of the pup is shorter and stiffer,
greyish-blue on the back and silvery-white on the belly, with a small
number of vaguely-outlined dark spots.
.1%
-;?i ir7e &
,
•
. •
t.
/ -
•
r-
- ,
Plic. 10. 06b1znouentiwii. fl.III rurrutic -rwii, Tio:iem, (a),
.napra .(6).
•
.
10. Harbour seal (a ) i Pallas's or larr;a (b).
Harbour seals are of moderate size, tile maximu.a zooloi;ical
length of adult males bein,1 : 160 cm and that of femRles beinu; 150 cm;
the males are only slightly larï,er Inan tne females; Lne len,:th.of
new-born pups is up to 90 cm. - -,he maximiLd weiht of adult males is
120 kg, tnnt of femnleu 90 •and that of now-poi:n pulls 11 kg.

..... 54
The range of h,trûour.• seals in 3:ortti :;tlai,tic waters is restricted
to two main areas of tau continent-al shelves. The luïopean-
At1,Lntic subspecies (1i'i,:. 11) is com,non on the coasts of _lcelcinil,
lreland, and Creat -^ritairi it is most a.ûunriant on the east coastz7
and in the Orkneys, 'ï^hetls,nds, iieUrides, ai-a i'a.eroe l:.>lncls. Un the
coo,sts of J:hlroUe it occurs from .1 ortur;a.l (n,•1o I. -to the Kola 1 enin--
su1a, and is most e.bundant in the central part of trie contiricii-t,
e.;pecia:l.lÿ on -i.h(-) i:ort'ri ^3ea co^asts of ttle I,ethcn.-lm:ds, ::_a.s l; and West
Germstiy, and southern ;;cand.inc.v3.a.
In the 1;r,:Ltic: :;ea it is seldom
found north of Gotland.. It is occasionally sec:n on t:,è west coast
of the Kola 1•eiiinsula, and in the'Jaltic south of the 'Gulf of
^Co 1,V 0' lc, o`
,^-
] 7o
/
i%`: .•.^..,.1^ 1 ^/7 d :1 ji,'1 f
// j^' ^ : ^^'
-'
. /^^,1^••'•..:3'^,^:^r::
/ % ^/•" 'r^•I'' •
//^////r ^Q7CCCnuP `; / • iQ. ^r r' /^^1 . ",.i ^ `^^•
^I
`^//!^//^%•: L^.
•'^ %..
^ ^• /^r/ ^' t,.• ' ^
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55
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Pile 12, Pacripoctpancinte risunitcroro itor,e}i5; u Cencp0•3:m3,1,-
noii Atiaur utze.
• Pig. 12. Range of harbour seal in northwestern Atlantic.
Key: 1) Ellesmere Island. 2) Greenland. 3) Iceland.- 4)
Angmagssalik. 5) Godthâb. 6) Hudson Bay. 7) Lewfoundland, 6) Gulf
of St. Lawrence. 9) Long Island. 10) Uorth Carolina.
off the Labrador Peninsula and Baffin Island and in hudson Bay. It
is found on the western and •southern coasts of Greenland, but is
commonest in the Godth‘a)) .and Angmagssalik districts; it also travels
along the,southeastern part of Greenland to the western part bf
Denmark Strait.
A small group of harbour seals also lives in two Canadian
lakes (Upper and Lower Uni Lakes) in the Ungava roninsula(56-56 ° 11).
During the whole of their annual lite cycle the hArhour seals
• of the western and European parts of the Atlantic Ocean keep to the
coastal regions, avoiding the open water of the sens and the ocean
and also drift-ice. Their uE.ual habitat includes calm and sheltered
bays, coastal inlets, and 'islands, and also river estuaries witn
20'

.....56
reefs, rocks, and sandbanks. They lead, on the whole, a sedentary,
life, constantl,y_remaining in preferred localities. The adults do
not undertake distant and prolonged migrations, ma!cing only, tumporary
journeys into the open sea and up rivers. 'i.'heir movements are
most evident during the period of intensive feeding. Sexuallyimmature
individuals may travel far from their birthplace and lead
a nomadic mode of life for a fairly long time.
As the pupping season approaches pre_:nant females be;in to
concentratc in the areas where they are to br.`inr.; fort'rt titcir yoùng.
40
T'hen t-hey. come out of the water and occux,y the r.ocl':c,,,r
and sandy shores
of inlets, low rock outcrops, and islands washed by the tide. The
birth of youn&•, with their post-embryonic fur covering, takes place
at ebb-tide (in districts with strongly-marked ebb and flow). It has
been rel)orted that among seals living in districts with only slight
ebb and flow of the tide (particularly in the Arc-tic) the pups keep
their embryonic fur covering for several days or even weel:s.
The young, are born mainly in the late spr.ing, and summer,
depéndinp; on where the seals live. On the Canadian coasts.in the
southern districts of their range the females give birth from midl'•lay
to mid-June, and in the northern districts in late June and early
Jul,y. - In the fjords of Iceland the young appear in mid-; 1ay; in ireland,
at the end of May; on the coasts of Scotland and ,ngland, in
the second half of June; and in the Baltic Sea, in Nsy.
A female usually produces a single pup, but twins have been
recorded. The lactation period lasts rather more than three weeks.
4i.
The female feeds the pup with milk. containing un to 45;.) of fat. By
the end. of sui-iuaer the pups have attained a length of more than 100
cm and a weight of 25 k0g. After the end of lactation the female .
leaves the pup, and the latter chani;es to an indepondunt mode of
life, feedin,; actively on small crustaceans.
Appa.rently the rtating of adult "harbour seals takes place
immedie.tel,y c:lft,r tlle. females cease to Nuc)clt: t..eir youn, • Ztu: few
x'c':Ports made on that ~ ,c:riod of the :ausls'I.l^.l'u i.i!dic-ti'Le tnrtt time
main; por.iod i:i preced,;d by fif;htinF; 1mon;^- the males, nnd tttat ti-ie
copulation proce..,s itself takett 1>].ftce on the :;l-iorc-, in July and Aur;ust.
-i!hcz f(,-,,males at t,-iin sexual maturity at the aq;e of three yc

males begin to take an active.part in reproduction at the age of
four to six years. Gestation lasts about 11 monthS, including a
two-month delay in implantation of the fertiliZed ovum. • -
ends' in winter.
The period of intensive feedinc; begins . in late.summer and .
1Juring the breeding and moultinn periods tue seals •
continue to food, but not so intensively.
,:hey go out to the open
sea or ascend rivers in search of food, vi t ;orously• pursuin, shoals
of herring durini. their mi i;rations.
57
'line seals' principal item of diet
is various species of fishes that live in the coastal zones or in the
rivers. They eat salmon, char, and sea trout; in the open sea they
eat herring, flounder, hake, - cod, smelt, perch, etc. To a.lesser
extent . they eat small crustaceans; crabs, cephalopods, and marine
algae. Mai-hour seals are often caught in nets , hen pursuing fish,
damaging the nets and causing ldss of the catch; they are particularly
harmful to fisheries in areas of active salmon-fishing.
In some countries, such as Canada, fishermen are paid bonuses
for seals caught in their nets and killed, to compensate them for
losSes caused by these animals.
Ne.bour seals up to the age of 30 years are. encountered in
natural conditions. Cases of their survival to Le age of 14-18
ybars have been recorded in zoos.
Their natural enemies include
brown and white bears (in the Arctic parts of the seals' range),
killer whales, and sharks; among large avian predators sea-eagles
attack the pups. Still-births of pups have been observed, and births
of hairless and toothless pupu also have been recorded.
Harbour seals
in captivity are subject to such'diseaces as conjunctivitis, pneumonia,
cirrhosis of the liver, etc. fore than JO helminthic species
have been recorded in their internal ori,uns, one of them Uèorrocaecum
decipiens) also being a parasite . or cod and other fisnes.
• From some rough data it is estimated'that the western popula-
tion contains up to 100,000 harbour seals; tne annual kill ,. particularly
in Canadian waters, apparently mounts to several thousz.nds.
lossibly the :1.1ropen1 population is somewhat larher, but the extent
of the aihtu:'1 kill in 'Iceland and .1)1'itain, and jh ti
jaltic seas (in Mst and West Germany, •;weden, ..enmark, anu
nortnern and
is unknown. :ne number of harbour seals livih in -oviet coastal
waters - ilL btIL l ii.e ,ua also iJ unknown, but L ha annual kill on
these.conuts :Ippnr(:ntly doos not-exceed a A:w humlredo.
•

Walrus (Odobaenus rosmarus L., 175E1)
It is believed that two subspecies of walrus live in tne
Piorth Ltlantic and the western and central regions of the Soviet
Arctic; the Atlantic walrus Odobo.enus rosma.rue> rosma.rus and the*
Laptev Sea walrus 0. r. lantevi.
The h,.-tir on a.dult walruses is .>pa.r:;e, and on several parts
of tho r,lki.ll :1.r.1 ontiro1.,y ia.b;:,c;nt. It ic a co].oll.r. on the
bF.lck ancl roclc:ll.rAh on thu bel.:l.,y. On younl; r^pac. i.iuc;n:. Lhc: fioiz.' in den.,er
and more uniform, but is absent on the ends and inner surfaces' of the
flippers. The hair of young of the year and yearlings is chestnutbrown.
The skin of the body form.s deep transverse folds., es.Pecially
on the belly; on the neck, chest, and shoulders of adult :na-les the
skin, forms massive warty bulges or knobs 13)-. The thickness
of the.skin is 3-4 cm, and the thickness of the subcutaneous blubber
layer in adults is 8-9 cm.
Pi!c. 13,
Fig. 13. ilalrus.
ti,J>:l.lruses are large animals. lie average zoolo-ical l.engtll
of males. living, in the waters of the Canadis.ri Arctic is ^10. cm, and
th'-It of fema.les 260 cm; the ave7'a;_;e body weif;ht of fc:::1a:Les is 570 kg
(1t1a3Cililuf;l 750 k0;, and that of miles 900 kir (m) to 1, 3U0 k^ ).
The wri.l.r.u:,om,^ of the J!tlltic ana 1%nra, Seau are .;oiuc:i•rlu3.t laa.,,cr ana
heavier. •_'11C average body len,;th of male i,i•!.1)tev wLilruües is
3LJO Cnl, and that of females 29() cm. 'l'he males on an avera^-,-e,
50 cm longer than tcie i.'enile>>. Die body of' ne^4-born pups is
'120-130 crn, and their weil,;ili; is iÉÙ-tl5 Z.t tus rt::e of t^ro y^:ars

the walruses attain a length of 200 cm and a Imnginrof weight of
more tham 300 kg.
The tusk length of males of the Atlantic subspecies averaEes
34-38 cm, and-that of females 27-33.cm; that of males in the Laptev.
34..3(; lie rt.,;ks. 012 adult. ed. m ?je. s .
Sea averages 45-47 cm, and that - of females cm.
•,, MI Laptev ,5e a are 12. cm in cCame.Car anti ritc.,:e. ell maids /if' cm; the rasKs ot ufc,s
are thicker titan those oi 'females by an average of 2-3 cm: rhe males'
• tusks are farther apart at the tips than at the roots, whereas those
'
of females are closer together.at the tips. There is considerable
individual variation in the development of the tusk,s. The tusks are
mudh worn down in adults.
The Atlantic walrus is found along the whole of the eastern
coasts of the Canadian Arctic, from Ungava Bay in trie south to illlesmere
Island in the north. Within that region it is common in Hudson
Bay, 2robisher .lay, and Foxe Basin, and around Baffin and Devon Islands;
it is less common in the Arctic islands lying west of Barrow Strait.
and
It is also found in Baffin . BayA Davis Strait, and on •the west coast
of Greenland from Cape Kent and Inglefield Land to Holsteinborg .(59 0 N).
We have little information about the range of the-walrus in the waters
of East Greenland; it occurs.in Scoresby Sound and on the northeastern
coast of the island.
In the -.Alropean part of the Atlantic the walrus
is found on drift-ice off the northern coast of Iceland and in the
bays and inlets of Spitzbergen; occasional specimens have been seen
on the ice off the northern coast of Norway. .
• . Ii Soviet territorial waters and waters adjacent thereto, •
Atlantic walruses are found - in the eastern part of the Barents Sea
and in the -ara Sea. In the Franz-Josef Land archipelago their rook- '
eries, on ice and on shore, are found in the inlets, bays, and straits .
of George Land, Alexandra Land, ilohenlohe Island, Cobourg Island,
Gowen Island, Heiss Island, ioldolph Island, the komuli Komsomdrskie
Islands, etç.; they are reported to occur more rarely in Sars Strait, •
on Harley Island and Ommaney Island, in Be Boni:: Strait, etc. They
have been observed on drift-ice in tne region of small ; ,rctic islands
lying south ad southeaA of the rranz-Jouef La1iL archipelago (Vize,
Ushakova, and Schmidt Islitnds). At the northeast lip of i,ovpya - Zemlya
and on neielbouring islands walruses arc conutantly beini; reported
in Techenii and Anna ,ays, at Capes Constantina'and Uelaniya, and
on the Hemukerk and Crane:le guLin;,a of Li animalu are
59

••. • • • 60
less. nomiaon on drift-ice along the west and east Coasts of the north
island Of Novaya Zemlya, as also around te south island, as - well as
'on Vaigach Island, in the Kanin-Kolguev shallows, and in the northern
part of the White Sea. There are no shore rookeries of walruses in .
the southern and -
eastern parts of the Kara Sea; the animals are some-
-times seen on drift-ice in the Sharapovye i(oshki region and. near the
Belyi, Shokarskii, and Virkitskogo Islands, but farther east as far
as the Severnaya Zemlya arnhipelaeo they are still more rarely sighted.
Walruses are found throughout the Laptev Sea, apparently as
far as the eastern islands of the Novosibirsk archipelago. In the
and southwestern parts of the Laptev Sea thy are oçcasionally
western
seen on drift-ice at the south end of Severnaya Zemlya, in the Vil'-
kitskii Strait, and among the Komsomoliskaya travda Islands; they
rookeries on the shores of Paddeevekii, Andreya,.and,retra
Islands, in Mariya Fronchishchevaya Bay, and on Preobrazhenie,.Begichev,
and Peschanyi Islands. In the southern part of the sea, -
rookeries have been observed only in the central part of the Lena
delta, on Kuuba and Dunai Islands
shore
they have occasionally been seen
on drift-ice and in the water near other parts of the coast and neigh7
bouring islands.
In the eastern part of tue Laptev Sea, on the i'.ovosibirsk
Islands, walrus rookeries have been reported on Koternyi
and.2eltkovskii *Islands, and possibly on other islands in the eastern
part of -the archipelago. It is believed that the uastern limit of • •
the.range of the Laptev Sea walruses runs threuch tue western part -
of the .2,ast Siberian Sea.
are illustrated in 14.
The ranges of Ictlantic and i-acific walruses
•Walruses make reè,ular, but short, migrations within their
range. Durinr; winter and spring they stay in open areas of the sea
-- areas of drift-ice with extensive - patches of Openwater and crevasses.
When the drift-ice melts and breaks up the "walruses move to
shallow coastal waters, and :then,remain near the usual places where :
they form •shoru rookeries. •
In hich A!ctic latitude.; lilranz-Josef Land) walrus rookeries
• are observue bot on 'shore and on
ice. ,Aleir loveidents a] on the
coasts and ti.e islands :na i be described as mirations inte feeding
districts, as the shallow parts of the sea, especially near their .
carry abundance or food. ln Ulu !3arents, reuular shore rookeries,
form

^....^^___.._...._,....^.._. _ ._..._.....W - _.w.._._.._
Pile, H. Paenpocrpauctntc as;t;:aTlt trca:nrv u T{LCnOKCalI.. ;n'o
Mup.ra.
Fig. 14. Ranges of Atlantic and. r'a.cific walruses.
ICey: 1) Bering Sea. 2) USSR. 3) East Siberic).n Sea. 4) L^ptev
Sea. 5) -North 1-'o1e. 6) Barents Sea.. '() Greenland :;ea.
8) Greenland. 9) Baffin Bay. 10) Hudson Bay.
Kara, a.n6i. Laptev See.s they usually begin to form shore rookeries in
A ut;ust.
They leave tliem in mid.--Ûctober when intensive formation of
fast ice be ;in:; on the shore, ai-id move to drift-ice, on wtiich they
spencl some time lon,,,:,^er in the feeding districts.
tne fast ice
forms wide off-shore expanses the walruses raove to d.eeper water.
Data about the distribution of walruses au.rinE late winter
and spring are very sc^nt,y. During that period of trie year they stay
in water of moder,•itc, c et,-tli.
In the L^-iptEv 'Sc!,-i, for i.ri:stance, they
do not trrtvol 1'fi.r. from the places whore they !.'c,rmc.cl vooi:eries in
autumn, antl they usually :;ta,y in the centx.•a.7. ,,^iri; of the sea and in
waters was'ri:in,; the northeostern and northwestern pri.rt:; of tue I!ovoof
K1tol•.liov .f ::J -md, in tiic xe_,io11 of .l3crtnet
si_bir::k 1:.-O.nnds.
^hey have been absit:rved irt 1•1,,.rckr a,tçi. north 44
eltrâ.c t.1ta, and i.otel' nyi
t,

..... 62
. , - .
1sl.ands,, Occasional sightings of them have been made in the vicinity
of the .:;ôviet "Severnyi l'olyus" (I]orth Pole) drifting stations.
i•iost of the females produce their youn- in A.uril and kay;
usually there is a single pup, rarely twins. lia.ting begins imniediately
after parturition and takes place both in trie wat-es -an d on the
ice.
Gestation lasts about a. year. The reproductive. capacity of
walruses is low; some of the animals breed every year, but most of
the females prbduce young not more than once in two years, and old
indiviciue.l.s have an even slower reproductive cycle -- once in three
or four years. The females attain sexual :aaturity in their fifth
year, but do not take an active part in reproduction until the age
of five or six years; the males become sexUally mature at six years.
A much-prolonged lactation period is characteristic of walruses,
up to one ancl-a-nalf years. The maternal instinct is very
strongly developed, and care for the offspring is shot•rn not. only
towards new-born pups but also tôwards young in tiieir second year.
V:oulting lasts through practically the whole of the summer
and autumn, and is not intensive. Both young and e.dul.,l; walruses 45
moult. The second half of the moulting period coinciçi•es in time
with intensive feeding by the animals in the vicinity of their shore
rookeries-, whère they complete the renewal of their coats.
The principal items in walrus diet are bentnic invertebrates,
mainly lamellibr.anchs Saxioava, Ca.rdium, jold.ia,.etc. and
gaû•tropods (13uccirnlm, i.eptunea, ctc.), and to a lesser extent iiolotliurians
and. Gephyr^.a; rarely, worms and cruutacc;ans.- ücca.sionally
fragments of the blubber and flesh of rine;ed seals have been found
in their stomachs. Â'ull sto;aachs of walruses .vive ueen found to contain
up to 20 kg of various food_ r-:mains, chiefly r:lollusc siphons.
Ilalruses in their second year feed bot)i on mi11: and on small môlluscs,
which they procure fro r the sea-bottom with their scnall tusks, which
protrude 5-6 cm lielow the upper lip.
'4alruües lead a fairly .,et'L.1.Ud life tli].'ol.l/,1'lout i::.e ye7.r. 'l'hey
svend the winter and. spring, and part of tl,, sumi,ler, on l'lo::tin,,; ice,
the autumn in shoro roo;,.eries, wiler.e 1,iie,y for::I l.o.r„e concerltra--
tions. In t

.63
greatest losses from polar bears, which mostly attack pups and juve.
niles. .•nother serious enemy is the killer whale, which pursues-walruses
during their migrations, especially in the Lorth Atlantic.
Some diseases have been found.in welruses, such as tumou14.
in the-uterus and atrophy of the lungs. Approximately 16 species of
helminths parasitize the internal organs, one of which (ftichinella)
is particularly dangerous to man.
The stocks of walruses, which were formerly abundant, have
been seriously depleted during a relatively-short period of tinte, and
in several regions have been completely annihilated. ihe.greatest
reductions have been suffered by the•Atlantic.walrus populations in
the waters of the Canadian Arctio, Greenland, „:pitzbergen, and Uovaya
Zemlya.
' After the extirpation of walrus stocks in the toastal zone
their pursuit was extended into the open and more northerly parts of
the Barents Sea. By the second half of the 17th century ship-based
walrus-hunting had begun to develop vigorously, and Uorwegian ships
visited Lovaya Zemlya, the Kara Sea, Spitzbergen, and Medvezhii Island
to take walruses. Russian ships also made voyages into these regions..
At the end of the 18th century ships in the :iJarcnts Sca were taking
up to 100 walruses annually, and in 1799, according to incomplete
statistics, more than 230 small ships sailed te :Jpitzberc.;en and ..,evaya
Zemlya, taking more than 2,000 walruses.
Walrus-hunting in the Larents Sea continued to be intensive
in the first part of the 19th century, especially in the Spitzbergen
and hedvezhii Island regions. From 1821 to 1830 73 Lorwegian ships
hunted walruses in these re,:;ions; in 1831-54 there were from 16 to
20 ships, which took . from 900 to 1,800 of the animals. annually. At
the beginnini,,7 of the 1860's 1 ..orweiax . ships be(.,an vigorous 'walrushunting
around Lovaya Zemlya and on the drift-ice in the Kara .:;ea.
During the. period 1675-83 from 30 to 40 isorwugian ships operated in
that'area every year, killing from n few huLdred up to 1,500 . wlruses.
Yhese crans weru also visited by some RussLIn snrain- vessels, but
their total antual take of walruses did no 1; ck(cuLd 100-200.
At thu end of the 19tn and the bei:inninà of tne 20th cukturic , o
a considerable decrease was recorded in thu nu:abers of willruhus Laken
or the narenta'Sua cilS in wehturn part of

..... b4
the. }.iaz'a Sea.
auntin,., by :;oviet shis, tirhicil be;,a:, iïi 1929, was able
to continue only un;:il 1934, and tl,en practica.ll f e.eased..
_,urin,;• the period . 1935-52 w;z.lrus-hurli:S.n,; in àoviet territorial
waters was restricted excluÜively to local requiselnents, being cax•rieçl
on on a sr,lall >cale by wintering staff of ::r,:tic stations and by the
coa.stal population.
From 1952 to 1955 one or two .^oviet sealing
schooners made annual studies of the status of Atlantic walrus stocks
46
in the ]'.ovay;). 6eln7.ya and 'Franz-Jose; l,^-llicï rer.:ion:5, at t}1.) sanie timo
shootil^^,• some of the aniule.ls for ex,perilnent^^l pur„orze.::l wit•hin a fixed
limit (200 head per ship) . During the entire period of these research.
voyages 1, 1 50 walruses were killed, includin"• 300 in the Franz-Josef
Land re`^.ion, to which the ships were able to travel only once (in
1955). After 1955 these voyages ceased, as a,l'lalysi.s of the results
showed that -- in spite of the fact that tnere had been no ship-based
hunting for a fairly long time -- the nurlbers of walruses in these
parts of the Arctic were still at a low level.
The most systematic exploitation of the fur resotirces of the
eastern part of the Taimyr Peninsula began when itussian hunters and
trappers arrived there at the end of the 19tt1 century; sil:lultaneously
with the trapllinn- of Arctic foxes, they killed walru:,es in their shore
rookeries.
At the beginning of the 1970's, with establishment of
Arctic stations on the islands and nlore.intensive development of
trapping, especially on the eastern Taimyr coast, the extent of wa1-
rus-killin[, increased, but in some coastal rookeries (at i,iari,ya,
l'ronchis'richevaya t,a.y, l'reobrazhenie Island, etc.) it did not exceed
a few •^tens of the animals. In the eastern part of the Laptev Sea,
ili Me IvoVUi;bir5k ..I'CE IiP(:ld^;o ^
(Kot-el' nyi lsl^ind, ,el' l.ovskii Island, etc. ) , the annual kill of
waliuc:,es during the pre-war period also did not exceed a few tens,
but during 19r1-45 it rose to 150-200, and tr.c:n it f.ell. a;;ain. In
the southern part of the Le.xztev Sea tin the Lena delta) from 200 to
"100 ]..,.u '3 wc•rc: killed ^lrlrlua.ll,y on Dauba 1•^land ûurinr; the post-war
l)eriod.
Thus the anlîun:l kill by. tue local pupule,tion, by the winterin,;
sta.i'i' of t,rctic stations, r.uu.i by tr.,^:ï,i Y.. ill t,l,: locnli.tics
of w,11 l uia concelltr'-l-0.011 along tilt. conrst of the i,rlptev :;ea iluc,tu:L'ted
from a few hlLlzc3.redi, to ap_)x'oximrltely 1000-1,500 an.inlal:.:. •l'wo "oviet
;;CI1O011i:1:S O1)t?1:'1.C].n ;
under llcÇncCti in 19^J aIlU 19;)[11 in tue viî:Gturn
ccnn suutllwe sto I'n i^rts of this Laptev ,^ea kilic.u

• 65
1955 the experimental shooting ceased, on account of the low numbers
of walrlises in that area. •
Studios of the status of walrus stocks made in 1952-55 in the
northern part of the Barents Sea and in the Laptev Sea revealed low
walrus numbers, &specially in the regions of the northern tip of
Novaya Zemlya and the Franz-Josef Land archipelago. In these two
regions, according to 1955 data, the number of walruses was estimated
at approximately 2,000-2,500, and the number in the whole • of the
Laptev Sea was estimated at 6,000-7,000. P‘ccordin ;:; to incomplete
1955 data, about 3,000 walruses lived in the northern part of Hudson
Bay alone, but the total number of -the • animals evidently somewhat
exceeded that figure, since the annual limit of take by the local
population was 1,600. No information is available reu;arding the
numbers of walruses in the waters of East and West Greenland, but
the annual kill by the Eskimo-population is 500-600. '
The sharp decrease in the stocks of Atlantic•walruses in all
parts of their range has necessitated the - taking- of positive measures
to restore their numbers. WaIrus-hunting has been prohibited Since
1949'in the waters of the western sector of the Soviet Arctic (the
Barents and «Kara Seas). .1n 1956 the decree of the Council of ilinisters
of the IISPSR "Feasures for Conservation of Arctic Animals"
prohibited -the use of ships for killing walruses everywherei . permission
was granted only to the local national population of the ilorth
to take - the animals within certain fixed limits, and to 1,rctic expeditions
to tnke them under licence'. Complete prohibition of ship-based
walrus-hunting ha s been adopted by Norway. In the Canadian Arctic
the first mea.:ures to regulate walrus-huntip;; wer-introduced in
1931, when the export of tusks and hides from the , localities where
the animals were killad was prohibited, and licences for taing walruses
were restricted to t•e Eskimo population ana to•winter residents
in the Arctic; in 1949 tne measures for walrus conservation were made
more precise ana :..ositive with respect to fixin; - of kill limits and
ensuring complete utilization of the animal.) taizan.

cHAP7'LR 3
PINNIFEI)IA OF THE NO?tTHliP,ld PART OP ''![L l'Aç;1F1:C 0^E'Ai`I
With respect to the number of pinnipede srecies dwelling in 47
them, the seas of- t!ze northern part of the racific Ocean occu^,y a
lee.dinp, place ai;-ion; the waters of the world. i-hocidne living there
include the ringed sea.]. (" a.kiba" ), the bearded seal ("lakhtak" ), the
harbour seal the ribbon :;eal ("krylatka!'), and trie island.
seal (''a.ntur"^. The -total numbers of these racific se«ls are con--
sidera.bly smaller t•rl,,an the nui:ibi;rs o-f seals it. the I,ortll Atlantic and
:rctic Oceans; nevert'rleless,. many of them are the object:.: of t•rid.èly--
developed ship-ba=ed and shore-based hunting. That refers above all
to the rinCed seal, and. to a les.-,er extent to the bearded seal, the
ribbon seal, and the harbour seal. The Arctic wa.ter_: of ttle a'acific
Ocean are also inhabited by :ralrll ses, whos.:, nu..l)ers are considerably
higher than those of the walruses in trie Atlantic and ::rctic Ocea.ns.
taken tog-ether.
The walrus is a.n important object of hunting by
the i;hukchi population.
The seas of the northern part of the .lacific Occan are also
inhabited by an abundant (and economically the most important) member
of the family of ea.rc.c seals -- toe northern fur seal -_-he numbers
of these seals on 'l'yülenii Island and the ^tomandorskie Islands in
:;oviet waters have begun to recover. The nt.l:abe.rs of anot[ler cared
seal sr,eci(.-'s, the northern sea-lion li;umeto}?9.as jilb^ltll: 5111'., 1776},
are likewise increa.,sinf;. I-Je may. also include a.ulol.,, the i.nha.bitants _
of the northeastern part of the I-J..cific Occ:::l. tue nort•ilcynn eleuhant
seal and the California sea-lion.:
Ringed Seal, or "akiba" (usa. hisl,^.da ..,n^^. , 1775)
Two subspecies of ringed seals live in tne ^:cas of th^ northern
part of the Pacific Ocean ---- the Sea of Okhotsk subcpecies P. h.
ochotr:n:1].s and trie tserinc; Sea subspclcâ.e.:. 11. h. 1]:Pl.^cllt?YI].ill!lkovl.
^Yhe zoo].ot°ieal bo,ly len„th of the Sea of tJl.hot.:l: rin.:;ecl c(:`a:L t,yearu.nd
o:Ldor s eci.lnerl:ij varies within tllo ]c,lil`;i of (t^,- ^,J(J c:
and its weirht varies from 14 to 55 kg. '.1'ile ;3or.ir1;, Se,a. (!.l iba is
larger than th.- [:)ea of Okhotsk form by an aver.t-•c of U-10 c,ii, and
its body weight is c,o,.1c•Wha.t mrc:c:ltes. The lcrri;•jtn o.l llctr-1,orli ? :ulls
of 1. 11• oc11U te11:1:L:=> ].t.: L11J to 6^Y clll, i:al(l
n,vurn u-'j c'in rii,kl `j` k,;.
1;rirlrl,i.nJ,; for i }h.

67
Two types of dorsal colouring have been recorded in Par .càstern
ringed seals: from dark-grey to almost-black, and grey-drown with
a greenish-yellow tinge (see 4, b). The belly is. usually lightgrey.
There are light-coloured streaks on the back and sides, forming
rings of irregular shape. Dark-grey dorsal colouring predominatés
among the rin .ged seals of the northern parts of the Pacific. Ocean.
The fur of new-born pups is white and fluffy. i',inzed seals from the
Sea of Okhotsk and the Bering Sea differ in colouring and in the morphometric
indexes of body and skull.
The Bering Sea akiba's range lies along the coasts of Chukot•a
and Kamchatka, including the T.e:omandorskie Islands, and southward as
far as Avachinskaya Bay. In American waters this seal is common.along
the entire coast of the Alaska Peninsula, but is absent in the Aleutian
Islands area, and is seldom recorded in the eastern part of the
Bering Sea. The ochotensis form is found in the Sea of Okhdtsk (except
for the Lurile chain of islands), including Sakhalin Island; the
southern limit of its range also includeS the Pacific coast of JaPan
as far as 35 0 N, and the east coast of Korea (see Fig. 5).
The Bering Sea subspecies spends a considerable part of the
year on the immovable fast ice in bays and inlets; When tne ice disappears
the seals do not make long migrations but lead a settled mode
of life, keeping to districts with indented coast-lines. The most
abundant economic concentrations of ringed seals have been recorded
in Senyavinskii Strait, in Lavrentiya, Mechigmenskii, and Kresta Bays,.
in Rudder inlet, and in the Gulf of Anadyr. .i;mall nu:abers of the
animals Visit the Komandorskie Islands and the east coast of 1 .,amchatka
in spring and summer. Others live on drift-ice in the Isering Sea.
Unlike the DerinG' Sea akiba, the Sea of Okhotsk akiba spends
the winter and spring mainly on floating ice, preferring it to'coastal
fast ice. During the breeding period concentrations of tne seals
are observed mostly in the northwestern and yestern coastal districts
of the Sea of Okhotsk (Shelekhova Bay, Tauisknya Lay, and Ukhots4
and also in the southern part: on • the ;,hantarskie Islanda, in ,akhaiinskii
)3ay, and in the drift - ice areas on tne east coast of ...ak.halin.
Yhese seals make passive mirations with tile drift — ice, in various
directions. Wh n the ice disapi.ears they dis .rere throurn - tne open
water and 81X:Ilt: a considernble tinte stîimminu, keepic, to 1': loris witn

^..1^ 68
deeply-indented coast--lines. A few shore rookeries have been observed
in the northern part of the Sea of Okhotsk.
In autumn, when fast ice begins to form, the seals concentrate
in bays and inlets. The most numerous akiba conce,:trations at that
time are obser.ved in the northern part of the ea, of Okhotsk, in 'Ushlci,
Shelltinna, i'otykleislcii, Odyan, f

'
69.
been discovered that Sea of Okhotsk ringed seals, beth male and female,
become mature one year earlier than 'do the Loring Sea animals. - As
with other seal species, development • of the embryo begins after a •
delay of approximately two-and-ône-half months; the total duratio n .
of gestation is about 11 months.
ï'he moultinr; period begins in the last ten days in April;
sexUally-immature animals are the first to change tneir fur covering.
Se.?mally-mature males begin to moult in Hay, .and females somewhat
later. r . 1-le peak of mass moulting occurs in the first ten days in
June, and moulting is completed for most of the animals by the last
dayS . of June; a small number of moulting seals can be obs ,...rved even •
in.August.
During the Moult the seals spend a large part of their
time on the ice-floes, and make passive migrations as these drift.
In . certain years, in areas where the ice lasts a•long time, fairly
large concentrations of moulting akibas have been observed (in. the
• coastal zone from Ushki Bay to Okhotsk, on the Shantarskie Islands, .
and in Sakhalinskii Bay).
•
When the ice disappears and moulting is completed the akibas
begin to feed vigorously, and they continue to do so. for seven or
. eight months (summer, autumn, and winter months). During the summer
and early autumn the.seals disperse through the open sea, and can be
observed swimming singly or in groups; but when ice begins to appear
they concentrate in the coastal zone, in bays and .
•
inlewts. .1'heir diet
during that period has not been thoroughly investigated, as they are
• only occasionally killed at that time. All available information on
their diet refers mainly to their period of living on tne ice, when
. they feed less intensively than.in summer and autumn.
• The akibas' diet is varied, but the chief items in it are
small planktonic crustaceans and, less . often, shrimps. I-oishes found
in their stomachs include herring, navaga, Arctic . cod, s:,elts, sand .
eels, capelin, and bullheads. In spring tne principal item, in the
diet of Sea of Okhotsk ringed seals is planktonic crustaceans, concentrations
of which tee seals find in patches of oen water and
spacou between icC-floes.
In autumn they feud mainly on fishes. in
the B ovin g t;e , a considerable part of tin' diet consihts or Arctie
owl, ;Ind prolnont anonr' crustnceans,arç: nnc 'mphioda. - it
iG belleveu tiut the inhiba' s diet classifie
it au a planLun-eaLer,
•
•

.... 70
and that it do es not cause sûbstantial depredations among thè stocks
of commarcial fishes.
1j.-he
akiba is fairly lon{;wlivecï; in the ,:,ea of Okhotsk, where
it has been hunted intensively for a long time, specimens more tnan '
30 years old have been found. cvidently that is not its limit of
longevit,y,. because in some regions of t_ie Arctic Ocean where hunting
has not been so intensive specimens more than 40 ycars old have been
taken. 'l'he most danij^^;erous riatural enemies of t.,e s l;ecies are the
polar bear in tue :l3eri.ng, loea. and the killer wh,0-e in the ,:;c•a. of
Okhotsk:
i'ourteen helniinth species have been rtcorücd in 8ea of'
Okhotsk ringed seals, including two species of trema.todes, six species
of nematocles, two species of cestodes, and four species of Açai;thocephala.
Four species of nematodes and two of 1:canthocepha,la have
been recorded in the Bering 8ea subspecies.
In the northern nart of the Pacific Ocel::n the akiba is the
chief c{uar.ry of ship-bas ed. and shore-based hunting.
That seal has
been hunted. in the coastal areas of the Sea of Okhotsk and the Bering
Sea.for a long time. At the end of the 19th century the annual take
of akibas in the Sea of Okhotsk, according to incomplete records,
fluctuated betiieen 25,000 and 30,000; the taice remained at approximately
the same level until. the 1950s- In 1947-54 (Table, 7) the
annual. shore-based take of akibas in the Sea of Okhotsk reached from
9,000 to 18,000, whereas the ship-based take (except in 1947) was
much lower and fluctuated within the range of 2,000-8,000. The total
annual kill during that period avera,,;ed about 20,000. ûince 1955
the ship-•based kill has risen steeply as a result of the establishment
of a fl.otilla of sealinu, vessels.
llur.inP, the post-war years the annual shore--based kill of
ringed seals in the Bering
Sea fluctuated between 30,000 and 35,000,
but later it decreased somewhaL, and at present i t is at the 10,000-
12,000 level.
Since 1961, simulta.neously with siiip-baseci.hui^tinc, of
rihbon and bac^:r:cli:rl ser:cla, two nl^ii.^^a in the
have a.nly
tr.Lkcen smel'1 rjur.ibers of rjk:i.ba„s (.2,O00--;5,0U0j. of the take
of ri1^F;cc.l èeal:; on tiie Amerir,^i.n coast of too i,er:i.ng âe.'.t is unknown.
of a.l,ibas in tiie
Ci^c
Analysis of the tr,.f:c data indicnte:, art.suction in tne iauabura
of Okhotsk; appro.c.imwLc eo1111ts iirw,.: 7:eve

71
TaGnuun. 7
11,061.1 , 1 ■1 tUilti5b1 n OXCITC ,SON1 ?tore 3a 1917-11'53.n . .,
Th:C. rebli
1
roA
•
'
9._ ripcmi.:cc.q
, ir lIrcro
6crcrotne cYgorAft
1947 12,5 16,1 28,9
1948 10,2 1,2 . 11,1
1919 11,3 . 3,6 11,9
1950 9,6
-- 9,6
1951 10,0 3,3 13,3
1952 18,2 2,5 20,7
1953 14,5 2,6 17,1
1931 11,3 8,4 19,7
1955 13,7 45,1 58,8
1956 10,7 61,1 71,8
1957 11,1 43,2 51,3
1958 15 E3 58,2 73,5
1959 '12,6 41,0 53,6
1909 • 16,5 63,2 81,7
1901 20,0 45,1 65,4
1962 93,7 46,4 70,1
1963 21,5 28,0 40 ,5
1964 17,0 55,6 72,6
1965 15,0 60,9 75,9
1966 !..+1-Ier CD. 36,7 --
1967 D •5,8 --
1968 s. 44,2 --
_
YABIJ 7. Wake of Ringed Seals (Akibas) in tne Sea of
Okhotsk' from 1947 to 1965 (' 000).
Y,ey: 1) Year. 2) Take. 3) Shore-based. 4 ) Ship-based.
5) Total. 6) jo information.'
In tne Bering Sea the stocks of akibas have not been depleted by .
shore-based hunting, and they probably amount to 350,D00 or 400,000.
In order to conserve and restore the stocks of akibas in tue Jea of
Okhotsk, limits on ship-based hunting there were imposed as follows;
in 1969, 32,000; in 1970, 26,000; and in 1972, 25,000, while the
taking of akibas from ships in the Bering - ea was prohibited. The
shore-based kill by the local population in the Sen of Okhotsk and
the Bering Sea was not restricted until 1970, but since 1970 shorebased
killing of akibas has also been subject to linits.
Ribbon Seal (Mistrioohoca faciatr. h., 11o) )
The colourin of ru.nilt ribbon seals is vor:./ peculiar (Fig. 15).
The basic colour of males is dnrk,
fror:: deep black to slaty-
brown; the females are much linter in colour, .rom cinnamon-brown
to dark straw-colour. .1,i:nins1 that baokr. ,,roune wnite ribbon-like
sLripes, ;:omeLi!nen wiLb yellowish 10-12 :;tand out

huc. 15. Klit!.•ICnsa, n;l;t 110a0caTl.li1 1I0AVU1,.
Tr'i{; . 15 . hibbon seal .
instron,g contrast.
One of these stripes covers the neck and the
back of the head, and another encircles the body in the sacral region;
two paired oval-shaped strines lie around the fore--limbs'and stretch
from the shoulders to the middle of the trunk. The stripes on the
female's body do not contrast so strongly. The basic colour of
sexually-immature specimens is a dark straw hue, without the stripes.
New-born pups are covered with dense fluffy fur, pure white; after
they shed the embr.,yonic coat the basic colour changes,-- the back
w+ Ch
becomes dark-grey, and the sides and belly become light-grey att= an
51
ashy-silvery hue.
^ ^--^
r
H D12 )y OL'
% %il^.'•^i^
•1Y'.
^^^:.
^ -^/r1~•
.
' .'U
.ÿ%ly .. 4j •.\i/// , .. ,..' „~• ..
^
1 •^'/ \ /,``y ' r•,\•
^^/ ' j i/^/•.. j . f"^'
.
../
r
l:
^ ^'^ / % • ^l^
.. /Z
° . ^
^iGrr'I;N^J^L p^••^j
. •' •
`ik,;. _`,/;•:•r= . ^.^'1i./ //r 1.::,..:'>
^.^^%%/,^l^
^/%/., ; ;• ^ ^•^r^^`'^%,;•^% M ^!';'r'
4
^
ti•. )i /^'^ /r`IJ^ ^^i^^:-^,r^\^V
,
% ,
^
r .. . ^^`f..
/t3^
^
'•% Si / rnP
. . ^ • s '
3'^^.
i
; '•^.,r^ ^^^:,
_.•^; __.-----
i^.,^-' _^ ^ ld:l°
l)ilC. i(l. nIC!1:I0CT()aI1Ci!NC 14)l.laÿ'ifal.
Fi fr;. 1r,. lt^lnrre of ribbon seé3.1 .
'Key: 1) ]'oint ]3îl.rrot•r. 2^ ;eri of Ol.hots;,:.. 3) I:a.mclia Llca.
) ^(?^'lh^' .. i' ^. 4^ i.U.hile 1 Jl?.Ia^.î• l^^ r^leuti^lt Islands.

73
. The maximum zoological length of adult ribbon suais is 190. cm,
the average being 165 cm; new-born pups are 80-90 cm 1Dng.
he dif-
ference in size between males and females is very small. The body • .
weight of adults iS 70- 80 kg, rising te 100 kg durihL.: the perio,d of
- maximum nutrition. The average. weight of new-born tups is about 9 kg.
hibbon seals are found mainly - in the Sea of . Okhotsk and the
Bering rien. (Pi.. 16). They also occur in tile soutnern parts of the.
Chukchi Sea from Kolyuchinskaya .bay on tne west to l'oint larrow on
the east. The southern limit of their range runs Lhrouh tne northern
part of the Sea of Japah (Yatarskii Strait an o Kurile islands,.
ring the . period when they form rookeries on tue ice tne
. areas of concentration of ribbon seals in tue 13erin;; ::ea are the CUlf
of Anadyr and the drift-ice massif in the region of St. 1:atthew and
St. Lawrence Islands; tney occur in somewhat smaller numbers in 01-
yutorskii and
and in the soUthern part of the Chukchi Sea.
Lays, on the Pribylov Islands, in'13ering Strait,
In the Sea of Okhotsk tue geatest concentrations of ribbon
seals are observed in the areas northeast of Sakhalin and southeast
of Babushkina ,Day. It is believed that th. - ribbon seals of tue Sea
of Okhotsk and of the -1'.ering Sea are two local forms. ?ne rookeries
on ice are always far from the coasts; the seals prefer to form .concentrations
on thick and hummocky masses of drifte-ice, with patches
of open water and crevasses.
Pregnant females come to the pupping areas - in good time and
•Usually-settle on iee masses lying near the edge of drift-ice. The
pupping period extends over apàroximately a month, from the end of
March tà the last days of April.
A female usually produces a single
pup,.Which . is suckled by her for about 20 days anu gains weight'
rapidly. Whereas the thickness of thé subcutaneous fat layer in a
new-born pup is about 1-1.5 cm, by the end of the lactation period
it has increased to 4 or 5 cm.
The average weignt of the pup increases
to 28-30 kg, and its body length to 100-12 5 cm.
At the age of about 25-50 days .ne embryonic fur i s finally
shed, Lut the pup continuos to live .
on the ice for sono time lon;er,
• subsisting on its accumulated fat. Its transition to an indel,endent
mode or life leads to los;:; of weiht (down La 2 ./) -29 k;;) and decrease
in Lhe Lhickness. of the subouLpeeous fat layer.
unl:; il Li Lney

..... 74
have taken to the water do the pups begin to feed vigorously on
small crusta.ceans.
The adults begin ma-tin,' at trle end of April and conclude it
in i-iay.
It is believed tii:^t th-_ seals do not forci stable pairs at
that time.
The copulation process takes place both in the water and
on the ice. Gestation lasts about 11 monthE,, i.ncluuinL, 2.5 montrls!
of the latent stage of development oi:' t'rle. ovum.
A ve:cy small nu::tber
of fc:malee; mate for the first time on t7,ttéL:LniTlj; 'tllt? a,;c of. l,llree
years, but most of them begin at the ago of four or five yr,rtrs; the
males become sexually mature one or two years later than the females,
and begin to reproduce actively at the age of five or six years.
After matin{; ends the adults and sexually-imn,ature individuals
bei;in the moulting period, which lasts until mid-July, when the ice
finally breaks up. The animo,ls' coats have a brir,hter colour after
the moult.
During, the moult they become very thin, and by July the
thickness of the subcutaneous fat layer has shrunk fro:n.4-5 cm to
1-2 cm. ';Jhen the moult is completed the seals leave tire ice and
begin intensive feeding.
1,11 our information on the composition of ribbon seals' diet
relates to the spring and ecirly sunuaer, when the seals are on the ice.
At that time food is seldom found in their stomachs. Accorïling to
available data, in the Sea of Okhotsk tlle chief items iii their diet
are walleye pollock, cod, capelin; amon,, cephalopods,^sulall octopuses;
and among crustaceans, shrimps. In the Bering t;ea tn_ chief dietary
items are sh.rimps; among fishes, Arctic cod, nïLva^,a, lteri'inF;•, and
some members of the blenny family; octopuses and cuttlefisii are occasionally
found in their stomachs. Small crusta.ceans• preciominate in
the diet of juveniles in both the Sea of Okhotsr: and the Bering ^3ea.
'.Pile
seals may dive to. a depth of 200 metres in s,:arcll of food.
The lonr-;evity limit in populations riot ..ub,,ject to human exploitation
c?oe:t not exceed 26 years. !,reti.e shark;,, killer wl1(l.l_es,
zlld polar bears must be rc:^;o.rcied as theil wost (11ruu:: C .1 es in
rIrLtitrrl'l ou,;di.t;9.on:.. pups, may also C3l.LI'.t'er (1or;rocir1.L•i.o)::: Lrom l.art^a
p;ullrs rl:;u
some of t.-lr:ni a1,;o 7^urir,il durinr; -,,ne ].c;utati.on
l,erio(i trlrotir°rn bei.n"; :,qtteezed hetween blocks of icu. .:"lotller cause
of ül, ly 11G
1.1^."LO"'i'^,IIU.1.' rl..Lt,l.l )1C^lil.lll'tll ta^OC)]^'.l )tfLve 1)Ctl'll fi1111;^1 :1.1. l'll,l>oI, (:ieak.:;.

75
. Shore-based undng of ribbon seals has been carried on for
a long time, but tac extent of the kill by the coastal populntion .
of the Sea of Okhotsk and t.re -ering Sea has never been great, since .-
Sovict sealing vessels began to operate in trie Par astern seas (in •
1932) end the seal stocks in the Sea of Okhotsk have been exploited,
more ribbon seals have been killed, althouc:;h other seal species have
been the principal object of hunting. -
Since 1954, when the sealing fleet was reinforced, the take
of seals (including ribbon seals) in tac Sea of Okhotsk has increased.
• Prom 1957 to 1961 the annual take of ribbon seals was 11,000.-18,000.
Later the take increased as hunting was extended to the stoeks of
ribbon seals in the Bering Sea (in 1961), where 8,000-9,000 ribbon
seals have been taken annually. We give below figures for ship-based
killing of ribbon seals in the Sea of Okhotsk and the Bering Sea in
1957-68, in thousands.
ro; P.oiihqa ilsofimga
1957 17,8 1963 21 . ,0
1958 11,1 1964 2,2
1959 18,8 . 1965 19,6
1960 16,7 1966 15,6
1961 16,1 1967 23,7
1962 28,6 ' 1958 16,6
•
Key: 1) Year.
2) Take.
The increase in ship-based killing of ribbon seals has led
to some decrease in the numbers of these seals in the"Sea of Okhotsk
and the Bering Sea. An aerial census of them was taken in the Bering
Sea in 1964, and their number was estimated at 80,000-90,000; in the
Sea .of Okhotsk, according to an aerial census taken in 1966, their
number was estimated. at 89,000. In order to corh.erve ana restore
the ribbon seal stocks in these seas an annual limit of 10,000. has
been imposed on ship-based killing of them (3,000 in trio Bering Sea
and 7,000 in the Sea of Okhotsk).
•
MACIIDWO Seal (yh .o .cu>t v .ituIin.n . L., 175h 1
• Thoro io no de.ah.ttive hi;n:omeht, , -)non a:.; to
the dirforentjAtion of 11‘Mbour vords in the rrIcific ()cyan inLo F:pecies
and uubspoeintl. '.1110 Amori.can investiator ,chf,fl'uy 0950) lioti.f twe
oubspeeich 1-hoca vitultna: the ( e._ , w ult
Loe cott:A.; of L:nukoLi'.il 1..0 _nil, 1, .11,d hi cie.,rdt

seal (T. v. richardi), which is found along the American,ceast of
thPacific Ocen from the Chukchi Sea to California. That subspeci- .
classification is based not only on geographical sepalation, but fic
also on some ecological differences; for instance, during the breed-.
ing and moulting periods the larga is a typical ice-dwelling form,'
and hichard's seal a typical shore -dweller.
Some systematists (Chapskii, 1967) have raised the ice'-dwelling-form
of the harbour seal to a species, larga (Limon larho). The
true taxonomie status of Richard's seal has not yet been determined.
Larga.
The basic colour varies from silvery-grey to dark-grey;
the belly is usually lighter than the back. Small black or brown
spots of irregular shape are scattered over tne back and sides, and
less frequently on the belly; their density on the back may vary (see
Fig. 10, b).
The colouring of some individuals resembles that of
the ringed seal because of the reticular pattern of the lighter spaces
between the spots. The larga's flippers, unlike those of other seals,
are also covered with spots.
fur, almost pure white.
The young are born with dense fluffy
76
After tfie embryonic fur is moulted the pups'
basic colouring is the same as that of the adults; the hair is then'
shorter, stiffer, and more sparse. There are no differences in colour
between-males and females.
The facial part of the larga's head is
long. Its method of movement on the ice is peculiar -7-
jumps, with unc.,ulating flexure of the back.
vigorous
The maximum 7 .,00logical length of adult males and females is.
214 cm, the averaP:e being 167 . cm. The length of new-born pups (white
coats) is 80-110 cm, averaging 97 cm.
The body weight of large and
well-fed adults reaches 150 kg in autumn, but in spring it usually
varies within the range of 70-60 kg.
Eew-born pups weigh 7-10 kg.
The range of distribution of this seal includes the su.b-Arctic
and temperate waters of the Asiatic coast of the facific Ocean . (see
Fig .- 17).
In the southern part of the Chukchi Sea tac larga penetrates
westward a2,
far as Kolyuchinskaya Bay; it is common along the
whole of 'the Chukotsk Peninsula, in tue oL,on part of tue Boring Sea,
on the east coast of Kamchatka, and in the region of the Komandorskie
Islands. The boundary dividing the ranges of the larga and itichard's
seal in the Bering Seri is unknown.
The larga is found pverywhere in
the S(.a of Okhotsk, especially in tho northurn find wstern parts,

..... 77
a.z'ound Sa.kllalin, in `l'atar.slcii Strâit, - and,' in the Kurile I::la,nds re,;i,on.
The southern limit of its range includes the racii'ic coast of Japan
and the entire Sea of Japan as far as 370 I.
I . Pnc. 47. PacnlwcTp2 nerrue r.apru n z)o:)ensr Pllxap;(a.
Fig. 17. Ranges of larga and Richard' s se-a-1.
Key: 1) L1;;3R. 2)U.S.A. 3) Canada. zj) Boring S ea. 5) Sea
of Okhotsk. 6) Aleutiai! Islands. 7) Hokkaido Island. Cs) Honshu
Island. 9) U.S.A. *10j Guadalupe Island.
During the ba,eed.in^; and moultirig periods the seals form rookeries
on drift-ice. In the Bering Sea these rookeries are 'formed
mainly in the eastern part -- on the :i'ribylov I„lands ana huniva.1;
Island,, and farther east, inc'ludinU Bristol Bay; the :,eal concentrations
are gradually moved northward into the t3t. i,;a.tthew Island, area
by the ïtriftin^ of the the. i'her.e are fewer rooicea'ie.,. in the western
part of t))e' ï3erinr, Sea.
Rookeries are to be founr_ on off-,shore masses
of drift-ice on the eastern coasts of Lamchatica, Ctiukotka, and -the
Gulf of Anadyr; the seals remain in these regions until the icefloes
have finally rrreltec:.
In the Sea of Okhotsk rookeries are formed on the ice in the
northern and noa: the,>..:terl; parts (west coast of i:rl::lchatltia, Ya.l:rs:ca.ya
and !'cluisk.n,ya. ;.cl,y:;l and in tll.u :louthea.:ztez'ri part koc-+st coc.lst of
:i£l^:f]i1.^.x.I1, l(?7'j')(']'la. %(I ...-1y, 'J.'r].^é1..1.'.'1^11 1'iL1't^ • l oi. 1.i1 1)1. f'Cwer
roolCCriC:r 0.:'(: 01)1.'F?].veù. ].l: till-l western part ou the :;C(l, Ùetwhen i%y1'll
C11 (1 (.)iChotSk. Un tlll. }•lhole, tlw ::eell^ m7-a.r1L(1.7.1 ti:eir rookeries in
thC: ).),lnl(: M ( a "; t.l:z'o].i 1^)tlt tire.ia: :Lce-,wel.lirl,; j,er.i.o(1 Of ].if; .l. L ia
l(:'l.i.(?voi Lil 1 L 1,11k onl,y :.;.r.( i>Li.u. i i., ,1]1:'ov1.r;L: i tly

eed in trie southern part of the Sea of Okhotsk .and migrate into the
ShantarSkie Islands region for moultinp;.
After the ice melts the seals remain in the coastal zone, .
diSpersing ameng the estuarie- of. rivers in which fishes sp .I.Wn. In.
the early part of the Leason they do not form stable snore rookeries
in these districts, but in Auf2ust an September cohcentr: -,tions of the
animals are observed at definite points on the coast. The principal
sites of shore rookeries in the Sea of Okhotsk in. autumn are at Tigir,
from Penzhinskaya Bay to Tauinskaya Lay, and from the Shantarskie
Islands.to Sakhalinskii Bay, and the southern and central parts of
the Kurile chain; in the Bering Sea they are the reions of Karagin- -
Island, Olyutorskii Bay, and Ust'-Kamchatskii. The seals remain skii
in the shore rookeries until late autumn, when ice-floes appear; .
they stay among the latter throughout their ice-dwelling period.
7 8
then
In the northern parts of the Bering Sea and the ea of Okhotsk
pupPing takes place mostly in late March and Aprill . in .more southerly •
parts of the range it takes place in rebruary. The largas' pUpping
rookeries.are.formed both - on the edge of the ice and deep within the
ice-fields. Usually the . seals avoid heavy unbroken ice masses and
keep to places where there are patches of open water and crevasses.
The females produce their young on smooth ice with few hummocks.
males stay with the females and pups during the whole pupping period. •
Such familles are . often observed on the ice. The lareas do not form
dense concentrations, the females remaining at distances of 1007200
metres from one another.. .The reokeries occupy large areas of ice.
The duiation of the lactation period has not been precisely
determined; it is believedthat the female suckles her young for three.
or four weeks.
As with other seal species, the larga pups rapidly
accumulate a subcutaneous blubber layer during the period of ihilkfeeding,
and they weigh 27-32 kg at the age of 10-12 days. isioulting
of the embryonic fur by the pups takes place at tne - age of about one
month, and the puis usually do not take to tne water until the moult
is comnleted. They enter on an:independent mode of life at the end
of the lactation and moulting periods; the mating period of the aaults
(the duration of which hi,u, not been determined, tnen beiçins.
of the females. nogin to Lake an active part in reproeuction at the
a;:o of i'eur or :Ivc years, nfl ti10 MalCij :.omowhat later, at tne age
of five or sly yiart3. tentation instil - about 11 nohLns.
The
•

...... 79
Largas begin to moult about May 10 and finish rnoultin,; in
July. During that period. the adults and sexually-i:mt:tature. animals
form small, but concentrn.ted, rookeries. The rookeries are, usually
located nca.r the edge of a drift-ice mass.
After the moult the 1ar,;as leave the ice and begin to feed
actively, predominantly on fishes. WhereaU durin& tee period spent
on the ice their diet was quite varied and consisted of several fish
spo'ci.os (ct^•^^el..i.ar, :smelt, herri.nft,, small fl.atfi;jli, navagia, buJ.l.hotuts,
etc.) and also small crustacea.n:ti and cepha.lopocl;;, in the summer an(i
autumn their food cansists chiefly of Salmonidae. While pink,chum,
coho, sockeye, and kin" salmon are ascendin^; the rivers to spawn the
seals congregate in the estuariés, forming temporary rookeries and
sometimes ascending the rivers for severa.l .hundred kilometTes in
pursuit of the fishes. l,ur:i.n„ that period the largas cause heavy
losses to the fishing industry by destroying large numbers of valuable
salmon.
On attaining a high state of nutrition.the seals abandon their
temporary rookeries in the rivers. In late July and _'_uigust the largas
16
form stable rookeries on coastal reefs, on small sandy and rocky
islands, and on sandbanks, usually separated by strei;el•ies of wa`t-er
from tiie mainland. In some districts concentrations are also seen.
on river banks. The seals emerge from the water into the rookeries
at low tide. The population of the rookeries rea.ches a pealc in September,
and thenceforward re:aains constant. The largas leave their
rookeries on land only when floating ice be,z;in:; to form; after moving
on to the drift-ice they romain in the coastal zone, continuing to
feed intensively, until the »a.rturi.tion period approaches.
Amon{;- tue largas' natural enemies the i::ost serious predator
is the polar beçtir, which attacks tiie:n during tl.eir periôci of life in
shore roc,keries; wolves, Arctic foxes, and lar,o birds of prey cause
s:naller loss::s. 'ihe most probable preclator-:-, in the water are killer
^'i11^1C'.s and st1aL'iCs, iU^ :. on the ice aea-eaeles, whict: at GElck tll•.: puT):i.
Huma,n expl.oi.tatioji of J.ar,;as in tue seau of tue l'^.cif ic Oc,- an is
--
devclopin,c.;, slo,•tl,y. The l,n.ï',r^as' duration of lifc: is :z'rLi.rly long
about 30 years, and possibly even more.
We e;ive. bel.ot•r fi,")-ux.1-,-s L'or the çihip-baùeu tako of iras in
56 .
tlio
Oea of Ul:hotsk and -utie: ioi•:i.n;; Se,, in 19;)7-01

..... 80
r
^
I o,l 'noû:,iva 1•0n AoGi,i:ia
19,7 717 1963 7,9
1958 1,5 1964 6,-,
1959 •1,8 1965 5,1
1060 9,2 1966 3,i1
1961 •1,3 1967 7,.1
I9G:? 3,9. 1065 7,3
Key: 1) Year. 2) Take.
On the introduction of tne sealinp; fleet the Soviet take of
largas rose slightly. Whereas in 1957-60 from 1,500 to 9,000 seals
56
were taken annually in the Sea of Okhotsk, in 1961-68 the take in the
Bering Sea and the Sea of Okhotsk fluctuated within tne range of
4,000-7,000. Although the ship-based take has risen, the intensity
of hunting --especially during the pupping-rookery period, --- is not
yet hi;h enough, as the small size of the ships prevents them from
penetra.ting.into the depths of the ice-fields, where concentrations
of the seals are often formed. There are also possibilities for
expanding seal-hunting in the shore rookeries, where at present local
residents kill a small number of seals, chiefly along the coast of
the Sea of Okhotsk. The number of largas living in the Sea of Okhotsk
(accord:ing to 1968 aerial census data) is estimated at 61,500. 1t
is evident that t,.e seal stocks in that rE^gion are somewha.t lariffer
than those in the Bering Sea.
In .1970 a limit of 6,000 was imposed oi1 the s'riip-based take
of largas in the Sea of Okhotsk, and a limit of 3,000'-in the 13ering
Sea; shore-based lcillin{ was also 'limited, to 5,700 in the Sea of
Okhotsk and to 2,200 in the T3ering âea.
hicllarci' s Seal. 'Phis seal species is found on tire northern
and western coasts of 1:i,;terica., from iierschel 1,31,and in the -beaufort
Sea southward a.long the coast of Alaska; it also occurs on the east
coast of the Bering Sea, in the i:•ribylov lUl

81
The zoological body length of adults living in .1_,ritis1i
Columbia waters averac;es 161,1 cm for males and,147.7 cm for. females;.
the body weights are 87 kg and 64.7 kg respectively. The average
body length of new-bern pups is 81.6 cm and. their weisht 10.2 kg.
The biology of these seals has not been adequately studied.
Parturition takes place on the shore and on sandy islands during
loW . tide... The pupping period extends to two or two-and-one-half
months, and the tine of pupping varies according to the district •
in which the sealn live. It is believed that in the soutaera parts •
Œf their range the majorit y of females bring forth their young in •
Junc, and in the northern parts in July.•
In Laie region of. Vancouver
Island pupping lasts from the end of June to the beginning .
of L;eptenber,
with a peak at the end of july. Moulting by the pus l'asts
for. about a month, The lactation period lasts for fiVe or six .
weeks. By the end of their moult the nups nave attained an average
. weight of 24 kg.
Ovulation is observed in the females at the end of the
lactation period or some weeks later. The females.attain sexual •
maturity at the age of 2-5 years, but begin active reproduction.at
the age of three or four years. The males become sexually mature
at the age of 5-6 years,.but tue majority of them .
begin to take part
in reproduction when they are five years old. It has beee reported
•that in the Vancouver Island region 'adult males are uost active for
reproduction from March to 1,ovember, and are inactive (witaout sperm,
in the appendix testis / from December to l'ebruary. .1tis believed
that about 902
of sexually- mature. females produce young each year.
Gestation lasls.for 11 months, including two months or àelay in
implantation of the embryo.
During the intensive-feeding period (late autumn and winter)
the sealé.do not make long migrations. The.y keep to their usual
habitats in Lhu oastal zones of bays, inletS, anc: river astuaries.
Their diet consists mainly of fishes that live u coaatal zones
and 1,11e rivers. Uonei:ntratios or L"0 s, ls are ob;;erve,L in autumn
i- river estuaries, whore .cdmonioae are «ai ± Loir spawnin
ration.; the seals may go far up the rivers in.pnrsmit of the salmon...
in the nœrther, parts of their range te seals seuu t .
t.ee, near Ln
fast - ice suriu, where tne ;, speno the •inuer ahn . spriaL: montas.

82
information on th, numbers«of Uichard's -seals.and the exteht
of the annual kill is very sCanty. It is reported tnat soue thousands
of them live in -L -Je Copper hiver delta in te south of Alaska.
It is also believed that during the.pupping period the number of •
those seals along the British Columbia coast is as high as 35,000. «
There is no ship-based hunting for these seals. Hunting of ,
them
by local residents takes place mainly alonr; the coasts of Alaska
and British Columbia; It is known that
22,000 seals wore taken annually durini:
latter region the annual kill from 1954
3,000 and 5,000.
Island Seal, or Antur
in the former region up to
the peried 1952-5 . 5; in the
to 1 964 fluctuated between
• . The Soviet investigator A. N. Belkin (1967) has described,
as ,a new independent species, the island seal or antur, Phoca insu-
laris sp. nova,
-----
special Pacific
which was classified by K. K, Chapskii (1967) às a.
form of the common seal l'hoca vitulina, living in
the Kurile Islands and some other parts of the Pacific Ocean. Among
its distinctive external features the most characteristic is itu
colourin• (Fig. 16).
The basic colour of the.back is black, with
white oval rings measuring several centimetres across scattered.
over it.
Among the rings light-coloured spots and stries appear.
The general pattern of rings and spots reminds one of a bed of
flowers. -
The belly is generally lighter in colour than the back.
Half of the muzzle of adults is light-coloured, with a large white
spot under each eye.• The sears' head is ma,,sive, witli a high .
frontal bulge; the muzzle is broad, and bluntly truncated in front.
'2he colourin:f; àf new-born pups, which are covereo wrth short and
fairly-stiff hair, in similar to that of the aoults..
moult of the pups takes place within the uterus.
The zoological body length of adult males varies from 185
to 200 cm,'averaging 193 cm; that of adult females varies from 160
to 204 cm, averaing 160 cm. The body w,_ifvht of mules is 110-160
oF adults
kg, and that of females 70-145 kg. The weiht of the hide with
blubber attached, .dependini; on their size and statu of nutrition,
varies f -rom 30 to 60 kg. The length of flow -born pups is over 90
cm; their body weight is 11 to 15 kg, and the weight of their -
hide withblubber attached is 4.5 kg.,
,he first

..... 87
The range lias not been definitely d'etex:nlined. Some investif-a
torr first observed these seals in 1962 in tee ]Curile Islands.,
58
where they occur tof;etï:er with largas.
They are also found in .the
ilonlandorskie Islands, have been recorcled on th.: east coast of Kam-.
chatka, and apparently also live in the Aleutian and i^ribylov
Islands.
În..Japan they have been re^corteà on tee east coast of the
island of Eokc.aido,. south as far as Cape i;ririo.
i'tic. 18. Oc -^poatioii TIO.IC{IL, il1iT)'t),
Fig. 18. Island seal, or antur.
The bioloey of the antur has not been fully investiG•ated;
some data have been collected about the anturs living. in the ;Lurile
Islands.
Pupping in the Kurile Islands takes place within a fairly
limited periocl, from the second ten days in Nq.y un1:i1. the énd of
that month.
The young, are brought forth on the .;hore. ..^he duration
of the lactation period is estimated at three mo11trls. The mating
period is preceded by fighting, among the moles; lna.tirlg takes place,
apparently, in June. Gestation lasts for about 11 mQnths.. .-)exually--
immature ino.ividua.ls moult on the shore from July to mid-August.
Not much is known about the diet; in the l:urile Islands in sumiaer
the stomachs have been-found to contain shrimps 'l,Lebheus uo1ax•is),
fishes (el^^^istc::; macrocllir, j;eomysi^ ulirrlbili:;, (,ottidae, etc.
^)^ ----
and also the beaks of Ue i:oijoda. j)uring tl,e wintcr anci sj rin^; the
-Principal, food . items of these seals in tee
l:Aar(ds
-are cephalopods, crabs, Gephyrea., small crustacc•ans-, and a few
.fishee in sul.,,:ier ii;lles play a major role in the _: diet -- t;yclo^
1)terid£ti:, i.ottic!ae, i:F.:XLI.^.;raUliciae,
and :;83nlolliCÎ:.lc.
The â.sla.nd ooa1 is a. ty,picczl coF1£;'t:;-(1 foriu, aIlci lceeps to the
c;ari:;tuF;hout its 7.i1nU.a1 life cycle. 'lie scal., form
shore rookeries in pleloeo^ sllelter..ci from wind :;ux:f.. ^ile r1uI11)ex•s
of iES.1.F).i7(t :: ..^.•• in tlii: he-•ini;
and tue .;.:i( 01, UiClloj;:ltC aie llot.
l:noaln. Iliil.r iov;.c:li(:u ^(t,,vu i,u(,^1, oU„czwt:cl 011 26 ()J-' U10 • ,•;u1'i.lc

..... E3q.
Islands; the lareeùt rookeries (each of 100-250 animals) are located
on :iimitshir, Iturup, ;•.akanrushi, and some other iulanflÜ.
It is
believed that, tue total nu(,iber of the i,urile Islands -population of
island seals is about 2,500, and that the number of la.r;jas On the
same islands exceeds 4,000. The, number of suais on tne h'omandorskie
Islands exceeds 1,500. The extent of the kill in tile various areas
inhabited by these seals is unknown; island.;:eals are not commerci.a:t.1y
Ilunteil in :iovict ViRters.
f3earcled• 'Seo1 ati:us beCllll^r jurn}lirl;::; Rit. ^he "b,arci" i ; cl..rtz'1y visiblù
at r:t consicerai.e di..tance; it con:sists of zl la:r;e number (uip to 120)
of long tnici: vibrissae on th,.
59
^:Ale 111,axiiUu..1
ùoc,y lvntf_;ttt of £LGUlt.; is about 2c.10 cm, with the
c.vora;ïe heover 21 j an. illo aiff'or-nce il, bouy len,;Ln r,(.tweoll
fl :li':; :Lllli f'U..i 11eFJ it, Vïtr.'y r^ nt111.. itle bociy ll:l.il,'t11 Of 1iC1•1-UUr1, i)uT)-S

85
varies from 118 to 137 cm, the average zoological length being about
130 cm,.. The maximum weight of well-fed adults exceeds 300 kg; the •
weigh t . oi- new-born pups varies from 30 to 40 kg', and that of yearlings
and two-year-olds from 117 to 176 kg; that of .Lhree-year-olds
exceeds 200 kg, of which about 30 pertains to the hide and the
subcutaneous blubber.
The bearded seal is found in all loar lastern seas and in
the adjacent parte of the ïorth iacific Ocean (see ig. 5). The
northern limit of its range runs from the easLern part of the ;,ast
.Siberian Sea to the western part of the Beaufort
Barrow),
.including the coastal zones of these parts of Asia and America; it
is believed that the boundary between the ranges of the Pacific and
Atlantic subspecies of the bearded seal runs through these extreme
points. The bearded seal is found in the western and central parts
of the Bering Sea as far as tue .1-ribylov lslanas. - It does not occur
in Bristol Bay or farther south along the coasts'of Alaska and Canada.
The principal areas occupied by it in the Sea of Okhotsk are in the
northern and southwestern parts of that sea, as far as•the island
of Hokkaido. The southern boundary of its range includes the'northern
part of the Sea of Japan, extending to tac eastern part of theisland
of honshu.
. In the Chukchi and Jast Siberian jeas, and also along trie
northeast coast of Alaska, bearded seals do not form large concentrations;
they live singly in the offshore zone of the sea. During
.the reproductive season bearded seals form loosely-rouPed rookeries
on the ice in the Gulf of Anadyr, in the rei;ion of ,t. Fiatthew and
Hall Islands, and to the east of the Pribylov Islands. The rookeries
on drift-ice move: gradually from • the eastern eaÀ:1; of the ,:ering Sea
into the northern part as far as loAnivak and L t. Lawrence 1 .slands.
The bearded seal rookeries that are formed in the western pnrt of
the Bering Sea, in the Gulf of Anadyr, remaih.ln the sanie locations
until the ice breaks up. jeurcuation of beareU sertl rookeries by
•
sex and age has been observed in the Borin,. ,:e principi . concentration
of tne seaLl in Lime ;;ea of OLhott.:k nre rcstricted to
the ice-fields on the nortn coast of Kamchatl;n, ih inlet, in
-4nbiyavki and ilbushkina ,ayo, alon: 'the ea:IL cory:L cil' 'mlzhalIim,
and in TerpPniya i.ay; in the weoLern part
!1L'a stAali

66
have been . observed in thc ice-fields between okhotsk. and Ayan, at
Cape Borisova.
During t;.e moulting period concentrations of these seals
have also been observed in Penzhinskaya Bay and Tauiskaya Bay, in•.
the Shantnrskie Islands, and in .Sakhalinskii Bay.
Bearded seals do not make long or mass migrations. Vhen
the ice disappears they move to shore rookeries, located mostly in
the same areas as their rookeries on the ice. In the Sea of Okhotsk
the principal shore rookeries are a10 located in Penzhinskaya and
Taui . skaya Bay and on other parts of the coast. Usually a few tens .
of seals congregate. in each of the shore rookeries; the animals prefer
to lie on sandy or pebbly bars in the baye and , inlets. In the
Bering,• Chukchi, and iast Siberian Seas, and also on the northeastern
'coast of Alaska, no information is available about the existence of
shore rookeries; it is possible that in those regions the animalS
spend tse entire annual cycle of their lives on tte ice.
Before parturition begins the female bearded seals usually
select a part of the ice far , from the edge of the sea. The young -
are born on large, level ice-floes; tus pupping period is late March
and /1pril'in te Sea of Okhotsk, and extends through.the first ten
days of May in the Bering Sea.
Usually a female has only one pup.
During the lactation period, which lasts for about a month,
the pups gain weight rapidly. Bearded seal milk contains up to.60,
of fat; the amount of milk consumed by a pup at a feeding, .especially
in the first days of lactation, is up to one litre. By the
end of milk-feeding the,weight of the pups has more than doubled,
'up to 65 or 75 kg.
Most of the pups Make the transition to an independent mode
of life in the second half of May, but at first the pups continue
to stay with their motners in the water.
The males stay in the vicinity of the pupi)ing rooke:ies until
the end of the lactation period, or even later, at t:lat time mating
begins, the seal.: not usually forning stable .ïlirs Luring the mating
period. 'no first females to.mate are tnosL witnout offspring and
. those that have firilshed suckling their pups: Most of tue females
ix-gin to take an active part in reproduction at tnu aga of four or
five years, alts;.ugh individuals may'mate when three years old.

..... 67
Gestation lasts for about a year. The males become sexually mature
at the age of five or six years.
After t.7,. mating pc riod the seals ri mo,in on tli,^! ice to moult.
The moult beUins in sexually-ini:laturc e.-ni^^als at l;._e. end of April and
the beginnii:g of Vfay, and in adults somewhat later. '111li,: i:ioultinr"
period ic, very };rolon^-;ed; it conclud.eu at tilc: end of' July in the Sea
of Okhotsk, and at ti:e be^.;innin^ of AuLust in the lsc;i:int., Sea.
The diet of bnrtirded sealrs in the Sea oi O1_hotr^l, and the ]3erin[;
Sea has beon mort fully investigated for the sprin^ and :.u,:ner period.
At that time (which covers the periôds of puppin-; lactation, mating,
and moultin,,,,;) the seals live on the ice and continue to feed, although
not :_o vigorously as in the period of intensive fattening. Their
chie.f food items aie crustaceans --- tanner crabs, shrimps (mainly
visored shrimps), spider-crabs, etc..; Gastropods (r:ia.inly iol nices
pallidus) ; bivalves (Sera^ilnes ;;roenlandiCU;) ; annelids (;^cliiuri.da and
Polychaeta); and octopuses. The fishes most com.::only found in the
stomach:s of bearded seals are -potted snake--blerinies, with sand-eels
and flatfish occurring less often. In t,.e Sea of Okhotsk the period
of intensive feeding by bearded seàls lasts until the second half of
11ur^ust, t1iose feedin- in coastal waters bein- mostly sex-ually-immature
iiidividtials. The adults feed in the open sea, where crustaceans
are abundant.
The majority of bearded seals arrive in thein autumn rookeries
in the second half of September; the numbers of them on ti:e shore
increa.ce with tl-.(.) onset of s.evere frosts. They leave the rookeries
at low tide, t;oinü out to .:ea to feed and later r,:^turninu to the shore.
When fa.: t ice forms along the shore tne ani,aal:, move out on it, later
chan,,.-in- to floatini., ire. They continue to feed in winter. On the
analoLy of othez:• species of the family rhoclQae it may be assumed
that their exireme lenCth of life is 30 year.,. Their most danCerous
nattt7•.!J. (!nemy in the 'Na,,3t :;iberian and Chukchi z^orc..; is the -oole.z• besr.
BearJed c.ocLl;, rt,a.y ï,,. 7.ttael^e c in the water by 1,-iller w;l^lc.u and Arctic
tiLc>y are oubjc.ct to a.tto,clc:, by polar 1w,,,a:: in ti.c:ir .;.:ol•c
rookeries in ,;,er-i. Of Ninetee>> liel;aà:nth:ic are
known to l:ei•ll::iti;e t1w :Lnt:ernal ore,an:a Of Liié:,e ceal.:, and to produce
pe.i;holo,:Lcal clu.cn,;es in t,.c: intestinal ti:cLci;, t... :La^::acli, tii,.. livUr,
iLu.

..... ^3£3
l'>eardecî. seals have Ion-- been hurited by coastal di-;ellers in
all pets of their range. !'ho Lill res,ched a. particula:uly hi-h lr.vel
in the Sea of Olchot::k, where >.,hiTZ-bascd hur!tinL; Look place m,. well
z^ .,liore-ba.sed.
From 1932 sea].in^; schooners tool: .,.:vezwl thousands
of the e,nirial., annually in th^, southern l:cirt o; that sea ;.i'rom 1947
to 1956 the tzlke by
fluctucLted b:_ tween 2,000 and 6,000; in
1957 it too?c a:.•lie.rn uin,..rd turn, and until 196,1. it was from 9,000
to 13,000; it ti_en beL,;an to decrease.
Ship- Dc:..,ed hun'Lin^, of bearded
seal:s in the Der.in• Sea began in^1961, from 2, 000 to 5,000 of the
animals :iei.n,; killed e.nnually.
A ce:rt,ain ntLnber of' ther;i are killed
by local ro;.:ident:; in Chulçotl,a, and from ?,000 to 5,000 are killed
on the coasts of America.
Wb give below the figures for the annual ship-based kill of 61
bea.rded sea.l:, in the Sea of Okhotslc and the i3er:inû ^ee, (in thousands)
from 1957 to
1 roa
1957
1958
1 9 ,ï t)
19ù0
1961
1967 inclusive.
2. AoUr•ia / f o c ; IXoC;i-i ia
13,2 19f,2 9,S
10,i 19û3 9,1
51^i 196•1 12,4
10,6 19tii 5,8
S,î 1966 7,9
1;)G7 8,9
Ircy ^ .^ 1 ) Year. 2) " tiIiIOLLiî 4- ^ vf nï1.^. •
It has been learned from vo,riout; sources tlitit the numbers of
bearded seals in the Sea of Okhotsk and the i3er.ing, ;Sea have decreased.
Foi nstance, in 1968 the number of these sea1.: in ti.G Sea of Onhotslc
was estimated by aerial censusing at 177,000. In order to conserve
and restore the anime,l:i'Imunbers, ship-based hu.ritin; _ of the.;i in tiiese
regions ^,r^,: totally prohibited in 1970; trLe locc11 population is permitted
to talcc.: not more thc.:l 51000 bearded sca1:, (1972 limit) in the
13erinr; Sea, and 5,000 in the Sea of Okhotsk,
Walrus (Odobe.enuÿ rosme.ru s L., 'r i S )
The walrus found in the nortiler.n 1,1a:t
is the X,acific cmbq)ecies, 0. r. dive gons.
of the Pacific Ocean
The colour of the adult:, is straw-yellow t•ri.tli a i.iuddy-,,rey
tinge; that of the juveniles is ru,_Net-brown. ;.ew-born 1>uls are
Q71r1;-i:r'e;Y 7 and ;)ro cinnu-..' ioll-lil'c:wl1. '.l'lle bodies of juvenile
t•mlru::e:; rr,: covuz.ccl with loft and
,a!liich bc:co:,es
:c^.nty ,- th y t;rct^; olclor, c.rid ,^o :t of it fufi' in o: d nni:.ial:^.
'!'hcr !1mximu:1 roolo„ic.l. l.,nUrth of r-:cau:lt i.:.: ;120 cul, and

that of females is 340 cm.
femaleS not more than 900 kg.
89•
Lare males weigh about 2,000 kg, but
The length of new-born pups varies
from 120 'to 135 cm, and their weight is up to 45 kg. .The canine
teeth (tusks) of the racific walrus are lare and massive.
in the
males they are thick and wedge-Lhaped, and in the'females slender
and sword-shaped. The maximum length of male tusks is 32 cm, and • •
that of-female tusks 70 cm. An adult m ale' s pair of tusks-weighs
10-12 kg. The walrus's hide is thick (up to 5 cm).; the neck and
of adult males are covered with warty outErowth:, of the skin; chest
.
the females do not have these outgrowths. During the period of max-
imum nutrition of the animals their subcutaneous blubber layer • •
attains a thickness of 12 cm. . . .
The walruses' main range (see Fig. 14) includes the Chukchi .
et
Sea, the soutien part of the -.1-tast . Siberian Sea, and the norther n .
part of the Bering Sea.
Walruses penetrate northward beyond 74 0 N
and westward to the eastern part of the lilast Siberian Sea. On the
coast of America they are found along the whole of the Peninsula of
Alaska as far as Point Barrow on the east. The soutiu:rn limit of
their range on the coast of Asia runs through tua Gulf of Anadyr
from Cape Navarin, and on the American coast it runs through Bristol
Bay and the Walrus Islands.
Pacific walruses make long mass migrations every year. In
winter a herd lives in the shallow-water zone in the . northern part
of the. Bering Sea, keeping to districts where tneir'food is abundant.
In April and May they begin to migrate northward, appearing on the
coasts of- southern and eastern Chukotka and on the American coast at
Seward -.»ehinsula.
Vass migration of walruses thouh erin :;trait
ends in late Hay or early June, and most of the herd heads for the
western part of the Chukchi Soa and the eastern part of
Brian Sea; a smaller part of the herd migrates eastWard, to the
north coast of Alaska.
In the summer 3.;_d
early autumn walrus,.:s 3re found in the
Chukchi Son in tnu rouion of horald n sd Wranc»1 I;_landn ai ai in Long
.Strait, and in th
Soa tIwy are foul t in its cas tern
part.- They for t
rookeries on ice-floes or, in tl -x: :-tboonce of tnese,
On :;ocno of tilt: aniinalp (only maloo of v::.riou:: 1;pund
Liii uunimur In t 1 .01mi lihOve r001;erieS in Lite
•
•

90 .
Gulf, of Anadyr (Rudder Inlet) and bristol Bay (on the WalruS Islands)
or in the Chukchi .Sea, in Indounskoe Inlet.
On te aiproach of
autumn thc walruses in tne .L';ast Siberian and Chukchi Seas be È,,in to .
mii:Tate E - outhward, gradually moving into the Bering Sea. About the
middle of October groups. and herds of walruses pass through Long
Strait and arrive at the coasts of the Chukotsk reninsula:
During their autumn movements the animals keep to tike coastal
zone, and if there are no ice-floes on which to rest Iriefly they
emerge on islands and sand-banks, forming temporary shore rookeries.
These temporary rookeries can be classified as regular or casual.
They are occupied by both male and female adults, as- well as by sexually-immature
animal s. lienllar tempo rary rookeries in the Onukchi
Sea are located on Wrangel. Island (Dloskomskoe), on herald Island,
and at 'olyuchinsk, Idlidlinok ,
and Serdtse-Kamen', and in the Loring
Sea at Arakamchechensk. Casual temporary shore rookeries of walruses
are formed at any points on'tne Chukchi Sea coast during trie autumn
migrations.
Such rookeries (at Uelen, Dezhnev inlet, Cape Shelagskii,.
etc.) sometimes function for a single season, and the numbers of
walruses re!ting in them are small.
Walruses aleo form lonc-lastin, rookeries in summer and autumn,
consisting mainly of males of various aces. Until recently four shore
rookeries existed constantly at that time Of year, the Kichkenskoe,
Arakamchechenskoe, hudderskoe, and indounskoe rookeries. In recent
years only the last two have been used. The autumn migrations of
walruses usually end in Eovember, when te animals reappear in the
Dering -
Sea, but in years with cold suniters they leave the.Ohukchi Sua
in September. Walruses spend most
of their annual .cycle on the ice,
where they form three types of rookeries
thoe comi,oed Lolely of
males, .those composed of females and ;:exually-imLature indivMuals,
and mixed rookeries, which consist of barren fem;les, adult males,
and a small number of sexually-immature animals.
i.arturition t..&kes place in upring. rout femele walruses bring
forth tiroir youn in Aiwil and p.ay. • Usually a
pup iS Lorn,
rarely two. 'rue lactation period lasts fIom one-and-One-nalf to two
years. The matin period ends in late 1:ay ou .arly June. After
matinL7 the males lerve trio females and livu scomatel;/.
i;:ntors are of the opinion L,aL walruses are laoho n.Jouls.
- ont invest-
i;eutation

lasts for about a year. !iost females produce
...., 91
once in three
or fout ,yearo, that beini- pai^'i;icula.:•ly cr-^aractrri.^tic of olci females.
Some fcrnale. , mostly yc,un;; ones, .prochtc.^ of'::-D_i.in,; every yecir or once
every two years. The f'emalts become sexualll,. mature ai -L;0 age of
six ye,::.rs,
and the males at tl-r:: a.-e of seven yea;r7..
The perio.tt of intensive ^FeeditiL, lasts t'rrrou;;rl t.re ..;urw.rer and
dernersal
aul:u mn, when the iisirn,rls }ceep to shalloi; waters rich in 16^^i;--_:c or--
aniSm': ^, .
',!}Leir princi}!n1 food consists of la'i:ie:L:l..ib:rurrcirs, witi>. lesser
quant].tie:i of ^',a.:.itropod:i, worm`ü, echinoder;l::, and saine cru:'staceans.
'Pull c•tomach:: of adult males me,y contain up to 45 ki^; of ±'ooçr, including
up to 35 k,; .of siphons of lajnellibrr.nch-,, (.''iycL, C1.i.ocarclium^
the stomachs of females
juüei_iles also contain :uch rirolluscs as
Astarte sp., }^iacorna cc.lce.rea, etc. ?-7alruses dive to depths of as
mu,:h as 100 metres to procure molluscs and other benthic orLanismN..
Among fishes, Arctic cod often appear in walru:: stornach.^; occasionally
pieces of the flesh and hide of seals (r-in;c:d and comr:ron seals)
• are found there. There are reports of preda.tory ^,ialruses that use
the flesh of warm-blooded anirrrals (seals) as food.
Wlien. walruses are hunted intensively, obviour•.ly they seldom
reach old

••••• 92
which averal;ed about 40;, of the total.
Frolll 1951 to 1956 an ave^aL;e
of :'.,600 vra1ru::es were killed annually by ship-based ana Lilore-based
huntini, in USSR ivs.ters ; in e-onie ye ^rs the f iL,ure was a-, hial: as. 6,000.
Tf. unproductive losses. are included, the total ::1c,u.,llter was considéxabl^^
^]'.eater.
In Alas7can we.ters the annual kill of w

.
(4
•'77",
. .
. /
•
' ; • .12 • • - .
• - •••••
•
J
». • "
A
-
•
: •
-• -
• `1.• ; • •
,
••
•
•
4
• •
"
*-;•
-
'••• •-'••
../:•"'• • •
•
Pi (, .
Pile. 19. Ceriepiimii mopcNoil KO nil:.
19. "fiorthern fur seal.
The zoological length or adult males averaes 200 cm, and
their maximum weight is 300 kg; adult females attain a length 02
130 cm and a weight of 65 kg . .1ups from two-and-a-half to three
months old are fro,. 60 to 75 cm long and weigh from 6 to 13 kg.
•
i#14L
111/ Adult males are mostly einnamon-brown in colour; tneir hair 64 -
•
•is coarse, and their underfur fairly sparse; in tne occipital, cervical,
and anterior dorsal regions the hair is long, forming a mane. .
The basic colour of adult females is dark-grey in the - water, but
after they got dirty on shore tir colour becomes yellewiï..h-brown
or dark-brown; they have no man. 1,ew-born pups .are covered with
• stiff black uuard-hairs, under which there is fairly thin underfur.
The colour of fur eal at the age of three montns (after moulting)
and older is silvery-grey, and their fur is dense. Lacelor seals . •
-- males, aged from two to five years -- resemble females and are
similarly coloured. _he body colouring of fiv-year-Old males is
darker, and t-:e mane begins to show; in hix-year-olds daik-grey
predominates in Ine colouring.
Pur 1:eals aro found in tn nortnern l art, of .11E; lacific Ocean,
including the .â?ring 'job., the Sea of Okhoti .., and uhe bea of Japan..
(Pi. 20). As a rule . the z do no go fartner hortn GL:an tne Lotuandorride
Islands aod une lribylov Islands, but tney .
are fairly common
01: the east coa:-t of Kamchatka; occasional. individunis wander into

.. 94
tl;e C}lukclii Sea. '..'ho sout;lern boundary of their range on tile coast
of Asia runs ap!-roxilnately alon[, the 35th para.llel, to the Japanese
coas t; . on ;Aie 1lmerican coast it is about 330 1`: (Cal.i_forrlia) . ^burinÜ
t::e pull-in,•; an,' . i.loultin- periods fur seals form shore rookeries
evér,y year in tue same localities.; in Soviet waters, on to i'oniarldorskie
Islands \13eiin,•_; ai,d I-Iednyi Islands), on Ty-dlonii 1--;land in the.
Sea of OIchot:]., and oil the :_uri.le Islands; in Arl,;rican waters, on the
iriliylov l:.,lands (S c. ^co^'^;e and St. i'aul Tùlo.nds, and âivuc}li.i Rock);
recently the formation of sr,lall rookeries i.rl c;outllez•n California has
been reported.
The fur seal herd.s r

• 95
and early July, and by the middle of July the .harem rookeries are
completely filled with feales. fhe process of harem-forAation
beiçins with the first arrivais of females.
eY
7J'
.,-•:•.hr‘ ,., . t.„.., re ..7n-....-:,-r,.. „r., «■\ ..„1-,1
«‘;.■::';«,..,\): .\,,
"\) •
■
i .g '‘,7'S (...,--e• • 2,-,
CCC° P ■ ,41 Cul -1
■
..•,•?* .....:.,•.,... : ., : i -.,; ,j, . ; 1 .;:''''''
HAHAPA
C e,,,, , ,.': , . t , ., t■ , " ,e(!) 7/42, ,./ \

at the side of the harem.
9 6
'ne pups avoid' the water fôr a month;
tnen they learn to swim in shallow•water, and as they-grow older .
they venture farther and farther from the shore.
i-ating takes place on land or in shallow • ater a few days .
after.parturition.
It is believed that all the females in a harem
are covered by the male, although fairly lare numbers of . barren
females are observed.
Gestation lasts for about a year, but the
fertilized ovum does not begin to develop until ■;sree-and-a-half or
four months after copulation. • Narem-dwellin
by fur seals continues
until the end of july or the beginning Of AuGust, i.e. it lasts fox
one-and-a-half to two months.
After the harems break up the moulting period begins; it
lasts for several months, from July to November; the peak of the
moult comes in August and September. 'During the moult fur seals form
largo concentrations on islands in the areas where the harems were
located. Animals of all sex and age groups are found in.these rook7
cries. The moult takes place at different times in different sex and
age groups. Black fur seals (both males and females) mostly moult
in August and September, acquiring silvery-Grey Guard-hairs and lightbeige
underfur. i.:ost yearlings moult in September and October; bachelors
aged two or three years, from August to October; and semi- .
-*buskers and adult males, in late September and October.
•
The moult
of the females extends from August to November, some of them even'
continuing to moult in the sea.
At the end of the moult the fur seals leave their shore
rookeries and spend the whole winter at sea, feeding intensively.
Their diet at that time and the areas in which they fatten have not
been fully investigated. It is known that in the Sea of Japan their
chief food items are walleye pollock and various uecies or :::quids;
in the Pacific Ocean east of Japan, phosphore,cent anchovies and
squids; in the California region, iacific sàury, capelin, phospnor-
°scent anchovies, hake, and :fflids; and in tne 2:ritish Columbia
rec;ion, sea perch, ;acific saury, herrinc:, coo, an i ;ler- fi shec, aalmon,
and squids.
in which.the seals live.
'ehus the composition of .their diet depends on tue area
ln sprirn, and summer and in la te autumn
capelin, wallcye pollock, and sea perch predomilate in t. ,e far seal
die t. n hh bo.t,iimg 3ea, and walleye polloc-, .Laekerel, •
•

..... 97
and squids in their diet in the Sea of Okhotsl.. In all-the ar.•eas
inhabited by fur seals S'a1-mOnida@ form a very small percenta;;e of
their food.. Pur seals are fattest in sprin{; aiid lèanest in autumn.
Fur seals are fairly lon^-lived, .ir:clividua.ls 30 years old
and older often being ob::erved. Ainorij natur^al enemies, killer whales
and sliarlc r, inflict r,om,. 7.oN.,,es on them.
The, highest rate of mortality is observed durinc, tilc:ir first
t12'.-cc: year;, of li.fe. :.,urin,; the first two rllOlltll;, after bi.rtli losseu
of pull;:, from var9.ou,j causes ^st:t.:l.1-bi.r•thc,, cru: il:Lri;! by n.clu].•L:., tuicinariosi.>
and d,ysenter.y caused by the parasites Uncinaria 7.ucasi and.
Salmonella -enteritidis) a.r:lount to 17;:. iie.ny pu_is e.l,3o die in the
sea, esnecially in wirlter duringo, sovere storms. It is be].iëved tilatdeaths
among animals of other age &,^roups take place mainly during
the ocean-dwelli_n,,,^ period of their lives.
Another cause of ulortaliLy
may be serious di:;ea.,es produced by helm:i.rltl-is, which have bec:i found
in great numbers in the ses,ls' internal ort^ans; -rwenty û?;ecies of
helminthic parasites have been recorded.
Intensive exploitation of fur sea1.:> in Cho Oea be(;ar,
ti•ritL the or:,.;anizatiorl of the "f.usso --AL'lerican Company„ in 1700. As
long as that ^GlCUÜI; iiy
^'•l.i.: ti.d • (ui:t1.1 I -b r) til•.^. c.'.ii.^i,t of 1:'.,'irl t
bordered on indi.scrimâ.nate s• laut;iiter of tua fur seal stoc _s. i'roln
17;i9 to 1867 more. tl-lan two-and--a--tialf million fur seals were killed
in the :,:omai:dorsl-.ie and j: rib,ylov Islands,. ï roin 1^'. -i2 to 1116-7 i^27, 41-00
hides were e;;ported., ineludinL, 54., }CO from the K.o.;ler clors,cie Islands.
In 1E?67, as a result of the sale of Alas'ta, tlie husso-- âinerican Col:r--
pr?ny was wound up, and u),til 167-1 tl:e tab.inC, of fur c;ealti on the
I'oraa.ndorskie Islands was unor;;rr.nized -- during three years 64, 3u0
were killed tllerc, and 351,000 on the l,ribylov Island:, .
Data on the
takint; of fur seals in subsequent years are t;iveti in Yable £3.•
Vor the next 20 years the fur seal induntry was leased to a
new American coill])a1'ly, and duririC that period more i;,.ail 740,000 of
the c.nimal;7. ware ):i.llc;d or, the ;:oriandor, kie l"lanci , and more than
2, 700, l)00 on the Pribyl.ov I.sliilids. 1?rol~I 1(.91 to 19u1 the ts.l;in ; of 67
îur uc;alc.i on the Kolnarlclo:c:.iki.e ):: ► larrdc.i and '.t',Y111.011ii lslalici ara:, i,

. .
•.
•
• 98
Tyulenii Island was visited reularly by sealing veasels
during.the first years after its discovery in ie middle of the 19th
century, and in 1852-55 japanese sealers were killing from 50,000 to
60,000 every year; later the number fell to 20,000-30.,000. The
stocks of fur seals were so depleted that from 1891 to 1901 the
total kill was only 6,000, and from then until 191.0 Sealing On Tyulenii
Island ceased altogether. On the Komandorskie Islands, where
the "Xamchatka Trading and Fur Company' operated; desLructive slaugh-.
ter of fur seals •continued; in spite- of any lack of resLriction on
killing them, only about 68,000 were taken during the decade'190110.
The American take on the rribylov Islands also fell sharply, and
during the decade 1901-10 only 232,000 fur seals were taken there.
Ta6asua8
,D,o61.tqa ›;0111K09 na 6.-.1- .eronux .icxn3,anax.
E.) p,tcsurit..win.eed, TI.:C. TYMOU
rOAu
P.1.1W1 ( 1 1p0M14e.11
Kemalix:pzliste
Gency,a O. T ioaeum il
/5'
OCT popa
111,1:Gulona
1871-1 8e 29,1 2,6 135,5
1881-1FM 41,8 4,0 141,1
1891-1900 .19,3 0,7 13,4
1901-19:0 6,7 • --. 9 3,0
1911--1920 1,3 0,4 11,2
1921-190 0,7 1,1 31,4
1931-1910 -- 2,0 59,4
1941--1950 4,3 8,9 66,5
1951-1960 3,4 4,0 72, 3
TABLE 8. Take of Pur Seals in Shore Rookeries by . Decades
(in thousands).
Key: 1) Years. 2) Regions.. 3) Komandorskie•Islands.
4) Tyulenii Island. 5) I'ribylov Islands.
Pur seals were taken not only in their shore rookeries but
also at sea. Uhip-based hunting of them ocean in 1868 and reached
a maximum in 1891, when a temporary stop was put to ship-based sealing
in the eastern part of the Bering Sea by a treaty between the U.S.A.
and Britain; sealing by American, Canadian, a/h', dapanese sealing
vessels th..?r, moved to the western part of tne
exploit.the P.omandorskie Islands herd of fur seal's.
in order to
As a result of the groat fiecrease•in tne numbers of fur seals
in all sarts of their range, a Convention for the protection of fur
seals.was concluded in 1911 between hussa.,
(repreLentin: Canada), and Japan, L ,rohibittn,., Le
U..A., i)ritain
of these

..... . 99
ani.mal:: at s.ea.. ::y that time the numbers of fur sealo had shrunk to
9,000 on tli,- ?:omandorskie ]:slands, to 7,000 on '.,yulenii Island, and
to about 123,000 on th(_. J'ribylov Island.,,. The prohibition of killing
e,t .ea la teci until "19! 0, and as o., result of tl^,e.t mea,sure ti^i:: fur
;,eal stocks increased sliEhtly, althouüh tèll: t;rOtiJtli of the herd,- ---
e.,;peci.al].y on tt:e Koi:rartdor:,kie Islands. -- tool, place at a vcry slow
rate. From 1911 to no seals were taken in ,;hore rookeries on
tlteoe i.:.tla.tid:; in. some year;3; in, other years a. f_c:w liundrecl were taken.
'.Che:.,e herds of fur rsea.lc, continued to iricr^ a::e :7:Lot•ily until
1956. The American herd increased at a faster rate, because from 1911
the seals were protected on their migration routes by American naval 68
vessels. `.Che2e measures led to an increase in the Lake of fur seals
on the Fribylov Islands, and the total kill for the decade 1921.-50
was 345,000; for 1931--40, 595,000; for 1941-50, 665,000; and for
1951-60, 724,000.
.In 1957 a'l'etnporary Convention was concluded between the USSR,
the U.S.A., Japan, and Ce.naiia for conservation and re.:torat-ion of the
fur seal stocks in the northern part of the r acif:ic Ocean. `j.''riat Consea,
vent-ion envi,- a;,ed prohibition of the l;il].i.ii _ of fur seals a t
proei,.ection of tl.em on their mi'r.=tti.on roni:es; imlirovemnnt of econorii.c
activities in ^their shore rookeries, devising of cientific..].1y- ba,sed
norms for the take, etc. As a con.,equence the stocks of fur seals
in the northern part of the Pacific Ocean be;,an to increase. hy 1900
the herd on t,:e ILostandorakie Islands had increased tô 100,000, and
that on 'I'yulenii I::1and to 115,000; and the seals l.)CL,-an to foi.m
rookeries on the !;ua°ilo Islands.
The nr.eoerlt nu:^lber:j of fur sel_,; in nortl:ezc: part of the
Paci.,'ic Ocean are e,stiuiated as follows: on the 1•ribylov 12lands, from
1.0 to 1.6 ciillion; on to ;:omandor:-l ie 1 slands, fa.•or:i 100,000 to
160 , OGO ; on rulerlii I...lancl, f rom 140,000 to 160,000, and on the
Kurile. Island-,, from 15,000 to 20,.000. The increase in numbers has
led to an incx•ear.,e in t•ii..• cake in recent yeai•s : for the five ^ e_^.1•S
196a-68 the average tr.i::c by retïions FraÜ :`),'000-10,000 oz; to
oz•::kie
7,000-3,000 on : 3ruleni i 1sl11:d, while t:iere is a
01' econo,.;ac exploita i..i o;: of 1. e fur seal :411,oci:c)
on the .t.tr.i.le 7 cclciticls .. 'i.'he ta;:e of fur :•i:als; or, tt"o .t.•ri.by:Lov 1::lanci:s
lias been from ;,0,000 to 60,0u0 in a'ecent ye^x•c,, r.t:il ;:;1.- incluc!ed not

100 •
only bachelor seals but also, in sonie years, females, with the.aim
of establishing an optimum number of 500,000 for those producing
young each year.
iorthern Sea Lion (Palmetopias*jubatus Shr., 1776)
This is the lares t member of the family Otariidao (Fig. 21).
The maximum zoological length of males is 305 cm, and that of females
250 cm Ybo body weight of males exceeds 1000 kg, and un, t, of females
300 kg. The length of new-born pups is 100-120 cm, and tnoir weight
17-20 kg. At the age of one month the pups woigh 50-35 kg; yearlings
weigh up to 125 kg, with a body'length of about 200 cm.
Distinctive
external features are: massive body structure, front flipfers broad
and long, muzzle blunt and broad with slii;htly-turned-u snout, vibrissao
light-colourod, hair stiff and sparse; the neck hairs on adult
males are long, resembling a mano. The animals colouring varies
with their age: in now-born pups it is dark-che .stnut (embryonic coat),
lut after they moult it is dark-brown; sexually-immature indlviduals
are of a light-brown colour, and adults of a c,oldon-ruscot colour.
•
,
•
21. Ctinn.
Fig. 21. Portner• sea lion.
The range of Lw nortnera sea lion embraces tne sub-Arctic
and temperate waters cf tue Asiatic and American coasts of te lacific
Ocean (Fig. 22). Along. tno.Auiatic coasts tnoce aLim_ls occur from
rering ':;tralt in t.o nort:1 to,Lno Isoroan penilhalla in Lie Iwuth.
Withih thatioh are found- on drift - icc in '2,ea
along t oChul:otka p.ninnula, on to coastni of the (S'allf of Anadyr
and t.le eSt oon., of 1,alnoilatka, on t.,L E.0111anttlie Lslai,d, aho in
I. oaain nortLerh coà.s of na . an; t.,ey are comq!on in

•
..... 101
te pelagic parts of Lie Sea of Okhot.^: and in it.,, coa2tal b.e:ll,
eupecià.lly in trie western anci ooutaern parts (tSt. Jon-3,h Islaz.d,
Sa;•.ha.lin,
ant^ `;'atarskii âtrait) , and in tue war..I coas t,a1 belt of the
^;ea of Japan.
Alon,_; the Alnerican •coa.st they are recorded from Herschel
Island in the north; they are colal:lon along the coast of Alaska
and in the eastern part of the Lerin^; Sea, on tue Aleutian Islands;
on the coast of Canada and neighbourinb.-
islands, and :outilward as
far as California.
r
^ .-•...• i^irt•.^.j" If A na Q A
^Jo . ^ _ :^Y::^% ^Y Ei Z r ^^ •'id ^j; - r '.
. ,
i^ , ^ .:,
,'^ ^; . rfC
^•i:^'"
^^f-,
^r/ // ^i•''ï,
^ ,• ^.
,:^ ... • 'u/ i^C lua
^' ^G .(:.MMNI/^t • /^
'^ y, ,• ^ ^
^ r.^ ^ If o .^ a //,t•
,ti .J
Ca.r:o•tèc^cai^/
!L0° !6J° f°C` 13,), !40' l20°
_
J J
^-_- ^_---_
^
-^= = _-- ^_ _
Fig. 22.
Pile. f?`?.
Pact:poc•rpa:tetnt(s cttuyfia.
Range of the northern :;ea lion.
Key: 1) USS}Z. 2) U.S.A. 3) Herschel I:;Iancl. Carlada.
5) Seim, of Okhotsk. 6) Kurile Islands. 7) lioklca.ido Island. 8)
33erin&, Sea. )) A1-eutia.n Islands. 1 0 ) Vancouver :Island.. -I 1 ) Santa
Barbara Islands.
Within tïle9.r ran^e the nortrier._ sea lions arc concentrated
in definite reC;ions, forr.tin ; shore rookeries at different seasons of
the yea.r. :I:n USSR waters the lart:;es•t and motit poI)ulolis shore rookeriel,
are those il, the Sea of Okhotsk on
Yamskie Islands; on St.
Jonah S-jland, at tI.o northez:n tip of : aklLal.i.n, arir. oz: the E'uz•ile
Islands; in tl2e Lerina Sea, on the lslïlr;ds; ai•rd ozl tua
easi; coa.;;t of 1't1tncl:n.Lka (at Cape
oII
.il-: :I,riy, etc.). a:i-, Anerâ.ctr^ Ll:lcl Criir•f...l.

• . • • . 102
. In spite of the discontinuous nature of the range and the
existence of wide differences in latitude between the regions, pupping
takes place everywhere in May and June. According to American
investigators, *parturition by females in the norteeastern Part of
the range takes place from the end of May to -
in our northern waters it takes place in Hay and June ;
Kurile Islands in the last-twenty days of June.
the last days of June;
and on the
1-upuing is preceded
by the forMation of harem rookeries in the first half or May. A
harem contains un to 20 female's.
A female usually produces a single
pu ')? , which is capable of independent movement four or five hours
after birth. The pupG .
are not very active for the first few days,
do not move far from the spot where they lie, and are in-:adapted for
'life in the water, as they are in the stage of post-uterine moUlting. *
. The lactation period is fairly long in the northern sea lion.
During the first months alter parturition the female Leeds her puP
frequently, with milk containing up to 40 of fat. A single feeding
lasts for up to 15 minutes; the pup rapidly gains weight, weighing
30-35 kg when one month old. The female does not usually-suckle pups
of other females. It has been determined that the lactation period
lasts for a year; frequent instances have been recorded of a female
suckling two young -- a new-born pup and a yearling.
'IJoth milk and
other foods have been found in tue - stomachs of. some yearlings.
Matin' by the adults takes place on the shore, beginning a
few days after te feuales produce their young and.concluding in
early July. Gestation lasts for about 11 months. The females become
semially mature at the age or three or four years, and the males at
the ace of five Or six years,
A gradual breakdown of harem life is
olnerved in the firet half of July, and by the end of July the harems
• have.dispersed.
During the pupl)ing period sexually-mature males
without harems lie . at a distance from the harems, sin , ly or in groups,
Sexqally-im:àature males (bachelors) al;_o form separate rookeries.
The shore roo_eries of northern sea lions are usually located at
c.oints, dif .ficulL of access, on -11ands, reeru, and promon-
secluded
torie:3 extending far out to sea in deep-water areas
:e'er -Lie forma-
tion of harem rookeries the seals usually select small level areas
of rock, with i:entle relief, located on te
:eles'ase bach•lers lie en hi,.her md mole riu:_cd
but .une nareMless

...... 1Gj
The chief itelit of diè'L of norti;ern sea lion:, i.: fishes, with
ceplialdy;ocls in le: ser quantities.
The diet includes

..... 104 '
vat-ers and the coast of Japan. At. present. nortrcerri sea lions are of'
no imroitance in the uealin;;. industry in the Soviet Par Last, tue
annùal experi•,eJ;tal ta'-•:e.by ships tizere Uein" a few hundreds (650
slJeciiaenu in -1965 and 400 in 1966).
A few are talcen by coastal residents.
In Canadian waters C;,^ or 9;:: of the stocks of northern sea
lions in shore rookeries are taken annually.
71
Californian Sea Lion (ZaI2.plLus
Lesson, 1B26)
The-ce are two subspac.i.e:; of the Californian sea lion in the
northern part of the l'a.cific 0cean: tne Californian sea lion p7:oper
Z. c. cca.lifornlanus) and the Japanese sea lion (Z. c. ^aponicus) .
A third subspecies lives in the southern hemisphere, the Galapa,^;;os
sea lion (Z. c. wollelJaeki) .
Pile. 23. ICrnltc;nrnuüctacïl Mopcxoïl nea.
Pig. 23. Californian sea lion..
r2r.e
adults' colour is chocolate-broti•rn of variou., àha.des.
pups are of a deep chestnut colour. The animals' coats have no dense
silky urlder.fur. '11lle rear f.lippc.r.: ^ are r:lue;l :.11ox'teJ than ttrc front
ones, and tire outer digits are broader and lonf,er. than ti.e inner ones.
The front flip-)ers are na,.rrôwor than those of the nortilern sea lion.
The llead of tl.c males Pi.,,. 23) is turned ttu :Jn:.1rp1,y; the feinales
have a lol'1,;, bx'oa.cl muzzle (a,, curnirareà wit,i tl,r:.t of femrilo fur :•ea.ls)
l'l o fe:.ir11,4;: i:Lrl'' 1;1uC11 :^.nibla..f.:r ti.an the 11111lt'.:i. '.:1r:u S.o(^l0,,,J.cil.l I)Ol.l.Y
^'6 cm, F.L1:U l.l:il.t of •

105
The Californian sea lion proper is found on .the coasts of .
California and Mexico from the Parallone Isla:dc on the north to the
.
Gulf of Galifornia on the south (Pic. 24). Within that.ranEe concentrations
of the .animal occur. mainly on small islands: the Far-
- allon Islands, tic Santa Larbara croup of islands, Los Coronados,
Guadalupe, San :enito,.Cadros, and on the Sonoran coast in the Gulf
of California. The sea lions do not make lonc mass migrations, but -
in winter adult males move into northoTn recions (too coasts of
Orecon, Washin. -,Ion, and Vancouver Island).
.i.'5 • t:.."
5
..>.)! r-----.--.----'--------.---..
' .
f2e
5.5 .
WI . ..
• 3 ,.1.1 .
.7'.
•e.•ni.;;•:,
re e3 ...:57-:.“..,. ,, 0
.
.
S'
I, '''../.1..
0,10 •'4;,:. 7
caA0-6,,, , ,,,• ,
..,.. A Ot éq Mr , f ; 1 '4
7 /1%2 . ... '. •
..5 •:',5'......, ■
Oqe-n.r;.1.111!e*.t).-......
‘ ; I.P.-;7•7".7.---•■•■,_____
5,;.• 1' ''• ‘••'‘'... 0
5/ ,1' • •
• .1. s ...I eitCli.'t Â
11
o ec.. &Homo be
er,
, 1 7D
..4;4;....
..,.>"
rome ,ü.tm'etue
[
O .h 1 ,,
-.
ne
I)./
ti tiA.,,,,ro.n,,e
ïte
Fig. 24.
Pile. 24. Pacupociptutellile
uuulçioro mopc..e.oro Jur.s..;;;.
fange of the Californian sea lion.
Key: 1) Canada. 2) U..S.A. 3) Farallon Islands. 4) San
Pranciaco, 5) California. 6) '...:anta ',arbara .tslands. 7) Los Angeles.
8) Lo!, Coronados Islands. 9) iiexico. 10) Sonora. 11) z.an 1.enito .
Linier California. 13) Calapago:.
Island. 12)
The japanese ponulation of Californian sea lions lives in the
southeastern .:art. of t",.: l.:ea of japan, and east of•Japan in adjacent
waters of the Pacific Ocean alorm .;
colony of th.m• on
ea.,:t coast of :eutn “oroa and I Lne
the coast or honuhu. 'I'here is a
rocky island of.akesnitua. .fnLy al;.o occur on
known ih 11`.31i waters, but 1,!;Cei 'r occuyience thoro is not,
•
are not

1C)6
The range of the.Galapagos sea.lion is restricted to the
Galapaè;os Islands.' ' •
Purin.; the breeding priod sea lions form dense rookeries,
consisting of 'separate harems, on rocky islands. There are usually
up to 20 females in each harem. Parturition ta:.çes place mostly in
Hay and June, but in th. Calapagos population it takes place in October
and Povember. Usually a :Angle pup in born. The duration of
the lactation period ha u not boon precisely determined. ;ome investigators
believe that the females suckle •heir young for five or six •
months. The pup.:: stay on shore for ten or fifteen days, and then
gradually learn to swim.
The adults mate soon after the pups are born. It is believed
that the mating period lasts much longer in the Californian sea lion .
tan in other related species. Gestation lasts for about a year.
The times of attainment of sexual maturity by males and females have
not been precisely determined. The breakdown of the rookeries takes
place in autumn, when the animals have completed . their moult; they
then spend a coniderable part of their time in the water, where
they feed intensively.
The principal food items of Californian sea lions are'fishes
and cephalopods. The composition of the diet varies with tue region
in which a population lives. In the northern part of the Pacific
Ocean the stomachs of sea , lions contain herring, rockjish, and hake.
The animals alLo eat salmon, and do some damage to fishing-nets.
- - Sea lions' duration of life is 30 years. Their most dangerous -
natural enemies are killer whales and sharks. Sea lions are often
found with lesions in the àdrta and with ulcers in the stomach and
intestines. The internal organs are infested by various species of
helminths: 18 helminthic species have been recorded, includinc seven
species of nematodes and nix species of trematddes.
Sea lions have no economic value. The total number of Californian
sea lions may be estimated at from 00,000 to 100,000. The -
California population is the mor.t numerous, with more than 50,000;
more than •20,000 1j.ve in the calapat;os Islands, and Lhe Japanese ,
population censintS of a fow-hundreds.

. . • • • • I 0 7
1'orthern Elephant Seal (Iiiroun(;•;a, a.n,mustiroszri s (,ill., -1866)
- The chief C,uishi22{; external feature of tnis species is
possession by the males of c peculiar ctita-neott'^ out;;rowtiz, or proboscis,
in the nasal re ^;i_on (Pit;. 25) . Only Lie niales have .the
proboscis.
The lent;th of the proboscis in adults is up to 40 ci;i.
The I]air cover.ing, of adults is shorL, dey]:-.e, and stiff. i,e.w--
born elephant seals have black. flttffy fur, but after,t..e first moult
the llair becomes :;ti.f.f'er and the colour changes to silvery-"rey.
'J'he. adults are li(;h•t-browlL or Cinnal:,lon-°b3,.olm in colour, k1lle females
usually beinj.; somewhat dar:cer than the nales.
The elephant seal is the larE.;e:;t merlber of the oxd.er Pinnipedia.
The maximum zoological body length of adult males exceeds
600 cm; tila.t of females is 350 cm. The maximum weight of adult males
73 '
is 3,500 kf;, and that of females is 900 kg,. I;ew-oorn elepharlt seals
are 12() C111 in length and weigh 25 lc(;.
Pste. 25. Alupt:xo.*l cao,l.
25. Ilortl]ern elephant seal.
The ra.nt;e is limited to PL Int,::ber of islar,ds lyinL', off the
coasts of iïexico and Lower. California (s'it,. 26). iU epl]allt se;ils are
common on the islands of San iïicolas, Santa :.arùara, ai-id San !,ii^,,uel
in 't,ie Santa Barbara Ùroul]ÿ al5o Los Coronados, (^ruadaluj)C, SCln i3enito,
and Sa ?1 Geroni;ilo. (1ilOY1(; t;;e;:,e i;^lands bT'e.''(Lint; e].e])llallt llave
U(14?il 1.'ecordeCi oï, Sali l,*;ico.l.f'.•:i, M ;•cÎ. „FLI1 ï3e1.1'LU.
l)COctf]i02]fll 5.:1.;"'l1i.i1.(^;i Of e].e;:ilalit EiC.alt, 11iLve llUf:n ..aLde outEliCle of tllei]:
usua7. ran^:e --- in the : tate of Ore;^'on, in iiri.t9.::h Colu;libia, ar_ll even
on tlales IslnYld in Alaska. The aniulwlc do not ,nal:c: long Ini
In sprin^ ho\•lever , males have boeYl observed ma3 in;; ;jciurneys i:roin
Lite Co^l.23t tOllarU:; th ,. O)Jell 3E.^£l.

108
,..-• ....T. am .■
e
.17---1
.19°
U .
eUrr-Hay.i.1 .„.• D i,',. . .
"7/. •>'.,
('
/ ' •
ts / . \ " •
Can - Flutonocv /0 : .
e ...
/./.,« v ,
a
,',■,
.
.ftPC qt'opttmileo(' •.;/:•'
r.:%
, . e•
e I . .
t
ii,
•
recd(mICe
./';',' • (..:-'
///
• •;)
•
epie
''::
Call • repottuktcv.”3:. '.* ,
.
' 21
b
.
(
1 :,:j • .
•..
..—
b:
•• > t•'.• .... •
• 30'
ïi' -... . .
i'.• .
Can ;beau ru5---vi
• :;d-
:• r• -.‘ 9 t.
•./' t)
...
1.':"e•:
. ________,- •:-2.::.* . ',.:1:, •.
.:::. .
t• : •
11 5'
• i Pue. G. Pacopoc.rpapenne . cenepuoro mopcsoro c.uma. .
•
Fig. 26. Range of the northern elephant•seal.
Key: 1) San Mguel. 2) San Nicolas. 3) Los 0oronados.
4) Guadalupe. 5) San Geronimo'. 6) San Benito. « 7) California.
Before the breeding period begins the males form harems, each
containing ten or twelve females. The harems are usually formed in .
I:ovember, and at that time fierce fights between males are often
observed. The females produce their young soon after cominE; on shore.
1"arturition takes place in December and January. Usually a single
pup is born. The females oft—n go into the water to food, and the
pups congreate in i,;roups at the side•of the harcM. The duration of
the lactation period has not been.precisely determined. fhe young
do not • enter the water during Lheir firs y
few weeks of life; they do
.not nove about much, and they grow rapidly on the.diet of tneir
mothe113 milk. y the end of their second montn tney have completed
tne moult af their embryonic coats.
. The fenalen mate at the height of the lacLation period. •fhe
•

... 109
mating. period is rather prolonged, and lasts froi.l January to ï,lar.ch.
After matin- the moult bC;;1.ns, and lasts for ai,UrO,Cir;:-!Lely trll'ee
months {:ia.y, June, and „u].y). It has bce;'. found 'c;:at- niauure anima.ls
moult somewhat later than sf:xilall.y-inu::a.ture ories.. j`Iie ::ioul't, takes
place On th- Shore, anr'_ diirinC, that period the elephant ùcals eat
very little.
The diet of elenllarlt sea.l., con:^lE:ts of variou.: ,Ipecies of
fi:,Iles and cephalonod:s.
Their s°i;Omachs oi.'ten contaili cl)o L'ted chirnae.xas
and small sharks and skates. They may dive to de}lth,:; of 100
metres in search of food.
The duration of life of northern elephant seal:: is unknown.
Apparently potential enemie0 :.iay be killer whales and lar^e sharks;
scars from wounds ..1a,de by these are sometimes obser.ved on the animals'
bodies.. The young are sometimes crushc:d. by lar ,e males in the harem
rookeries.•, they a1,-o die from starvatiorl when the duration of the
lactation period is abnormal. The helmintl'lic f. auna of these seals
has not been fully studied; only seven species of parasites, mostly
nernatodes, have been recorded.
_
Economic exploitation of northern elephant seals began in
'1818. it was discontinued after a short peri.ocl of ilunti.Tl^; ar>.d killing-off
of the a.ni:aals. The Ilexican ^ov^^rn^rient nrohibited the trl,kint;
of elephant seals in 1922; that conservation rleasure is still in force.
74
CIL(lT•TL;R 4
SPAX,S III 1EILAND WATERS
Three species of seals inhabit inland waters, Caspian seals
(in the Ca,: pian Sea), ^1aika1. seals (in Lal:e i3a,ikal ), and 'rint.;ed seals.
RS:n[?,ed seals live in Lake Ladoga, and also La:ce :.;aima and lakes in
its vicinity.
Of the.-e, only the Caspian seal lives in salt•water.
The raikal sea,l and t.:e rin-ecl seal live in fresh-viater lake:c.
The econoi:lic: value of these seals is cl.etérmined primarily ù^
the nu^nber of the alima.ls living in a particulni body oT water. i'he
a.bund.a,lrL Loris is trio C^saictiu :;c;al; it tak^t,:; a hi;;h place in t-.,_c
sealim,i• ind.urstr.y in t,io Soviet Union. onic Len:: of tf:ou:.a,nd., are
tal:ert annuril:ly by sc^el9.n,; ohip:; in the. Ca.;p.i.an , t1c Iirocluct.s of
that iilc_Cu:jLi;,r are va.lurlble raw
75.
Ille lJui.lller o.f t.i[.'al:"i in I,ake 'i.adoi;i.l l;.i c`L jlw of tllt]iII

(
• , •110
are taken by coastal residents. It is believed that th, stocks of
ringed 'seals in the Lake Saima lake system are still smaller tsan
those in Lake Ladoga, and consequently these seals are of little
economic value.
Caspian Seal (lusa caspica Gui., 1788)
The colouring of these seals varies greatly, depending on
their sex and ace. '2he basic colour of adults is ashy-ùreY on the
back and light-grey on the sides and belly; before the moult (in
autumn and winter) the back acquires a cinnamon-brown or olive-brown
colour, and the sides and belly S. muddy-ochre colour. Small almostblack
spots are scattered over the entire body of adult males, forming
a characteristic pattern (ri. 27). Sexually-iMmature females
have fewer spots: these are light-coloured, aid are located mainly
on the back. Some specimens have rusty-reddish muzzle and head.
;
..r
•
.
'S
-
td1,
•
•
Pitc. 27. KacitoilcKitil Tioactin):
7 eitanpli; 1331'0c:wit cameti.
Fig. 27. Caspian Seal. a) Whitecoat; b) pup after first
moult; c) adult male.
Uc, w-bern hdhe are covered with long, soft. hair of a green -L:11-
yellow colour, which turns while after a few days. AfLer the first
moult the pups acqujre a silvery-grey colour, dari:er on tW, back
lighter . on tL , belly; small liKnt and dark spots are conspicuous
no L of the snimals.
y autumn their colour ir i1ler and their
(i isi
on
basic

.... -i11
colour is y,ellow. Sexually-imwature indiviüuals are olive-=brow.n,
with sl)arse spots, before the moult; after trie nioult they acauire a 76
si.lver.y-tre^y hue, with dark-grey arici black spots sça.ttexed over the
baclc and sides.
A!aon;, tileir other external features, a rather lont.,^
snout is characteristic.
The maximum zoological len•ttl of c,tie adults is 155 cm, but
the ].en^;•th utiually varies between 13.0 and V1.0 cltl.
The adults wèigh
fa.oul 50 to 60 lq;, but durin,; the period of nutri ^.i.utl t,luir,
weig-ht :f.'eache:i 90 1•,U.
The length of now-bomn pu-,)t. is 65-79 c,u, and
their body we.tGilt averages 5 kg.
Caspian seals are distributed tiirouc;,;out the Caspian Sea.
In winter and spring, during the breeding and raoultin,^ periods, most
of the herd is, coricentrated on floatinp,, ice in the nort,,arn part of
the sea.
On the break-up of the ice in i.lay some of the, seals leave
the snallow, ^ael7.-wa3:med nortiiern part of the sea and mi,,;rate south.
A largo pa.rt of the population spends the suUilller in the s-outnern and
central. areas of the sea, but others remain in the nortri. 4;i1er1 the
breeding n,szaoci approaches the seals again .ai ;rate to the north.
The location of the aupuin^-.^rounds is deter.^ine'd. not only
by the distribution of oj-,en water, whereby the ^,roul^s of f em ÿles can
penetrate into the centre of tlle ice-fields, but also by the existencé
of areas of ]nunrlocky ice. iïost of the fe;:lales producé toeir
young- in late January and early February (J ar_uax-y 25.to February 5 j.
The pupning rookeries are formed in the nort.leastern part of the icefield
(in the Gur'evskFl.fÉ1.
Basin' and in areas lyiiip; l'ldrtil and northwes,^
of Kul.ala J:s]:and : si-i-tall dis'connc.-cted concentrations are soluetines
observed botween the lZal•_u;,hechnaya and Zhe:ilCllllZllY,ey^.L Bjari:cs and betweeil
`l'yulenii and 'i;hacheii' Islands.
^^urin^ the pup ;in^; seasoi; trie îe,:la^.es ma.,^e air-holes in the
ice, as patches of o„en water rapidly freeze ove:r because of the
absence of ei;Û-and--flow cuzrent•u and of snow.cover, and also because
of the low salini.ty of the wa.tei.-: The presence of ' Flil'-ilül.es is a.
c,•:aracteristic fes.ture of pupl,ing, rookeries in the Ca.âpi.a.n :_cc,. ..i'he
concentraLions of seals in the pupl;ini; rookeries nevor L,ecome very
den;^e; the Rniina.ls uuur111y take up positions on i-.um,ucl.y ice-f ielcis
,at corlsid.erablo distances fro.:l one another.
:iew--boi:•n pups a..• bc:llc:i. (whit,ecoats ), as t:.c;y are cal.led on

the Caspian
112
have long, soft hair of .a light greenish-yellow
colour: After five or six days the yellowish tint disappears and
'the fur acquires a Whito colour .with a barely-noticeable •creamytinge.
i.à)ulting of the embryonic coat begins when the pups are two weeks
old. The moult lasts for about three Weeks..
The lactation period lasts for about three weeks; tne females
usually give•up suckling -
their pups when the latter complete the
moult of their embryonic coat. .Suckling has been observed both by
day-and by nicht.
As a result of frequent and plentLful feeding the
pups grow rapidly. Dy the end of the lactation period they are 85 cm .
long and weigh 14.5 kg, their body length having increased by approx,. .
imately 20;i; and their weight having tripled.
The subcutanecius fat
layer is practically absent in new-born pupe; the average weight of.
their hides with fat attached is about 2.5 kg, increasing .te 5.0 kg
in .a moulting whitecoat and to 12 kg after the moultis completed.
During the lactation period the females climb out on the ice
only.periodically to feed the pups, spending all the rest of the
daylight hours in the water.
Thus there is only a relatively-small
number of females on the ice at one time, which makes it difficult
to carry out an aerial censuG of the seals in the pupping rookeries.
.At the end of the lactation period (in late February Or early
March) the females leave the pups, which then change over to an independent
mode of life. • Tile time when the pups take to the water
depends nàt only on the moult of their embryonic coats but also on
the extent of break-up of the ice and on the air temperature.
In years Of normal ice conditions most of the young seals
finally•leave the ice in the first half of :.larch.
Vith the approach of the mating period tne males•begin active
invasion of the pupping territory, ad at the beginning of th'e second .
ten days of February and especially at the end of that month fibhts
between Males and.pursuit of females are observed. .2he seals divide
up into -pairs, which are to be oeen.both on the ice and in the water.
In the majority of the sesls the rut ceases L'y t e end of the firut
ton days of larch. GesLation lasts for about 11 monLh13. he fomàies
first begin to reproduce ai 1 - 0 al:,e
of five yehrs, but the majority
of theliro mot'yt active in lia Ling and produclin youn when they are six
or i:even years •I:he males become se:mally mature at the :Igo of
SIX or seven years.
•
•

..... 113
The moultin^; period begins when r!iltinf; ends. ::aultili,-, then
tahes place in seals of all a^,e f.;rou_ls except yount; of t,_e year. The
most nuc,erous groups of moultinf; ueals are o^serveC: on tue ice from
the .firot nalf of' 1.ïarch, in locc.lities wit,, lar:,e uatches of open
water. The rloulting rookeries are characterized by fairly high conani^nal.:^.
centration_ of the
';lhen the ice-floès disappear the i.loultin;; animais lie on high
piles of ice formed on sand-banks. As they are unable to finish the
moult be.forG. the icu all goos, and they requia:c: a solid sub:jtrate,
they then corle awhore, on sand-banks dried by tite wind., forming island
rookeries in the northern part of the Caspian !;ea. The great majority
of the seals have completed the moult by the end of l.,ay or the beginnin;.7
of June.
The composition of the rnoultinE;. rookeries varies as
time goes by: at first it consists of adults, and sexua.lly-immature
ani:nals of both sexes, but later (in April) the adult females leave
the ice and only males and sexuo.lly-immature seals re:aairl. At the
end o.: April and in May only sexually-imi^la.ture animals and a few adult
males rei.lain in the island rookeries.
During the breedint; and moultino periods the seals take little
interest in feeding; in the absence of food. t:,ey ^,o hungry, but do
not leave the ice. After the ice disappears t:,c:y have to, spend a
long time in the water, and in the areas where ti?cre were lar^,e rookeries
on the ice some dispersal of tiie animals is necessitated by the
search for food. Throughout the entire period of intensive feeding
(fro^:, the end of sprint; to the middle of autu,nn) they 'riave a varied
diet.
A.1art;e 'proportion of the fishes eaten consists of bulll.leads,
;;p:oats, sand s;.lelts, si,lall' herrir:g7 roach, etc. 11-. autu:nn a prominent
place is taken in thoir diet by carp, flilce--perch, and carp-b3:eam.
They also eat shrimps, Amtlhipoda, and crayfi ;li.
During the intensive-feeding period the seal::' s-cate of nutrition
im71z'oves considerably.
The weight of an adLilt ,.,ale in sprint,.;
1F; 40-45 but by jr1llUar,`,' c 1.Ci. Pebxuax'y it i s :U-U j kr'. in EiUla.:er .
the seals forr,i shore rookeries on a number of islands in the Iiorthea°:
Lorn and nortcEie ,tei:z, of the Ca:,piarl .,tailily compor;ed
of se.cualJ.y--im.,lature ani.i.iUl: ; in late autumn firi.;t adult l,lales, and
tl,c n precil..inL fc,:,alecl, come to tlie,.e rookeries .
Ail; ;;.:a].s :Li.ve in
).'C)u):tJrie' M L1T1 L.L,I. l'l'i' .,Sc,-ll a.

..... 114
ln spi.te of t.1le fact that they have been hunted intensively
for a long time, the Caspian seals' duration of life is fai.rly high
--- ujJ
to 30 or 35 years. The highest natural mortality evidently
occurs among the young during their stay on the ice (sti.ll-Uirths,
and deaths from starvation or from crus'hin,^; by ice--•iloes). 7:n tue
auttunn of some years deo.d seals of, all ages are found washed up on
the shores of the central Caspian,_ the causes of death beinj, unknown.
I.'FL't1:17: l.l. .ollU.il.Le[i are fUW, éi.l"ld. Illï>,y J.tlcludt.? oai„les, l•lUlv('ü, alld,
foxes, 1•rli•ich clin hardly crruse ap}i):oo:l.ri,bli) 7.or u:s Lo the
tstock;:ti.
The seals' helrninthic fauna coiisists of a relatively lar(;e number of
parasites -- 15 species, some of which also infest fishes in their
larval stages.
An infectious disease has Leen recorded in the seals,
caused by 'L-he organism Diplococcus Uhocidida.e cast)ii Ladamschini,
which infests the internal or.t.,ans, the muscles, the skin, and the
joints, and may cause widespread epizootics.
The Caspian seal is hunted on a lar,^-e scale. At tile end of
the 18th century and the beL,rinnin„ of the 19th tue annual hil1 averaged
160,000; from 182.!J to 1867 it was about 105, 000,. and it 2-•eached
a maximum in '1864 with 290,000, At . the end of the 19th century sealhuz^l^tin(^,
on tue islands declined, but t?ic> ,w,intc.r l:ill be^ar. to i*:c^^ease
as sealinf, ships became more nunexous and better equipped. We Eive
below figures for the annual kill of sea:Ls Iin ti)ousar)ds j from 1867
to 1915-
I ronbl
cpeA!I:In ;Lo6o

115
of seals killed rose to 108,500, but in subsequent yearslt stayed
at the -60,000-70,000 level.
•
The-present number of Caàpian seals is estimated at from
500,000 to 600,000. With the aim .of more rational utilization Of .
the stocks, measures have been introduced to regulate killing and to
conserve the reproductive and potentially-reproductive members of
the Caspian Seal herd. The killing of adult females during the
breeding period has been totally prohibited since 1966, and the killing
of sexually-immature animals and pregnant females in the aui;umn
shore rookeries since 1967. An annual limit (of. 60,000-65,000) lhas
been placed on the killing of young of the year during the winter. .
•
Baikal Seal (Fusa sibirica Gm., 1768) :
•
• The colour of the hair on the back is a uniform brownish-grey,
with an olive-green and dove-grey play of colours and a silvery sheen
(Fig.. 28). The sides and belly .are lighter in hue, the general colour
of these parts of the body being silvery-grey. The plu)s are born
with soft, pure-white fur, but after moulting the embryonic coat they
acquire the adult colouring. The muzzle of adult males is covered
with folds or wrinkles. The claws, unlike thoe pï other suais, are
long and stout, with a longitudinal ridge on the upper margin.
Pile. 28. 1;anKa.1Lc1mil Ismcub.
Fig. 26.
Baikal seal.
The body length of adults varies fro.% 120 to 140 cm, differ-
.
,Jnces in body length between males and feiaales U(Ang insignificant.
;0w-born pupu are. about 70 cm long. 1.1:he body weight of adults may
go up to 00 or 90. kg durinc the period of ma.ximum nutrition; the
weiht 01 how-born vups is a littl more tiih, 5.0 1.7.

. 116
he range of these seals is restriCted to Lake :jaikal, where
they are found everywhere'.
The highest concentration of the animals •
occurs in the northerc, part•of the lake, and tho,lowest in the Louth- 79
ern part.. There are two types of migration, spring and autumn. In . -
the spring migration mot of the herd makes for the northern areas
of the lake, where the ice stays longer and the animais are able • to
moult until it finally breaks up. The autumn migration-is directed
towards the shallow waters in the northern part of the Iae, which
freeze me et quickly -- the shallowb of the 'Jelenga and Upper Angara -
river deltas and of Proval, Chivyrkuiskii, barguzinskii, and other .
are associated with the formation of autumn bays. These movements
rookeries. In summer the seals - disperse in deep yater, mostly in . .
the northern part of the lake.
In late autumn the seals (mostly adults: begin to côneentrate • .
in the northern part of the lake. Later they form .
pupping rookeries
in that region. They make special air-holes in . tue midst of hummocky
ice, through which they conte up to breathe, and they seldom appear' .
on the surface of the ice.
Long before parturition becomes due ti.e females make dens for
themselves, in places on tne ice-floes where there is a. deep layer of '
snow. The dens communicate with tee water tnrougn widened air-holes.
These snow. "huts", which are sealed up from inside, become
very strong and are almost unnoticeable externally. Sometimes two
or three of these shelters may be located on a small patch of ice, '
at
but usually they are considerable distances from one another.
A
• The pupping period of Lake Baikal seals is.fairly long, - and -
lasts for 50 or 40 days. Most of the females produce - tneir young
during . one-and-n- half or two weeks in thc.' middle of ',arch. A female
usually produces a single pup, but twins have been recorded.. Being
constantly cooped up in thL snow den, tn,. pup does not move . about
much and, feeding intensively on its motner's milk, c,rows rapidly.
Loosening of its embryonic hair covering begins at the end of its
second week of life, and it copletes the moult at the age of about
one month, while still living in the den, which at that time begins '
to collapse. After the moult the pups do not leave the half-Juined
dons, but sta;ç in tnem and continue to be fed on milk. fhe lactation,
p(.riod is fairl:, long, las n' from -tve to Lweeand- o.-half months.

. . . . . 1 l'I . .
By t,le end of lactation t,,e 3ru1,,'',rcit;ilt l:rs;, .ir.crE:le::ocl ^o ^.^; ? r.;•
'L'hey réna.i.n in t;,c vicinit;,r of t., :ir birti. ncsr ko.r oi'
lactation, until hake ;..ail.al is cl^..lr ul icL..
The adults beûin to rnntc sooll aft(::• ti.l^ 3,•,3,: ► cilo born. Lactation
does not 7?revent ;ucceL:;ful :.:,I,i,il:, . ^,u; 111::L1c)Il tik(m place 80
in, the water beneath the icc-f].oElf, at thw r:r,.r of .rlrclr ,Inil in the
firot half of "pri.l. It is belicve(ï tl:lct : aii:^1 :;i:rt1_. are, polyC;anlous.
The females become esexttrtll.y rl,lture rit, tl,(: rEl,e of two to five
years, but only some of theul
to l,reacl .1'oz• tlri: i'irc;t time at
four years of age. Most felaalcmu breed iei'o •l. t:]e.ir fifth or sixth
year, and.-those more thalr seven ye;ti^: old p:•miuce a_i]u,r every year.
About 12;.: of the females more than r,eve:l yvt_x•s old are barren. Gestation
lasts for 11 months, but l.ilo fir:it tlirec: mollths represent a
pause in clevélopraent of the fertili^eci ovur.l,
lle males attain sexual
maturity two years later thau-1 the i'ul:lalc:l^.
The moulting period beC.i.n:s for rtdult., and sexually-im::^oture
individuals at the end of the brecdin,-; period, in lia,y. Who seals are
still at the peak of the moult trllon tile ice on Laice 1:-a.iical breaks up,
and evidently some of the aI]io]rtls du l',oIL succeed in changirqg, their
coats co::]pletely before the ice is r.tll Inel.i:od.
It is possible that
these seals finish rnoulting, on the shore.
The period of intensive feeding covers all tue wummer and
autu.nin nloliths. At t,lat time the nnirlnls are di:rpersecl throughout
the deep-water areas of Lake ].ail.c.rl, l:cepinf, mainly to the nortr]ern
parts of the lake. In sum er the ,cals u:,ually swim about in ;.Iraall
gI.'oupS Or s1.Y?gZ.y, ETo,lletirrET:; cot'lin;1 to i.l]e shore for a E3llort tilile and
fo.rmirlL; a few shore rookeries. It, a.utu::lll, with the onsct of fr.eeze--
up, the seals are found at t::e dol Las of t,io rivers Nelar,ga, Upper
Ang,ara, and J:.ichel', and in C11].vyri':LLiG;:i7. ai.d Pa,;a.t'sn11 }:ays al:d' tue
nort;lerr. !)art of 23a)"'. , ller4 i.tio,, for,!,, autumn rookeries
on the thin fast ice, and are so3:1eti,:,O:1 very T1U:.10rous.
On the appearance
of .[.l.0i1'L].IIZ i.ce i.llci éli.ililto nove -,:U t!':.' tirc:LdiTli- ^111C. IaUUlt111ü
a1caL', wi](3.1.'c tflC,r rouai ]1 1U:'1.11 L","
iUIC1 co L:.;.
:le c'rli.ef fo,_,,:1 of uE:al.i are Y,

4
..... 11Q
of dl•rellin{; in rookeries on the ice of shallow-water areas, sand
bull-heàds and (exceptionallyj cisco xx play a considerable part in
the diet.
During the ice-dwellines,' period of tlic.ir life (Deueriber to
May) they keep to o;,en areas with floatina ice, and t:.eir principal
food consists of pelagic oil••-.f'ish and bull-heads. In stiu.uner and early
auttunn their dio't is rnore va.ried', and they coiz^ujae various species
of benthic bull-heads. '!'hese seals do not cause appreciable }iarni to
ve,lur.i.ble
economic fish species, althoug,IZ they sometim.es j;c:t into fixed
nets and seines, where they eat whitofish and cisco. ,:conoinic fi.shcs
constitute approximately 1p of the total food eaten by,the seals.
Seals have long been hunted on Lake i;e,if.a:1, but reliable in--
formation on the size of the kill is extremely disconnected and scanty.
It is.known that in the second ha.lf of the 1 Bth century local and
Russian coastal residents took an. annual averaGe of 2,000 seals. At
the beginninp; . of the 19201-s the kill had increased to 4,000. About
1930 it increased to 5,000 or 6,000 annually, and it remained at about
the sa,ne level until 1941. During the war and post-war years few
seals were taken, and the yearly average for the period 19ij1-zt9 did
not exceed 1,500. During the next decade (1950-60) it shrank to a
few hundied,-, .
;3ince then the size of the kill has f_luctuated, but
hs,s not exceeded 2,000 in any year.
Before 1935 seals were hunted in Lake i3aikal at any time of
the year, without any limitation. r.Chat resulted in a decrease in the
numbers of tho aniiaals.
The first mezsures for conservation of the
seal stocks were introduced in 1935; 1»Lntin(; was permitted only in
and in the southern part of the lako it was totally prohibited.
spring-,
In 196.6 new i~e,ç;ulatoT^y measures were brou,-lit in'i;o force: see,l-•]•:illinE;
was prohibited throughout the entire ::ailcal territory for the whole
year, except for the period from April 25 until the ice begar, to nielt;
seal.-hunti':gon the water -by means of boatti and canoes was also prohibited.;
a.limit ^ro.s l)laced on thi^ nu:.iber of moulted pups that might
r::.nd econo,nic activities were pi^ohibi',,cd around the Usli- t1
be lci.J.lea;
rockc:ries
ltian' ie Islands., i;iiore the seals fe?•7i
As a re-.:^ult of tnese conservation r:1ea:;ures and of decrease
in the take, the soal stocks be,^,an to recover. In 1953 an a.erial
on ice-fl.oes was made for the fà.rs't ti.ae, ar,d
cnil:;us of t.le
i,n^.le .it iro:.:il) 1.e to u s t:i..i :r,1;e tl:^; ^:u,::bez of
c^1.:, It i'O,üÙO-`5,00 0 .

• • • 1 19
Later, on the basis of a count of the seals lying on-autumn ice in
several parts of the lake, it was calculated that the nerd contained
from 40,000 to 50,000 animals, and am annual kill limit of from 2,000
to 3,000 (young of the year only) was recouvaended.
•
Ringed Seal (Pusa hiseida Shr., 1775)
Two subspecies of ringed seals inhabit fresh-water lakes, the
Lake Lsdoga ringed seal (P ,
_seal (y. h. saimensi:s).
ladoi2:ensis) and the Lake jaima ringed
•
The basic colour of the Lake Ladoga seal varies from dark-grey
to black. ,Light streaks are interlac • d againÉt that background, most
of them not clearly defined.
The largest number of "rings" is on
the back; there are fewer on the sides and belly. The Lake Ladoga
seal is close to the Baltic seal in its 4..eneral colouring, but is
slightly ±n lighter in colour than the latter.
The Lake Saima seal also is lighter-coloured than the Baltic
form: its back is cinnamon-brown, and its sides and belly are lightgrey.
On the bac : , sides, and belly there are oval markings, not
clearly defined, of whitish colour; sometimes tnese markings fuse .
together, forming light-coloured areas. no cœlplete descripLion of
the Lake Saima seal is available. •
The hair covering of the adults is fairly stiff, and consists
of guard-hairs and sparse underfur. The pups àl_.e born with a dense
silky embryonic coat of white fur, but after the moult the hairs aré
coarser . and more scanty, and have the colour tical of adults.
The Lake Ladoga and Lake. Saima seals are not large, being ùp
to 150 cm in length. The body length of new-born pups is about 50 cm.
The body weight of adults apparently does not exceed o0 or 70 kg,
and that of new-born pups is 5 kg.
The Lake Ladoga seals are found all over the lake, but are
mosL con:ion in its southern part. The Lake Jaima ,seals inhabit net
only Lake ;Jaima but also other neihbouring lakns, wnich communicate
witi: one anotser: Lar:e Haukvesi, Lake Grikhvesi, Lake Puruvesi, and
Lake rikheselke.
Within their range t"e seals lead a very settled
mode of life in areas with deeply-indented coast-lines.
rations are of ti n : nature of ort journeys, and ale inuceo mainly
by Ln,..noed Lo search for food.
.Jhe medo Si' lire or the rined rJeh.1 hi h hot 1;cen ad.quately
•

•
investigated.
•
120
On Lake Ladoga most of the younE are born in f arch,
and some in the first half of April; on Lake S aima •ney are born at
the beginning of nay.
The pups are born in closed dehs in tue
constructed by the females on hummocky-ice. The dens are usually .
frola one ano -Lter...
Yhe seals, use
located at considerable distances
open patches and holes in the ice to enter and leave tac water, and
make air-holes when the water freezes over. The fe7:ale produces à
single pup, rarely two
. The duratien of tue lactation period io unknown, but by analogy
with otLer 70',uropean rin,çed seals we may assume that it lasts for
about a month. It is nossible tna, because of the . rapid break-up
of the ice, the pups' moulting period is abbreviated, ana tney may
enter the water before t'fley have fully shed their embryonic coats.
. Apoarently mating by th..- adults begins before the end of tue
lactation period. Gestation lasts for about 11 montas. Probably
most of the females become sexually - mature at tac age of five or six
years, but beEin to reproduce actively at te aGe of seven Or eight .
the males begin to take an active part in reproduction on
attaining tac age of-
eight years.
Information'is lacking about the course and,duration of tac 62
moultirn. period. It apparently, begins when the ice is breaking up,
is quite prolonged, and includes the summer months.
Ringed seals feed all year round, but most iutensively in
late sumner and autumn. In Lake Ladoga the principal items in their
diet are smelt and perch, and occasionally vendado, roach, and semetiffies
bull-heads; the only fishes of economic value that they eat .
are whitefish. They cause insignificant looses to fisheries by
eatins: fishes out of nets.-
whitefish and burbot.
In Lake Saima t,ey feed principally on
The numbers of Lake Ladoga and Lake ,:aima seals are unknown.
exie investigators estimate 'Liuc nuilier of sealb'in:Lake Ladoga at -
from 5,000 %o 10,0O0, and te numuer in Lake SaL.ia and other 'lakes
conn,,,cted with it at from 2,000 to 5,000.
Seal-huntin:; on Lake Ladoga was never on a lar,.» seale.
1909 to 1916 tne averae annual take was 700, crom 1924 to 1930 tac
take was hif:her, and Yinhii,h I'ishormen'alonu Look from 900 to 1,500
severy year, their efforts beinu .,Aimulnteh 1),' Lunches. '2no highest
years;
•
-Yrom
•
•

..... 121
take during tila.t period was 1, 54.6 in 1929, m id the lo1•1e0t 460 in 1925.
At present the tahe of seals by the local population on the shores
of Lake Ladoga fluctuates between 500' and 600. -ince 1958 'inland
has prohibited the killing of seals in Lake âaima.
large.
CUAk`I'LIt 5
Sï;AhS Oi' - ' TTill ,,' SOU''I•lE1tTd IlE1iT^_•111^1t:,
The number of .;eal speci.eL; living, in sout:i_ rn oct:ans is fairly
f;ighteen pinni.pede species are foun(1. in vmr:n, sub-Antarctic,
and Antarctic waters. The fa:iiily Otariidae, wliose range includes
both warm and sub-Antarctic waters, is reï;resented by séven species
of souttlern fur seals (Sou-:.h African, South Arseriça.n,, i:ere;uelen,
Guadalupe, Austr.alian, ':Casr.iani.ari, and hew Zea.laiid fur s.cals ) and
t'riree species of sea lions (southern, ',us ti•alian, and -ew Zealand
sea lions; .
The reCion of sub•-Anta.^2c•l,-iç and Antarctic waters is inhabited
mainly by members of the ï=hocidae family -- tlie soutnern elel:hant
seal, the crab-eater seal, tne :sea-leopard, and ',•leddel].' s and TLoss' s
seal.s,
We may also provisionally ascribe to l,l:at region liiembers of
the ï'lioci.dae fa:.:ily found in warm waters of tl,e nor .liern hemisphere,
the monk seals (T:editerra.nea.n, Oaribbean, and iiawaiian,.
In spite of the larg^e number of se-al species inhabiting
these parts of clie world's oceans, t'rieir econoi;iic inip^^.-Gance is
suna11.
71 hat is, due to the fact that tile forr..erly-ricli stocks of
soutiierr_ fur sca.ls, sea lions, elephant sot.l.;, and monk seals tlave
been practir.al.l,y wiped out by destructive exploitation.
The nuinbers
o.C
seals have been so reduced by huntin- t.;at at 1^^.e,sei^t tne Li.lling
of tl.e se animals is either entirely lir.,ahibited or permit Led only
within small li-:its.
'l'ho ice-dwe11-iï.Lr; :;cals of ti,o Antarctic have never been the
objective of intensive sealint-.. At f.3re::e11L tc u r are noi llll'titcc, but
ev:i.(lunjt1.y
tee c, i,ockn W' pinllipodos .1.11 -01(11;i(,,
i.t^
tila 11e.a-a", f'ut11;t^R.

'
'
South American Fur Seal
(Arctocenhalus australis Zimm., 1783 )
122
'2his s:?ecies includos three subspecies: the -.Lalkland Islands
fur seal A. a. australis, Lie Galapagos fur seal A. à. .ualapansis,
and the fur seal of the South American continent nroper A. a. Liracilis.
.tnle basic c,Jlour of the . coats of adult males is dark-grey.
Tho colour of females and sexually-immature specimens has various
tint a , but usually the back and neck are grey with a s.ilvery sheen, I
«
and the belly is light-yellow.
black fur.
lew-born pups are coverg with soft
The animals are' of moderate size. Adult males attain a length -
of 180 cm and a weight of 140 kg; the females are slightl à,
120 cm long and weigh more than 40 kg. Galapagos fur seals are
- smaller, the body length of adult males being 150 cm.
more than
o.
/3.
o'
20 °
30 °
lioùrc,...«.---" .. .••
5PA .33111 if 3?
10*
'''....-, .—
...://v: • •,•• ,
t, .‘
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o do oceyo..:: : , :
,
, ••-1
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.;.:. , „,
.•• • s-:, '
I • . CO
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.,)
.', 10 0 L.1.91,110 '
, i . / ;:r., . I10.1l0P1Intt
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(e ».::', 14PrE11 11 .:11.4 ; .•::::.k,.> .11'
0 .1 0 iyaH
- ',";e. ,-..`,•1 k....-.:: ./;/-
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•:t ,,•••• o. Xi obodue
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—1.
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. 1
. s 4 ':.:.•>!.5 . a emmendcede o do
.:,.•,',...,'-',/
...,; ..?. ,•,,,
,(11leaton*
GO°
Pi. 2').
American Cur.seal
Pin% 29. l';11.•:Ipocupaw.11:1. -.‘ k»Ntioro mop,-.11,1- 0 .1...rsa (I) n
to>i:nuam(:pitiçam . ,;(n .t.t IsoinKit
Ranges of southern sea lioh ,1, and or iouth
.ey: 1; :aita. 2, :cent. fhincha «,slands.
5) (111.1o. juar ori.ntich_!2', ;;:La:nd "f rcuL alarirsa
island. Lobos sland. 10, p;scodido ,slahh. 11, .aniand
lslaHus. I....I...atoll La.aLL..

,•
A ..... .1 23
5ciuth American fur s4als are found along „ne coasts of .;outh
11m4r7.cel,
and adjacent islands t`r i.^;. 29). ^":lolt('; tee '^l l

..... 124
The present mi,.rc,ers of truc :;outti :A!uericac_ fur seals (Arc.toeepiinlu::
australis j;ra.cilis) in the Atlantic coastal _-etr,iori is esti-
!,;ated at .icre than 100,000 (70,000 on trio coast an(_ islands of
Uruguay, more tl,a.zr 25,000 on trie Lobos Islands, and ar,ou-L ",000 or,
the islands off the coast, of Argentina`. it is believed t.ia1: the
Galapaaos population -contains more than 2,000,
nd the Palkland
Islands populltioir more than 20,000.
At present only Uruguay r,ialces any economic use of ti,e stocks
of fur sea,ls.
From 11,000 to 5,000 arc taken annually, r,ioütly bachelor
seals aged from one-and-a-half. to two years. The seal-iiuriting season
lasts from tire middle of July to the begin,_inE of September. We do
not know of any measures being taken to regrulate sez.l-huntin^; ti^,ere.
(Fie'. 30 j.
South African Fur Seal
(Arctoceohalus 3llsi1lus Nhr., 1776)
This seal is sligirtly larger than the South American fur seal
The body length of adult males exceeds 210 or.l.; tne weight
f:Luc'tuates, according to the season of the year, from 210 to ^15 kg.
Adult females are smaller than the males; their maximwn body length
is 180 cm, and their wei;;ht fluctuates between 1)0 and 115 kg. I.+ewborn
pups have a body length of more than 60 c,n and an average body
weight of about 7 kg.
The hair covering of large sexually-niature males is coarse,
dark-grey on the back and with a lighter tint on the'bel].y. The
fema,les r:tre grey-brown, with a lighter tint on the belly. The pups
are born with short darlc-brown fur, which is repla.ced by olive-e'rey
hair after the moult. Yearling South Africccn fur seals are of a
silver,y-grey colour ai'ter moulting.
The ran-e of South African fur seals (Fig. 31 j
inclucles the
southwest and south coasts of Africa wà.tl, tme adjacent islands from
Q 1 Co Alaoa :1^J^ on the SouChL.3i: 3):
Cape Cross on t,,-,e north (21 14 S. )^ Fur seal rookeries nave been
observed on i,t;rny rocky islands r.r.r,d coasts (Cape i;ro.,s, l;ird Iwlrlnd,
Lucleritz Bay, Long, lslands,
and Jacob,. Rocks, aeal
Island in Valse Bay, Quoi„ Rock, near Cape Ae;u1i,a.s, on :eal Island
in ]rôssel à:tn.y, and on the ..d.rd Islands near A1„oa fay The seal:r c.io
not usually rualce long rnirations, but durir,t, tc,.. period' of inten,^ive
feedinl, tt,cy are fa.irly widely distr.ibutcd w.i-:iiin t,_Lir rance. it

"tee 125
is possible that more distant travel is more characteristic of sex,-
ually-immature animals than of adults, as they have been observed
several hundred miles from their birthplaces.
Pile. 30. I0mutomPpliKatiociiii mcpcizoii Hol'auz.
Fig. 30. South African fur seal.
The biology of the South African fur seal has been studied
in ureater detail than that or its relatives living in the waters of
the southern hemisphere. Harems are formed in i.ovember, and by the
end of i:ovember and the beginning of December tne majority of females
are already giving birth to young. Usually a single pup is• burn,
rarely two. Suckling of the pups is observes most fIlequently during
their first week of life; then the females go away into tue sea for
a day or two at a time, and trie length of time they spend in the water
gradually increases. They may leave two-monta-old pups for periods
of up to two weeks. The lactation period apparently lasts for five
or six .months, but in May and June the pups supplement their.milk
diet with small crustaceans,.which they catch in the water. The pups
moult their eMbryonic coat in March and April, when they have reached
trie age of four or five months. the majority of tae pups moulting
lasts for four or five . teeks.
A week after giving birtn the females star. mating. .Copulatien
takes place in the water or on the shore. It is believed that
the females may maLe for tue first Lime oh attaininr:; the aï;e of two ,
years, but evidently the most acUve breeding is by Le. talcs four or •

126
five years old. The males attain sexual maturity at the aé;o of three,
years,.but it is usually older animals that form narem rookeries
During the first six or seven weeks of he parturition period
the harem males spend a considerable proportion or their time on
shore, and eat almost nothing. Their period of intensive feedinu
begins much later, after harem-dwelling life and moulting have come
to an end, and. then the seals spend a great deal of time in the water
on their feeding- grounds.. During the parturition period the females
foed more intensively than tue males. Who chiof items in the seals'
diet are cephalopods and small crustaceans; smaller amounts of various
species of fishes and lobsters are found in their stomachs. Wile seals
may dive to a depth of 50 metros in search of food.•
..
›\i
- •
‘.-.•• i
1:•,-1,ii0o cc
25 °
•;
.-
0 'ô x on,10,1i-Seae
o
'... // -.: ■
\\..
.0a.,12 u' 7 •
/// •
'
0 ettru. PEP • ./.•••••,' ,...>
17°
....7 \::!- •
C
_
...
• //. .
- A.1, /7i . 1( i' à n I
'
n 0 yn
"'
:47
,V;:•
•'? / ..: ....•
«t, . •
•..z
.
....;-•-• , ',•
• • — — ,, . 0 , e 0
jd a (17 ent -6e c„i/ v.;-,:.•:-.., ,•.t ti,:, ..; .
,',".7.*,-2'/ .i/ .• ; ". .
.> ://,..',//.1/4///2",/.,;../
35° /e• '. %/2.'/'7`,//'/! . '
15 ° 20 ° 25 °
Pste. 31. Pacnpoc-Tpailcilme inaipa(limuzaucKoro MO p 2101 C) Kohl
Fig. 31. hange of ta South African fui' eal.
1,ey: 1) Cape Cross. 2) Hollam's islanu. .3) Long Island.
ei) Sinclair Island. 5) :e'also Bay. 6) Capetown. /) i;ird island.
The duration of South African . fur seals' . 1ife in natural con-
ditions is uni.nown, but they have survived in captivity for up to 20
years. .1he mosL danerous natural enemies for yuuh . seals are sharks tiC

..... '127
and l:ill: r wha.le2.
AppaVently, as with other seals, t^:a hi'hest
mortality among pups takes place during trie h,.rem-dwellint; period.
Six species of parasites have been observed in these sealb' internal
or^;ans, but thc;ir lielminthic fauna has not yet been full;/ studied.
The present ntuuber of :,outh African fur seals in all parts
of their range is estimated at 500,000. They are hun'tec:. in sumr:ler
(October and ?lovember) and also in winter (July and Au,r)u.Stj. :.^ach^lox
males are talLen in sum:ller, and pups a few months old in winter. The
size of the annual taka may conjoeturally be estimat•ed at a fevr tens
of thousands.
We do not know of any measures being taken to regulate
the hunting of South African fur seals.
Kerguelen Fur Seal (Arcto:ce^^alus tronica,lis C.ray, 16,'12)
Intraspecific differentiation in tais species has not been
sufficiently clarified.
It has been sugf;•ested that there are two
subspecies, tile limits of whose ranges are separ.ated by the zone of
Antarctic convergence (the zone vrhere co].d. Antarctic waters come into
contact with warm sub-Antarctic waters,.
The nortllern subspecies
of.Kerguelen fur seals, A. t. -tropicalis, lives on i:iie islands lying
87
i1ori.ii of the zone of convergence (Tristan (1a, i:unha. Gou`h, Marion,
St. Paul, and Amsterdam lslands); the poutilern subspecies, A. t. L;jzellâ.,
lives on the islands 1.yinj-,- soutri of that zone (South Georgia, South
Sandwich, South Or::.ney, and South Shetland Islands, Bouvet Island,
Heard Island, l:er.gmelen Island, etc., . It has not ben discovered
whether these fur seals make regular migrations within tr,ei.r range
( f' i>; • 32) •
Yher.e is a difïerellce in colourinE; bc Lwuell the subsl)ecies.
In trie nortilerri islands adult males are dar=c--gyr.ey above; tau !,luzzle,
throa.t, and br.east are yellow, a.i,d the belly cinr;a!non-brcwn; t;leir .
lông mane is well developed. '.i'he females have
ricii colouring,
but tue breast is 1igllt--yellow. ln. ttie soutilerl-l islands t,.e females
a7e Uxat^rl^.sil•, re:{ on tue back and sides and i,c:i.I,,e oit the breast.
The male:i of tlla ::9Ollt.lOrn âl'.I)st)ecies .111.v1 :;LL]..L' cL^:
lon;.; mane, l,l:c; ,:airs of vr,licll a i.ick out in all uirec. ^iull;_
CO)OLIt'in,;, 1lltfl LL
: ew-Uorn
pull-3 01' t,ol.h r.ll.'e cove.rod w.itl^ lol!r;, :c)t't b.L,la;L Eu.; on
!:zoultinC; tii y acquire a E°x'oY c:vlouz.
;1t !;., clwt of'
00.forO t,!^ hr ^!^I.in^> 1!ea io

..... 128
^ _
^_
D
39`
^û'' n Trtlc'rriN f ;^-,^î,:',A•:, . ^' I
^`rr 0 /C'? h
60
•.V ('
L^H•iF(.'v,r.'Y
i , ;•ï ; ^S t!^
^• p
i I
JyG'F r rC,rtrC .;^,r"l'!'
/
.i r ^' •^f
I ^.
lJPuO.r ^ ;
lr., r,, î '; t^ , . •_ - , ,,^. r
'
.,•.. ^,• ^ ^:^
, f,^,,.^ ;:..^:^:
^^:;...^; ,•`^. ,
^Pti,'l1C:t:rf
^• . 1i; ,'f 9;' 1.t+, vf!! ^^1,^
0
,r ^ ..:,f^ ^y,r^ r ^,,rt +•y'n„`!";^^
•^V,.

• 129
pups collect in croups, which stay apart from the adult males.
_
The
-
adults' moult is prolonged, beginning in i?ebruary anu lasting until •
the end of April. The feeding period lias not been adequately studied,
nor has the composition of the diet.. The stomachs of tnese fur seals
have • een found to contain fishes, cephaloPodsi and small crustaceans.
. y the middle o2 the 19th century the stocks .of Kerguelen fur
seals had been seriously reduced, the animals having bûen killed for
the sake of their beautiful and. valuable fur. At the beginning of
the 20tn century a few hundred were takûn annually, and by 1921 the
fur seal stocks had practically *lost their economic importance ... After
some conservation measures had been adopted tue numbers of.the-seals
began to rise again. New fur seal colonies were observed in the South
Sandwich, South Orkney, and South Shetland Islands. Kerguelen fur
seals began to appear on the west coast of South Island in New Zealand,-
and wore also seen among New Zealand fur seals on ijacquarie Island.
At • present the numbers of the two subspecies of Kerguelen fur
- seals appear to be over 50,000. The most populous . reokeries are those
on Gough Island (over 12,000) and South Georgia iover. 50,000). With
the airs of increasing their numbers the taking of fur seals has been
prohibited on Crozet, St. Paul, and Amsterdwa Islands and in several
parts of Kerguelen Island; thoy can be taken only under licence on
Bouvet Island and the islands belonging to Britain.
Guadalupe Pur Seal (Argtocebhalus philipii.Peters, 1886)
• Adult male Guadalupe fur seals are dark—grey in colour, their
'muzzle is rusty—brown, and their vibrissae are yellow. The body-
length of adult males is about 130 cm. a,,,d their wùight is over 150 kg,
The biological periods of the annual life cycle of this seal are .
almost unknown. It is - believed that parturition and mating by the
majority of the animals take place from ;lay to july,.and thal; the .
lactation period lasts un -til October.
rane is quite limited. Only one fur seal rookery lias
record 0(1 or: Cuadalui)e island,'where the neale breûd, Separate
been
sichtings of toe animels nave been reporteu fro,i Caw: ;:an Nicolas,
Le :..;anta 'Larbara Islands, and riedr as Llancas. Tua ueals live,all'
year round in the sa:ae localities, preferring incentea coasts.
J,cfore intenbive huntio!'; of fur coals b(.!,“ in the 18th
century tO 1V range ma f,; much I/ id Or, ai d >.1.011(10(1 R101,1: t ii j ;lei. fie

130
coast of America from the Farallcn islands, near San Francisco, to
Mas Afuera Island on the coast of Chile. Unrestricted slaughter of
the animals led to a severe contraction of their range, and in many
places to their complete extirpation. The taking of fur seals had
already lost its economic sighificance by the end of the 19th century,
At present the Guadalupe population of fur seals numbers only a few
hundreds (aproximately 500). The killing of teem is prohibited.
Australian Fur Seal (Arctocephalus doriferus Wood,Jones,1925)
The Australian fur suai is found along the seuthwestern and
southern coasts of Australia,•from Edinsel Island to Kanearoo Island
(Fig. 33). The males ttain a length of 180 cm, and the females are
about 30 cm shorter. The, adults are coloured grey-brown on the back,•
with lighter tints on the belly. It is believed that harem-formation
takes place at the end of October, and parturition takes place mostly
at the end of December. • -
The total number of Australian fur seals is estimated to be •
about 20,000. They are hunted . under licence. •
*
.7.5°
[..,
,..,:...,..1,.:.
Fig. 33.
fur seal (2).
\i.i. .,,,
Pee
I
2.1e1IRRVIlF
neC7P9reP
.
FailiMAR
PeCTPfifIklil
'S .:. ..,;.:,.>:,,e'..•' :, :...
.A..1,
...... ,-,.., 1
fv-\.. • :;" - '''''
....,..,e.,,`
.
.-.) .
le'
t. ea
imb:a..::h.r.. i.....V.:.,:: ,..1 .....5 .:
.
v..;* cs• ob • 1...7' _
Pile. PacnpocIpahi:mte e.13 , •111,1o.iiisK('.ro moprimFo Aur, it (/)
mm at-..c1rpaaa;1,:Gro moi)c.:oio EüTli (2)
Ranges of Australian sea lion (1) and Austwalian
Key: 1) West Australia, 2) South Australia, 3) Abrolhos.
4) Perth. 5,1 dIclipse island, 6) Recherche Arcilipelal;o. 7). 1:uyts
Archipelnu. 3, InvoLtivator Island:3. Kah;,aroo JslahC,
10) Adelaide.
Tasmanian Fur Seal (Arctoceucp).u::
S cott and Lord, 192e)
Tas , qanian fur seals are fairly large. males attain a
len,;ts of 24(.) cm; the fe;males aro mtmUC :;..laller al. 1 50 c:a. ihe• colour
o

..... 131
of the adults is grey above, witki- cinnar,io2;-brm,rn sid.es and belly.
i.ew-borr: pulps are clocolate-brouil.
The range of thvc;e seals is liialiteci to '1'ctis.:^ani.a and t.re adjacent
coast of Australia. The most populous rookeries are located on
islands on the Austre,:l.in.n cuast, in the s-cate of Victoria: i'hillip
Island (about 5,000), iJerey. Island with Iiei;ilbourir,,;; is-lands, the
:,kE:rs icu, (about 600) , and Anser rrnü. G]:onnie ^ 1 , : ùû; . Pur
se-;2.]. rookeries have also been oba,erved ur2 t,,e islands in .:.-ass 0S;ta.ai L.
'ihe bioloF„ of trie 'l'asr:Ia.rria2l fur seal lias not been fully
studied.
It is known tnat formation of ilarerl rookeries takes placo
in. October and k:ove:nber, each harem corltn,inin(; six or ùeven females.
The yoilng, are born from m:cd-^.otrelaber to mid--Deccr.Ibex•.
It is believed
t]iaL i;he Lactation period lasts for about six months. The principal
food of' ti:ese fur-se^:.ls oonsists of' loesters (Ja..us 111landi), cepiialopods
(T^oJ.i;;o et!iri( l;^;ei), and barracudas and other fish species.
The present rntmber of 'l'asmaniarj fur seals is es-L•iinated at
fro :i 12,000 to 15, 000 . The killing of the : i s pzohibited, and spec i--
men;i. for scient5.fi.e purpo:>r-.s may be tane,ti oril,/ under licorlcc::
New 'Leal.and Pur Seal (Jirctoce >Llus ïor.steri Lesson, 162£3)
The Zealand fur seal is smaller t1

..... 132
The harem rookeries break, up in the middle of February. After matinj;
the females continue to suckle their young, and they remain with tuera
until the latter learn to swim and to procure t)-)eir own food inde--
pendently. The duration of the moultin;^ period is unknown. The
principal items in the fur seals' diet are cepha,loçods, severa7. species
of large crustaceans, . and various species of non-economic f islies
i ri'h;rrsites, C?.r.ella, etc . ) .
The stocks of i.ew Zealand fur seal s were seriously depleted
at the end of the '1£3th century and the beginning of the 19th, when
seal-hunters took some hundreds of thousands of them every year.
About 1840 . the number of the seails Wtis so much reduced that tney -were
no longer of conmr_iercial interest.
At prescrit tue killing of these
seals is totally prohibited. It is believed that ,he present number
of New Zealand fur seals is at least 50,000.
Southern Sea Lion (Otaria byr..oriia Llainville, 1 620) -)
n According to Rice and Scheffer (1968) , trie scientific name
of the sout;ierii sea lion is Otar.ia flavo scens ( Shaw, 1F300) .
The basic colour of the Iliale soutiiern üo-a, lion is dark--brown,
the bell;r bein„ li^hter ( darlc-^yel.low) . 'l'hE?r^: is a l.i.^•)^t-br.o^-n I;i^.ne
on the head of ,;he inale ( Fig. 34).
The females also are of a darkbrown
colour, but the upper part of the head and neck has a yellow
tinge, and the back is dark-yellow.
Some animals with ligh-t;er colourin;;
appear among both the males and the females. ijew•-born pups
have black fur, but. later it becomes dark-choçolate in colour, and
at the end. of the first year of life the juveniles have acquired a
yellowish--br.ovin colour.
^•
) ^•'^ '•.
'; . . ._ ..
PII('.'3 1. i(::i'I::-,II
..,il.
}'ip;. ; [^ . Ol.l l;iie7'Yl l7e^.-l 11o11..

133
The body length of adult males is up to 250 dm; that of
females 'Ls 160 cm, and - that of new-born pups is 65 cm. The body
weight of adult males is over,500•kg, that of females is 140 kg, -
and that of new-born pups is 9 kg.
The southern sea lion is found aloi the Pacific and Atlantic
coasts of South America (see rig, 29).
On tne Atlantic coast Inere
are colonies of sea lions on the islands of Caronila,. Castillo, ij_o
Grande do Sul, Torres, Lobos, and Las Pipas (on the coast of Uruguay).
It'is also -known that several hundred sea liens live on Torres Island,
which lieu between the islands of Santa Catalina and Rio Grande do
Sul, but farther nortn the animals range only to Sit% _caul() and Rio
de Janeiro.
About 66 sea lion rookeries nave been recorded along,the
coast of Argentina, with a total number of the animals exceeding .
100,000. A lare number of sea lions also live on tue ralkland'
Islands. Sea lions have been recorded in . the Strait of riagellan, on
the coasts of .Tierra del Fuego, and along the Pacific coast in the
Atacama distrIct,,near Cape Concepcion (Talcahuano), on . tne coasts
of Chile and »eru (Chincha islànds), and north as far as Payta.
lions do. not make long migrations Within their range;• only journeys
to their feeding-grounds have been observed.
'i3efore the breeding period sexually-mature sea lions occupy
the most suitable places on the coast and form shore rookeries.
Sea'
Within each such rookery several harems may be established, surrounded
by sexually-immature animais and bachelor males.
of a male and up to ton females.
aoh harem consists
The pups are born soon after the harems are formed; according
to ihe region in which the animals live, ti.e births take place from
the end of December to Lite middle of january, i.e. in summer. A .
female usuall.y produces a single pup. .
While tne females are in the water the pups collect in groups
and form "baby rookeries", where they play and sleep.
At first the
pups stay well away from the water,. but as tney Grow older they become
bolder and soon, with the aid of the females, learn to swim. The
lactation perioa is much prolonGed, and Lite pups make' Lae transition
to an ind(n.endent mode oflife at toe aGo of five or uix months
inc fenales may mate with the males only a few days after
birLh, viLhoutdiscontinuin
.lhe males become
sexually nature ab the age of si:. years, and at toat ago taoir mane

..... 154.
beg,ins to ak,pc:a.r. :'he f.e;-iie,'les attain sexual matliritJ at four years
of age, but aupe.rently do not ta.ke an active part in reproduction
until ti-teir fifth or. sixti! year. Gestatio:: 1e..sts for aùouL ayear.
The harems gradually break up after matin- is cot:lpleted, al-tliougii
the males continue to rt.tard thc>ir territo7•y for Fc ftirttior two months.
1)-ir 'ebrua.i,y tcicf are very train and spend a con.sidc:rctKe part of the
time sleeuing. -.-urine the fol.lowinÙ montris titi: har.et.i males food.
int

. .
have a mane, and their colour Is paler than that of the adults , .
especially on the neck. -
yellowish-brow n.
135
The adults are deep-brown on 'the babk and
on the aides and belly.
•hese pinnipedes 'inhabit the south coast of Australia.from
the Houtman district on the west to . Kan(aroo'Island on the east usee
Fig. 53).
In the western part of their range they are found in the
Recherche Archipelago as well as in tne Houtman district in the east •
they are found in the Luyts Archipelago and investigator and Langaroo
Islands.
They do not make long mit!:rations, goint; only a few miles
out to sea in search of food. .
Many problems relating to the biology of Australian sea lions -
have not been adequately investigated.
sea lions come up.on shore and the males form harems.
centains four or five females.
concludes at the beginning of December.
efore the 'AIDS are 'corn the
ia.ch harem
l'arturition begins in ùctober and
A female usually prodUces
a single pup, which is cinnamon-brown in colour. I:ore- detailed information
about the parturition period is lacking. Apparently, as
with South American sea lions, the principal food iteMs are fishes,
cephalopods, and penguins.
• Some investigators estimate the number of Australian sea lions
at approximately 10,000.
Apparently measures for conserving sea lion
stocks are applied in all shore rookeries on the Australian south Coast..
.New Zealand Sea Lion (Fleophoca hookeri Gray, 4884)*
* According to Rice and. -Scheffer, i'hocarctos hookeri (Gray, 1844f.
The maximum body length of adult male Lew Zealand sea liens
does not exceed 300 cm, and that of females is 180 cm. Sexuallymature-
males are of a dark-brown colour; the hairs of the mane are
long and are of a lighter shade.
The females are light-brown,. Newborn
pups are cOvered with soft, chestnut-brown hair. •
The range is restricted tà a few islands in the New Zealand
region, These sea lions occur in the Auckland Islands, where breeding
colonies have been aocorded in Larley . Day; oh Endersy island, Tile
Snares, (Jampbell Island, and more southerly 'islanos.
fta lions also
visit p,acqunriu loland. Jhoy forum shore rool:ories on sand-banks at a
disLance from the water-line, among shrubs and herbage. .
Narge mature males are the firht ,to . appear in tue rookeries,
and by the bec:inni.?. of (,ctober they are occubyin
their harem
•

• 136 •
territories and defending them against Unmated males.
1-reunant
females arrive about a month later, and thon tue formation of harems
begins, ...:ach harem contains froM ten to twelve females. Some time
after the arrival of the females on the shore parturition begins, at
the end of December and in JanUary.
single pup, which she tends carefully only durin g .
lactation ,
As a rule a female produces a
the first days of
it is believed that the lactation period is fairly long
(up to six or seven months) and that some pups miiy romain with their
mothers until the following year.
The pups begin to enter the water
about a month after birtn, the females teacning them te swim in
shallow water.
The adults begin to mate soon after the pups are born. The
females go into the water often, and return to shore only to suckle
their•young. l'ost of the females mate at the end of . January or the
beginning of February. After the adults have mated and the pups have
the water the harem rookeries begin to break up, the males
being the first to go- to sea to-feed. The adults and sexuallyimmature
animals moult in April.
•The principal . fdod items of the sea lions are various species.
of fishes and crabs, especially red crabs; t..c sea lionf„ also eat
bivalves and prey on pencuins;• fairly large pebbles are often found
in their stomachs.
During the period when fur-seals and elepnant seals were hunted
•
intensively in the soutnern hemisphere (19tn century), New:Zealand
sea lions also were almost exterminated.
At present these animals are few in number. Complete prohibition
of the taking of pinnipedes L. the Auckland Islands has been .
introduced in order to conserve them.
•
An approximate estimate of
the nuAer of New Zealand sea lions would not exceed 50,000.* •
Southern Elephant Seal (.Hirounup., locniIia L., 1758)
'Inc chief distinguishin
external fealure of t“e elephant
seal is the males' posse:34.0n oi a peculiar cutaneous .outgrowth, or
probosciS, in t.he Lasal rei.;ion (sou Fig. 25 ) . 2ne females do not
have a proboscis.
•
The h air covering of the adults is short,, dense, and stiff.
Yt:e animais colour varies with taeir age.
with fluff
1:(,.w-i:orn_pu_S are covered
black fur, but alter ti:e first moult LLu nair becumes
taken to

..... ^^"l
coaroer and of a silver.y--&,rey colour. !'he colour of the adillts is
light-brown or cir,navion-brown; the hair of Liai fe.;.lalè-- is u:;ually
sorlci•Ihat darker ti:arr that of the urales.
111he elephant s::al. is the 1.arR;^:st Iaellri,er of the order 1 inrii--
pedia. "s'he maximum zooloe;ica.l body length of a(llllt males is b50 cm,
and that of fclnc,.leb '560 cm. The maximum body wei^;ht of adult males
j00 l':;>;, and bilElt of fernmlca 900 k^;. :.cw-IrorrI tmf::, are- fror.,i 120
to Irjl) oit in lorlt;tit and ti^ea.,.Ir from '?!) to ;50 1:,;,•.
Llephant .realü are distributed tt)rouc;ll sub-.':r:tarctic and temperate
waters (see ï'â.;. 32), and almo,:t never vi.sit L.:re Antarctic
itself. Breedirig colonies of elephant seals have, been observed near
Argentina (Punta ;.orte, Tierra del l'uego;, o:, :.;outii tieoi-ic,, the
x1 1'

• • •..••• 138
a r uile there is a single pup.
During the first days of lactation
the females spend a considerable part of the- time with their offspring.
In the Course of the lactation period, which lasts for 20
or 30 days, the females become very thin,• and tue pups put on weight
as a result of frequent and aeundant feeding with fat-rich milk.
Yheir daily increase in weight may be as much as 6 kg. After each •
feeding the pups collect in croups outside the harems. • :.11Ch grouping
is observed for a period of four weeks, after wnich • tue pups move
nearer to the water's edge.
At tue age of ten to fifteen days they
begin to moult they'complete the shedding of their embryonic coats
before taking to the water, which happens at tne age of 30-55 days.
Adult females begin to iate from 15 to 20 days after giving '
birth to young, and continue to suckle their pups after the mating
period.
The males gradually leave the females; by Lovember they have
lost interest in them and spend much or the time in the water, where
they food intensively.
for about 11 months.
The harems then break up.. Gestation lasts
It is believed that the maximum duration of life of a female
elephant seal is 12 years, and that of a male 20 years. It is also
believed that thu females attain sexual maLurity al tnu age of two
years, and begin to breed at three years of age'.
irobably the majority
of them begin active breeding, however, when somewhat older (at .
foUr or five years of age;
Males on South Georgia.island become
sexually mature at four years of age, but the indiviluals tnat form .
harems are older (from five to seven years old). On Macquarie Island
the females nate for tne first•time at three to six years of ace; the
males become sexuall y mature in thoir fiftn year, but take part in
harem-formation only when twelve years old.
After the harems break Up and the lactation period ends the
'adults spend some time at sea, and tnen return to -
for the moult.
1 .1e shore rookeries
2he formation of moulting rookeries may extend •from
December Lo 'C'ebruary, depending on the area in which the seals live.
On an average the moulting period lasts for from ';,o
to 40 days, but •
tne dates or moul Lin may differ in different age and sex .; .roups.
"hon the mull. ends moht of Lie seals leave the rookeries and go out
to sea, where they feed intensively and seldon visit the snor e .
Tue prinCiel food items of .elepnant seats iu.e fishes and
'
94

cephalopods.
..... 1^)
;aiid and,jrravel are often found in t1ieir .,to:aachs.
The s-oecific co:n_)osition of their diet has not been adequatiLely investiC;a:ted..
Juvenile elet)hant seals :ubsiot for a,bout a mon-uh on
their accumulated fat j:eserves after tra,tisition to an independent
mode of life, and tnen. begin to eat small crustaceans.
It is believed that tue natural c4iemies of elephant seals
Szâis
may include su_--a leopardn, which prey on tne young pups, and also
killc.r wha.le:i.
I.a,tural mortality may reach a hiEh level (up to 50^,)
among new-born elepha.nt scal pupo as' a recuit of crt.l::hi.ng by adult
males, starvation, or various diseases. Thirteen helminth sï.)ecies
parasitize the internal organs of the seals (intestines, stomach,
heart, and lungs) and also their layers of fat.
The most intensive hunting of elephant sealü formerljr took
place on South Georgia Island. After fur seals had been exterminated
on that island the killing of elephant seals gs.eatly increased, and
by 1885 their numbers were seriously reduced. 'r,hen the 1.untinCr of
them was prohibited the population recovered rapidly, and by 1910 it
had at;ai.n rea.clied an economic level. i;estrï.ctcd hun-Ling of elephant
seals i•ra,s re--introduce(I in that year, witl-i the issue of special lic--
enccs to '._ill a
definite nu:iber of r?a1es; different 1),:.1•tq of a rookery
are to be used alternately for hunting tiie animals, and some
parts remain prohibited; tne dates of the opon season are fixed from.
March 1 to ï;ovember 1. The killinC,^ of females and pups is i'orbidden.
extènt to which elephant seals were s].auün-uered during
the 20th cen ^ur.y may be ,,athered from some scattered da La. i'rdi:t 1927
to 19,15 1Q5,000 elephant seals were killed on :,out; ►
Ceor^•,•ia Island;
the lowest :zill in one year was 3,989 in 19^;2, and. the highest during
that period was 6,652. The h:i.C;'hest uecorded kill in any year was
7,877 in 19517 out of a limit of 0,000; in 19;2 6,000 were killed.
We do not have data for later years at our disposal.
The rno:ct populous elepiia.:.t seal roakei•,, is L,tra,t or_ ',:',outn
Geor,.;ia Island, i-rhere there a_ e 51Ca,000; rookeries are located
on Kerguelen Island i,100,000) and r;acqua.x•ie Island ^.;.5,000j. It is
believe^i
the tnti-.l tiumber of tttare an.i,,.a:l.s in ril:l. o Lncr parts
of ulh:?ir ran,^,,,e is util'J. about 100,000. ;;il. to,tal nui.luer of eJ.eplia.nt
r.eals in ^a].1 retrioios is estimated at b^,cween bv0,Gu0 and 700,000.
95

•• 140 -
Weddell's Seal . (Leptonychotes weddelli Lesson, 126)
The general colour of adult Weddell's seals 35, is darkgrey.
The back is almost black, and the belly grey. Light spots of
irregular shape and small whit a stripes, tile number of which is
• greater on thc sides and belly, are scattered all over the body. In
summer the ueneral colouring fades to a rusty. grey-brown. There are
• • no differences in colour between males and females. The embryonic
coat of new-born pups is grey, with a dark stripe.alonu toe spine.
After the first moult the pupe acquire the colouring tyuical of adults.
Plic. 35. 1. 10.1CI:b
Fig. 35.
Weddell's seal.
•
This seal is fairly large and moves slowly ove r the ice, ofte n .
on its side. The zoological body length of adults exceeds 300
lying
cm, ar d the weight is about 500 kg. The length of new-born pups is
more than 120 cm, and their weight more than 26 kg.
Weddell's seals are.distributed alon e; the coasts of Antarctica'
and the sub-Antarctic islands. They occupy more southerly regions
than any other Antarctic seals. They are common in J;he South Shetland
. Islands (over 2,000) and the South Orkney Islands, but are not numerous
on South Georgia, where small breeding colonies . occur-not farther
north than Larson ILay. There are a few Weddell's seals on 1.;acquarie
Island, ■ eard Island, tile 2a1kland Islands, ailo. Ueri;uelen island, and
•occasional sightings have been recorded off 1:ew Zealand•and South
Australia. In summer they form shore rookeries not Only on the islands
but also in several parts of Antarctica (Mciairdo Sound„rincess .Elizabeth
land, etc.). Yhese seals.lead a cous al life throughout th,
year, ï)ein,; found on the ice or on shore, uut avoiu:ing distant ;:arts
of the sea, includiné :: mases o: pack—ice. 'luny LO not mn .:e lonij migrations.
SeasonzU movemel:ts of adults nve oeu, c=cived: most of .
the animals leave te bre .edin—grounds in winLer and L o to sea,
Luut in :1.1m!cor tes' .e ..urn to tue localities whole their rooheries are
situa Leu. — itn tite approach of suit—t..r and brek:-up of ti,e. ice

..... 1q1
the adults !.,effin to move into the coastal zone, and the females fornl
rookeries of s!nall grout)s on ice-floes. The pupr-.ing season i!.i
fairly
prolonged., and -- depending on the area in which th.- seals live --
lasts from September to 'r;ove:nber.
In the area of 1•:çEurdo ;.iourld station,
for instance, most of the females bxinÛ forth their young fro:a.
the middle of October to the beginilirl. of 1•;ovenber, wherca.s in Princess
ii,liz.a.both Land tlle puppin;• season lasts froi:r .ovelnbex 1-j to the
end of iïovember.
As a rule a female produces asi.llgle pup, which is covered
with long, soft embryonic hair of drey colour.
lactation, period
l^.i.sts for about six weeks.
The pups begin to moult their embryonic hiair when i;iley are
two weeks old, and the moult lasts for about four weeks. They begin
to enter the l.aterbefore that moult is completed, but they do not 96
nlake. the full transition to an independent l,-iode of life until they
are eight ureelcs old. 'fhen they feed at first on small crusta.ceans.
When the lactation period ends the breeding rookeries break up.
Ili. the 1•Icllurdo Sound region the colonies disperse at the end of
December. The mating period for the adults then begins. The females
attain se: uia.l iiiatul"'ity when two or t'ilr.ee years oi.ii., but most of them
begin to breed at the age of four or five years. Gestation lasts
for 11 months. It is believed that the males begin to take an active
part in reproduction somewhat later than tile females, at tile age of
five or six years.
Little information is available on the duration of the Jnoulting
per.iocl. "vidently it is prol.onged in the case of adults. They
begin to shed their hair after the end of mating, and they moult all
through the sum;ner.
At that time not only individuals that have finished
n3oLlltinp;, but also others at the peak of the llloult, art-: ouserved
s.imultalleously. Yhe moult talces place both on the ice and on shore.
Small moultintr, rool:erie, have been.observect on islands and on seine
narts of the ;..ai.lJlan(1. We may :;urmice that t.ic i.:oulting period lasts
from lloce:,Jber to ^larch.
':'eddell' s seals feed intel':üively at t.tlo. iiei^;rli of tne Alltarct1.c
Fufa!:.trr, and le:Js ilc 'G].\rely in autu^1111 FLIlv. lJ.l.JI l:er. ''l'hcir l,rillciptLl
dâ.eta.ry i1;e1 . ns Ri:(" v;l.riou:l species ôf !1nue.ratic !.':i.;,trc::l tuai livo in
t(!e (;OCI:,'l• I.l ryorte J.•. l.li1J:'tl.cll].fJl' .1:i:3iîU:ill;.1.C!lllfl , ce. lla1.o13oc.ili, 1101othurj.Lllla,
(1.1.d. 'L1! Cl ,1.1::-oiJC!]' eX.tCCII, C):ll Li1CC111fJ. I..t' :df::tL.I.:S (]1V(: t0 iL
(1c,1) 1,Ir o.t• 0 UU uitdt:rur3 in ;lrrll.•c:h c.ti' foocï..

• 142
•ith the onset of autumn frosts and .tne approacn of winter,
when the coastal zone of the sea begins to be ice-covered, the seal s .
on the fast ice or on floating ice near the coas. t..
her make breathing-holes in the ice, which they use all winter.
winter tney spend the greater part of the time in te water, where
There
concentrate
the temperature is more constant. It . has been observed that not all
adult seals spend t • o ,inter in their•former breeding areas. Some of.
thon go out into the open sea, where they live on •drift-ice.
sexually-mature females return every sprin t ; to toe breedini, areas.
Two views are held regarding the location of sexually-immature *seals:
some investigators hold that there are no juveniles in the adults'.
breeding areas (e.g.• a% I.cMurdo station); others believe that they
live_on the ice together with tue adults (in tue region of Mirnyi
station). The biology of sexually-immature Weddell's seals has not
yet been investigated.
The life of Weddell's seals is much shorter-than that of many
other members of the family Phocidae.
The
In
Some investigators belieVe that
they live to a maximum age of 16 years, and •that the average duration
of life is eight years.
Some of the.pups die as a result of tile break-up of ire-floes
and from other causes.
Among internal parasites, fla%worms and
roundworms have been observed; . altogether 20 helminth species have
been recorded, including six species of nematodes. It has •also been
suggested.tnat one of the mortality factors may be rapid wearing-down
of the animals' teeth. .
Weddell's seal is a dweller in the coastal zone and, above .
all, in the fast-ice zone.
Observations made .at Antarctic stations
indicate that those animals do not form concentrations on the ice,
but occur singly and less often in small groups. According to American
investigators, in 1968 tue number of seals,in Weddell Sea varied
•rom 0.1 to 2.5 animals per square . nautical mile
It has been observed that in several parts of the Antarctic..
fast ice Weddell's seals . are entirely absent. •L . hey also do not form
large concentrations on toe sub-Antarctic iiaands; usually tney lie .
singly, at a djotance from one another, or in small groups. Oase s .
are known os' larTe groups of theme seals, -
seen on the shore.
numberin„; lup to 250, being
tenent data on tue distribution of , eddells
seals in various regions of the Antarctic sugest that their total
•
•

I
•..••• 14 3
nur.tbers are not high. âot!te 'foreii;n investigators suggest that an,
ap.pro--Utsate figure for the stocks of these seals t:liE^ht be between a
tIlin].1'tllll ^
of 200,000 and. a maximum of 500,000. In 196'1 and 1960 Australian
investigators made counts of the seals on pack-ice and fast
ice in the western part of i,oss Sea, in the re,ior! fro:.i ricllurdo Sound
to Cape Adare, using. al, ice-breaker and a helicopter. Tire majority
of the ;;ea1s wore counted on fcast ice, and smaller nüulbE:rs on pack-ice.
.l.-'ma tltoc;e counts the total number of the seals in 1:ilaL part of nous
Sea was estimated at about 50,000.
At present theie is no widespread huntinL of '.lecldell's seals
or of other species of Antarctic seals. The at_itnals are taken only
by research or6anizatiorls eollc>>ctint; scientific ma-rerial.
Crab-eater Seal
(Lobodon carcinopha[.-,us Hombron and Jacquinot, 1642"
The colour of this seal varies according to the season of the
year.
In spring the adults a:-ce covered with silvery-white hair.,
which causes thetu : ometilttes to be called "white seals". That Colour
is temporary.
Luring the rnoulting period the hair colour changes,
dari:cninand becorning gre,yis'riwbroorn; there are rin;;--l,i.lcP spots of
various shapes on the sides and shoulclers; tue lower part of the body
has a pale-yellow tinge (Fig." 36). That colour persis-us throughout
the su:i.tor and autumn months, but gradually fad,:^s, especially in'
w:i.riter, and by the seals have again acquired c' ûeau-L:i.ful sil--
very colour, 'l'hc: embryonic hair of neti•r--bôrn pups is soft, fluffy;
and greyish-brown.
After moulting the pups assume adu11; colouring.
^1^ \^`,'`^: .. ' ~ 4 `^ `^^,+^c` ^ ^•^ F a
.._ ?
Pnc. 8. Tloacnb•Ktmü(,cl,
_, -. .- .
l'1.^'• j^.,. ou i;el' £;eF.t.l.
lle iaaxi:llll:a zoo lo6;1cLL1 le11^.;t11 Of the ':L.lll Lt3 t:YOCi:d s i^ ^U
CITI.
he body iloiC-.,1t of Ll.e aaA.t:, is il,) to 230 ;;.;, ai.d Llle t•teif,•!!t of -t:l,e
ililie with b7.ul-ber :!;; to ^>0 k^^•. :.uw--c;orit lnlp:-, are .1.,G c.,l in len^;th
dailt t/6'l,:;ll 11'O.1 .i^li
to 2^) ku.

144
The range is.circumpolar around Antarctica; uùlike Weddell's
seal, the crab-eater seal is found mainly on drifting pack-ice in
pelagic re;.;ions. The northernlimit of its range coincides in winter
with the limit of pack-ice, but in summer these-seals move as far
to the south as the margin of fast - ice permits.
. When the Antarctic slimmer begind and the continental waters
are free from ice some of the .seals approach the mainland.and the
Antarctic islands.
They also come up on the shores when these . are free front ice.
The seals are not fourni on Balleny Islands, Scott Island, Peter I
Island, .P]stados Island, the Falkland Islands, South Georgia Island,
thé South Sandwich Islands, Bouvet Island, or Antipodes Island. On
rare occasions they have appeared .off the coasts of Australia, New
and Heard Island.
Zealand, Uruguay,
• it has been suggested that the summer-time approaches of '
crab-eater seals to the continental coasts.should be regarded . as
active migrations of the animals to the northern limit of floating
ice. With the onset of .cold weather the seals migrate northward,
and they appear on drift-ice and in open water in .2ebruary and in
greater numbers in March and April. They are frequently observed
near the edge of the ice in fairly large concentrations consisting
of adult males and females and juveniles tnat have made the transition
to an indeperglent mode of life Later on the seals are observed
in areas of drift-ice, where they spend the autumn, tne. winter, and
part of the spring, but when summer comes they . again head for the
mainland. Instances are known Where .some of the animals spent tue
winter near the coasts, in the fast-ice region. ...vidently-the crabeater
seal must be regarded. as a migratory species.
The•broeding period of crab-eater seals .has not been fully
studied, because when the young are born the seals are in areas of
thick pack-ice, which are difficult . of access fol-ships in spring.
The few reports available enable us to stai.e tnat the females give
birth to young between mid-Soptember and th t beginning of .hovember.
As a rule, the:( produce a Sin le pup.
-,:he duration of tue lactation period ha L: not been - delinitely
established. Jt lias been sugu,ested thaI it lasts for four or five
weeks; some invesLigaLors tnink that it lasts for only two weeks.

..... 1q.5
A ppa.rently, as with many ottier members of' the family Ihocidae, the
end of the lactation period of the crab--cc.ter seal is assôc.iated witl>,
the til:le of intensive moulting of the embryonic fur coverine:.. Ore,b-
eater seal pups may 'talce to the water before the conclusion of tsie
moult of their embryonic fur.
After the mzps adopt an independent mode of life t..ie :.iating
p::riod a.r;longp the adults be,;'ins. ^'lle duratioii of that period is uriicr.sown,
but it has been reported t1iat tll(. tes te:., of tcic: i3a.les are full
.of sperm in October and i:ovemâer. Most of tsie fer.lale , become sexually
mature at the age of three or four years, but active breeding begins
only when they are five or six years old. It is believed that C,^estatior,
lasts for 11 months.
At the end of the mating period the moult bee;ins. Littl.e
information is available about that period either. The adults begin
to moult in January, and apparently moulting conti.nues until i-:arch.
During, the moult the animals are active in their behaviour, often
leaving the ice and feeding intensively. The chief food item of
crab-eaber seals is crustacèarls, mainly krill; tne seals' stomachs
have also been found to contain remains of fishes of the Paralepididae
family, a considc:rahle number of bentnic crabs, and accidentallysti•rallowed
mud and slrLall pet)blos. ;.Nidently tll,.: seals may also procure
food fro.,i the sea--bottora, diving to considerable dent}rs.
The duration of life of ci2ab--eater seals is rllore than 29 years,
Their most dangerous ne,tural enemies may be killer whales, evidence
of whose attacks is (;iveri by deep wounds on the seals' 'bodies. 'I'rleir
helminthic fauria has not been fully studied. Seven hel,ainth s^necies,
including thl'ee species of ne,:i,-.).todes, have been recorded in tne stomach
and intestinal tract.. .
The crab•-cater seo.l is tt_e most s.ivundo.iit speciès e,mong all
Antarctic seals. It is found in all drift•-•i.ce ret;io-rls. ije.r.tr;o coir
centrati.oiîis of those c:;ea1.Ü 1,up to 5,00u within vi.su:il x'arlgej have
been observed in wii:ter in ^ rir^ce (•.iusLav ,,'out.d and in Glaha.•., Land,
and s:,sallea irur.sbr.r; is Alauilcl.scll Ses, and ,-tra.usen iea. Croups
of the sen.lU iiave been reco?.de(i in practically .1,11 regions of' the
A ntarctic.
The -.-Looks of. crab-ee,tey seals have been provisionally
estimated to nus:;bez between five and eicat million. in 1956-57 inc
Alileric^].11J 1;1(ld(t tl•l' f:l.r:it Iifll^l•^I)a;;Cd cousus of sec^_l(9. l'I1C: c,r1;;Ll:i
cavvi,oci
nvorars :i. ;l Lite .I rldit+,lr hooa,i ),soc Lop of the An 6nrcti.(:

• .146 •
.
(105 o E to 112 o ' 2), and also Rous Sea (150 0 V to 165 o E). The deh-
sity of occurrence of seals -(per square mile) on the ice, multiplied
by the area of the ice, enabled the investigators to calculate the
number of crab-eater seals in the former region as being 340,000, .
and in the latter.region as being 605,000. It issurmised tnat the .
density of occurrence of crab-eater seals on the ice is seven times
as hiEh in the Indian Ocean sector as in Ross Sea. 2.he density of
occurrence of crab-eater seals in Weddell Sea, according to tne American
investigators, reaches the highest figure -- an average of ten
animals per square nautical mile; some even densr eoncenLrations.
were recorded in that region -- up to 60 seals per square mile.
At present there is no widespread hunting of crab-eater seals.
A small number of the animals are taken solely for the needs of persons
wintering in the Antarctic or for scientific purposes. '
Leopard Seal (Hydrurea ,leptonix Blainville, 1820)
seal
The body of theee..o. leopard A
is long and slender, the thorax
is strongly deVeloped, the head is large, and 1:1E3 moutn is wide with
rows of sharp teeth (Fig. 37).
The back of adults is'dark-grey,
sometimes almost black. Tho sides and belly arc light-grey.
lips and chin are white. Irregularly-Shaed spots, black, dark-grey,
and light-grey, are scattered uver the entire body.
The
In external
aPpearance this sears colouring resembles, that of a leopard..
embryonic fur of a new-born pup is soft and fine; th' .
The
ba:ck iS darkgrey
wita a darker strie alcmg the spine, and the sides and belly
are almost white with irregularly-shaped black spots. After moulting.
the pups acquire the colouring of tne adults.
se:d
The a=a leopard is the largesL Antarctic suai. 'ohe maximum
A -
zoologicall.ength of adults is about 400. ais. The body weignt of the
females exCeeus 450 kg.
The pups are largo when born: tne zoological bodà -. 1 ,, ngth of -
a new-born pu .„).may reach 1 ,.S0 cm, a,d its weignt 5U
range includes te entire drift-ice zee 01 io Ant:arctic
and also tne.sub-Antarctio islands, includinE t
these (lleard Island, ,acquarie Island, ',01.11n Get,rc,ia
iiot nortnerly or
These seals nre fairlj co:adon on tNe sounern Ausrallan and Lew
etc.)
Zenjam coass. ùccasional speciJens travel far beyond tLe -boundary
of Le.i.i -rnnu nsd ;tre seen on CORI.; Of YouLn frica; tri) 'mist
norinLvly siNtiLu was aL
•

..... 147
Pue. 37,
^,'i g • 37. L e o po.rd r.; e: al •
It is believed. that tilese seals n(s,l:e ret;ular migrations, going
to more northerly regions in winter and returl:inz, south in spring.
Instances are known of their spending the whole year in tne most
sout}:erly areas (Iic"iurdo Sôund and hoss Se•u'.} . In northern regions
migro,tin; leopard seals have been seen on the coasts of South Georgia,
iviacquarie; Kerguelen, and St. Paul Islands. Several hundreds of them
have been seen at Heard Island in winter. It has been sug'r;ested that
the migration 'range of sexually--zmj:lature leopai,d seals is much 1•rider
than that of ad.ults. For instance, juveniles nave been seen at
t•t^,c^n,^a.,^i.e Island in winter, and adults at t3.eaa,d Island.
'Both on ice-floes and on islsnds leopard sea:Ls appear singly
or in small groups, not forming large concentrations. The breeding
period of these seals has not been thorou{;nl,y- investi;,-ated. ;-lost of
the fe,.tales give birth to young on the ice, but cases of giving birth
op shoa.e have also been reported (on South Oeor3lia Island). It is
believecï that the parturition period is in ,.ovel:lber and. 1)eeealber.
It is possible that that periocl may vary in dif f e>_'ent parts of the
range. The duration of tne lactation period is tullcnown.
It is believed that adult leopard seals mate in ;'ebruary . 100
'i'he
females attain sexual maturity at the aP-e of from two to seven
years, with cile average at five years. Gestation 1)ï'o'u:Lb1Jr lasts for ..
.11 months.
Tue :Ilal(':I becol?le seXUf:l,lly mature t?.i, ,1.1'o..,l ti 7.'ee to six
yeais of ago. The dure.tion of the moult b,- a6-alt:1 has not been
iriva sti.(;ated.
They begin 6o shed their ll^+,ir in .Talluary, but the
clate 7dhL'n the r;loult endr., :1.:i Llllknown.
The ClieT. of time leo]')41..1.'d :1e^11. 1s ex-G.T.'C:.,ea.y `fivC'i.eCl •
'_"II.L:1 seal .
if.; 'I 7>I ilrtLoV. i t eats fiâ.sile:;, r..c:p'l(7].O,,.6;,, I,(,. 1,^.^.,,1 ;( a.-i•i^(l.^
l 001'!11031;111t';'and p(?lll';ll i. n::{ ^.1.]'1C1
also prC J'G on G'tll(:1' :)t-l(l:, :;LlCll as

crab-eater seals, Weddell's seals, and Ross 's seals. The flesh -
148
whales'that had been killed has also been found in.their stomachs.
Only killer .whales can Present a threat to thiS lare seal. •
It has been reported that leopard seals often suffer from a disease
of mange type, large Skin lesions,being observed oh the head and the
flippers; tumours of the respiratory passages and tooth decay have
also been observed. 2ighteen helminth species nave been found in the
internal organs, including nine nematode species and six cestodes.
Lee -bard seals are les s numerous than crab-eater seals, and • .
perhaps even than Weddell's seals.
of
Large concentrations of leopard
seals are never found either on drift-ice or on islands. Their num..-
ber is estimated at from 100,000 to 300,000. - A census taken by American-
investigators in 1956-57 in several regions of tne Antarctic
gave a figure slightly above 16,000 in the Indian Ocean sector between
105 ° E and 112 ° E and in Ross Sea between 150 0 W and 165 ° E. By '
extrapolation based on the area of ice, the investigators calculated
the total number of leopard sealS on the ice. of Ross Sea and of the
Indian Ocean sector as being 152,000.
Ross 's Seal (OmmatOphora rossi Gray, 1844)
-
The.trunk of Ross's seal is stout and rounded in shape; the
, head is short and broad, almost retracted between the shoulders.; the
mouth is.small (Fig. 38).
The front flipFers are long. The back is
dark-grey, lighter along the spine, and the belly is ... silvery. Ill- •
defined pale-grey spots and stripes are scattered ovee the body and
on the head and-should'ers.
The zoological body length of the adults is 220-250 cm, and •
the body weight is 230-250 kg.
The maximum recorded length of males
is 275 , cm, a.d that of females 278 cm. Little is known of the existoi
sexual ci;morpi rn
ence in body measurements, but possibl y tii males are somewnat larger
A
than the females. Uew-born pups are more than 100 cm in length.
also
l '41 .1ab Pi _r,
3b. flobu'l; sual.

..... 149
The :i.'ange apparently illcludes the entire drift--ice belt and
the fast-ice Lone of the Antar^c'tic. 'filrou-nout its :,-ange t11is seal
is v,..ry seldom seerl, even in the most thoa^our;•}lly inves-tiL,ca.'ted areas
of 1;i-le Atlantic and Indian Ocean sectors of the Antarctic. Large
concentrations are never seei-i. Usually sin^;•le i,aclividu.c.lS or small
.gr.ott.ps are observed, lyirl;g on ice-floes at til'.• edge of fast ice or
in the drift--icc: belt.
The hi.olo,;â.cn:l. ,)cT':lods of' the clllrlurcl :lii'e: c-.clc have been
var,y lS.ttlc ;stuc7l•ed. A 1'c;w ].11diviCiLIF.Il ftïna].c:ti, have been obsr:l:veci
wi'Lïl r1C'ti•T--born pups. he period of mass parturition has not been dis--•
covered, but t+rere are reports of feF,ie,les beinl.; fotlnd t'rit:l new-born
pups at the beginning of ï?ecember. It is possible tilaL trlt: pups are
'uorn in October or. 11:overaber. -The duration of the 1•.:ctation pez'ioa
i s also unknown. ï' ost oi the fe_,lales at tain sexual ïrlatlll i'tjr ti111en 101
-tilrc.,e or four years old, and the ;ao,les somewhat la.ter.
1:oultillg Ross s see.ls have been observed on tllc ice in Jarlua.ry
and l^ebruwry, at t'rhicl^l ti1;1e they do not move about n)uch. ;it'rl
them, apparently, as wit;l other Antarctic t'hocidae, L11e moulting
period is ra•tiler prolonged.
The diet of 1iC1ss1S sec'i.].5 also is t.6li.:ut>t, u`i1C11o4Jn. it is believed
that L.l,e:ir food consists ::lainly of slr:all crustaceans, altliouch
fishes and squids also have been found in their storilachs. ^;xaminatioll
of tlre stol;lach contents of a feW Ross 's seals has sizorrn. that their
diot is fairly vs.ried. Slllal.l crustaceans il7c].uded t^u^)llau^si.a, suuerba,;
there Were also .f.roln 15 to 17 sq).l:ld.s up to 20 cul lon;•, romain,:; of
fishes of the families l.tystophid.ae and i'sat'rlydraconidae, as well as
up to 1.5 kg of brown algo.e.
The duration of life of the;-..e seals is e:sti.lïlai;eci to 1,e more
than 12,years. :r"otentl.al natural enemies ::a,y be killer whales and
leor,a:r:d seals. /1.p^•a2.'c?Iltly seine of tue pup., a.l:c lcillcd wller., ice-floes
scuce ze torr;e l;i er.. .The ile:lr.iintilic :E'auna has not be^il Ailly illvesti--
t.,ated. ;evc:lr ,le:l.minti) species have OC:ell rccor^^^^u.
Ubs)lval.i.ol:a mZC3e: by various !llitclx'ctic crilc:(iitiolïs .i..,dicatu
Lt?at Ross s si'.Cl.ltil al:'e t; I(, :lea,ùt ElbilnClc;lllt :>eal Ci'.,Cc].eFi. 'I11lél.t conc:l.u-^
C].01, is ÛelGokl on t11Q j^,i,Lÿi: ver^r rare Si(;1ltilir^:1 of i.1:et.;e éllliLa.L.l:9 on
lce-.t•]:oG'G, wflerl) t,ley 1'11•0 S:,'Lnerall`f seen l'ij:ra)1.' :;11.(r•.l^ or 111 :S,;1Fi11
("r0 111);:r. ..one lo'1.'e.1L:ll 7.1;1rC•:i'tJ. 's II(l.ve (:',)'t.l.Cl:!.l.efÎ 1,.... F'lp .1.'i)}:1GILl.'e
2111'ïlI)C:1' of L l l c ? „r? :3c:a.7.r;; i.l! LI1.' r1n'tril'ct1.c at J';:'ul,l ?.() , G 0 0 tc, 50 , UA'IU. J II

..... 150
a sl'lip--llased seal census talcen by American irlvestiuatorü in la-Le 195û
and early 1957 in the lndi.an Ocean sector o_ t_IC Antarctic (105°. iâ
to 1'12.° E') and in Ross Sea (150o W to 165° E.), about 0,000 Ross's
seals were counte^,.; when these results were extrapolated -to.-the entire .
drift-ice region, the nu::lùers of these seals. in .L1osÜ .Sea and the Tndian
Ocea.n sector of the Antwrctic were calculcit,-d to be 51,000.
T.iediterranearl ::oillc Seal (T•:orlachus nloil4.chus iler:.lar_n, 1779)
Tho CO.LOUr Of aCllllt IilCb.l.e Ned].t0v7'ELlleibll rllOrllC s°iLl.t7 is 111ilC^CJ..i^'1^
brot•rri with yellow s-erem.Tcs; ti;e:t.•e is a largo rliolnlio.ida.l wllil:e patch
on tile belly (7'ic,. 39')- The colour of the females is similar, but
the belly is light-grey and the white patch is missing. The pups are
born with long, soft fur of a dark-chestnut colour; the belly is
light-brown, with awllitish rho.raboida-l patch. These seals are fairly
large, and exceed the other two species of thits genus in body length.
The zoological body length of the males varies betwee.n 24.0 and 275
cm, the maximum being 300 cm. Apparently the feilla.le:s are.. somèwhat
smaller than the males. k'ew-born pups are 100-120 cri in length and
weigh about 20 lcg.
Pue.
Fig. 39. i•lonk . seal.
Tionlc sea.ls are distributed spora(IJ_cally
40) tilroug•11 the
jied'iterra.nean ;;ea, and along the Atlantic coast of 1lfrica. as far as
Cap -Blanc, In the T^iediterranean they are com::,orl on the coasts of
Spain and the Balearic Island-st of France (a.t 'l'oulon1, of .italy, of
the â.c;lancl. , of c;or.sica, and Sardinia, and of Urc:c!ce, Yut;oslavia, and
r'ur;cey, and t;11ey have been seen in tue Aegea.l tire ,iediterr.,a.-
1-ieC1.11
CoC.st of Africa^tile;,- OCcux 01, tue coaBtll b.C'
CLI'IC.L
'j.Ulli:^ia,
neü.r Oran, F111G. on the coast of lioroCco.
Off tlt(? Atlantic cuCl.at of
Africa they are obsorved at :. adeira, tac Canary 1:;1^.l.nds, alid tire
i'lesertas :I.slands. :I IL the _O.aclc ;,ea thr:Y OCCll7' oil tuE` Alla'(,olia.rl coast
of 'l'u.ll:ey and local'].,, on 'ihc co.--Ists of
rli.d,-oulrLrlia. .1 hey
Yil•o .i'uomc.l ii, U;;;I]l ^rr.^'Lr;a:CS ."i(lj ;a.cullt Lu i,ciiqn.rii;t. •
102

••• • • • 151
Little is known of th biology of•monk seals. . ïheir principal
habitats are solitary stretches of rocky or sandy-gravelly coasts on,
which they breed and moult. Their breeding p...,ried is - restricted. to
September and October, and the female usually prodùces a single pup.
Lactation lasts for about eight weeks, but evidently tne pups begin -
•o enter the water somewhat earlier, at the age of six or seven'weeks,
when they have completed ti‘e moult of their embryonic fur.
It is
• believed that the adults mate two months after the pups are born,
Gestation lasts for 11 months.
The seals' diet has not been adequately
studied, and its composition depends on the area in which the seals
live. .In the .131.ack Sea, for instance, the principal items in the diet
are mackerel, anchovies, and flatfish.
1?•
a . • e•
Fig. 40.
Puc. .10.. Pacupoir:pancilite epe;tineAutomopeNoro
ttaxa.
Range of the 1.:editerranean monk seal.
Roy '.: ' i) Spain. 2) CorSica. 3) Italy. 4) black Sea. 5)
Madeira. - 6) Desertas Islands. .7) Canary Islands. G) Cap Blanc.
9, Port Said. •
It is believed bhat tue present number of t.editerranean monk
seals may be estimated' at approximately 5,000. Current measures for
their conservation are unknown; the killing of them is prohibited
in th USSR.
West Indies a-Li Caribbean i.Lonk Seal
(Monachus tropi,calis Cray, 1u50,
rat) range of thin seal« is rentricteu'to the lahamas, Guadeloupe
Island, and small inlands in 'Lyle
ibboan Sea.
'
Gulf of Mexico -and tue Car-
.
ho reaLuren of Gneir morphology tti3 biQloy nave bon you

152
little stUdied. It is 'known that. the adults atLain.a length of 210
to 240 cm. The back is grey-brown and the belly pale-yellow. 'Newborn
pups are covered with long, soft, black embryonic fur, Most •
of. the females rroduce young at tue beginning of _.iecember, but data
on the periods of lactation, mating, and moulting of adults are
lacking. It is believed that fishes constitute 'Luc, greater part'of
their diet. The number of these seals within their range is unknown.
Hawaiian 1:tonk Seal (konachus schauinslandi 1.,atshie, 1905)
The adults of this species are coloured dark-grey, almost
slate-coloured,,on the back, while the sides and belly are light-grey.
The dark tone is more characteristic of the males. The basic colour
of' new-born pups is black, witn white spots scattered everywhere
through it. After they moult their embryonic fur the pups acquire a,
straw-black colour on the.back and a silvery-grey coleur on the belly.
The maximum zoological body length of adult males is 210 cm.
It is believed that the females are 15-20 cm longer than the males.
The body weight of the males may reach 170 kg. The length of new-born
pups is 80-105 cm' and their weight is 9-10 kg. -At the age of one
month the pups are 130 cm in length and weigh 50 kg; at the age of
one year they are 150 cm in length and weigh 70
The range is,restricted to a group of atolls and islands lying
northwest of the Hawaiian Islands proper. The principal breedinggrounds
of these seals are located on Kure and i:lidway. Islands, rearl
and Hermes Reefs, Lisianski and Laysan Islands, and French and frigate
Reefs. Their habitats are restricted ta the - snallow-water.zone of •
the reefs or to sandbanks. The animals do not make long migrations,
but spend a large proportion of their time in te water, especially
at night; by day they are less active and most of tnem lie.bn the shore.
The parturition period is fairly'len, and - lasts fromaÉebruary
to Y.ay. A female usually breeds every year and produces a single pup.
Lactation lasts for a little more tnan a month. .,he.pups are able
to enter the water within a few days after birth, but do not usually
do so until they are two weeks old, before they have . finished moulting
their embryonic fur. The moult lasts for five or six weeks. •After
bomplotion of the moult tiac vilps *leave the shoo and Lo out to sea,
comiercing an independent moue of life. i:he females re„tain in tne •
rookery, and apparently the mating period of • tue seults then pegins.

...... 1^>
It is believed that tha,t period is lengthy, and lasts from i4a,rch to
July. •1j'he moultin^ period of the adults is not precisely known;
pr.oboc^ly it is muct^i eY^erlded (froL:i ;'^ay to l:ovember.}. '!'ne principal
itc;iis in these seals' diet are fishes and ce.)i.alopods, anu pos sibly
a1 also sria1l crus taceans.
As witr.,
ot ►ier : hocide,ej the stocks of ,:awe.iian in:.'l.k. seals
wer_e, seriously reduced by destructive huntin; in the middl:: of the
19th centurÿ, i,.r;cl only after t}ic; killing Of thci1 Was t rohibited did
1;11UiI:' nuLlb(3-rS L>ogil'i to recover L;a.oWly. A Cetl:.ill:.3 1;a;.Q'n on the 151i111ta.S
in 195:3 L:ave a figure of over 1,300 seals. At pre;sciitu,, it would soo

154
The fur is dense, - soft, and silky, and covers the whole body .
of the animal except the nose, the inner surface of the ears, the
margins of the lips, and the pads of the fore-paws. The halr is •
differentiated into guard-nairs and underfur, and is densest on the
belly. • The general colour varies from almost rusty to black, being
mostly dark-brown. The head, neck, chest, and belly - are somewhat
lighter-coloured, brownish-grey. specimens aro occasionally found
that are partly or wholly albino, and others that are melanistic, or '
perfectly black. As the animals grow older their colour deepens from
the rusty-brOwn or light-cinnamon-brown of the new,-born to dark-brown
in yearlings and adults. There are no differences-in . colour between
males and females.
•
Sea otters are medium-sized animals. T.he maximum body length
of adult males is 150 cm, the tail being 36 cm long; the corresponding
figures for adult females are 150 cm and 32 cm. The body weight of
males,is up to 42 kg, and that of females up to 56 kg. New-born young
have a total length, including the tail, of about55-60 cm and a weight
of 1.5-2.0 kg; when six months old their length is• 110-115 cm and their
weight 10-11 kg; yearlings are 125-135 cm long and weigh - 17-19 kg.
. . Until intensive hunting of them began in the 19th century sea.
otters were found on the islands of.northern japan and the.northernmost
parts of the Asiatic and American coasts of the - Bering. Sea,•and
were fairly - plentiful on the coasts of Kamchatka and in the Aleutian
Islands, 'the Fribylov Islands, and western Alaska.
Although their present'range includes -Lin Asiatic and _American
coasts of the northern part of the Facific Ocean, tneir distribution
within it is patchy. sea otters live in the 1:urile islands•(Urup
Island is the southernmost point where they have been observed; they
are also founCI on the islands of Paramushir, Onekotan, Antsiferova,
shashkova, -. Rasshua, simushir, etc.), at the soutn6rn ti2 of the ,
i_amchatka peninsula (Capes Irya, 2heltyi, inakanyush, etc.),• and on
the i:omandorskie Islands (ilednyi and
on -the AMerican side
sea otters are common on almost all tue islands o the Aleutian chain
(hat Islands, Andreanov Islands, - Delarov islands, etc.); along the
northwest coast of Alaska tndy are not found neyond A.tak n.nd .Knudyakov
Islands, but on the southeast coast of iineninsula tney oceur
on the islands of Mlump•ina, nodiak, › i\fonnaL, and ()thorn as 1.'ar as

..... 155
Kayak Island. On the ualifor.nit:in coast they, occur ntainly along the
stretch from -the Bay of i^lonterey southward to ùape Concord.
Six Populations Of sea otters are distir_6ui:ihed, accordin.,
to their geo ;rallhical sei;ara.ti.on: the kolnandorskie, ,:urile, ûoil.tll
i.at:lchatl.an, nleutian, Alaskan, and UaliforniFan i.ô ;:.ulations ,
^;ea otters do not make long mass mi^;ration:s. DurinL.- their
annual life cycle they keel) to the offshore zone of the sea, auout
fi.ve miles wide, and usually mFt.l.e local. journeys t•ri.thi.n that

. 156
are to be seen on coastal stretches t;lat have been favoured by the
animals for a long time. bome . well-separated groups of unhated-males
and of females with young are known to exist on Mednyi island and
in the Kurile Islands; Further differentiation of the groups of
females with young into two subgroups has been observed, one of these
consisting of pregnant females with new-born.young and the other of
females with well-grown cubs. It is believed that the adult males
remain separate except during the mating period. As. Compared with
related genera, the «sea otter is a .peace-loving animal with a well- -
instinct. - •
developed co-operative
• • The reproductive biology of the sea otter has not been fully
studied, on account of the difficulty of approaching the animals for
year-round - observations in natural conditions. Although females with
new-born young may be seen at practically any time throughout the
year, parturition by the majority of the females in the Komandorskie .
and Kurile populations takes place in May and June. The young are
brought . forth on shore or among rocky islets projecting above the
water. Cases have also been recorded of young being born in dense
beds.of seaweed in the water. The birth process lasts only for a few
minutes.
Asa rule a female produces a single cub, although - eases are .
known of two embryos being found in a uterus. The cubs are born with
eyes open, with all their milk-teeth, and with dense light-brown fur.
They live a fairly passive life for a long period and spend most of •
their time sleeping;, they do not go into the water independently, and
cannot swim activelY. During the entire lactation period the mothe r .
constant care of her,offspring; she feeds them well with milk, takes
drags them from the rocks if danger threatens, teaches tnem to swim
actively , . and so on. The duration of the lactation period iù unknown,
as'also is the time when the . cubs make the transition to an independent
mode•of life. It is believed that most of the females abandon
their young in autumn, as observations Of cubs with their mothers in
november and. December are quite rare. Probably, therefore, the lactation
period lasts for four or five months some cases of females
feeding eubs of other mothers.have been recorded.
•
Uourtuhi9 dlaj and matin by the adultG ap!,arently take place .
, end of the lactation .perioa_ It IG eoliuvr2d that in the
at UK

..... 157
Kofiiando.r.slc'ie Islands -t;hey tâke place mostly from July to aepteniber,
i.e. wu' a time t•rheii large'groups of males and females are observecl
far from shore, in beds of sea--ke,le. It has also been su{:;•Cested that
106
young females, when mating i:or the first time, are fecundàted hionths
earlier than older ferie.les, i.e. from April to. June,' .a,_d. conseélueiztly
they give birth from January to i•larch. C:opu].atiori tal:e., place several.
'times ana is eonuul:unated in the water. Piost investigators are of the
opinion that the sea otter is apolyc;amous clniinal. Gestation lasts
for eiL,?;nt
or nine months. It is believed that fc.male sea otters become
sexually mature at the age of one or one-and-a-half years, and that
they first become pregnant at the age of two years; the nla les become
sexually mature at the end of their second year of life. •.U11e fre-
Cjuency of' breeding is not positively known: some investigators think
that the females breecl every second year, others that tiiey breed
every year.
As with other semi--aque.tic maminals, the moult is very prolonged
and extends over the whole year. In the l^onandorskie Islands the most
intensive moulting, takes place in the spring and summer (from April.
to July) .
It has also been observed tllat the r urile sea ottcrs moult
motie intc:nsively •thân do the Komandorskie ones.
A shift, in either
direction, in the periods of intensive moultinL; may talcr place in the
different populations of the animal,.
The diet of sea otters is far from being 1'ully investigated,
as information on its composition is limited to tlle results of coprological
analysâ.N and observations on t;.e animals when feeding in natural
conditions. '.l'hei.e is no consensus of oninion on tne predominance
of any particular components in •the diet. 5 o;.ie investi- e,tors hold
that tlle chief iteiris are invertebr.ates; others, that they are'fishes.
It has been found that in the Kolnand.ortikie.Islands rt^;ion the
chief dietary items are seâ-•urchins .(59i}, nlolluscs (23.3;., nlos^ly
bivalves), ar,d crustaceans (ve.rious s;:ecies of crabs, 10;.,), with.a
few fis h .:pecic: s il^ :I.r.s t 1^].clec. ;.occasionall.y other itcms are included,
suell as hyd.roids, fragments of barrizclc: slic l].^,, --rc:,n,Lir,s_ of al,al
tl:e.l].i., pehbles, grit, etc. '1i;.ucLl observations on the feedilc„ of
:Iea O'l;i.C?r:i-in that re,C;l.on add Uc'l;opu.LiGs an(. J.i!$11C:3 `11UR1)4ucker0, sand
ee].e, ce.pelà.c,) to tile' list. ,c:aaonal variation., are oi,:.ea-vecl in tue
i.111il,ly of s
kic1u i.'
:;L lttcl•J: iii winter it cu.
ca.-
'
cra.!>s,
^;mu oci.opnl;acE; ,,..i,,o n.ddo6.
ux.0hi.n;i n.ild

u.'he
• 158
diet of. Kurile sea.otters consists mostly of sea-urchins,
- shelled molluscs, mussels, octopuses, Atelecyclidae and rugose crabs,
and -..a.mong fishes -- lurapsuckers. A-secondary place is occupied
by 8ea of Okhotsk Idotheidae and a number of other crustaceans, mol-
luscs,and fishes. Brown. and calcareous algae and J ..ryozoa are accidentally
swallowed along with food.
Data cOmPiled by Japanese
inVeStigators on the basis of examination of the stomachs of a large
number'of f.urile sea otters add the following to the diet list: '
ascidians, pink scallops, and octopuses, and (umon( fishes) ALka
mackerel and rock perch. Differences have been found in the diet,
composition depending on the area in which the sea otters live; thus
on the 'Pacific side the predominant food items are crustaceans (crabs,
shrimps, and Idotheidae) and molluscs; on the Sea of Okhotsk side,
sea-urchins and molluscs. e,easonal variations in the diet of Aurile
sea otters have also bee observed: in spring luMpsuckers predominate, -
and in summer crabs, various species of gastropods and bivalves, and
sea-urchins.
Aleutian-Alaskan . population of 'sea otters Leeds mainly on
sea-urchins and molluscs, and to a lesser extent on fishes (Land eels
and staghorn sculpins), which,they eat more in winter and spring when
other food items are scarce, u'hey also eat crabs, and casually-
swallowed objects include insects,.earthworms, algae, and. eel-grass.
The sea otters of the Californian coast feed mainl‘r on large sea-
,
urchins, gastropods and bivalves, musselb, and some. species of crabs. 107
Of less importance are Ophiuroidea, Loricata, starfishes, lobsters,
octopuses, and fishes.
.
boa otters procure food fro.a shallow sublittoral waters,
on sand-bars and shoals, and near beds of seaweed. 'usually they can
stay under water not more than taree minutes, and the greatesl depth
to which they can dive is.about 90. metres. At one dive a sea otter
can 17rasp as many as ten sea-urchins a -hd place them within folds of
•
.itr3 skin. IL eats them one by one, breakiLg the shell and sucking •
out the contents; it breaks tae shell of a lare se-urchin or of a
oMy
mollusc against a stone; it eats i\ the tastiest pieces of lare fishes.
bO:dO investigators surmise that Liu exte:ae age attained by
sea .otters is not more than 12 years. Tile causes, and still more the
e:•teht, of :lorLnlity.a.lorg the_o ani:.ials have noL yut'buen fully .
It 15 kudwn that in thu Aleutian . populaLion on annual
C.iscovered

. 159 .
peak occurs in tne mortality curve. of juveni,les that have cocu:tenced
art indèpendent life. A probable cause of 'death is a decline in the
animals' resistance as a result of malnutrition durin^, the autumn
and win*ter, and also breakdowrl of the heat-insulatirlg llroperties of
the fur covering when it gets wet (over-chilling) .. Deaths of sea
otters ï.r.oln old. age have been observed; we may also suppose that some
cubs are still-born, a.nd. that a certain number dà.è..as a result of
abnorslc:lities in the course of the lactation period.
Amon;; potential erlemies of sea otters ^•;e must mention lci.ller
rrhales, Arctic sl'larl-r-s, and blue foxes, and. in the western a.ricl eastern
parts of the range red foxes, wolves, and bears; nraw-bar1i cubs are
to some extent in danger from sea-eagles and possibly frais ravens.
CQstod.es and trematodes have b^een found in their interrla.l organs, but
it is d.i.f'ficult to assess how dangerous they are. .The causes of
diseases am6ng sea otters also have not beeli fully s-cudied; it has
been found that corso die as a.result of wearing-àotien-of the teeth.
It was in the 1740' s that the trade in sea otter skins beg'a.n.
1llthoueh it is difficu'lt to estimate the extent of the trade at tnat
time, it is clear that the high value of the skins stiraulated unrestx'icted
and d.estructive slaughter of them in c:ver.y part of thei'r range.
borne idea of the extent of the slauE;hter may be J.;'airled from
the records of sea otter skins handled by the liusso-1lmerican Co.mpany.
Prom 179„ to 1845 the company handled 118,000 sea ot-ter skins. In
1867 the Russians exported 260,000 skins. From 1871 to 1390 the Americans
killed more than 90,000 sea otters . in Alaska. ' l''rorn 1 ï373 to 1881
the anriua.l taice of thi: animais in the.liurile Islands fluctuated between
400 and. 1,600; from 1875 to 1900 the annual ty the enu of the 19th cen-
1.ury only a fetr hundred skins. apl,eax'ed anliuall.y at the international
fur auctions, \•1llP.1'etLEi du.1.'.1.11g tÎle 1770's F]•nCl 1TV F:, tlley, t1C?i! b(?C'rl l'lulllben.'ed.
in t;loii:land. :l.
At 1,1r• Lc:t;inl.i.n^; of tho 20t,i cerltu_i:y. tl,c. L^^killg
of .,ea o L'ters had practically ceased in both RU-si.a a.11u lu:lei•i.ca.
Y tl•,c time th,-,t ti:e trade in sea ottei: 1:'lli^s came to an end
tÎle nu:'lbe:C'b3 of the (1.nl.lilia.l.i in all, parts of range 11;.'.d ; i.:r.lously
d1f11.r11.C111eC1. Acc:'o:Cdl.llj; to ot-I^)C;.r1C're 1nV'C:,'tx; 'Ll ^U1'S, !.C1'e VeTC' only a
few }nincl.red. le f L.i_n tllc Krlx'.ilc
r..).111cl)a Llc7.rl

and Komandorskie.
160
(1v,ednyi Island) populations amounted to only a few
tens of the anima1 r 7
rho sea otter populations ol the Aleutian
',.■
•
Islands, J.laska, and California had not escaped virtual extirpation,
althoun-h the numbers of these at the beginning of the 20th century
are unknown.
:Iven during the existence of the Russo-American Company the
marked decrease in sea otter numbers had shown the need to take some
measures to limit the kill; killing of them was first prohibited in
areab where their numbers were very small .
These conservation
meas ures, however, did not reduce the extent of the trade in their
fUrs, and the sale of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands by Russia• to
America led to still more destructive slaughter by poachers.
The first regulatory measures in the homandorskie Islands
were taken in 1891, when a limit was placed on the kill of'sea otters
and the killing of females and juveniles was prohibited. * In 1913 a
long-terni reserve was established in the Aleutian Islands for the
conservation of sea otters.
In 1924 a prolonged close season was
. instituted 'in the Komandorskie Islands and Kamchatka, and the 'taking
of Sea otters was prohibited:. The prohibition is still in force to-day.
ne introduction of these first conservation measures led to
some increase in the animals' numbers. ..13y the 1930's the Kamchatka.
population was estimated at approximately 150 to 200, the Komandorskie
population (on v,ednyi Island) at about 500, and the Kurile population
at a few hundreds. By that time the sea otter population on the
Aleutian Islands had alsti increased to several thousands; trio numbers
in Alaska had increased, and the California population, which had been
. almost exterminated, numbered several tons of the animals.
During the subsequent years the numbers of sea •otters in all
parts of their range have continued to rise. In USSR maters•(Komandorskie
Islands and Kamchatka) the rate of growth of the pdpulations
has been slow, as it has beeh impeded by human economic activities
in these rtgions (navigation,. fishing, etc.). In 195c, tnerefore, a
Government decree supple::.ented the existing conservation measures
(i .e. prohibition of killing) by the establiskment of clesed zones in •
which ship movements, 'fishing, fur-trappinG, low flying by aeroplanes, .
visiting* of tac habitats by non-residents, e .tc., were prohibited.
in t'n ..urile Islands, where the taking of sea otters wms also
•
* ln accordnnce with tue Washin:,thn Cohvention, whicti was
ned in 1911, not only fnr . seals but . al ..o sa ot.urs mure protected.
. , .
•
•

... . .161
pro.hibiteà., one island in the chain ^Urup 1:slc}nd) was i:iade a nrovincial
sanctuary. in 196j iaany of the ;-iurilel:sln,ncls were proclaimed
,as
local sanctuaries,
'1'hese conservation measures made possible fitrther restoration
of the ses, ôtter stocks in ooviet waters. Accox'diri;;; to a census
tn,lcen in 196 j•-6^,
the cuirent numbers of sen, otters were estimated
at appr.oximn.teJ.y 3,300-3,50 .
0 in the Iiuri.LC Islands, a-L 1,500 in the
Komn,mlovE41ci.o ]:u1.r•,.rids tf:tr,driyi Island), o. ► iâ. at .3uv^.3:

CETACEA •
CHAI.UR 1
GEMUAL ChALACURISTICS OF T:112; Ohnli
16 2
Cetacea are a group of mammals from one metre to 35 metres
in length*, which have.been adapted during thp process of evalution
* The length referred to here is the zoological length, from .
the tin of the upper jaw to tue bifurcation of the flukes.
•
to an aquatiç mode of life, mostly in a marine environment. That has
resulted in remarkable changes in a number of organs, and is strongly
expressed in the shape of the body, which in most cetaceans is very
stream-lined and torpedo-like . The tail section is laterally comlior;zontal
pressed and terminates in caudal fins (flukes). There is usually.no —
A
external sign of a cervical constriction, hair Covering, external
ear pinna, and hind limbs are all absent.
The thoracic flippers fulfil
thé • function of depth-control gear; the dorsal fin may perhaps -
increase the whales' stability while swimming.
The skin is thin, smooth, and covered externally with mucous
secretions, which aid the whales' movement tnrough the water.
Tnere
is a layer of fat under the skin, permeated by a•dense network of •
collagen fibres. That layer encompasses the entire body of the whale
and protects it from mechanical injury and loss of heat, and also
reduces the animal's specifiu Weight.
The eyes are small, •and protected from water - action by fatty
secretions from a special (liarderian) gland. There are no lacrimal
glands. The external nasal orifice (blowhole) in toothed whales is
unpaired and placed far back
whale s .
lying, at the vertex of the head.; baleen
have paired nasal orifices lying side by side, placed less
far back -- at the base of the frontal rei4on of tue head. Water is
prevented from passing into the respiratory pas-agesby a system of -
muscles in the nasal canal, •which is lecated underneath tne skull.
The larynx is so constructed that the respiratory passages and the
uullet are isolated from each other, making it possible for the animal
to'swallow food in the water The lungs are lare and elastic, are •
elongated in shape, and lie in the horizontal plane of 'the body.
the musculature in the alveolar sacs of the lungs . is very strongly
developed, preventing air from being ,
dives
squeezed out whun the animal
•
'

..... 1ô3
The huge four-char.lbered }ieart is surrou)ided by a pericclx'dial
sac. 'i'he
heart is very broad and tllex'efor.e has a circular contour
The o:r'a.1 cavity of ceta.ceans is adapted only for seizing• and
holding food.
In baleen whalc:s the food is tritura:ted in tilclfirst
section of the stomach, which is a prolongation of tlli:: ,;ullet ^baleen
whales have three sections in the stomach; whcreas some
species of
tootl-l.ed whales ^beaked whales) have up to 1-j- sections).
1Sehi.nd the liver, which contains cl. biliary duct ^ there are
no bile L;lcl,ntlr3), a.:Lc the kidne,ys, which conaist of' from 150 to 500
sepa:rate lobules in dolphins and from 6,000 to 8,000 in baleen whales.
Data on the weight of various internal ort;a,ns are C2"iven in Appendix 4.
The copulatory or^a.n of males lies in a special sac, and in
110.
the relaxed state is enclosed within the whale's body;' only when the
carcass is inflated with air is it sometir,les .f'orced outside. 'i.'hé
lacteal glands ^a single pair) lie in the rear part of the abdomen,,
slightly in front of the urinogenital orifice. They become very conspicuous
only after parturition, during the periou of suckling the
young.
The females are distinguished from the males by their very
short perinaeum (st)ace between the urinogenital and anal orifices).
The cerebrum is spherical in shàpe, with Niel l•-developect convolutions
of the cerebrd.1 cortex. It is believed tha.'t the olfactory or.(;ans are
poorly daveloped, or even reduced in size; tile visual and tactile
orE,ans are much better developed. 11'he orÛari of hearing -- one of the
principal sources whirreby the animal receives ini'orniation from the
external.environment -- is highly developed.
'l'ile
auditory orifice is small, havin; the ciiiineter of an ordinary
pencil, and ter:ninates blindly, or is closed with an ea.1^-p1u8.-
^in baleen whales) .
iZhe internai structure of the ear is complex;
it is adapted to reception of both sonic and ultrasonic vibrations.
'î'hé
sonic vibrations are transferred to ti:e inner ear only tilrough
the bones of the.inner ear:
A:he foru":l.i.mL);, are mov41t,1c 011ly at t,ll. :;i.ioulder j oint.. 't't1EZr.•c
is no clavicle. ..iie .9ca.l,u7.a is reJ:a.tive:Ly ';,r.oa.a, c:acl ,,^oinetijuec has
tl.Jo. j) rOCfJl+;ïE';i., :' t1L) Spin(? Co1lti],E3tS of four rU^;]OC,:i. -`111e Cel.'ViCf-,l
vcrtebrne (of v)liich L,,cre are sovei)) are 8,rec.tly com,xes.;ed.
,.llora.ci.c verte urne becr thu ribs, from o),c t o O.i.^;,t pairs Of wi.d.ch
are jOllli;ll Lu l,l'. .ït'i11'i 111.1
inc
l ^Ile]'G ,11`i:: .I'1'c:11 tL'l', to '.;E-VI'ilteCh i.C1.l.3'0, Of

164
thoracic vertebrae altogether).* The lumbar region has no ribs; and. *
is disfinguished from the caudal region by the fact that it has I.
Y-shaped bones.
The order of Cetacea consists of two •suborders: toothless or
baleen whales, and toothed . .whales.*
* The Russian, Latin (scientifiC), English, and Lorwegian
narks of whales are given in Appendix 5. (Translator's Lote: Appenddx
5 also gives the japanese names, transliterated.into • husSian letters.)
• The names of those subbrdero indicate thC chief difference
between them. Baleen whales are characterized by possession of a .
filtering apparatus consisting of horny plates of.baleen (whalebone).
The oral cavity of toothed whales contains from one or two up to 240
*unicuspid conical teeth.
• -SUBORDER MUTACOCETI (BALEEN OR TOOTNLESti WUALJ!IL -3)
The members of this.suborder are ver
•
large animals, .the
females being larger than the bales. 'Iwo external:nasal orifices •
open on the very top of the head. There is a filtering apparatus,
consisting of two parallel rows of baleen plates, within the upper
jaw. 'Each row may contain from 150 to . 450 plates. A balaen plate
is triangular in shape,
face inward and outward respectivély.
One side is set in the gums, .and the others
The latter is the larGest, and
has a fringe of numerous appendages of various lengths and thick-
nesse9. The spaces between tne - plates increase with.the animal's
age t .and may reach 1.0-1.5 cm. The plates gradually increase in size
from the front end of the jaw, and -
reach a maximum.at the end of the
third quarter of the length of the row, after which they diminish.
.The plates lie almost perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of
tne . animal's body .
The lower jaws are usually very convex towards the outer side, •
and therefore the oral CavitY Is very spacious. When food is seized
water enters -t,,e oral. cavity. :ressure by •tne toneu .c:• forces the water 111
through tne dense fine sieve formed by the network of lilaments in
the inn•r fringed part or the plate; t.e food material is retained
(filtered out). and mostly ends UP near the gullet, where it• is pushed -
- by th i - tongue. .These whales are called filter.:-fouders.
Yho ireat development of to filterinc ali ■ araIus has led . to
extreme onlargement of the head, which oceupieu from ono—fifth to
•

..... 165
one-ttlird of the t•i.l^lale' s entire body lorluth;
A few tens of separate
hairs, i-rtlich probai>ly serve as tactile ox•La.ns t110 SeE-Llr-Cil for
food., :,o::ietimes t;row on tue r.oul.rs.l p^^rt of tbe' llea.d and t!^e lo1,Ier jLW.
Bnleerl vrl:ales feed only on or;,e.rlis.ns tint .for.-n 1G rr;e anci cierl'se
cor?ceni;atiorls.
.t'i)ere are. col,.•ide^rable variations in i;,,e structure
of the filterirlr s.., l)ar.a.tus, ^;llicl2 enable-. us to di.fferentiate between
: evc ro.l Éïrou}.^;, of cetace aIIO or instance, all. r•i^;;lt wl:alr:s, 111licil
belon^; to the E;rou.p of ,niciop1

• 166
with . a deep.notch in the centre. The head constitutes from one-quarter
to one-third of the body length. The upper jaw is•arch-shaped. .The •
lips of tha lower jaw are long, trapezoidal . or arch-shapod,• and over :-
lap the upper jaw when the moutn is closed.
The daric. elastic plates
of baleen are more than 1.5 metres long, and their width is from one
tenth to one-eighth of their length.
This subfamily con tains two gonera, Lalaena (with one species)
and inbalaena (with one species).
. . . .
Genus Dalaena L., 1758 (row-head !hale)
This genus contains a single.species. -
Bow-head Whale (Balaena mysticetus h., 1758)
This is an unusually massive whale (Pig. 42). -
The girth of
the body in its thickest part (slightly to the rear of the flippers)
is up to two-thirds of the body.length;
The makimuM length does not
usually exceed 18 metres, and very rarely is it as much as 21)fietres.
PIIC. 42. ri lMaI..clefl 1$L1'.
Fig. 42. Bow-head whale.
•
Adult waales are usually black, and jUveniles are of a greyish
dark-blue.colour. bometimes white scars can be observed on the ventral
side. Albinos (partial or complete) are occasionally reported.
Wlen the wilale is on the surface of the water a.small cervical
constrjction is seen more clearly.
A blowhole is located au the hiEhest
point of the head, and consists of two nasal orifices side by side.
The spout consists of twoj.-mst jets, is in the form of fine spray,
and reaches a height or four Or five metres.
• The hLad of an adult occupies one-third of the body Ungth.
The snout has no projections.
he oral cavity is narrow OWL high.
.1211.ere are 'altoi;ether up to 500 or 350 plates in - .eacn row, nanging from
the arch-shaped upper jaw; te larest*of them are from ;() -Lc) 5.5
moLrcs . lon . , ant. in rare .orloos 4.5 detres .. irine in finù and
long olp to 50 or GO cm). The lips of the lowùr jaw uo not have

...... 1' 7
scallo-)ed edges; their ed-es are smoot:i andarcuate. li•he_ flippers
a re br.oad and spade-shaped. The flukes are broad, with a large notch
in the centre. 'J.'here. are thir,ceen pairs of' ribs, from five to ten
pairs of tnem being very long tup to three metres). •!,he spine contains
up to 55 vertebrae ^ seven cervical, 15 trtoiacic, 12 or 13 lumbar,
and 22 or 23 caudal veri;ebxae).
This species is found only in the no2'ttlerii 1:(-,,misphe1:e and is
a dwellor.• in the ret:,'iot'^ of floating i.ce.
It move^; f.rc•k)ly in a.1'e'a:;
of Open water, and whort theuo are froven ovc:t• it brerilc:s t,n^ouC;h the
ice to make air-holes, through which it breathes.
It is customary to distinguish three herds of tt:ese anii,lals,
two of which (the ,pitzbergen. and I•lest Greenland herds) live in the
waters of the ;vorth Atlantic and Arctic Ocean:,, 1•ihile th,; _third (the
13ering-C'hulcchi herd) lives in the northern l,art of t,re i'acific Ocean
and the Arctic Ocean. -
Genus Lubala,ena Gray, 1864 (hfor.t}i Atlantic, 1-,orth
Pacific, and. Southern Right Whales)
Right whales of the genus 1,;uba.laena are distinguished fror.n
bôw•-head whales by the somewhat smaller size of the adults and by the
shorter_head, which usually constitutes about one--quarter of the body
length, and also by some other external features (Pis. 43) . 1rher.e
is a huge projection on the anterior part o:f the snout, behind which
a number of smaller projections may be located. The tontours of the
lower jaw are mo^_•e abrupt (•L•r.•apezoidal), and the inner surface is 113
convex (in the bow-head whale it is flat) . Ale ode,-es of the upper
_;art of the li:i) are scalloped (deiitate). Cu t

168
• :`
' Pic. 43. 10:iiInd l'.1a/1.111r1
Fig. 43.
Southern right whale.
North../Itlantic Right whale Eubalaena
raacialis ii11e, 1776;
whale .
As compared . with bow-head whale, the 1Zorth Atlantic right
(like the other subsbeciesof E. caacialis) is distinguished
by having a less massive trunk, and looks rather longer -- the girth
at tho thickest part is not more than 60',.) of the body length. The
maximum length of these animais is 17-18 metres, and the usual length
is 14.5-15.5 metres, The females are somewhat larger than the males.
The body is black, but the ventral surface shows white mark-.
ings of various shapes more . often than does that of the bow-head whale.
In rare .cases the belly is entirely white. The flippers are broad -
and rounded, but sli&htly taporing at the tips. . The flukes are very
broad, and their span is up to one-quarter or one 7.third of the body
length. Each row of baleen contains from 250 to 400 plates. The
length of the plates is less than in -Liu bow-head whale, and does not
exceed 2.3 metres.
The Plates are black, but sometimes one finds
white plates in the anterior part of a row. There are ±rum 14 ±n or
15 pairs of ribs, and from 55 to 57 vertebrae (soven cerv-ical, usually.
14 thoracic, 12 lumbar, and 23 caudal).
The Porth Atlantic rignt whale occupies an expanse. of water
stretching from northwest Africa to 21 .orida, and in the'nortle front.
•Davis btrait almost to kJpitzbergen. It keeps mainly to the temperate
•
zone of the ocean, avoiding boit warm tronical waters and cold Aretic .
waters. Occasionally it appears in the mediterranean Sen-. its alternative
name (àiscay riet whalef . is derived fro.à tic .iay of _Jiscay,
where it was first hunted. • •
iorth Pacific Light Whale (L. LI japnica Lacep'edo, 1818)
• In axternal appearance this whale closely -uesembles the _north
Atlantic form. Th o. lareat silecimens ahtain a lon,i;Ln of 20-',!I muLrec,

..... 16g
the usual length being 16 or 17 metres. The 1enCt-h of the head. in
ac:izlts'is f rom 30;: to 31.51-, of the body length. The fl;reatest height
of the body is one-sixth to one-seventh of the body leiiQ,th. The body
is môstl;j black, *but in some specimens there are white spots,. which.
sometimes occupy a.lmo st the entire unde.r-surface of the body behind
the flippers.
ti.ons in colour.
As with other. right whales, there. may be many.varia--
The flippers are almost oval in shal.e; they are up
to 3.0 or 3.25 metres long, or from 16;-.- to 18.5;.. of'. the body len.-th.
^,rest
l;ach row of balcon contains f'rom 2215 to 200 pla.tccr. 'i.'he lar-
of these are up to 3.0 metres long. Tire numbers of ribs and
vertebrae are the same as in the 2,,orth Atlantic ri81=it whale.
The North Pacifie right whale is found in tlhe nort}iern part
of the Pacific Ocean. The northern limit of its range :in suramer
approaches 60o P1 (rarely still farther north), and the southern limit
appears to be 20 0 11 in waters adjacent to the Asiatic continent. On
the coast of 111or.th America these whales are seen in winter at 26o-2So I^
as ^ th osẹ.
Southern Right l-1hale ^R_ f, australis iiesrnoulins, 1822)
The external apuearance and siz.e of this iflhale are tne same
of th l^e c `, crth Atlantic right ^w,hale. 1:t as possible that the
"butterfly" ap?lears somewhat more often on the ventral side of , these
whales. Each row of baleen contains up to 200 or 250 plates. The
largest plates attain a length of from 2.0 to 2.2 metres.
The southern right whale ranges throughout the entire southern
hemisphere from 200-25o S to 50e-55e S, but is more conl,:ron in the
Atlantic and Indian Oceans and farther east to 170o È^. It may be
surmised that sonic fairly--well-sepa.ra.ted herds of tt:ese whales exist.
The animals 1teell mainly to the temperate zone, and seldoni enter
Antarctic waters.
•
SÜ t3s'A!'iI'LY P,iâ01iAI,AEIvTl^tllï; (i'Yl;MY RIGHT 1,,'l1AI, •;â)
The :.Iembers of this subfarnily atta,in a 1cizL;1;}t of not more
than 6.5 r.ietres. i.'ne body is elongated and s Lrengtrl) . The up.',rer ;lr.rv is le;,s cllrved, but
I•I11E?n vi.en-leci from the side -u-krc: mouth looks diu-ciklod.ly
ÛE:,.1.(.:eIl iF3 white, F.II:,Cl no l: nlorG tÎlil.n one nlc'l..l.'e .IOII!_;. I'lria .;UU] :L. ily
Gc)11^.f^..l.il.; Il lI:^.1:;;.^.R ;;Qnl.lil Slllli ;l.lzi.ll;';le t;1^eCaC:ti.

Genus (Japerea Cray , 1264 .
(Pygmy llight-waaIes)
• • • • • 1 70
Pygmy >flight Uhale (Caperea marr;inata Gray, 1846)
Whales ol tnis species constitute a separate genus and differ
from other right whales not only in their smaller size (maximum body
length up to 6.0 or 6.5 metres) but also in otûer features. An external
feature is that there is a small dorsal fin in the Posterior
third of the body.
Fig. 44.
Pue. 44. Kap.aummodi MaJ1Kiu1 itT,
Pygmy right whale. •
The body of this whale is massive, but much elongated as com-
.pared with other right whales,•and in shape it resembles a .
There are no folds on the ventral side.
rorqual.
The body is black, with separate
grey stripes along the .sides,. beginning at the level Of the
flippers. 1 . he belly is usually lighter in colour. The skin is smooth,
without parasites and without projections'at the tip of the snout,
but sometimes one observes a backward-pointing cartilaginous process .
on i -b. • The head occupies nearly one-quarter of tae body length. The'
upper jaw contains 200-230 light-yellow baleen plates.
The outer edge.
of the baleen is dark or dark-brown. The lower jaw does not have an
arch-shaped or trapezoidal. projection upward (as is typical of bow.:
head and southern . right whales); The oral cavity and the tongue are
white. '1..he flippers are relatively short and have a manus consisting
of only four phalanges.
There is no sternum, and taerefore -the ly
pairs of ribs are free. An important distinction is the shoi.tened
spine, in which there are only two lumbar vertebrae. The total number
of vertebrae is 42 (seven cervical, 17 thoracic, two lumbar, and 16
caudal).
other right wnales.
There is an appendix to the caecum, a feature •not found in
ryiny richt whales are found only in the soutnern hemisPhere,
in waters with temperature from 5 o to 20 0 They occur mainly in
tue Great Australian eight, off Tasmania, aLd off :_ioutû island - (f (3w
Zealand).

171.
YAMILY i!n•;CHRICHTIIDAE (GREY WnALES) 115
.Grey whales . occupy an iluermediate position between right
whales and rorquals.. The bod y . is thicker than that of rorquals, but
considerably more slender titan that of right whales... There is no
dorsalfin, out instead of it there are small tubercles along the
cre,_st of the caudal section. The' throat and belly do . not sag. On
are from two to four slightly-divergin
but not
joined together) grooves, up to 1.5-2.0 metres long . The flippers
are relatively broad --narrower than those of rizht , hales, but broader •
than those of rorquals. Thè head is not large, being up to 20;; of
the body length. The oral cavity contains up -to 360 short saloon •
plates.
This family contains only one genus and one sPecies.
Grey Whale (Eschrichtius gibbosus Erxl., 1777)
The average body length of the males is 11-12 metres (maximum
14.6 metres), and that of femaleS 12-13 metres (maximum 15 5 metres).
• .The body is elongated, with a slight constriction noticeable
in the cervical region (Pig. 45).
The dorsal, side is more convex than
the ventral side. ThL: maximum girth in the region or Lhe flippers
is, on an average, 62.5).; to 66.7e) ?
of the zoological body length. The
head ip small, occupying only one-fifth of the body length. There
are no grooves on the ventral side of the body.
throat are up to two metres.long and up to 5 cm
The.grooves
on the
deep. Usually they
begin from 60 to 150 cm from the tip of the lower jaw and, diverging
slightly laterally, run towards the umbilicus. Instead of a dorsal
fin there are from five to fifteen s:(iall (up to 5-10 cm high) tubercles
along the .crest of te caudal region (usually above the anus).
the tnroat there
•
l'ne. .15. Cetii mi'.
2iu. 45 Grey vrhale.
ïhe colol4r varies fro:a brounish- blac
,.royish- broun, with
relatively larh whi. ici patches up to 10 cm in diameter L;cattered all

.... V(2
over the body, as arèsult of the action of barnacles. :besicles these
there are numerous small white and grey spots on tilu body. 1'he flippers
are much longer zi:an t;:ose of rorquals, bc•lnu* from 15. 1,0 17'/,
of the body length: flulcés reseimble the fliilt:ers on account of
the very. wide indentation in the tail. -The rear ed,^e of the t ail is
wavy and. much thickened. The spread of the flukes is up to 25;^ oY'
the body lengtli
1'he upper jaw is more curved than in roi.-qual.s, but much less
so than in right whales. Fl,ach 7:o1•1 of b^tl(Jen corlt-aills 140--180 stout
tiiiclc plates. The lar;,esv plates ^rrhich are ùp to 25-3b cril long) lie
either in the middle of the jaw or at the very beginning of the second
half of the row. In front, as in right ti•rhales, tile rows of baleen
are not joined together; they begin about 20-30 cm frora the tip of
the snout. The plates are white or yellowish.
Th e. oral cavity is narrow. The lower jaw is level with the
upper (in rorquals it sticks out considerably in fri)nt).. It bears
100 or more hairs; there are up to 50 or 60 on the upper jaw. A very
characteristic feature of grey Whales is a kee:l-lilce process on the
lower jaw, with wrlic'rl, it is thought, they plough up the sea-bottom.
The spout consists of two. jets, whicil dive.2.'Le at an angle
116
not greater than 30° .
There are 56 vertebrae r The cervical vertebrae are separate
(in right whales they fuse into asinE;le block), which permits considèz.'a.b.le
mobility of the hea,â. (other whales cannot move their heads).
There are 14 thoracic, 12--14 lumbar, and 21--23 caudal vertebrae.
Ther.e are four digits in the bony structure of the flippér.
1•^AMIL1' .liALA::nI;0il'L1cII1)AE' [•ItlAL1-Ià 01t liOli(1UALS)
The ventral side of these whales has fro.ia 11 or 12 tq 12.0
folds or ôroovzs, which extend r.earx-rard from tue chin and fill the
whole surface between tne flippers. The 1onL,est of ti,e,n reach, or
almost roa.ch, the waui:l.:i.cus.
.he grbovt.s torm an-aL'cir fror.l the base
of the
to tlie L11ï1bi.Licus.
In' most rorquals ^oxcept hump-back i:halas^ L,le body is elorrr--
ated.,
with a rrell-stream-lirled tor:p(do-silaucd a'orm ana wit,l a characteristic
dorsal fin, which is loca-cecl at til l c^; llnil:;, of t..o l,osterioz
tl:]7'Cl O.L ^'lll": body or I'rl.rtnc^^.' ÙFlC:1^. ''a^rle i1C:•iLCI 7.:; I:Olt l^LT.";e,
oCcl-l :j^ln,^
of ti.c baCi^ lcnt,;tll or ^irl hump-I^^rlc^^: 1•irl^.^1u:; o^lly.) uP to ^0,.:..
20,-2`i.

:.... 1-73
The lower jaw is convex and extends beyond,• the end of the snout:
';Then the IROuth is closed the flat upper ja;•r is colapletely en'sttlfed
by the ou'ttaarcll.^ -bul^in; lot`ler jaw (there are no lil,s, -as such
forming a straight lizie with an abrupt curvature of the mouth belo^r
the. eyes. The baleen plates are joinect.toge tner at tue end of tue
snout -by a f;rou,) of small rods of horny mraterial. E ach row may conts.â.n
uir to 450-11.75 baleen plates, from 20 or 21) c:a to 100 cln lorlg,.
x`c>,r.o7.y lona'er. 11'he width of 1;VEese plates is up to 30,.. of tileir
leng,th, The oral cn.vity is low, but wide, a, lare part of it beinE;
occurried by the extre;lely-movabl.e toniSue.
In most rorquals the flippers are lancet-like and narrow, with
four digits. The flukes are broad, with c.^ conspicuous indentation
in the middle. The spout corisists of a single jet.
On tiie basis of the biological rhythms, whicii are opposite in
season, and of differences in the sizes of ;lpecim.er'ls of the same age
^in slrite of the absence of observable morpholog].ec,l difi'e,.:•ences), _
it is considered that independent .(;•eoC;ra^;hicnl races ^subspecies)
exist in the two hemispheres. 'Southerl'1 speciilen.> are larLn,-er.
4
The family contains two genera: hump-back whalcs (t,rith a single
species) and 'true rorquals ^five species).
.
C,erlu,s Pic-.,Lera CTr^t,y, 1846 ^;iump-ba.ck l.;hales)
hump-back ',lhe.le nodosa•;

.
-
.
174
considerably; its height rarely exceeds 30-35 cm-. Yhe-flukes . are
large, •their spread being from one-quarter to one-third of the body
length
The head occu 2 ies more than one-quarter (but .not more than
one-third) of the length of the body.- It is re latively flattened
in shape. -Besides a medial crest, which runs along - the centre of the
head from the tip of the snout to the blow-hole; there are two more
• ows of tubercles along the margins of the head,'each tubercle being
about the size of a haIf-orange; from five to eight similar tubercles
are located on the crest itself.
re
•
•
Pitc. 46. 1701)6aTI:Iii
Fig. 46. Hump-back whale.
-The filtering apparatus consists of 2.70-400 relanvely-short
brownish-black baleen plates with a greyish-brown fringe. The largest
plates are in the posterior third of the rows, and attain a
length of 85 cm in whales of the northern hemisphere and 107 cm in
whales of the southern hemisphere. White plates sometimes occupy
. almost one-;third of a row in its front part.
The lower jaw is massive- and convex. !hen the mouth is closed
it projects rôr 20 - or 30 cm beyond the tip of the snout. - .Along the
edges of the snout there is a ràw of tubercles, each . as large as a
half-lemon or half-orange. In tue region of the symphysis (tinion of
the halves of the lower jaw) there is a large projection and a Tow
of - small tubercles. Therc are several rows of small hairs on both
the upper and the lower jaws.
There are from 11-15 to 35-36 or even more folds on the v en
tral - side .of the body. YhOy are considerably lar G er çup to 150 Mm
vide and 60-70 mm deep) than those on oLncr rorquals, but they do
not reach tue wabilicus.
Inliko other inru whales, hump-bacb whales are not of uniform

colôur. .
. .. 175
All specimens, however, are black on the back, from the head
to the •f.'lukes inclusive.
saille
The upper nart of the sides is usually the
colour as the liack. The coloùring of the belly is i,lo.st variable.
It may be entirely black, or black with white spots -- the number of.
spots and tl-Lei.-r arrangement vary. 'l'ilree types of coloui'i.nL; are the
most frequent in occurrence: 1) entirely black, or with û. very small
-xiimber of white spots; 2) white-bellied ^the lower surface of the
body and the sides are liolit--coloured) ; 5) s1>oclcle-bellit;d (tilore 'are
dl.fferei.l't combinations of black and whito on the vo-rltr

•
176
largest male on record was 32.6 metres long, and a . female was even
lenger at 33.3 metres. Both'of these specimens were taken in the
region of the bouth Shetland Islands.
•
à.
e'(.4
`. •
e• 1
••••'-
•
. -
-1 • • •
s -
•\
•
\;•
if-• •
. /
•
'
• —
— '
• •
Pile. 47. Ginutii uirr (a) ; (intitnal (6);
rsa.-1 (Km ripaii,•ta) (a); no.locaTiu: (e).
.Fig. 47. . lue whale a..); fin whale (b); sei whale (bryde's
whale) (c); lesser rorqual (cI).
In outline and body shape this whale is regarded as the most
handsome of cetaceans (Fig. 47, a). The front part of the body is
stream-lines and torpedo-shaped; tnen it gradually tapers towards the
tail, which is much compressed from side to side and terminates i;1•1
a horizontal caudal fin. The blue.whale differs from ot-er rorquals
in having a broad but obtuse head, which occupies from one-fifth to
one-quarter of the body longth
from the tip of the snout to the blow-hole.
almest behind the mouth, b uc. above LIiC corne
A lonaitudinni menial cresf runs
f-e dyes are located
of it: ..:he lower .jaw
is very convex laterally, and its tip projects uliDit1, -y beyohd the
tip of the snout, by 15-30 cm.
file dark-grey body usually has a .aarked azure , tinge'le. It is
.Jt would be more corrPcI te oall t. . whale 'uhe -azure whale°,
but the nnme blue whale" nns 0c:come widoly useh.

177
densely Covered with light-grey spots, especially•on the back and
sides. The head and lower jaw,are more often darker in colour tnan .
the back, whereas the sides and especially 1-le ventral surface are
much lighter in colour.
•
rhe flippers are very narrow. The dorsal fin is small (ità
height is not more than 1.3, of the body length), and lies at the
beginning of - the reardost quarter of the body. ,As with other rorquals,
its shape may vary considerably,.but the front -,)art of it is always -
slightly convex and the rear part concave, nere are from 270 to 400
black plates with a bluish tinge
on each side of the baleen rows,
the largest of them being 100 cm
long.
The fringe is stout and stiff.
There are front 70 to 120
long and 2-3 cm deep.
• There are 15 or 16 pairs
vertebrae (seven cervical, 15 or
26 or 27 caudal).
The blue whale is widely
folds on the ventral side, 7.5-10 cm
of ribs. There are from 63 to 65
16 thoracic, 14 to 16 lumbar, and
distributed, and is found in all .
ses from the Arctic to the Antarctic. It avoids coastal waters and
also the tropic zone, preferring colder waters.
PC ndent
form as
The smaller northern form is sometimes classified as an iderace
B. musculus muscuIus L., 1758, and. the larger-southern
the race B. musculus intermedia Burmeister, 1866.
Pnmy Blue Whale (Balaenoptera musculus brevicauda
Zemsky and YJoronin, 1964)
•
• This small blue W hale is called the ...swamp . bear'' (myrb1Snner)
by Norwegdan whalers. It is found in the region of Kerguelen Island
and soute other islands. There has been no special hunting•fer this
whalerit has usually been taken as a result Of whaling being carried
. o n . in areas . farther to the north than usual.
The pygmy's body shape does not differ from that of ordinary
rorquals.: Special measurements made on adult specimens have shown
tnat there are differences in bodily proportions.only in the caudal
region, which is shorter in the pygmy. That is why it was given the
Latin name brevicauda (short-tailed).
Tee general colour of the pygmy whale's body is silvery-grey,
Àn which it differs from the a'.,ure tirn,e of or ii rorquals. There
are nu;.iuruuu s , q)La Oh the . back, and a!so J .daf 1,art, of thu pody

i y
of specimens r^ore than 2c.,. metres in lexr^•th.
' " ^ There are frô,^t ...•. 76 ^78 to 94
(averaC,e 84) folds on the ventral side.
There are two rot.rs of baleen in the upl,er jaw, each containing
fron 280 to 350 plates ^averaf,,e nui.lber 317; in ordina,r.y r-orquals the
average nw:tbe.r is 324 -t-
6) up to' 70 cm long.
-- ^ i'tle. plates are shorter
than those in orclina.r.y rorquals, and the ratio of t}leâ.i:• lengt'ti to
their width is srialler. In py"i«ies 19.2 «ietros 1oi1€; the tips of the
b^.leen pl^ftec, are in contact tritll one rt.noth('x.',
l'lic:,
pyi;«liO;, 1] vc^ f,n tllel trol)iccIl and ::ul;tl,ol,ical waters of
t1*te w o•r:•].d' S 0 cean3.
In tue southern he!«i"'; .^ here tr:ey
north of ^ 5# ° 8,
are found mainly
from the ureenwi.ch rteridian eastt•rarct to 80 0 L
majority of thetti occur around i•ïarion Island, i rozet _Lsland, and ll,er--
C^lelen Tsland.
Occasional specimen:; are seen off t:le coasts of aoutri
Africa and West Australia, and more often off the coast of Chile.
Pin Whale (Balaènontex^a _pj1ys ^.lus L., 1750)
In the USSii this whale is known as "finval"* and '^herring^
a,-
"10inval". means "whale with a Pin".
The nar,re is not precise,
since all ___ rorquals 1-_-___-- have dorsal fins. Nevertheless -(;1lc narie persists
wh ^.l e ", ^
ttie latter name is due to the fact that in the waters of the
northern part of the Pacific UCea.n her.rings (and also other fish speçies)
are often found in these i:rhales' stoclachs. Usually, hovrever,
soviet whalers ca•ll it "finval" .
Pin whales are somej,,ha.-l; smaller u,la.n blue Iv}-tales, t:leir :.,aximum
length not exceeding from 23 to 27 metres,
4
While the blue whale is called "the hanciso,:,e x:orqual" , the
fin tihale is called the "well-z^rostortioneci."^or:e `,.iL .17, b).
7tu
body is fuller ii, : lia+,e thr.cn t;trt C of tue blue tirni:ile but is e
tlally
e].on^;ated; it is rouncled ix-front, and co,np^:i;s:=ed laterallY i+ tire
caudal part.
111,:. i'1u,:es are rc L,.tivel
Y b]^oaù . , v.it1,
the centre.
an ir,den-tation in
Who tïor..al fin is
large, its heit;ilt licin,^• ï
2• 5, ^ of the body ^^
len-,tt1,
rom ^. 1;; to
fl^c a.nf,le
cîol•c;a,l
betwf:e.n trie front cciee of trie
fin and ti,c• lon:-:i.tudinal axis of thc: boc,^, t -..
u ,,
-.o
27o to ri0 . A•ii0 ^ 3^ l^•x'arl
1'].i^t^,ix:^ ^trc2 :3mrtal,
^i1,,.i.]• l^:^it;••^1^
beit,^;•
l']:o„i
fr.orn '1^'
Lin t^o ,^.^_il.la
'>'- ^o 9-9; , o1'. the body len.•^t;11. f^ ver,, I.-al :;ide [,as
nur.,èrous (Ill) to 100-11'-^) gi'ooveu, .fr.ota 2.0 to
Lu ,0
i c,n ^^.c].'us,^ . ^i^e 101.• ^' c:: i; :•.. ^•10^',VE:':J ].'lllt Ii..l^>I. ;
f
t flf.'
ol the body to Lu : u,.tlrilir.us
ro,,, ona
, 7.1.fiA L'a? t0 i-Al'.I'd I. vl:l, t'rll'i.lli'7•.
12U

..... 179.
The hea.d occupies 20,.-25;.; of the body.length; it is 1o.r`;er
in Etdults.. above it looks like an isosceles trir:.ndle with a
medial crest, unlilce the b.-Load, spa6.e-silap:.d head of tn, blue whale.
'!°he eyes are small, and lie above the corner of the mouth. The lower
jaw is large and stronr;•ly convex laterally, arid when the sloutn is
closed it projects 10-20 cm beyond tne tip of t,)e snout.
'l'cze body colour is not uniform. `2lIe dorsal 'part is dar.lc-t.,rey,
but trcc .,id.es l;'ra.du.llly belcorae l,i,;lltc:r in colour a,.cl €;ra(.e into white
on the ventral surface. In tne pos^tex:i.or (and solilotilaes also the
anterior) half of the body one finds small greyish-white spots. The
flùkes and tne flippers are white underneath.
The lower jaw has a
characteris ^ic colour: t).e front quarter on the right side. of the jaw
is white or greyish-white, ^,radually de.rkenind towards tue tip (tire
inner side is dark-grey), but the left half of the jaw is ei,tirely
dark on the outer side and light-grey on the inner side.
The two rows of baleen plates are uniteù by xods at the tip
of the snout., ,i,ach row .contains from 260 to .4.75 baleen plateu. The
largest of these lie at the beginning of the posterior third of the
row, and reach a length of 70-90 cm.•k On t:-.e rieht side from one-f ifth
A!na.le 16.4 )metres long taken in P.ntarctic waters was
found to have baleen plates '142 cm Ion,-, and a fe)n„le 21.5 metres in
len{;th ]rad. balceen plates as lauon as 143 cri, 1on,-;.
to one-tihir.d of the length of the row consists of plates that az'e.
white or almost ye7.lot'r; sometimes tlles'e occuj;y as much as half of -r)ie.
row, wil(_,reas tne rest of the plates on t^ie ri^,It side and, all those
on tne left side are dark-grey. , The frinf-^e is fine, long, and white,
or white -wit'ri a yellow. t•in&e.
r'lIe number of vertebrae varies, but is u.,ually front 60 to 63
^ seven cervical, 15 or 16 tiiora.ciç, 13 to 16. lu::lbc,.r.', and 24
1:o 27
caudal) . ','her.e are from 14 to 16 ribs, 1;lo2t oiten 15, only the first
pair bei.rr,, joineci to the sterr)uhL.
series are tlik: lon;,est.
The ribs in t:Iu. centre of trie
1'he
fin wha.le is. wiciuly di'stributeù, ^a..d is 1'ound in all tne
C)cte,3n.S of both l'teïlliS j)he2'e:, and t.ie se7.s adjacent Lo tJli)r:l. J. t occur8
.Cl,o:i'l t:1 C..! edtrïe;^ of the ice-fields to troZ,ica1 wet.ce3,:,. .,onicti:Ats t11iS.
;Sl)oC%l.e.) is Ù L1'fe]:onnt),tl.'ted 1.ntU a il(7rC^li;]:I -;lt:f!I].Ei(•la_1:C: race 13.
(l^.llf'' ^, , 17^).., i1.11C1 (L „^^ul• ilt::]:i -•11(3L't.LF3j IICI•G'l) l tc: ' _i. I,,, i^ tCi^'1^ t':1 .S^.l.'l',
1 ^,).

Oei ','! hale (Balaenuyera borealis Lesson, 1020)
In the jar hast sei whales are sometimes called saithe whales
or sardine whales, as they are ,often Ai .......scovered along wi0a1G of
. saithe or sardines.
14
In the northern hemisphere sei wnales a .utain a lenLrth of 17.3
metres (eor•e Atlantic) or 13,6 metres (northern
Ocean). -
of the Pacific
The largest specimens are found in Lhe.southern hemisphere,
where moi • hales up to 21.0 metres in length have been recorded.
Tne soi whale resembles the fin whale in bouy shape, but differs
in having . somewhat greater bulk. The body diameter of a sei
whale at the level or the flippers is from 16:» to 16 / , or the body
length. '2,xternally, therefore, it looks more massive . than the fin
whale (Fig. 47, c).
The dorsal fin of the sei whale is located at the beginning
of the posterior third of the body. It is larger thah that of the
fin whale and different in shape, and its height is from 3 ) to 4.57 ,
of the body length. The angle formed by die front edge of the dorsal
fin and the longitudinal axis or the body averages about 46 0 (from
43 o to 51 o ). 111 .1e sei whale's dorsal fin is slenderer and its point
is directed well backward, with the result that the front edge is
curved like a bow; the.dorsal fin of the fin ,hale is thicker and
has aImost . no curvature. • •
There are varying nUmbers of groove's on Lee ventral surfacez .
from 30 to 56 (Lorth Atlantic), from 32 to 60 (northern part of the
Iacific• ocean), and from 40 to 62 (southern hemisphere); they do not
reach the umbilicus.
They are "about 5 cm ,ide and 2 cm deep
The head occwlies from 205,; to 25 of the body length (it.is
shorter in juveniles) and resembles the fin whale's head in shape.
A crest runs along the centre of the head, its height increasing with
its distance from the tip of the snout.
the very highest point of the head.
The blow-hole is located at
The dorsal part; of the body is dar1:- e3rcy wi.th n bluish tinge;
the sides and the caudal part behind the umbilicus are light-greyish,
and on the ventral side there is usually a lire white patch, but
=act:Lies mat ma,y be absent. •,mall light-coloureu s,ots.of various
Shapes ere scatL.ored over the whole body. ,:oth sides of' Liu: lower
jnw are of Lhe srue colodr.
.he nippers are usu:dly _nyish Dulew,
but .teeir up er parts have the same ce1our as Le, s el.;

. ... 181
.
are of the same colour as the back above, but their under surface
is. usually greY.
The number of baleen.plates in each row varies greatlY (from
31 8 to . 340 in ;.:orth Atlantic specimens, from 219 to 315 in specimens
from the northern 'part of the .tacific Ocean, and from 296 to 402 in
sel whales of the southern hemispnere). rhe longest plates are located
at the beinning of the i.ostorior third of a row cf 'baleen, and the
larast of those seldom enceod 80 cm in length .. i ho baleen is usually -
dark-grey, but one sometimes comes upon white plates. rho fringes
of the plates are fine in structure and grey in colour, and form.an
excellent filtering apparatus.
Where are from 55 to 57 vertebrae (seven cervical, 14 thoracic,
13 lumbar,' and 22 or 23 caudal).
The sel whale is . found in both cold and warm waters in both
hemispheres, but is regarded as a more warmth-loving species than
the fin. whale.
The sel whales in the northern parts of the Atlantic and -.vac-
.
ifie Oceans are classified as the independent subspecies B. borealis
borealis Lesson, 1826, and those in the soutnern hemisphere as the
subspecies B. boreaiis schlege li Flower, 1864.
-Bryde's Whale (balaenoptera edeni Anderson, 1878 ).*
-ye
The name accented for this whale is. that conferred upon
it by E. Ulsen (1915) in honour of the Norwegian Conuul-ueneral in
Capetown, Johan jiryde. We express the pronunciation in faissian characters
it would be more correct to write tee name,"_bryude", instead
of Lraïda,.as is done in 6oviet literature.
à.ryde's whale does not occur in coastal waters adjacent to
the soviet Union, and was first taken for scientific purposes by
whalers on the ship Sovetskaya ukraina on' eovember 1 . 4, 1966, the
aree ;2 0 -24 0 S, 67 ° -68 °
The first report on the biology of tilis whale was made at the
beginLing of the 20th century on the coast of .;outh Africa, where
baleen whaleG were being taken. AmenG t-e sei whales•taken ti.ere the .
whalers sometimes opserved whales tnat resembled fin whales in a-
number of fea -i:ures, and some rearded them as hyeries between fin
whales ane Sei whales. The body len fith or !;n0 laripst specimens was
15:3 metres for males and 15.5 metree fur females..
CoMpa ...ison of the measurements of various parts or the body,

..... 182
reveale éi no notable aâ.fferénces be-Li-reen rx!yde' swnales and sei wllales
e_,.cept 'in olle or two features.
For instance, tt.E: distance bet t•reen
the bifurcation of the tail and the U1T1bi.L].Cll s is about :1%. or 50,: of
the body length in sel. t,ihales, whereas in -ryde' ^, wilales it is only
43;.^,
or 44;:; i.e: in the latter the tulbilicus is not located in the
centre
of the bociy, but is disp].aced posterio]:'lir.
On tl:e head, besides, t•ilc;. centr.al medial crest i:•unnii:,2: from
the tip of the snout to the blow-hole, Bz'yde' s whale ^uillike other
rorquals) has two additional crests 1-2 cm in fleiÛ•ht 48) They
b,^gila at the tip of the snout or at a short distance from it, run
along the centre of each half of the head, and end abru;.:tly beliind
the line joining the anterior ends of the blow-holEl slits, foi'l.ling
grooves that sometimes begin almost at the centre of t: e head.
d b
1-1IIC,
i5. 1,o;1tlü8 CCÎÎC.LI:I (tt) It 'r:{1M 13'P7tt1.1"I (6), L'II--- CüCp\y.
.Hea(Is of uei'wha,le ^a) arid .ISr^rde's whale ())),
viel•red. frol7 above,
The colour of I;ryd.e' s w,-ale is fiillll.Le,r to that of tile sei 122
whale. The becic is dark-blue or almost black, and the sidès and
belly are sky-bluish, but ti-tere are no white or g i- ey Sots )) c ^I•reen
tuo hra lves . of the 10W ex' j aW.
There are 40 to 70 urooves on inc vc,ICral Si(le, :."01,11c of
tilo::I -a.lwr-tys c:'xter.ding as far.' as the urtlbilâ.cus, ..Ci«:ir 1oxli;tl, is 5Qp
of the total 1;o^ly :l.enr:;trl of ^^ryde' s whale,
I'IF,Vi'.2' rG'A.Ch the uml)1.:.1Ci15 Fl.nd tllt?7.7.' pro soi' (;iolT o -l,C! boU,y ! lt:17(;th
is o111.y ^5,.•. In clc:di.i;ioll, in 1i1:yd(!' :i 1•l11,1lF: i,1tO 1.111''l' V7'OUV(' ]'Lll,Li 1 1.'0lll
l:lt.
Ll;l1).LlLCüC I,U 1.11U tlttf.L1.

183
The. total'number of baleen plates is up to 600; they are short
and straight, up to 0.5 metre in length and 20 cm in breadth. borne
of the platen in front are white and the rest are black.
Unlike the
fringe oi the soi whale, the fringe of bryde's whale, although long,
is very coarse, and ,
yellowish-grey in colour. a'lle palate is much
broader than that of the soi whale.
•
• There are 54 or 55 vertebrae (neveu cervical, 14 thoracic,
13 or 14 lumbar, and 19 to 21 caudal).
Dryde's whales are distributed in both the northern and the
southern hemis•pheres, but keep to warm waters with an iuotherm•of
20 0 0, and practically always remain between the 40th parallels of
latitude.
They are found in thL Caribbean bea as far as .Vlorida,
off the coast of Brazil, between Dakar and Spanish i.iorocco, from the
coast of Angola to the cape of Good hope, off .West Australia and New
Zealand, in southeastern Asia (burina, bira.;apore, uorneo), near Japan,.
off southern California, and from lcuador to northern .
Chile.
Lesser Rorqual (lialaenoptera acutorostrata Lacepéde, 1804)
This whale, which is up to 10 metres in length, is the smallest
of the rorquals (see Wie. 47, a), and is also known amonc , our whalers
as the dwarf' whale of the sharp-snouted, or sharp-headed, rorqual.
The iorwegian name nmink& is also occasionally used*. The body ' - 123
About 100 years ago a member of the crew.of a Norwegian
whaling.ship named Àainke somehow confused a group of lesser rorquals
with blue whales. After that incident. the nae of "mink° whale- •
became attached to the lesser rorqual.
shape and colour of the lesser rorqual are no similar to those.of the
fin whale that at one time the lesser rorqual 'tas believed to be a
juvenile fin whale. As compared with other rorquals, the body - of .
this whale is relatively shorter and stouter; its greatest ;,:irth at
the level of the flippers is from 20';: to 22;., of the body length.
The head, which has a Single medial crest, is-from one-fifth
to one-quarter of the body length. When the mouth in closed 'unelower
. jaw - projects 15-20 cm ueyond the tip of tis: snout.
The head is almost black; th.: back an d the upper surface of
- the flul,:es are dark-grey; the sides are much colour, and
th,. belly is -white. 'Loth sides of the lover - j;iw•ase almost dnas-grey.
Who flipers,.which Ur.e one-o4,ntn as lung as Luc LAni, are Lhu.natile
oolowr'an inw b ock above ond iflm.i Le underneata
u,.me is eUten a white

. .. 184
stripe across the, flipper, its width beiiij; from a few centi,,lotres to
two-tl-,^rds of the lenÛtli of the flipper. oômetimes, instead of the
white stripe, there are two or three grey s Lril;es ti•ritk_ a total width
of a few centi,netres.
Some 50 to 70 grooves extend along the lower surface of the
body at the level of the flir,pers, but only a fei; of tilur,l_ almost
reach the umbilicus, ^-ihich is located in the centax, of tne body.
The nu,--.aber of baleen plates varies from '266 to 295 (avera^.;e
275) in specimens from the nort'rler;i ;;art of t'rlc. Pe:cà.fic UceE,n, ïr.orn
270 to 348 (average 304) in those from the I,;ortl'1 Atlantic, and from
235 to 308 ^avera,:.;e 272) in those from the Antarctic. Ale plates are
,yellowish-white and 20-25 cm long in the nortilern 1_eulis!_Ahere, and.
white and dark-grey, and up to 30 cm long, ii. the sou.tiiez•1: hemisphere.
Sometimes some of the plates on the right side may be white, as in
the fin whale. The fringe on the plates is soft and fine, but short.
a-he outer edges of the plates may be almost black.
The dorsal fin is relatively 'tall, its height avera.;;ing up
to .3.
of the body length, and has a backwa-rcl-pointin& tip. It is
located at the beginl,ing of the posterior third of the bodyer.Lth,
in frunL of 'Ltou vr:r'l,ical lino .Cronl t.Yiu ana-1 03•ifice. ,.'},t Clukes ai--e
remarlc,able for their wide spread (as col.lpared with ot.iler rorquals),
which averages one-quarter of , the animal. I s body length.
. There are from 48 to. 50 vertebrae (seven cervical, 11 or 12
thoracic, 12 or 13 lumbar, and from 18 to 20 caudal).
This rorqual is coln:.ron from subtropical i:clgions to tile edges
of the ice-fields both in the northerrl and iii the southern hemisphere;;,
and is also found, thou,;}lrelatively rai'ely, in til:_ equatorial zone.
on the basis of a nuiube.r of features thrèe ûubspr_:cïes of this
whale are disting->tished: B. acutorostra.'ua aclltorostra'4a Lac. ' 1 8011.,
in the norther,l par-11 of the ,°,t.l.a.ntic Ocean; B. a. davi.üsoni.8carnrnan,
1874, in the *,,:.r ific Oceari; and B. a. bona.erensis _L,ur;:leister, 1E167,
in tac southc^311 harlisphere
O1â.11'C)1iDE'1'ti U1101+TCltil:i`l11 ('1'(_I(l'v11'i.!)
A ci'laraci:ex•i.:stic fen.i;ure 01' J;roup of rtil.i111^:.ls is 1:112•ir
po>se.>siorl of only one ,.:^,terne.l nasal o)_-ii'ice, oi
wit,, tl:o cUrlvk^:itY Lo Lite rttal'; llt tÿiE. t3]?eria vdllalC' only it in i-:.ilai)ed
and lies not at i;h( ver,'Lex but a.lillost e.L tj,u i,,ick of Lite ilr.;icl, oll tue

• 15
left side. In river dolphins the blow-hole is oval or
Instead of a filtering apparatus, there are fron one or two, up to 240•
teèta in the meuth.
The lower ja• is straight or,slightly convex
inwardly. The tongue is small, but the gullet is tiee. The si-A111
is asy,imetrical. In contrast . .c) baleen whales, which . bolong to •ne
group of filter-feeders, toothed waalos swallow thoir prey organisms
one . at a tine, even when they'a.re feeding on fishes in shoals.
• Toothed whales arc claSsified inLo several groups according
to thoir tyues of diet. nales that feed mostly on u1moai o pelagic
fisheS are distinguished by a long beak. 1,umerous sharp teeth, coated
w;tli enamel arc i
slightly worn clown, are set in both the upper and the lower jaw, This
A
. group of ichthyophages includes common dolphins and striped and spotted
dolphins -- rapidlY-swimning inhabitants of the deep .soa.
• Bentho-ichthyophages food mainl y on demorsal fishes and ben-' .
thic invertebrates. The-beak is not prominentlY developed on dolphins
in this group, or . even is absent; the teeth are fewer than in the
.ichthyophages, This group includes 'porpoises, white whales, and
bottle-noted dolphins, which keep mostly to tue coastal zone.
The cetaceans that eat cephalopods constitute the group of
teuthophages. They usually have no teeth in the upper jaw and only .
a few pairs in the lower jaw, these being shifted forward towards.the
symphysis region (towards the end of the jaw).
Their rough palate.
enables these animals to keep the slippery bodies of the mollilscs in
. .
the oral cavity. •These Cetaceans are capable of diving to great.depths
and staying under water for a long time.
They include sperm whales,'
beaked whales, bottle-nosed whales, dense-beaked wnales, and others.
There is another group of cetaceans com.,on blackfish and
false killer whales) that feed both on fishes ans on cephalopods
(teutho-ichthyonhages) .
their beak is short -but uroad.
They have retained .up to .1O-1. airs of teeth4
Killer whales are placed in a separate group.
They food not
enly on . cephalopods but also on warm-blooded unrinù anil'aals, Their •
boal[ is broad. 'rhey have few teeth, but those are set firialy ih the
jaws, which have very s';:rôni: musculature.
It is customary Lo distinguish at least four fa:allies ih the
subordor of toothed whales. .ALe2e Lahiilios e hier iL their uoonouic
ii;iL 'nee, rtver dolphins, thicil are of no p.re;t:ht, uchnoLiic
valso, xmd are not; found Jn ___K:rivers; ripen' unnio; henLed whales;
and dolphins.
•
'

..... 186
.1;'1},i•III,` i'fiYSll`.L'i^li7:L.ll..i^ ( 8l. Lfïi l ldtiALES (; ii CAC 1Z" 1 U 1'.S )
'rhe front part of tho head.,. which con:::i.sts of a hi6tTlydeveloped
cusili.oI1 of fat, projects well in auvunce of the nar3:o,•r Out
long lower jal•7. he mouth opC'.nin^'; is 11IldelTle^:th the head. The
upp(:r ja^•r con tains not more than two pairs of tooth ^re.rely, un to
six or nine pairs), whereas in the lower jaw t;iex:e are fz•ol.l'sevc•n or
eight 'up to 29 or 30. pairs. 'a:he tei:tn are set firntly in tue ^,urlrs.
'.r'he blot•t--hoJ.e slit is ;:;•-.tiiape^i an,, lies iTl t,,c rLnti.:rior l-of t
half of the head, or else is horse•-:,•izoe-s'rlaped and lies almost in
the centre of the head, with the convexity sliE^h t1y on one sid.e.
The adults nieasur.e 2-4 metres in lengtn (py[;my anct dwarf
sperm clha7.es), 9-12 metres (female sperm whales), and 12-18 metres
(male sperm whales) .
There are two r;vnera in the family, sperm whales oi cachalots
and pyStiny sperrn whales, eac.h C^;enus containing only one sy)e_cie:;.'
Genus Physeter L., 1758 (Sperm ';1hales)
There is only one species in this &enus.
SpernT l/hale (1'hyseter catodon 1,., 1758)
Sperrn 1ahales' llrerc:, perhaps, the second grou,a of ce taceans
^a.fter right wlTales) to be hunted by whalers. S}^e^:rt-w'rtale-inuitin^;
was carried on most, intensively by sailirl,-; ships in tropical and su
tropical waters in the 18th and the,fïr„t hal.f of tll(i 19th cerltury.>l' 125
`l'lle last two s:tiline ships used for spE x:a-^riTale--huntin^
ol')erated in t..e A.tlantic Ocean in 1925.
A ciraracteris-ti.c fea-Uure of st;eIrn-wl)alc-huntinc, was that after the
anil.Tal hacl bee;t killed the body r.'elraincd ,:^i'lozt.
Sex_ual di.llorl,hisli is ctrôns;ly lnrarlced in s_>err,l wi.tales:• the
males rea,ch a leneth of' 20 or 2'1 metres, 1•ritereaü t.e fùl^ales Seldopr
exceed 15 :letres.
'Plie sports tir't,a.le difa'F:rÜ in body s;la,l.te fx•orl otllez' tootited
,.rl•lales ^FiJ;'. 19i ma.,1. iVe liead., lrliicki i)C :ll rl: s up Lo one-t;iird
of the body 1t_rt^'Gi:, fills the front part of* the uoùy. J.t i::

•
•
187
flukes. lac flippers are broad, but short -- their greatest breadth
is froiii one-half to two—thirds of their length.
•
7 0
,
„
ft
\...___ / • —
Plic. 49. Ilimaacyr:
a — zameit: 6 C•Wd ■ a•
Fig. 49.
bperm whales; !,a) male; Op) female.
There is no dorsal fin. Instead of it there is a laterallyflattened
hump, usually located at the beginning of the posterior
third of the body length; sometimes it attains a height of 0.5 metre.
behind it, along the top of the body, there .are several Ufrom one to
• eight) smaller protuberances.
The lower jaw is narrow, and fa ll s short . by soue tens of
centimetres of the tip of the snout. In males it contains. from 15
to 30 (usually from 20 to 25) pairs of teeth, and in females fromseven
to 30 pairs.
Whe body colour is usually brown. Very rarely greyish-brown
and black specimens are encountered. The lower surface of the body
is usUally somemhat lighter-coloured, and • in tne umbilical rei:ion
there.are sometimes white or greyish-mhite blurs. or even ssots of
various sizes. It is believed that older s :
colour. .
Albinos are extremely rare.
ecimens are lighter in
• .Only the loft nostril, Which is located at . thetip of - t,:e
snout, is functional in sperm. whales.
Yhe'orifice of the rignt nostril
is closed, but the nostril cavity is retained.; the rignt nasal
passae is equal in size to the loft, and serves as an air-sac. 'Ihe •
spout has a sinle jet, which emerges
a fuzzy bush to a neight
o k . two or throe metres, and is tilted slightly to .uhu . lufL and to the •
front nt an aonio or 45' to tile horizontal.
Ito ftnall ryes aIm :tAve, r corner of
Lto II()11: L I l :bou I: 0, 5 01 11(1 oo ii iii ti /(1 lid 0 ut I y .1 owe 1: L u •
iL, Lho .. aliditory orifice is visible.

18^
.:^here are usually j-)0 vertebrae ( seve;i cervical, 11 thoracic,
eight or nine lumbar, and 23 or 24 caudal).
Sperm wha.'les are four.c": in all t:.c oce^:xls ancï in allrfout all
the secls in the world,. e_tcept t.--e ?la.c:c Sea, and t,.e stre-;ch 01' water
from the Kara Sea to tue .i^eauf'or•t Sea. vfales anu fw^wales are not
equally distributed. ;•hles are found in all water-s- from tue tro_UicS
tô. the edges of the ice-=i:ields, whereas .ie:c,ale:, wi.i;n t,icir young and
,juvorli:Ler:s C.,;,onerall.y ro,lain witain the A.Otj-1 Pca.rallc]:.,,
to h:i.;.,her latitudes only Wlle7:u thcare arc wa.rin curl:c:11i;s.
1)onet.i:"l.te
The only spern whales tlia:t. extend t.teir range Lcyonci ti e^^Otrr
parallels are males that are àuperf7.uous to the general herds; they
begirl to form separate g'roups after they attain a 1en"tn of about
11,0 metres.
Genus ï:o^ia i.;ray, 1846 (k'yï;nfy and i)warf :iperm '•,hales)
.This genus contains a single species. ^`l'ranslator's :.ote;
Sée reference to a second species, ]• o;7.a siI:lu.., below. Appendix 5
lists
two species, .1

.... 189
than in the sperm whale, .e'rlere is a single nostril, located slightly
to the 'left of the centre line of the head, ira:leâiately above tne
point of the lower jaw, but it is placed farther foi•4ia:,:d than in other
toothed whales.
The lower jaw is short, its length being twice its width, and
falls short of the end of the head by one-twelfth of its length. In
the second half of its length (from tee corner of the nouth) tnere
are two rows each colatainirlF; from nine to 16 pec -like teet1L. The
i
teetll in the ur,.l)er ja.t•r (from three to seven on oach side) are rl.ldimentary.
The teèth in the-lotaer jaw are cut only after tiie arli.inal
atta.ins. sexual maturity; they fit into depressions in the E;urns of the
upper jaw. The relatively--large eyes are located well above, and
just behind, the corner of the mouth.
)?ytf,my sperm whales are black or darle-blue e.bove; trieir sides
are rather liühter in colour; the ventral si(le is clarlc--Erey or even
white. bometirles. there is a white strilre behind the eye.
lhei@e are usually 56 vertebrae ^ soverl cervical, cornpletely
fuzsed tol.;etllcr; 13 tl•lorra.cio, nine lunlbar, arui 27 caudal)
i:y[I,my sperm whales are mostly re,-^'LriotCa to the ti•r,1rm and terlfLC:rë)te
zones of the .,^•Llaiit=ic, Î.11d:1.C-tn, and _'CLcif].C: l i Cr.•s are nztri,ow ana close 'Lo,-etl(er, l-l)o dorsal fil, is in the
rer.lr 1•la].f of Lite body. 'l'llex•e is no distil,ct
botwuc^n tile
f^.1L^Cefi, :i0 tllrlt 't..lC 7.°(7fl.r e.(it',e of Lite (:il,l.lClil.a, l'lll is.
,'ll.? .l)loV-lloa.e ) wÎha.cll i.:i a.ll t(,('. fUY%.1 Cq, FL collvC'.? :il.l.t 1d.1A!1 LM,,
Ct?llv(':

• 190.
living in USE. waters have one OT tWO pairs of teeth in tfie lower jaw.
The genus 'Pasmacetus, which lives in the southern nemiSphere, has
more than 90 teeth, 19 on each side of the upper jaw and 27 or 28 on
each side of the lower jaw. When the mouth is closed tLe upper,
toothless jaw is partly enclosed within the broader lower jaw. ' tiometimes
the teeth of females do not emerge through the gums.
t;eaked whales feed on cephalopods.
There are five genera in the family: Zikhius (goose-beaked
whales), Ilerardius (giant bottle-nosed whales), 2mueroodon (yerth
Atlantic and southern bottle-nosed whales), Mesolpào .n, and luew -
. Zealand beaked whales.* . 2heir economic importance varies greatly.
Only the first four of the alleged five mlule.«iex genera are
listed below. Appendix 5 gives "Eew Zealand beaked whale.. as one of'
tne Iâlglish synonyms for Berardius arnuxi. Transiator .
Genus.Zinhius Cuvier, 1823 Goose-beaked Whales)
This genus contains only one snecies.
Goose-beaked Whale (ZiEhius cavirostris:Cuvier, 1823)
These beaked whaleS attain a length of eight metres; the females
are apprOximatejy 30 cm longer than the males.
The body is somewhat compressed laterally. The greatest girth
is behind the level of the flippers.
The head is small; a cushion of
fat lieu lightly upon it,'alMost without any bulge, coming down •to
the baue of the head and Susing into the short broad -beak
• • ,
1)11c. 51. 11aciol1ttuni 1-;•110110p.d:i.
2ig. 51.
Goose-beaked whale.
The mouth is small. At the very tip of the lower jaw bhere
are two oval-shaped tooth, conically sharp bove; when tae mouta is
closed Lh(iy projeoL aliu,htl:i beyond L-0 Up 01' tie up.J.:r jai.
diamoLer of t:Lo tnetn is two-and-a-hali. v., three times as great in
-be male:, as in ti.o females. there • are two lacrally-aiverging grooves
on t.,t. Lhroat. '.,ne blow-hole Lu nthuilunziu . L. :Amp., uil:tanco

191
between its tips being up to 15 cm. The dorsal fin lies at the
beginning of the posterior third of 'Lie body, and varies in shape. -
The flipPers are small, and are shaped something. like an elongated,
concavo-convex triangle. .The flukes are separated by an inconspicuous
notch. -Their spread is from one-quarter to one-third of tae body -
length.
The body colour.varies greatly. Post commonly one observes
grey or bluish-grey opecimens, or they may be bluish-black above while
the sides and belly are much lighter in colour (tney may. even be white);
sometimes there are rows of spots on the sides and back.
There are from 46 to 49 vertebrae (seven cervical, nine or ten .
thoracic, ten or eleven lumbar, and from 19 to 22 caudal).
Goose-beaked whales are distributed through all the oceans
and almost all seas except inland seas. In Soviet territory, stranded
.individuals are often found on the ṇ.omandorskie Islands. ..uheir distribution
in high latitudes has not been adequately investigated.
Genus 3erardius Duvernoyi 1851 (Giant Bottle-nosed Whales)
The small head of members of this genus occupies from.oneeighth
to one-seventh of the body length. The lower 'jaw is longer
than thé upper.one. At its extreme .tip tnere is a pair of large teeth
up to 9 cm long; a second pair semetimes does not cut through .the .
gums, and is often absent in females. The flippers are long and
tapered. The low dorsal fin is located above the anaà orifice.
This genus contains two species, one living in the northern
and the other in the southern hemisphere. Only one of them -- the
northern species -- is of economic im -nortance.
Northern Pacific Giant Lottle-nosed Whale
(Berardius bairdi 8tejneger, 1663)
This is the largest of the toothed whales, except for sperm
whales; the females attain a length of 12.2-12.5 métres, and the males
11.5 metre's. Acco.rdinc to japanese data, the females are :50 cra lofieer
thah the males.
'the spindle-shaped body bas ito greatest Girta behind tue
flippers, after which the booy gradually tapers off; the caudal section
is compressed laterally (.1.g. 52).
..he head is small, and occiipies abuut ontuhLti of the body
lonujth.. onout projecte rurwto:d ( . 01) lu 00 c1.1) and Lu r3omuwhat

...,. 192
compressed vertically. Above it there is a broad ûuJ.L•ing forehead.
The blow-hole is slit--liice, and very co.nvex posteriorly. At the ex--
treme tip of the lower jak: tirere is a single pair of laY•Le teeth, up
to 80 or. 85 r:rin lonÛ, shaped like la terally-colnnressed trian8•les,
which are not covered by the up.aer jaw. A second uaii• _of smaller
teeth lies farther ^up to 15 cni) from the tip of tne snout in the
males, but very ;^.^eldom occurs in the females.
..r:^-u,,m^..^,...,.,.".,„.,-
.,., .^.•:."'t .
^.S'Y ^ . . .
. . . ,. __ • • ' . . ~^•y •
.... .^ . ^ ^ ^ `^^
. ! ^ i:.v . '• ;1'^:
^^ `^.•. .^ . . . -^
. !^__
P tSî., 521. ( CL'B^ !SSüÎ llAi{il)ü.
1oig. 5 2: T^orth l'acific giant bottle-nosed rrirale.
The lenCtti. of the flippers is 12;.-. of the body lengtii. •l'hey
resel.ible oars in shape, beine elongated and brôaderiing from the base
to the tip, with rounded corners. -r.•he dorsal fin varies in shape;
its tleight is up to 2.5;;:: of the body lengi;h, and it is locdted in
front of the rear quarter of the ani.rnwl' s body. •-L•he flukes are separated
by a srna.ll notch. Their spread is u^ to 25;;- of ti.e body lenroth.
'i'here are two grooves or, the throat, diverging laterally and
almost parallel to the outer.. edge of the lower jaw; they are about
1.0--1 .25. metres lonk,; they do not unite in :L'ront, cometines there
are frora one or, two to 16 s;lia1l grooves between tirem.
The body colour var.ies, rior3t of-L-en one -.Cinds specimeny wilose
body is nlacr^ or li-,^;llt--colourec3.. On the ventral .si.de, usu,illy near
the umbilicus, i:hcre are white spots or marks of di.ffe:i:ent shaNes.
There are 47 or ij.& vertebrae ^seven ceI'vica.l, i:en.oreleven 129
t'lorii.c:Lc,, 12 llll:iba r,
and 17^19 caudal).
In tlie norti•,c:rn lierrii.^-ohere 1•.ort,r jacif.;.c t;iant bo ttle--nosed
t,111riles are .f;`oui;ti only in i:ne nc,r•Ll.errr of tic AP.ci.fic t,cef.iu, i'rom
i;lio zone of modErra-Lely-ti•rarln wat,er to ti:c: Arc tic l:l.;,;i.ori:>. T410 iior.tlic;rrr
al' 'Li_ci]: rai 1,-"e COi]ICi.C:eS Witt, that Of S;^c'rRi l•!lialeÜ, f1:ola
ld£LVEI.Y.'].rr
.l.Sl'cLrlUs.
enâtwarCl a nu .r ioutl^ea:3tD/a7'd to the eus LeI'i7 part of the Aleutian
'.:lley have also been ob3i!rveu a{iloni.; ]-ce--l.l-oes in tfl"c: oea of
y
Otil'lotsk.

;outhern Criant lsot'':le-nosed 1;hale
(perardi.us arnuxi Dùvernoy, 1051)
..... 193
in ex.l.ernal appeararlce this si)ecie s. is very siwilar to the
I.orth â'acific j;iant bot tle-nosed whale 5-)) ; there are difîererlces
in some measur.eraen-cs of body parts. -;.'he ileau i: as inucil as
one---eventYl of the body :I.enq.;th, and the sl;i•ead of tile i'lu_:es. is i;:L'eater
th^!.rl in :0, bo,a.rdi. .he :.axilnul.l lerl^;tll of sout;lcrll Gie.ni; boi,tle--•
nocecl w'rla,lr.s is ton eletx-es.
P)Ic. 53. !;.er-colourecï, usually
grey.
j:hore are grey-blue spotU on the siües.
'.l'h:ls species is found only in tfle soutnern lle:aispilere. It
c,cr_,,,rs ;.r,
the wi7.,Lr?rs of Arl sti°ali:lz, 'r.Pw 2,es.land, -l;,l(1 'r'al:kla.nd Islands,
the South Shetland Islands, etc,
Its biolory has not been studied. It is of no ecoliolaic_ value.
ùometimes it is erroneously confused with iiect:or' s beaked
wcale, },resoplodon mirus '.l'rue, 1913, which ^unlil:.e otiier bealcec, whales)
also has two pairs of teotii at t-ne tip of, the snout. ( ^rans].ator' w
I1o'Le:
Neither the text nor the list in 4ppenciix 5,rllalces any further
mention of iTec tor' s beaked wimle or of Eie,^oplodcin lni.rus. )
Genus 1erooàon.I,acepede, 1804 (.soti;le-nosecl '.;hales)
The llead of tlie.:e trllales occupies up to one--fifth of the
body length. •j:he fatty cushion is f;reatly devclôped and descends
very abruptly to the base of the béak, as a. result of w;lich trie bealc,
which it,. CorliCc,l in shahe., 1s more 1)rC>lalnerlt trta11 i t is in ot11i?T
j,enerra, of this family. Att.he front end of lo%,rc:r jaw t,lei•e is a
sin-le pair of teeth, not more tr:,lrl '.5 c)1
are not coverecl
by ttle un,pe-r ja.w. secoue pl..ir of •t•cet;: is oolnei;il:lr:.: cllt il, L^r11e ,
but in fr;m: les -t;lley romain llic«i( 11 i.n t.lr: t;u:lù.
'1:1'1:3.fI
cf)11ttL11nü two J1)lDci('L•)

194
-Morth Atlantic iiottle- no sed Whale
.0yperoodon ampullatus rorster, 1770)
Who males of this species attain a maximum length•of from
9.0 to 9.4 metres, and uhe females from 8.5 to 8.7 metres..
. The body is spindle-shaped and is thickest almost at the
centre of its length, between the flippers and the doral fin_ The
head occupies almost 20» of the body length. The abruptly-descending ,
forehead ovorhandb thu beak; in old àpocimuns i. L;
couic ii down almost
at a right angle 54). in the .males tne flippers are up to one- 130
•
seventh, and in the females only one-twelftn, of the body length.
There is usually a single pair of teeth in the lower jaw; wnen, the
mouth is closed they project beyond the tip of the up .oer jaw. The
teeth are conical in shape, and are thick in taie midale and thinner
at the base. Their length is up to 50 mm, and their diameter UD tO .
20 mm. bometimes, in females and•young males, they do not cut through .„
the gums. A second pair of teeth, locèuted nearer .to the centre of •
the jaw, are cut only in males at an advanced age.
•
, "e
- Pile, 54. nteolzomo61.4A
North
Pid. 54. Atlantic bottle -nosed whale.
The :body colour is . greyish-hlack acove; and lighter on the
sides and especially on the belly. The colour changes with a(;e. At
first there appear white .or yellowish spots on tile belly ana sides;
in th,) course of time they form a -
continuous yellowish-white e:,.panse.
Later the back also acquires a iight-brown colour. In old males the
frontal part becomes white.
There are from 43 to 45 vertebrae sevel. cervical, Line
Inoracic, nine or ten lufaiJar, and 18 or 19 caddal1.
•
13'ueeiCnl is round only in tno lorIh dan tic.
•
Southern ,:ottic -nosed 1hale2eroodon .21anifrons rlower, U)82)
L n etornal ap r earanco tnis'whale reLeibi1. Li. Port- Atlantic
. bottio-noJod wilaiu; Lucre are d ifiereices onlj . in certain features

..... 195
of the skull. .Che fatty cus.liion i,"foreiieaà" ) is also stroi^.^ly. developed.
'.thc lot;er jaw contains a sinr_,le pair of teeth, which are not
cove..red by the upl,er jaw. ;1.'he dorsal fin (the height of wnich is
from 5.4;• to 6.7;^, of t;^e body length)' is usually located in. front of
the rear half of the body. The head, back, sides, and flukes are
dark-grey or black, a.rld the ventral side is somewha:r1 lighter in colour.
Ther^ are light-grey and white spots, u-.., to 3 or il. em in clia.7:letor,
on the sides and belly. -xhis speeies 9.s of no economic importance.
Genus Mc.so;ilodon Gervais, 1650
This genus is the larc,;est in the family Gipiiiidae. It contains
up to 11 species, but some of these are very rare.
The whales in this gents attain a maximum longth of 6.7 metres,
but are not usually more than 6.0 metres lon,,I,.
The body is more massive than in other meaibers of tlie . f•amily;
its greatest girth is at some distance behind the flippers, and is
from one-half to two-thirds of the body lenûth. Tlie long beak passes
into the gently-sloping forehead, behind t.rhich lies tue blow-hple,
wizich is very slightly convex. The head is somewhat comp1 essed laterally.
The dorsal fin lies between the centre of the body and. the
posterior third of it, and its height is frorr, -4.5;, to 6.C),-. of tile
body length.
It is curved like a sickle a.lonU the i-ea.r edge. 'li7ere
are from two to four grooves orn tne throat; -Gney are not joined in
front, arid diverge postea:iorly, :,-•he f1iL.?,ers are slt:^nder and oval in
shape, and their lenj3th is from'one-nintll to one--tent-h of . tne body
length.
The flul:es are small; their spread is usually not more than
131
one-fifth of the body length. '^Ilere is only one pair of tee di. (except
in. a single si;ecies), located in the front half of to lower jaw.
Their shape and size ve.ry considerably.
The body colour is cl.a.rk--^rey or black on t„El uack, and white
or grey on tne belly.
-rhe .>pii:e consists of ueven cervical, nine or t on tiiore,cie,
ton to Lwelve lu;;lbar, -o iil '1 9 or 20 caudal ver tebi•ae.
Lense-bea',

19 6
.-s.'
• •
‘:••
13m-... 55. Pemacay613;r:ama.1.
Ëig. 55.
Dense-beaked whale.
•Dense-beaked whales aro found in all oceans, but are very rare.
Their'biology has not been studied. Tney are of no economic Value.
Sowerby'S beaked whale• .(mesoplodon bidons Sowerby, 1604)
_
'These Whales attain a length of 5.5 metres and a weiht of
0.5 metric tons (Fig. 56). - The single pair of teeth are located not
far froid the end of the snout. In the males the teeth attain a lenuth
of 9.5 cm, but the root part, which is much thickened, is tilted well •
forward and lies within the jaw and the gums, so that only a small
part -- the triangular tip 7— is exposed. The teeth are slightly
smaller in the females than in the males.
PIK% 5 13. Anl itlIT I t
PeNtIle3y6.
Fig. 56. sowerby's beaked whale.
Sowerby's beaked whales'live in the northern iiart of the Atlantic
Ccean, and are known on Iota the American ana tae luropean
sides of it (incluaing the x.orth, Daltic, and hediterranean ,Jeas).
Their biology has been very little studied. .J.hey liNie in
rairs• and singly, and feed on Cephalopods. At the end of gestation,
which lasts for almost a. year, Ln: embryo is about 2.0 metres long,
and by the end of lactalion tu e calf has a length of 5.0 •etres. The
species is of no economic importance.
Bering Sea .1;eaked Waal° 1k2. i2J.
utoirioori True, 1065)
being slightly smaller than
aniaals n. tain a lengtn of 5.5 metres, -Lne females
maids.

A characteristic feature is the presence in the lower jaw,
near tho corner of the moutn, of a single pair of Very prominent and
tusk—like teeth up to 8 • cm in diameter. They overlap the upper jam,
fittir.g into special recesses OM.E. 57).. A small notch appears at
the outer edEe of the caudal fin between the flukes.
197
St.
Phc. 57, kommitopc-Kitil pemile3y6.
Fig. 57.
Ḇering Sea beaked whale.
These whales are found in the Pacific Ocean from the Bering
sea to Bew Zealand. They were first discovered stranded ou the Komandorskie
Islands. Cases of stranding have been'reported from Japan, ,
Island (in the Komandorskie Islands), the Aleutian Islands,
Bering
and the west coast of Borth America. •
Their bioloby has not been studied, • They are of no economic
importance.
Scamperdown Whale (Mesoplodon grayi Baast, 1876)
This species is the most widely distributed of the five i,:esoplodon
species living in. the southern hemisphere.
• jr.. .
• .
• ..".''..,., f`:.,
• .-..•
• .>- ,7
•
Pitc. 58. 10>molii peMhe3y6.
Fig. 58. Scamperdown whale.
The animais attain a length or 5.5 metres Pig. 58). A relatively—small
?air of teeth . are located almost at tii • enc of the lower
jaw, Their tips are triani;ular in shape.
The bio1ogy of those whales has not been studied.. L'hey are
of no economic importance.

APiILY DLLPIIIP:I7)Al^- ^UOL:['IiID}S, l-'ORFOISi;S, ETC
The usual longth of members of this iamily is two or three
Tne tres, and they are seldom as much as seven or eight m'tres. long.
:.'he body has a. well-streâ.m-li.ned form. 'Ale dorsal lin t,if
any) is located abou-6. -tne centre of tho body. The caudal fin has a
conspicuous notch between the flukes, j.here are no -rooves on the
throat.
The blow--hole slit is horse-shoe-shaped, witn the convexity
to the rear, and lies on the top of the head. '.i'he ùpiier and lower
jaws are provided witri a large number of tee-th ^teeth are lacking in
the tipper jaw only in the grey dolphin, or tFiere are not more than
two, as in the nart•rhal). ^'l'ranslator' s Eote: ^j.,iTe -Ûrey d.olphin- is
not mentioned alSain in the text or listed in Appendix 5-)
This family includes animals differing widely in their
characte.'eistics, and therefore mai-,.y attempts have buen made to divide
it into a number of independent families. Up to. the present, however,
agreement on that point has not been r.eached.
'Gem.rs Delphin^.ntex^.^s Lacepi:de, 1 f30zt ^White Whale)
This genus contains only one species.
-White whale or iieluga ^])el^^hinc,nterue leuca.s î:allas, 1776)
.The white whale attains a length of seven metres. The head
is small, rounded in sha,.e, without a beak, with asnort oral opening
and a conspicuous frontal fatty bulge (Fig. 59). ï.t 'is senarated by
a cervical constriction from the elon!;ated trunk, which is large in
the region of the pectora.l girci.:l.e and E;raduall.y tapers towa.rds the
tail. '.t.he caudal section is la.tei•ally com, rtsÛed and ends i1i horizontal
flukes, the spread of which is equal to 25,-., of t,le boay lèneth.
The entire body of the animal is encloscd in "ari:Tour-plate't
-- much-thickened epidermis. TiTere is no dorsal fin, but in its place
thare is :ometirnes a. sraallcut4-cular crest.
inc •broad ïlipL:er.s are
from onc-tontl'1 to one-eigh'th of the bon.y lene'th; ti;. they are of a,
roiinded.--oval
rear ed6;e.
but tiTC: front edge is :Arai^;hter tr.nri Liu ciirved
Its shape changes with the aL(,e of ttTC ^animal.
.C he uA7. per ,jaw contains from 14 to 22 teeth, ana tlle lower jaw
fxom 12 to 22, the total b6iTiL, from 26 to rG0
^ic teet:, oie simple
and }'''f ^l7.}ïe, I1't) cm lon^. ^LYICI 1.a^-'I •^ C:.1 in Û1 ::E?'tCZi but ..:1.^f of ^lclT
-
tootn i.:, :allll•: in t..o alveolu;.;
As the tee111. c,J' l:..c: li^l: c:a• r,.l,u lower

..... 199
jaws are opposed to ea:ch other they wear each oth,r down, so that
the lotirer teeth have a bulCe and the u;»er teeth a Eroove.
Pi+c. 59. Fc.l}•Xa.
Fig. 59. Vlhite whale.
The body colour of adults is uniform, %•lhite or yellow, but i t
changes during the animal' s life. Nieti•1--born calves are li{;ht-coloured;
then they darken, and later they begin to become lighter, i,lith different
shades of grey or bluish colour.
'filer.e are 50 or 51 vertebrae, of which 11 or 12 are thoracic.
White whales are found in the waters of the '1:orth Atlantic
and the l:orth :t`a.cific and in the Arctic Ocean.
Genus Monodon 1,., 1758 ^ 1:'.arwhal)
This genus contains a single species.
-l ('F.onodorï Tllollnceros L 1758)
The largest male naxvi]a.ls at tain a lenE:til of six metres, 'out
the .fe]aa.les are not more ttian five lnetres in length 60).
Piic. 60. Ilapaaa.
1''i€". 00. Nart•1'1.1al .
'i'he narwhal resembles the white whale in 'body shape.. ^lle
greatest birth is Û'liâht7.y behind t,_e level of tee ïlippers. Tue
head, like that of thc: white whale, is rounaed a]-Id has no beak; the.
4
narrow oz•_=.:. opcninU ^a h

'
200
The . upper jaw projects beyond ti,e wedee-shaped lover jaw. Tne eyes
are relatively large, an& are located 30-55 cm from tne tip of the
• sÊ.out, slightly above the corner of the mouth. Tme blow-hole slit
is located at the top of the head.
Instead of a dorsal fin there is a fold -of skin on the back,
we tc»5 cm high and from 50 to 75 cm long. The flippers are only
from one-fourteenth to one-tenth of the body length.
The colour varies. Lew-born calves und youhg sucklings are
bluish-grey or slate-coloured. In adults •uhe ventral side is lightcoloured
and the dorsal side darker (especially on the head and neck)
with irregularly-scattered greyish-brown spots. The. sides also are
partly spotted.
There are from 50 to 55 vertebrae, including eleVen or twelve
thoracic vertebrae.
•
• Distribution is circumuolar within the Arctic Ocean.
• Genus Delphinus L., 1758 (Common Dolphin)
• This genus is represented by only one species,
. Common Dolphin (Delphinus del)Dhis L., 4758)
' • The common dolphin (Fig. 61) attains a length of 220 cm in
the Black bea and 260 cm in the Pacifie and Atlantic OceanS. There
Is little' sexual dimorphism; the males are slightly larger than the
females.-
r j.
• -s'Ye
• •
•
1) itc, Gl. ;1e.11.11:1:1-05e:196otwa.
Fig. 61. Common dolphin.
qhe body is massive, but well stream-lined. J:he hût-tu is small,'
with a frontal fatty bulge. The beak is long and narrow. 'Ihe dork.al
fin is tall (its height is from 6'» to 14(/ : of the . body Ungth) an,'t
concave behind, and is located almost at th_ centre of the body. • 1:he
flipers are narrow, and the upper side has a iicni re - like curvature;
their length is from 1:),; to lb, of the boay leheth.

..... 201•
There are from 39 to 49 pairs of small teeth in the upper
jaw, and from 39 to 50 pairs in the lower jaw. Tue total number of
teeth may be up to 206, and is sometimes as hi6•12 as 266. ^ihe height
of the visible part of a tooth is about 10 rrun, and its diameter is
3 mm. The largest teeth are in the middle of the row. Yhere are
deep longitudinal grooves in the nalate,
The dorsal area from the snout to the flu,zes is black; the
widest na.rt of the black band is in the region of the dorsal fin,
and then it tapers off so that only a narrow s 6riT;e reaches tiie ta.il..
The dorsal band is adjoined by two grey stripes ri:oi.n^ r lon^; the
sides, separated (or almost separated) at the level of the dorsal fin.
The anterior and narrower one stretches froui _ tue snôut, and the posteri.or
one, which is wider and darker, embra,ces thu caudal section.
In the region of trie genita.l orifice there is a dark-coloured stripe,
and a 1.ighter.. stripe starts from the lower jai•: and runs par.allel to
the anterior lateral stripe. A third, dark, stiipe runs also from
the lower jaw to the flipper. There are many variations in the. col-'
ouring. -.L-tie ventral side is light-coloured. Albinos are very rare.
There are from 73 to 75 vevte brae, includil,U from 13 to 15
135
thoracic verleb]:'2.e.
This species is widely distributed, ù.c•rol.lir.Ü in xv:tirm and te;apera.te
waters in the pelaOic partb of seas and oceans in both the
northern and southern hemis,:heres.
Common dolphins axe found in the i•-llole of the noruhorn part
of the Atlantic, from eqv.a.to2:ic;ii waters to i:onia.y al'_cî..Ccc:laTrd. -:.'hey
seldom visit l,rctic waters, bu-c are sometimes soon in t,le GreeIlland
:iea. They are abundant in the ;,lediterrane£.f11 .>ea, rUU.tetimeS tiile dolphins
in tltcz^e règion;., are classified as the subapocies Del,piiinus
itelphis dcld;his L., 1758, to_ dis-cinguish tnec2 from the J,lack *.sea population
!). d. l:onticu8 1;e.rabash, 1935, which has si,ialler body
measurements. .
In the nortiler.n part of the Pacific Ocean cow:.ion dolphins
are fotund .>:•roi.i ttie ncring aea ana the Sea of to the coe.sts
of j•,exico. and Ja;,an.
Genus 'l'ursiops ;:ervais, 1655 0ot-cle-.r'o.,c:d ])olphin)
`.I'11J s, f';enllti cc>11taln s a s'ni;le' :illecies.

202
. Bottle-nosed Dolphin (yursions truncatus montagu, 1821)
' The usual length of this dolphin in tue Black sea . is 255-250
cm (maximum 290-310. cm); correSponding figures for the Atlantic Ocean
are 2/0-230 ers and 350-390 cm.
, >, •
• -
. .„
›
•
Pkte, 62, Atbainnin.
Pig. 62«
Bottle-nosed dolphin.
In external appearance the bottle-nosed dolphin somewhat
reeJembles•the common dolphin; but the body of the former is relatively
stduter, and the beak is moderately developed (it is smaller than in •
the common dolphin; and is separated from tue bulging forehead by a
well-marked groove.
The dorsal fin is tall, and the flippers are
medium-sized and convex on both the front and tile rear edges. The
upper jaw contains . from 20 to 25 pairs of teeth, and. the loWer jaw
from 18 to 22 pairs, totalling up to 90 teeth.
The.colour varies greatly, but the back is usually black or
dark-grey and the ventral side light-celoured; the bQundary between '
them is not always clearly evident.
The bottle-nosed dolphin is a dweller in temperate coastal
waters. lhose that are found.in the Indian Ocean frou .
tua lied Sea
and south Africa to tue Bay of Ben[2:al andAustralia, in the facific
Ocean from the south China sea to Australia and new zealand on the
west and to the American coast, from oalifornia to O aile, oh the east,
and in the Atlantic Ocean from Argentina to Brazil, are classified
as the subspecies T , .
t, aduncus Ehrenber c .;, 182. Ih the Atlantic
waters from 4 0 S to 45 0 n on the American coast and from the coasts
of Africa to Scandinavia, and also in the .F,altic, ...editerranean, and
Blaok Seas, dwells the subspecies Y. t. truneatus vontai;u, 1821. • fhe
• the eastern half of the northern part of tua £acific Ocean
animais in
(it is possible that this applies to the whole of tne'ocean )
sometimes classified as the independent species T. i1fl. Bal l, 1875.
are

..... 203
C;erms Y.llocoe>>e.-(,uvier, 1817 ^.i'orl,oises)
1:h(-) body lcnt; ch of porpoises is up to t' o ,netres. charaet--
erisi:i.c feature is tne presence of ve.3CiLeS
small horny tuber.cles on the front edge of tua i'lipl;ers.
of cutalleou'ti' "al:aour"
The snout is txmzca.teil, tnore is no beak, end trie .t'or^c•liertcL
is cotapreesoec1. -i'he flippers are ovc.]. in shape, arittl Ille til,s .,1i.gttly
tal;ax'm] .'.t'ito tcar:tiz 0.1,o and cort:i.col.; tllello 1,10r1" !.'roi.i 10 to 30
1uLi.a ta :Li! Lrto upl.iUa? Jaw itnc.l fvom 1''1 to t", pn.Lt':; in L,^u :1c,trc,:i: jt,,w.
This £;eriu,3 contains four species, three of whic,t are not
aLunclant. P. simis 1:6),.-ris and P%tcFarland., 1956 r.s founc: ii., trie ulf
of California a.z:d, perliaps, on the west coast of Vc:.i.co, in .bt.rouical
waters. The Antarctic or spectacled por-,.oise ^ dio^^rica
Lahille, 1912 lives in tne waters of tue soutnn•restern part of ti.e
sItla.ntic, from 1ix'aentina to South Georgie..
On tne west coast of bouth
Americs. ^Chi.le ana. -, ea:,u) that species is replaced by the ülack porpôise
P. s•1.^i.niI)inrjis Buri

204
it is small, and almost triangular in shape. The snread of tne flukes - • •
is equal to about one-quarter of. the body length. 'There are tubercles
along the front edge of tae flippers -- vestiges of cuticular armour .
In specimens from the Sea of Azov these tubercles appear only on the
front edge of the dorsal fin.
The upper jaw contains from 44 to 60 teeth (most often 27 137
pairs), and the lower jaw . from 58 to 55 (most often 22 or 25 pairs).
They are set obliquely within the oral cavity, but with age they
become twisted and much abraded. The diameter of, tue teeth in the
centre of the row is about 2 mm; dley are compressed laterally and
chisel-shaped, and have a constriction between tue reot and. tue crown.
The palate is smooth, without longitudinal grooves.
The colour of the harbour porpoise may be from dark-grey to
black above,• and from white to dark-grey underneath. A dark, almost
black stripe runs from the corner of tae mouth to the flipper. Al- .
binos rarely occur.
•
There are from 62 to 66 vertebrae, and 'rom 12 to 14 pairs
of ribs.
narbour porpoises are Pound only in the northern hemisphere,
in coastal waters of the Atlantic Ocean, in tue l.ortn, 0,1tic, White,
and Barents Seas, and also in tue Sea of Azov and the Black. bea.
Occasionally they pass through the Strait of Gibraltar into the Mediterranean
Sea. In the northerh part of tue Pacific Ocean they are
found . along the coast of America from' Mexico to Alaska, including.
Point Barrow, and from tne southern part of tne Chukchi Sea along
the coast of Asia to Japan.
• Genus Globicei)hala Lesson, 1828 (Common blackfish) •
This genus contains a'single species.
•
Common Blackfish (Globice .phala melaena Traill, 1809)
lb
This species is sometime:i divided into subspecies: the common
blackfish melae .na melaena Traill, 1d09), wnicn is found in the
Atlantic Cicean (including tLe - editerranean :ea ) , t;loindian ucean,
and the soutnern part of tit: lacific ocean; and G. melaena sieholdi,"
(Gray, 1846), which is found in t.le northern part. of tn., lacific ucean.
The males are larFer tnan tae females, tne larest of each
nux me;.surin 0.5 metren and 5.0 metres re:,pectivel;i.
body lias

.... 20'5
the shape of a rain-drop, with the head in f3_-ont almost spherical
b::ca.use of the steepl,y-clescending fatty cushion, which often p:L'ojects
beyond tll(^. tip of ti-.c snout (Fi^. f^^): The dorsal fin be^ins in the
first quarter of the anteri.or -j-,art of the body. It is s1out and lowset,
(l.licl slanting in front.
The flippers are narrow rmd long (up to
one-fifth of the body length); a large part of the flipper is bent
backward almost at a right c,ne;le. The caudal sec Cion elon[;-
ated and lalundar.
The spread of tao flU.lCC,'; i.;3 front ollo-;ievclltll to
one-fifth of the body.].clngth.
••C: ^ • • .•^1'+M.. ^
P11c. sa. rpun;>,a.
r'ig. 64. Common blackfish.
4
The oral slit is short and oblique, at an angle of f'r.om 1300
to 450 to the longitudinal axis of the body. Tilere are f.roi,l seven
to 12 or 1 3 pairs of tGetil in each jcLi'7; 1^11c:J occupy the û.ïlti3r.î.or part
of the jaw. -xhe: teeth are small, from 10 to 12 mnl in diai,ieter, and
conica'l, The upper jaw projects slightly beyond t,:e lower one.
The body is black. In G. in. r,elael,a a narrow utripe runs
alorig the ventral surface, widenin,-; slà.ghtly. between tac flippers,
In the southern form, which is sometimes claJ^,ified as -une sur)species
U._ m. eci'vre,rdi uavies, 1860, there is a small whi i,e spot und-r.rneath
the lower 'jaw, a nrl.r.row

• • 206..
northern part of the Pacific Ocean from Guatemala to Alaska in the
east and from the Yang-tse estuary to Japan in tue west. According
to some•reports, common blackfish have been observed near tue Kurile
Islands and Kamchatka.
Genus Orcinus
.2itzinger,•1860 (Killer /halos)
This genus contains a single species.
•
Killer Whalo (Orcinus orna L., 1758)
5exual dimorphism is very marked in killer whales: the males
attain a length of ten metres, and the females 8.5 metres.
Pile. 65, KoenT Ka;
camen: enspci.
- Fig. 65. Killer whales: a) male; b) female.
•_.
The body of the killer whale is rather masSive, but fairly .
well stream-lined (Fig. 65).
The head is small, occupying one-sixth
of the body length; it is somewhat compressed, and hns no buak (it
has only a small "fringe..),
The fatty cushion is not developed..
Almost in the centre of the body (generally et heu' end
of tire front
hall') they:0 in a dorsal fin shaped like a scythe (in nuonlan, koà;
whence the "amssian nnme or the killer whale, kos.atkn : ), i'rom 1.-5 to .
1.7 metros tall in males and 1.0 metre in fol.ndes (19,-,-22,, and 10,-14 f?
of the body len•ths respectively).
flipbrs are oval in uhape
and broad (from 13 tu 21» of Lue bony lenGLn), nukes ore LEri:e,

•
207.
•beir spread being one-third of the -body length. io upper and lower
jaws each have from ten to thirteen pairs of 1itase4ve, solidly-set
teeth with largo . roots. The jaws are provided wi .Li powerful muscles.
: Who body colour is variable. the dorsal side is-black or
grey-black, and the ventral side - including trie lower ja • , throat,
-and chin) is white. The white area narrows from in front to tile base
of. the flippers, and then at tiie level of the dorual fin it widens
again, covering a large part of the caudal section: In that part of
the white area a narrow black stripe ruer; from tae up,?er part of the
body. Where is usually a white patch near the eye, and a white stripe,
running downward and forward alons the side, is located behind the
doral fin.
Where are 50-52 vertebrae, and 11 or 12 pairs of ribs.
The killer whale is. counopelitan, being found from the Arctic -
to,tkAntarctic in both coastal' and pelaec waters. It avoids only
.areas with severe ice conditions.
In waters adjacent to the USSR killer,whales are found in the
White and Barents Seau, but'there are none in top Laptev, 2,ast Siberian,
and Black Seas. They • have been known to enter the Baltic Sea.
In the Par East they are found in the Sea of Jaoan, tue ;.3ea of Okhotsk,
the Bering Sea, and the southern part of the Chukchi bee-
- Genus LissodelphiP Gloger, 1811 (Right-whale Dolphins)
A characteristic of this genus of dolphins is their lack of
a doral fin, The body is spindle-shaped ana much elongated. The
head is small, and the fatty cushion or forehead is not very prominent;
the beak is narrow and of medium length, Each jaw contains' from 42
to 47 Pairs of small teeth, 3 mm in diameter.
P'
C .
. . .•
• •
••••
••••%,.
'
f) Cerols ro,11,1111 tri 2te.u.,(1,11}t.
2i.c. 66. Nortnern ric;h1;-whale il0lihi .
..■■■ -
*his conlains two species, iuentifii.yd ly tnoir colouring.
, bu ::"ocie;) in Lae"nortnorn of iacifjc Oc on
Lissoderilnis boresilis ,onlo, 1t8 -- is 14 to terce metres

..... 20t3
^.é'ig. 66). hllnost the a•rhol.e Of the body is black, bxcc1)t for the
beak and part of the fatty cushion. . A narrow white s cri-pe runs fronl
a rhomboi.da.l white .s-t,ot beti•;een the flippers along trie centre line
of the body to tue flukes.
.
... ^.i"
l'Irc. V. 1C)uou,ill lcurann;au; ."l
ncn;.t! nu.
ilig. 67.
boutlïern rA,,lit--wiiale dolphin.
The species dvèllint;, in the southern hemislihere, below 40° S
--- I.,:i.ssodelU _ his ner . onii L,lceZ^éde, 1F^01^ -- does rio'L- e^:ceed -l;i•;o metres
..____._ ._.___.
in length (Fie.;. 6()
Its black, col,our comes dot;,n fï'ol:l the s.addleshapeci
blow-hole to the white flippers, and th-_^n --ra.dually :1-•iNes and
runs for some distance into the caudal section. These dolphins usually
occur in small groups.
140
Crellus ]=hocoenoides lk ndret'rs, 1911 ^'uall' s]- ornoise)
^;erlus is represented by a single species, t-rhich lives
in the northern part of the Pacific Ocean 68).
])a,11' s i'orl,oise (^^.=hocoenoides (_Lal].i '!'rue, 1835)
The males attain a length of 210 cm aid the females 200 cm.
The shape of 'L-h;D body is simi].7.r to that of the ha-r.bour porpoise
(:Phocoena) ; tlle:r.-e are tall - keel--li}.e crests aljove and. oeneatn the
ca,uda.l section, :.mking that section look much tliiclçer v4rtically than
in the harbwar 'porpoise. i'he head has no visible beak. The clorsal
fin is s'l:lwped a7.most lii;e an isoscoles -i;rian ;le ^its height is llj) to
8. 5';> of the animal' s'body 1enGi;h) and is located in t.',u rear •pa.rt of
the 1'r.-ont half of the body, 'l'he f li p;..,ers' are brotacl. but short (up to
^3, o:r.' 6.5,, of the bo(.iy Ion-th), and the spread of t,Ie flukes is from
25.2;: to j1.6,. of the body len;,th.
t.1.11le LLZ?'.ler jaw colltC1.7.11:. l'ro;l V( to 26 (Fl'VC l'ci._( 21 or 22) -pil.irE.9,
(].[1d the lower ja1/ -- \111.1C1. pl:'C)jC'ct:l li^'l'lt_'_y 11e" OllCl V lc? Lllll.e]:' -- f]:'o(!1
25 to '15 ^avera;;e 28 or 29) pairs of sr,ia.ll ch:i;,>el--c,1:a,Ued teetll; tlle:,e
Fl,e 11i^11t1;. C:Y))o:^C'(.L y (11'.C k;oüli! q^' 'l llel l do not E?alE 1'i e 1:1.'OS^I tic ( lU.l ].
: tt(? l1v(.;^% 1 la In t.10 nOrtll(.'L'TI A'01".1 fl. I.Illl'tt3 are,-!, L':].'F i:CLS

..... 209
from the anal orifice to the side and continues e.loni., ti'rl(, centre line
to the -vertical line ^i^ove the front eâ.^;e of the. flipper; in the
southern form that White aréa, sDreads over "Grre side above the celltre
line and continues almost to the eye ^in this case trie upy)er surl'ace
of t.r^e flipper is whi uej . ;j.ônictir:les the uor:sal fin also is jrart^ly
or wholly white.
r
` -- ^- _
^^.,>^^;^^ :'__._- '`s=^ ^:^..•^.,_ ...^...^.:.a:^ `^^
_- - " ^
•^ ^:^.
^;`.^
Pile. G8. I^c•iospl>i.^asi n;opcs.i;^ cniuu.si.
l''ig . 6 8 , .Ual"l' s porpoise.
9'llere are 91-96 ver-ceÙrae, and from 15 to 16 pairs of' ribsi
The northern form of Dal7.'s porpoise -- . 1'. d. dalli ^'rue,
1685 -- is found from 59o ad to 61 o N along tue coasts of Asia and
America ^ as far as southern Galifornia} , including the Bex'in^,^ aea
and the Sea of Okhotsk. The southern fort:l -- P. d, truei r,nd.rel•rs,
1911 -•-- is found ;;ou.th of 420--45o N.
uenus Lagenol"11ynClllls Cray, 1,)4:b
This genus contains at least f'iv, Species, `rlhich u;o to the
presen-L- have not been well studied. '.Ohe body shape is tilat typical
of ctol,)hins J`he head is small, with only a sli^htly--develolred fat.ty
cushion. !••rle beak is small. The dorsal. firs is locatecl at the rear
end of the front half of t;le body; it is tall, and its rear edge is
concave. The fl.iw:er.s are ].aneet-Unapod, in to 1II; -? of tue
body length, -.olcî the spread of the flul.;^:ü J.2 up to 25,. of tue body
length..'. I^ach jaw contains from 22 to 40 pairs of sulall teeth. There
are from 71 to 94 vertebrae.
11t1
of this 1,,en11S occur in bo'ti! 1:e'?liûU,l(.L'eS.
Atlantic
ijolphin ^Laç;eno^'I1IrlçVlll_. iicu'tu2l,r.'iy, 1cf.!16)
'.i`he;.e dolphills a.ttain a lenat1i o.c' 2.'j tL.c males beirit^
s].if;irt7.y i;tl^at thi: fe:iaales. The bec.k, t,Le corsai
fiu, aild al l t.ir^ doa:'s7.:L part ol' ttlr-, body cla.'e 09). in the
a'x'olst i art oi' Lhe body the black colour doc :, not ci,::te clown to tee
a.c;vc:,l 01, t - io 'i'llul:v are c1a:l::: cil-o1(.c, tee eyc::;. A

• - -210
white stripe runs - along each bide from above the. flipper towards the
tail, having à•yellowish-grey border on the lower part of the side.
A narrow black stripe runs forward Trom the base of each flipper,
passinE between the eye and the corner of the mouth. •A'similar stripe
appears on the sides, from above the flipper te the end. of tno caudal
'section: - 1:he ventral side is white, but tue anal orifice is - surrounded.
by a black patch. where are from 50 to 40 pairs of teeth,
about 4 mm in diameter, in each jaw.
4r
,
••
• •
Pile. 69. benoGoKttii
:Wig. 69. Atlantic white-sided dolphin.
•
Atlantic white-sided,dolphins are found in the waters of the
"north Atlantic,- mostly around the Urkney and Shetland islands, and
also off the southwestern'coasts of Lorway and western Groenland.
Yhcir range extends north to Davis Strait, and SpitzberEen, and possibly
to the Murman uoast on the east. '12hey have occasionally been
seen in the 'Baltic bea. *
White-beaked Dolphin 0 -,aenorhynchus albirostris Gray, 1846)
'ilhese dolphins attain a length of about the metres,
•
/
•
\ •
rig. 70. Vhitc-boaked dolphin.
he anterior part or tne fatly cushion and the beak, which
is up to 5 c.. long, are white; the latter fea'.ure .,ave this animal
its specific n; ,. 1e. 'Pue upper nart of the body, e-d
lehihd
tue level of tne flipers, are black; the belly is white, .of "„en with

..... 211 •
a creamy tinge. Gemetimes a dark.suripe runs irom the base of the
flippers to the corner of the mouth uig. 70); JJLO lengtn of the
flip„)ers is up to 18,, of tue body length (in trie Atlantic wnite-. sided
dolphin.it is only 12). 7,ach jaw contains from 22 to'26 pairs of .
teeth-6.7 mm in diameter. -
White-beaked dolphins are found in the waters. of the horth,
Atlantic on both sides of the ocean: in :Davis ;$trait, off Greenland
and tho à'aeroo Islands, and from the coast of Portugal to tia:: j;altic
uea and the Murman - Coast.
• Eorth Pacific White-sided Dolphin •
(pu9norhync1us oblicip_idens Gill, 1865)
Usually the upper part of the body, from thp frontal region
Io the flukes inclusive, is dark-coloured or grey. rfne ventral side
is dark-coloured almost from the tip of the snout to the anal .
orifice.
An elongated white patch runs forward along tue sides from above the
flippers, narrowing slightly above the eyes and encircling the frontal
region .(the tip of the snout and the chin are dark-coloured);
the rear part of the animal is dark (Fig. 71). A narrow dark stripe,
forming a curved line, runs forward from the base of the flippers to
the eyes; a narrow dark stripe also runs to the rear, forming.a border
to the colouring of the sides and the belly. The front parts. of
the dorsal fin, of the flippers, and of, the flukes.are light-coloured;
the marginsof the upper and lower lies are dark: A.narrow . dark
stripe Tuns from each eye to the corner of the mouth. There are wide
variations in the colouring of those dolphins. Tue upper jaw contains
from 30 to 32 pairs, and the lower jaw front 29 to 51 pairs, of teeth,
which point slightly outwards.
/..te
-- • 7.?"7:"...7.e , --.•
Pitc 71. TmooucancxHii EopoiToro,loomii ÔIUC ni. ii II
e0111.
71. hortn Pacific whilie-sided dol nie

.... 212
North Pacific white-sided dolphins e.re found in the northern
part of the ï'acific Ocean,
from the Gulf of c.;alifôrnia. to the coast
of Alaska ^ 50o ïi) and the Aleutian Islands, and f rom Jc^. pan to tne.
Kurile Islands.
i•iour-&lass Dolphin
(I^^^enorizynohus cruci p-er Quoy and C2.ir!1fLrd, 1824)
The usual length of those dolphins is not more ti^all 2 metres.
-^`" ^ -. . ^. 1^. .,
P!1c. 72. 10:l:::^tï! t:oporttorrs.7om:i1
Ae:1Ly!Il:f,
6r.io6otalïk
Y`ig. 72. Hour-glass dolphin.. ^Translatox.'s A;ote: From discrepancies
betwecn the text and the illustrations, it is suspected
that either Pius. 72 and 73 have been interchassCed or that there has
been f:oP.le confusion in the descriptions.)
In external ap_pèarance tile.se dolphinu rosetable tne Atlantic
tirhi.te-.sided dolphin, L._ aclttusi*
The beak is not well deve:loped, and
is scarcely distinguishable from the head. The dorsL:.1. fin is large
(Fie;. 72). 'j'lle body colouring is peculiar.
The back is black from
the bea.k to the flukes. A black stripe runs irom the corners of the
eyes to tue bese of the flippers; continuirlE; a.lon- tue sides, it becomes
much wider below the dorsal fin, and almost runs into the .'black
colour of the back. Part of the sides, and t.1e belly, are white.
The biolot^y of thet:,e animals has oeen littlc: sil.uii ed.
In
winter they stay in the subtropical conveï'Cence zone.
uoviet whalers have often observed r;•roupû of these dolphins, 143
consisti.r.lg of some tens of tsu: animals, ii-, t'rl,7: waters of. tnc jLtlantic
sector of the Antarctic Ocean, even beyond 60 0 S.
])usl.y Dolphin (^^^ïeno^
ncllu;s ob:,curl:ta ,"ray, 1[32i3)
(syn, L. crucl.;Lr^
.I)usky dol•i)hislrs n.c•Lo,l.n e. lenf;tlt Of 210 cel.
li-he body o31aTSo is that typical of the ^rtlo.l.e ^',t31111;^, out the
()o;!]: 1.k: more, .C.^L';Irl^{ l'L].St].11(711. tllc`7.^)lt^ fl'Cllil :t:.iE'. 11CZ-.1CI. ; t!ll: C^Or.'i.La fin
is of inoi;.iu-,l :ai.sc., 'al !ü the colmcc!.vit-y lle!Is:is!ci t,.^: l:.csr..:-1 fin ir., r.!uch

..... 213
srlaller.tha'n that in th(; In. eced.ing species. The dorsal part of the
body be^hind the snout is black. The corner of toe rlout•rl and tue eye
are joined by a narrow black s-'.ripe, which then runs to the base of
the flippers. Two black,bands rul, obliquely from inc bacl: across the
sides, tue lower band being two or three times as wide as the upper.
The ventral side is white. The flippers and the flukes are black:
oolne variations in colouring are observed ^l'ig. 73) .
^ 1.'. .
^`.•^.. ........ .
' ,w^`" ^.^
J -^^=" _^,
pt1c. 73. CM ^ r:ttüt ;le.-t:.tl
r'ie; • 73 . Dusky dolphin.. (See note to Pits-. 72. -- `i2ranslator
)
Dusky dolphins are most colnrilOn near i:ew üealanr: and the I'alk--
land Islands.
It is believed tllat they do not occur in Antarctic
waters south of 5t3o S.
ltenus 1;seudorca Reinhardt, 1662 (l'alse Killer Who,les)
This genus contains only one species, which is widely â.is--
tributed in the oceans of the world.
r'a1se Killer t`ha1e. (Poeudorca crassi.dens Owen,
The body length of falce killer whales is up-to 6.0 metres,
and their weight is up to 1.5 Metric tons.
The body is, well-°uuilt, -j.rld. considerably ciliçker Lile.n that
of the true killer wha.le 74). i1he head ].ack:; a }•rell-c,.eve.lopeci
fatty cushion, and is even :ror,leorhat flattened in front. •ïiie beak
•,^
l'nr. 7•I. ,^la.^ist,
n:tu ^.C^^IIA l, tC(1C^TIUt.
i'ig. 74
1oe.lse killer wilale _
111) o r "J.'r1•l iü .LUll^;i:).' I t1at'. klil': lower 0110.
he UOI'up,l fi.i?, 1•P1lich is I00U.1,eL1 in l,ilf: i'Iit.tLAC Of the
i.li
t-"la•i_lll,

••.• 214
with a distinct.concavity in the rear. The flippers are slender,
and are from one-tenth:to one-eighth of the body length;.the spread
• of the flukes is 21>.-24.», of the body length. There are from eight
to eleven pairs of teeth in the upper jaw and •frceeight to twelve
pairs in the lower jaw. The teeth are large, being:Up to 25-27 mm
in diameter.
There are 50 irrtebrae.(rarely 51), and ten pairs of ribs.
l'aise killer whales are distributed ir the same regions as
common blackfish, but they do not range so far north. in the Porth
Atlantic they have been observed in Davis strait.
Genus Stenella Gray, 1964
Whe largest specimens of stenella attain a length of 2. .5
metres and a weight of about 150-160 kg.
The body has a stream-lined shape, and externally greatly
resembles the body of the common dolphin csee rig. 61). Lach jaw
has from 30 to 57 pairs of small teeth, up to 3.3 mm in diameter.
The palate is smooth, without longitudinal grooves. This feature
brings. senella close to the harbour porpoise. Thus stenella occupies,
as it were, a position intermediate between the common dolphin
and the harbour porpoise.
The body is grey or dark-grey, with light-grey patches
all over it.
The genus is considered to contain from five - or six up to
ten species, but ail of them have been only ?lightly studied. Most
of them are dwellers.in warm or temperate waters.
Striped Dolphin U3tenella coeruleoalbus hoyen, 1083)
The back, flippers, dorsal •fin, ncI fluk,s are sky-blue; the
_•ventral surfaoe of ti.e bociy and the sides are white. A sin&le narrow .
• 75.
...,trire

..... 215
black stripe runs a1ong the side from ttle eye toi•rai•cis t:-,e anal orifice,
and a siTit;le or double naa!rot•r dark-coloured s ^ripe runü throur,'h
the eye '.to the base of the flipper.
he long black beak tapers to
the tip;, tne lower jaw projects beyond the upi.er one. •rhe notch
between the flukes is very deep (Pie. 75). Ti!e upuer jaw con.to.ins
from .46. to 50 pairs of teeth,. and the lowei! jaw from 44 to 46 i)s,irs.
peû ciolz;hins are. distributed in temperate and warm waters.
Spotted Dolphin (SteTle1^1a tl.ubia (;uviex',
18 12; .145
Stenella attenuata Gray, 1ozi.6)
The body of thc spotted dolphin is spindle-shaped, but the
'caudal pa.zA is more elong•ated than that of the striped dolphin. The
dorsal part of the body is of a steel-blue colour, ana tile belly is
dark-g•rey, except in some specimens where it is white. ,.^ark--Erey
and white spots are scattered -ov.ea: the body. The flippers, the dorsal
fin, and the flukes are black, without spots. 'i''tie beak is black,
but the tips of tice upirer .and lower jaws are white. An indistinct
black stripe runs from the front edge of the flippe:r to the corner
of the mouth. The upper jaw contains from 4.1 to 45 pairs of teeth,
and -the lower jaw f rom 40 to 11.3 pairs.
;;potted dolphins are distributed througli wa,rm and tempera te
waters -

216
CHAPTER 2 -
; CETACEA or THE roiniql Awurnic ALD
ADJA02,RT.WATEt:S OF
ARCTIC OC"..;AN
Large-scale whaling first began in thebe regions. Sailing
shiPs provided with special anal]. boats (whale-boatfor • nunting
whales ventured constantly.farther and farther into tue open ocean .
in search of concentrations of 'the•animals
ln spite of their prim-
itive equipment, the whalers almost completely exterminated right
whales in tac ....Jay of 1)iscay, around spitzbergen, and in tne Lewfoundland
region.
The taking of one or two whales repaid tnem for all the
expenditure connected with the Outfitting of a ship.
In the middle of the 19th century the whaling industry began
to die out as a result of shortage of whales and .
demand for oil from sperm whales.
of. a decline in the
The stocks of rorquals had not been
affected by the slaughter; but these whales, unlike right whales and
sperm whales, sank after being killed.
The whaling industry revived
, after the invention by 8vend Foyn of a harpoon-gun for killing whales
and a compressor for inflating the body with air, which gave it buoyancy
and made it possible to-tow it to a processing'station on,shore..k
After a number of improvements, tac first Whaling ship with
a:harpoon-gun and a compressor (the Spes et Fides.), under the command
of Svend Ëoyn, killeu its first 30 whales in 18-78. From 1868 to 1969
a total of 2,194,271 whales were killed in ail the wo.rids oceans,
• including 1,315,553 in the Antarctic Ocean.
Soon, however, various restrictions began to be imposed on the killing
of whales, as a consequence - of decrease in their numbers.
Pelagic whaling beban in tue same regions. The whaling crews
began cutting. up whale carcasses'at the ship's side, witn subsequent
processing of the bluliCer directly on board in the open sea.
It was
mainly fin whales that were taken, and mucn les s often humc-back •
whales and etner .Palaenouteridae, and also sperm whales. That activity
continued. until 1';')7, When for the last time two whaling snips
.of that type put out to.sea. In 19e9 iii was carried on from ten
shore stations, On which 1( whaling ships wore pased, 'whereas in 1910
and 1912 %nor° were from 25 .to.2 -9 stations and from 65 to 75 whaling
chips. In recent Years tle quarry of wnalers uns ueen mostly fin
- whales .ova ,cotia, .celand, and lartlY orway) and
tu scnAain reloht: soi whalso. Uova oestin)
spom whalus (jeoland,

..... 217
etc .). ,'untinf; for tll

218
The West Greenland herd. In April and aay some of the ,hales
•o
of this' herd wure found. at 61 -62 1. :Lui td0 hudson bay reuioni tne
mig3a•6ion route of the reut of the herd s )Lit in two. a:ale males went
nortn along the west coast of .Greenland, tarough Javis Gtrait.
the vicinity of 70 ° 11 (Disko Island) tney turned weSt towards J
In •
affin
Island, where tney joined the females and . calves, which are believed •
to have moved along the. east ceast-line of Baffin Island.
ln July
Lancaster -Jound (north • est o:L Baffin Island) and oth (:. r straits were
•
free froeice, and the whales travelled through tnem to tne _,eaufort
Sea, .but the majority of them remained within the Oanadian Arctic
archipelago. borne of trie whales in tnat groun moved northeasterly
and reached 75 0 780 in july and August, remaining in baffin LJay.
With the onset of cold weather and the ap i)earance of ice the • •
reverse migration began. .
In very cold years the whales went almost
as far as the southern tip of Greenland, which was apparently the
southern limit of the range of whales of the West Greenland herd.
* The chief item in the diet of bow-head waales is the crustacean
Calanus finmarchicus, which is widely diuLfibuted in.tn
rctic.
Other crustacean species have been found in tmeir stomachs, as well
as Pteropoda (Clione limacina and Linacina helicina). .1'ishes have
not been recorded in the whales.' diet.
vestigated.
The biology. of bowhead whales-has not been adequately in-
The -periods.of mating and parturition are prolonged, out
are mainly restricted to spring.
often not far from the ice-fields.
ahe calvea are born in the cold zone,
Lew-bora calves have a food heat-
•• •
insulation lvyer in the form of a subcutaneous layer of blubber. he 147
duration of gestation lias not been precisely determined. It is sur-
mised tmat it lasts . lor a period of from nine or on months to thir-*
teen or•foUrteen months (most probably, about a year).
rhe Calf stays
beside tne mother, which .guards it jealously, for about .a year, and
is ap , )arently suckled during tnat puriod. By . tne a•e of one year the
itu length, which at birth was a:out .a - 4.5 metres.
'2he adult whales usually stay in pairs or in o..iaul roups of
from three to five animais.
2be rate of move,ent of bow-Head wnale- . is nob great, ana in
undisturbe (i conditions uouu not cxceed 4 Lo *
U:hOts . uanger
A .wot uquals ono nantleLl milc ,er 0.f;5: . km per hour).
Calf has doubled
•
•

219;
threatens the rate may increase greatly, up to 8 or 9 lcnots. '2he air
In tW 'lungs is replaced once every 10 or 15 minutes. A wnale may
stay on the surface for two or tnree minutes, durit
which time it
exhales and inhales from ten to twelve times. When being pursued it
can remain under water for 30 minutes or more, an e can max travel as
much as . two kilometres under the surface. Ll .ne de -iyth to which it dives
is not usually great. Before a dive the flUkes are often .1;11::.own uD
into the air, looking like à gigantic butterfly. lee whales often
appear in • crevasses and. open . spaces in ice-fields. . .
• Statements about the good hearing ability of whales • have been
publishedLthey react to the wounding of another whale 20 km away.
i'heir external parasites consist mainly oi hwhale lice- (mem-
'bers of the crustacean suborder Amphipoda).
internal parasites are
helminths of various species, which infest the oesophagus,
the intestines, the liver, and other orans.
Bow-head whales were one of the first objectives of largescale
whaling, even in the days ofsailing ships.
In spite of the fact that these animals are not now actively
hunted (prohibition of their hunting was introduced in 1935, and'they
may now be killed only to meet the needs of local coastal residents),
only a few hundred bow-head WhalOS appear no; to survive in each herd.
Bow-heed whales have a 'very thick subcutaneous blubber layer,
which in some places . is up to 75 or SO cm in •tnickness ilsually it
is about 50 CM).
AS much as 215 or 30 tons of oil have been obtained
from a single large adult weighing from SO to 100 tons; on an average
a single whale yielded about 15 - tons of oil and up to one ton of the
formerly-valuable product, whalebone.
North Atlantic Eight Whale Oâibalaena
In spring these whales leaVe the more telriperate waters and
travel along tee coast of :New ngland, on tee east eoast of Gee U.S.A.; •
they spcncl, LLD summer in .
Iceland and tee Faeroe Islands oh tee east.
Gie region fro.a 1,avis Strait on Ine west•to
ae suimer, teei.efore,
these ,hales 1: ove into tee winterinù, range of eow-eeed wnales, Shien
hawe mierated
Wor
at -aim.% time mxyxt .o rarthur north, bometime.; htUhtic rif,t whales
A
have been observe: approaceinu tee !Iirman Ocaut u12( Ui Lo • _altio •eLL.
cieL ite
in t.iP diet of tneL •.eius in Unizionn itnd
seeizoneds (crustaceans o...) to 1 5 or lh Mm ionni o.e Lt.us Leey feed
mostly

..... 220
on l'•tero f)od.a, As is the case t•r'itu bôw-head l•ri7ale:.;, fi;.hes have not
been r.i:corde(1 in thcir stot„a.cll contents.
'.t'iie probler.ls of teeir i:'eprâcluctive biolo^.;y nave been little
studied. .Ma.ting 1:akes place in the first half of tl,e year, ,;enerally
in snrin ;•, and gestation lasts for about a year. It is possible that
a femi:tile produces a calf every second year. At birth the calf is
about 4.5 metres long; the môtiser suckles it, probla.bly, for more than
six months. The fe:,:la1e a1.ways diligently J?ro tect;, i-ler calf. Tne
females attain sexual maturity wile.n t-cleir body lengtll is about 13 to
13.5 metres, and the males (taking sexual cii;:rorphisl,l into account)
-apparently when their body lènC,th is 12.5 to 13.0 ^I^etres.
The body is. very flexible, and. sometimes tiie::e i,rhales can
touch their tails witn tileir heads. ^iefore divinj; tiie;; el.lit :reveral
double-jet spouts, and of'ten display their flulces_ i'lrcy stay under
water for from 10 to 20 minutes, Uut can stay under for as much as
.an hour. They move slowly (,2-2.5 l.nots ), and double that rate only
when alarried.
North Atlantic ri{;ht whalés are heavily irrf.ested with whale
148
lice., Jrlll cll C,-'.il se e7:çrescenceû on t;i,e snout and lower jaw and around
tho uro8enital orifice, and to a lesser e?.tent with bai•nacles. 'i'heir
internal narasites have not been fully studied.,
l.orta f^tlantic rigllt t-rhal.es were hunted off tue coasts of
Europe as early as tire nintiz century. In titu 16t}-l celltuï'y a fleet
of sailin, :slii?^s hunted ti_em off Net'rfoundleuid.
Unrestricted killing
led to rapid r.eductior, i.n their nui,ibers, and in subsequent years the
nul;rber of tht:*;se whales killed fell off' shai'._o1y. ,'it to ùeE;inriin^
oâ'
the 20th century onl,y a few tens were tr7lten ar)Itually. tlunt.a.ng
of" tiiern is now totally prohibited, but the present status of t,leir
stocks is unknown.
Formerly a single North Atlantic r].gR't liliale yielded up to
15 or 16 tons of oil and up to 0.5-1.0 ton of' wiralebone.
llum ! )-•Uack 'tII)ale
1...__..._.^__.___ :te;;al)'Lera. __,.__...._.J n ot.io::ît,
In wâ.n'ter hw:I-0--1)a.clc whales of tku
,",tlc>I,tic llrrr.'(1 move
into tl^o7Acii.l r.lncl sui;tro t>ierr.l wa'te. r a tie-uti•rec:rl t.;aj,e berae. and Lhe Azore.s
i,see A' t)crlci i..: 16).
].actating, females and their ctclve;:: 1^,:talrii.n in that
fi7'E'n, from l EUI'1.1,1T;/ -1;0 LT, Ilr.lllf; tllC' ibrll. f^..Lü l)(:(;lI: to :IIOVC t0
117:1: Lic 1r71'tC L`. . "'^ 7. L1(:^:.l.ltl ] 1.( 01 ."Cl j (.i(llill) U1. ^IlCltl ll

Faeroe and F,)hetland Islands: Later they move nortilnorieast.,
soon appear near Medvezhii Island and Spitzbereen. Some go east as,
far a:s Novaya. Zerilya, or are seen off tiie P^urma.n t,;oast.
The reverse migration ben-ir_s in au.tui:tn, althou-h. so,;ie ;;roups
have been seen in open waters off northern Eox:way in January, rebr.ù--
ary, and March. In Povember and Lece„iber the iiunil)-i».ck whales arrive
at their winte:cin,t;--grounds.
Those of the 1•lesu Atlantic hes:d. winter
in the: region of the Antilles ana Bahamas and adjacent waters
In ApI^â.l huTu}-back whales 'appear in 'uue coas ^L^zl waters of
1las:.achuuetts t,42 0 2d) . They are also seen off iiej-t1'ou::cilai;d in Apri1.
',uheir movement from the ^:e-t•tfoundland regioii follows t wo routes. bome
of'* them continue to move northward and pass throu^^i !)avis Strait into
.t3affin jiay.
Uthèrs_turn to trie northeast and enter inc. ureenlrLnd
Sea through I)enr7al:k âtrait, continuin^, to move towards :lcdveziiii
1:fi land .
'vhese whales do not enter the ea.stern part of t,e ?,arents cea.
rlump-b7.ck whales migrating soutla,ard have been obser.ved in
the t:ewfoundlarid region , as early as the end of September and in October.
In October and Ivovember# and even in :Uecetnber, . ti ►ey have been
observed near I•iase,achusetts.
in the rroxLherr; aart of the rvL-lantic Ocean h,zmp-back whales
feed mainly on crustaceans --•- Thrsanoessa inermis and v.e^_'I.n^cl;iphanes
nôrve,iiça. In coa:rtal waters tn::y eat herxi.ng ana ca.pelin. Uei)halopods
and Pte-ropoda have been found in their stomachs.
Sexiia.].lyM._ia.ture malos are about 11.7 metres iri 1ength, arid
fe°.ivues about 11.0 metres. Gewtai;ion lasts for rather les:: -ccian 12
months. `1'ne average - length of izet•t-born calves is 4.5 metresl they
feed for about six ii-ion t'ns on tne mother' s milk, the fat content. oi'
which is ul) to 40j
The. spout emit'Eed by a hLUAÿ--oack whale is not hi h, it consists
of fine spray, '.Che inte'rvals at which tue anisais appear on
the * surface of the wa%er vary ttidely and del)ena on i.ne circums-;anceS.
T.)uài.s;g the lactation perioti t,Ie 1•thaleb usually dive iox• only a i'ew
minutes.
The c:u:ration of tci;:: b.l'erl.th9.ng na,uNe varics fro;;i a i'ew minutes
1,o 2() .or ^0 ininuL•es.
exceed eil;•ht or nine knots.
'- hoir rate of moveriont u::ual:l.y dôea riot
Among ectops>,.rasites ti ►o most comruonly ou:;c:rvc;c are bax'Iia.cles
citl i;inv,^ t. and .t1.a,puc:r;:z „i.cl i.it the a:-e;;i.on of tliu u.rot;t•>>ital ori--
.1'i.ce. !Iiaa.e :I.ico c

• • 222
parasites include various helminths in the stomach, the intestines,
the kidneys, and-otner organs.
The diseases of hump-back whales, like those of other baleen
whales, are Practically uninvestigated.
U.'he modern whaling industry began to make use of hump-back
whales in the 1680's off the stast of Norway, mhere auout 1,500 of
these animals were taken during 24,seasons. rrom 1910 on the annual
take was 21 or 22 whales. There was a considerable increase in. the
talcs from 1921 to 1927, when front 55-96 up to 141-155 humn-back wnales
were taken in all. areas in a season. During the post-war period not
more than ten or twelve have been taken in a seasen, except tnat in
• 1951 the take rose to 40 hump-back whales.
Data on the take are given in AppendiX 6,
The chief products.are edible oil, of wnich up to five or six
metric tons are obtained from a single whale, and meat, .which is uSed
ho feed animals •n fur-farms and also as human food.
No census of the stocks of hump-back wnales has been taken,
and . tneir numbers are unknown . , The taking of tném has been prohibited •
since 1959, a measure that shoUld help to restore their numbers.
•
•
Blue Whale Ulialaenolitera musculus)
Blue whales arrive in .Debruary and march on the Banks of Newfoundland,
from which they may move by two routes use° Appendix 17).
6Ome of them make• for mavis Strait and the coasts of'southern Greenland,
where they remain until october or Lovemaer,
The route-of.the remainder splits in two. Some of trient move
to • the nortneast, and during the period.from Nay to August pas near
Iceland and Jan Nayen island, reaching tne Norwegian coast and being
observed as. far east as i,evaya Zemlya.
At tne same time other blue
whales are observed in tue Geitzbergen-region unostly between 70 0 ana
.76 ° . 1.4). As thc,. ice retreats 0..e. during the period - :r.om July to
September inclusive) tnawaales advance to higher latitudes. ;_nother
im2our moves to te east, and even to the soutner.st, from Apri,1 ta
june,.and approaches the coasts of Ireland and the neurides.
In Aniolst and ,;e 1Y;.ember, when tue revelse miration'fro.a the
nortnern nnd no rtneasbern ;nr - n of tile Atlantic beins,olue wnales
.appear near I ,'elDna RIA:t 111,2 Faeroe Tnuy ai)pear on -LA: coas -u
or Newfoundland in October and. ..ovember.

...; 223
It. is believed that there are several se parate herds of •nlue
wha.les,' w^iich' neel) ,ore-or-less-z^er:.:a,.ently to c:e.Ciitite migration
routes and feecîin;-grounds.
In the rrortnerrr part of the :,tlantic ûcean blue whales feed
mainly 'on those species of crustaceans that for,>> :nass concentrations,
such as 'i•hysai:oessa inerr,iis, wliich is up to 2.5 cm long, and
R,ycti.pha.nes noxvefica, which is up to 6 or 7 cm lonc'. i.o fishes
have been i'ollllQ in their stomach contents.
The niales attain e>e;cual maturity when their body length is
20.5 metres, and the fer:iales when their bocy length is 21.5 metres
(devi.ations to eitiller side are possible) . ;iatirrg takes place in warm
waters, mainly in winter. The calf is carried for about a year, and
at birth its lengti-i is almost one-third of that of its mother. Lactati.on.le.sts
for rather more than half a year, During the 24 hours
the calf takes very frequent feedings of tfie nrot'rrer' s milk, which
has a fat content of 35i^^-46i*, enabling ti-^e new-oorn calf to F,rovr
several centimetres every day. By ti:e. time that milk-fec.cïing ends
the calf' has almost doublea its original lenzith, up to 14 or 15
met.r.es:
A case its known of inâ.lrc being x'oui;d in tnc s•tomachof a male
t•tliose
body len[!;th was 19.2 metres. It is believed trra.t the feuialGs
mate once in every two or three years and give birth, as a rule, to
a single calf.
Plue whales usually keep to the open parts of the sea, but
th(,,y
have been observed near the coasts more o.i'teii than in ot;ler
areas. •They move more slowly on thei3_^ feeding-grounds, at fror.l five
to seven knots, but when alari:ied they --reat:ly increase their speed,
up to- fifteen or twent,y knots.
;'slue
whales can stay unuer water for 40 or 50 minutes. Uéfore
a prolonged dive they emit from five to fifteen suout,, u}, to ten or
twelve metres high. •zhey do not display t:ieir flu:`ces ^;rrien divine.
'l'heir -i,arasites and diseases have not been fully investigated.
i[untia-q; of blue wlha.les ( see A1>>>::r,cii^. b) uc^;an iii 1 8[ï^, uut
by 18130 c,h.;ir nu,-,bers had e.lx'c'a.df E;rca-t:7.,y ui,_,â.r,isJred, 1•riiich urougilt
^.Jle lru:A:ii_,^l of the.n practically co end.
.,,y
the bcE;ini,i.,.,, of Li-te 20tli centur.y tuc s %ocic:; of bl.uo wiiales
Wer.o fouocl L o be.^ :,cri.ou.:,l,y de{,leted as a i•e.^u.lt of
;.;:[nco o.i i.t,um 1'ro,n
of 'l;-tr)'a 1•1141.1 ,:,.Lc, 1>Jtio 6 11.1 1;),JH.
:cillirrg.
cc,aotctil. ,.Au I.1.0),;i lutc_. uuv>> .l i ah.i.l,i.tk:cl.

n4
The chief product obtained from blue whales was high-quality
edible'oil. The blue whales of the nortnern hemisphere .gave a somewhat
smaller yield of oil than do the saine species in tne . southern
hemiSphere (15 or 16 metric tons froM a single whale).
Canadian investigators have estimated that tne original herd
of blue.. whales in the western part of the s,!orth Atlantic numbered
approximately 1,500 animals, but . that by 1970 not more tnan 10;: , of
that number survived.
)?in Whale (balaonoptera physalus)
Uith regard to migrations of fin whales, be0 iropendix 17.
11.'he first of -these aniMals come to the coast of northern Norway through
Denmark Strait at tae beginning of the second hall of March, ana are
• observed there until -Lie end of April. rhen they disappear, but
after a month they reappear there and remain until August or September.•
What variation in their movements is due to the migrations of the
fishes on•which they feed (herring and catelin).
In May fin whales-arrive on the western coast of 'iorway from
the waters adjacent to the Iberian. Peninsula. They remain there
until August, after which.they depart in a northerly direction. In
winter (sometimes in 2ebruary or March) they appear again on trie
southern coasts of Norway.
in whales are usually present in the Medvezhii
bergen region from late May or early June until August. Large concentrations
of them have • been recorded tnere, oome of tnem going up
along the weut coast of Spitzbergen beyond the 80th parallel.
Yin whales appear in the raeroe Islands region in late Aprii
or early rlay. Thcy are already seen ofl tue .eerideequ.a the .lietlana
Islands in April and early May. In sering ana tue early part of .sUMmer
they stay in the northwes .tern ana northern parts of -the shetland
Islands region, but at Ine end of sumer.ana in autumn taey go away
farther to tne north ana northeast.
.13y March tne first lin wnaleu apDear in tne iceland'reuion,.
but most of them arrive later, and in July and August tney are to be
founa between lcelana and the northeauL siec of Creenlana. -
rneir principal winterin G-Erounas au apvcrunuly locaLej in
the water0 rron toe Azores Lo te COaSIO
aho JiorthwoL3tern
Africa .one or tW.m winter such frl.her north. ;.Atch . whalc, s, whieft
fond 00 horrlh nhoain, elre rOuhd ih
th,2 norweg -jan

225
In tne western p art of the North Atlantic it is most probaele
that fj:n whales winter west of bermuda, no% ranging (as blue whales
do) north of the 30th parallel.
In string they migrate to the north
and. northeast, and by the beginning of June tney have reached Aewfoundland,
where some of them stay throughout tue summer iiost of
the migrating wnales continue to move northward and penetrate terough
Davis Strait into Laffin bay, where they stay until (ictober. rhese
animais pass through Davis Strait in 1 ,Joveuber in the course of their
reverse migration. whec .n.er any fin whales enter hudson J5ay 'from
.3affin Bay is unknown.
During winter and spring fin whales feed on capelin, herring, 151
and.Coalfish, and later they eat Thysanoessa inermi:s and ::Leanvcti-
' phanes norvegica, sometimes together with herring and capelin.
stUdied.
The reproductive biology of fin whales has not been adeqUately
In tue region of western Lorway they become sexually mature
on attaining the following lengths: males, about 17.5-17.6 metres,
and. females, 18.0-18.3 metres; in the waters off tilé north coast of
Norway the corresponding figures are about 18.2,and 18.9 metres. It
A.s possible that we have there two separate herds of fin wilales. ïhe
fin whales that winter in the eastern part of tW! Lortn Atlantic .
smaller than those of the American herd, the males of-which become
sexually mature. on attaining a body length of 18.4 metres, and the
females at a body length of 19.0-19.1 metres.
Mating takes place in temperate and warm waters (in rare cases,
on the feeding-grounds) in winter. uestation lasts for•almost a year.
The : female produces a single calf, about 5.5-8.0 metres in length,
which is suckled by the motiler'for more tnah six montns. 2oth the
calf and the motner go ui, into the northerh latitudes and are to be
seen off .both the northern and the Western coasts of Aorway.
8ince 1910 the take of fin 'whales has fluctuated from year
to year, but bas almoL ncver fallen below 35( to 585. During the
first 'seven seasons after World War II ilunting was vigorouSly carried
on off tile coast of Lewfoundland,'from 4 to o62 uvury .
year, but later Ln industry declineC; tee tau.e vas only 1, -.6 in 196e,
and 152 and 436 in 150 and. 1968. burin& ti.ei;u tree yealo 2o), ..,;09,
v.nd 2 2 lin whalus were touen in tee :.ova ocotia reion.
. idn-wLale-nunbinu followeu a more oven course L.:ar leolnd
in 1,,,e yonril aftor Wu:1,qt. WrCv ti. t iÙ mDasonal Lauo »12111(' J:ro 142 Lu
•
are
•

...... 226.
34E3. Off tile coast of T:orn•tay there was a-;(.rleral tenuei^cy auz•ine;
'i;ïlat period to decrease in t,.e taice of fin whales, from 37,47395 in
tee best seasons to 10Lr in 1965 and 16 in 1969.
.Uata on the take are presented in Ap}l.cndixe,^ 6 arid 11.
t•lhen a fin lahale is processed the usual yield IS up to five
or si.r, metric tons of edibl(, oil and several tons of meat, w}iich is
used for both human and animal food. 'l'he liver and some other orGans
are also processed col:l-lerci(:slly (for furtller details see trio section
on Antarctic fin w11i1le:s).
The nlulber of fin wilales in the northi;resterrl -Atlantic ifl 1971
was estimated at 7,200, ancl the quota was fixed at ^6ü. il'le ^anadian
national quota varied from 80C fin lahales in V)67 to 470 in '1971.
Sei, llhe.le 1,]3alaeno-otera bore

..... 2 ^^'I
pass through Davis âtra,it, and it is possible that a few may So to
eastern Iceland.
'A change takes place in the diet of the sei whales during
their migration. 'zheir chief dietary item is t11en reci ^;.alc:r.us. ''Tiiey
also eat Lh,ysa.noes.>e inerinis and some oi t:er crustaceans. 4'arious
fish species have been found in -6heir s-comachs, but lauch less often.
Up to the .;.)i•esent their reproduction has not been adequately
5.nvesti^•;ated.
It is known i;he,t m.ttine, ts.ket., -,)lace in winter, from
I'lovember t o ,•.ar.c}'1, witn a pos:^ib7.e peak in January and i'ebruaxy. A
single calf, about 4.4 rsetres in lengtll and vrc.iahin;' almost 650 kg,
is born after almost a year of gestation.
Lactation lasts for about
six months, during wiiich time tile young whale attains a lengtin of
7.5 to 8.0 metres. After a short period oi mixed feeding on milk
and crustaceans) it graduates to an independent diet.
1'lhen sei whales are travelling they move rapidly and seldom
emit snoù.ts. Rfter being unaer water for a long spell they ernit a
few 5pout5, after wllickl they disappear again for ût;vc;ral. minutes.
'rlhen they are feeding they swia;l with the back, and even the front
part of the head, exposed above water.
Sei VliialeC are Swlftly°ilOVinE, ai1l.i:iE'ti:i, and liiielî, alF1I:'nii',d ;,l:ey
may develop a speed of 30 knots, but they travel for only a few lain--
utes at that rate. More often they iilovo at from 15 to 16 içnots, or
more, when danger threa.Tens. It is generally more difi'icult to hùnt
them than -6o hunt other rorquals.
1:urinL^ t,-le years preceding World Wa:r :I., and right up to tue
sC9lnnillt; Of the 19jU 1s, üeJ. whales were hunl;eti more actively t ,-jan
t11Cy are no1d; J2'o111 142 to 05 were taken annually, and in 1J20 the
take was as hir;l't as 510, .ïJurii.g the pex'iod follol•rind ..`orld 1lar II
the most succe3sf'ul. season was -1951,-
267 sei t•rha;.Les were killed;
in mou-c other seasons tne take' fell oelow 100.
.Data on tne take of soi whales are given in jL,ppenuixes 6 ana 11.
';'Î1C Cl''1l.Ùll? Oi^ 3©:L 4Jtlale:i is u:.^r.ti: in v^.l'iou:1 L^r^lllcrieS of
tile food ].T1llLlF^'L].'y
Sk)ecit,ien:i yielCl Ll1i to i,rireL' or four Lletir].C
tune of oil), as cn..7.so is t110ir flesh, Nlllcil is used for botii 11Lt..,£6n
and
animal. foocl,
1,o calcl.tlra.t.ionei of the nuuil)r.z:•rj U.,. soi 1'lIICLLf?:, Lr.wu uf c.:ll llraace,
1>ui; it j.;, uï;l.i.f~veci the A;lca,i.o

228
. . Bryde's,Whale (:balaenoptera edeni)
• ' The migrations of Lryde's Whales have not been investigated.
Whese whales are found in the Gulf of Mexico and off .v'lorida and thé
Lesser Antilles, and also between DaKar and spanish Moroceo in Africa.
o information on tneir biologu is available.
A few cases
of stranding of these animals in the southwestern liar% of the horth
Atlantic have been recorded.
In 1943 te Bryde's whales were Killcd on the coast of spanish
have bedn
Morocco, and a few wts,I. taKen near Grenada in th Lesser Antilles. •
Les'ser Rorqual çà:alaenoïtera acutorostrata)
is,ost investigators lean to the opinion that the lesser rorqual
makes annual migrations. In spring these animals leave tneir
wintering-grounds, which lie north of 20 0 M along-the co-sts of Africa .
and the Iberian I-eninsula,.and travel northward in ;mnall croups or
singly,' reaching the coast of. Florway in April; . the'main body of them .
in June and july. In summer ufrom june to August)
lesser rorquals are found in the 'open sea between horth Cape and
Spitzbergen. Whey are also observed in the Larents Sea, on the Mur- 153
man Coast r and off nwaya .bemlya. i'renant females approach the -
coast and enter narrow fjords in pursuit of shoals of fishes uthat
is why lesser rorquals are called fibay whales" in .I.Lussian). .uhe'males
remain.separate, as a rule, and avoid coastal waters.
Lesser rorquals • are found in the i:orth Sea 1)i.7actically all
year round, and some individuals enter the Ealtic Sea. In,summer
they are observed in the Mediterranean LJea 0.ncludin, -,
They have been recorded in the Black sea On two occasions.
-
the Adriatic).
In the western part of the 1:orth Atlantic leser rorquals
occur . off the coasts of 21orida and the Bahamas. are'known to
have entered tne LTulf of kexico.
In sprine:: they move nortnward, and by the beining of sumv.er •
they reach Lewfoundland, where tney are to oc seel. in• June anu JUly.
Soon after t•.e ice breaks up in June a.0 July thoy appear orf the
coast of fiabrador, where t.:ey remain all Inua:nur.allc:t umetimes even
until Lovember or •Decomber, whon new sea- .i. ce is formed. ,Joue of thou .
advance far .cher north to . Davih Ctrait, aLe a few eve'n enGtr aCfin
eiroar on 1,0 soutern coa:As OF re,nlanu aL;
as April, ana thenceforth the animals are seen
early
unuil Lovemoor.
arrives there

..... 229
Lesser rorquals sojourn on the northeastern side of ureeilland front
July until October, feeding on :tir.ctic cod. In autu::ln tne main body
of th,_-., anir_lals cioparts for warmer waters, but a, âew of ti-c:m stay in
the nortnerrl rej;ions almost all year round.
On th,: coasts of u:orway and ^.;ritain le^: er rorquals ïeed. on
herring and other snoal fishes in sprinU and summer; at lledvezhii
Island they feed on capelin; around Suitzbergren, on iierri.ng and si,la,l1
(.adi.cla,e;
and in the .r.arents tiea, on haddock and .iuall hc;x•ring. In
the I.iCtwfoulldl.'ant1 x•e(,;J.on the lno^it Gommorl food ].tcnl 1.'UUnl,t in the ütottl--
achs of lesser rorquals in surn.uer is capeJ.in (f3^^:j,
and herring.
followe,:: by cod
In the northe.r.^, -;)art of the Atlantic Ocean female lesser rorquals
attain sexual maturity at a body lerl&th of 'J.5 me-Gres ^ -Dossibly
at the age of two years), and wales at a body lent.,-th of 0.7 lileLlres.
It is believed that gestation lasts for about ton montns; during that
tin1e the embr,yo ,^:cows to a length of about 2.5-2.6 l,ietre;^,. Iml:•ing
the period of rnilk-feeding (four or five aionth;^ ) the calf' s length
increases to -A,..6 metres,
The females bring forth their youn,,:; between i)ct•obex and iLiarch,
almost every year; mating talces place f rom January -w i-,a;,-, ,,,os i,ly in
the warla zone. In the western nart of the Atlantic theBe dates are
somewhat dii'ferent, and the pea.k of matin-, occurs in _^'ebruary, ti.ri.th
par•turition in December.
By thè time that the ti•rrlales arrive at the
coasts of I3ewf.ourldland and horway most of the females have i'inished
suckling their calves.
Wh en. on tue surt'ace, lasser rorquals emit one, two, or more
spouts up to 2.0-2-5 metres high at ini;ervE:ls• of a few seconus. 'l'tiey
stay under water up to threc: or five minutes,
x•arely u1) to ten minutes,
accor(1].n,j; to their activity at the i;ii:le lfeec:in(^, i:ll.j;xa.tin^, 'etc.)..
They dive at an angle, and. do not dis-play thcir îlu_^es. They swim
more slowly than ottlor.rornuals, but so,.ietimes mri.:n a.wcr,Y ra.pid.ly from
a Pur ru inï; Shi p.
As a ria.1e they a.I,l ro^i.c}^ a slli.zl i)o1,`lly, and
tillles th l'ol:l.ow it closUly. Ale;r an,.ro^tch tnc.coa,s.;ts r,ioro closely
titan do ot+.er r.orf]L1e1.Ls, and enter -:ni].:1.7. bayo FLY:(1. ].'iver C'-,^tUa3.•1.eEi.
A: coin;)ared 4ritii otll(,r rox•q.ub.l s, t,ley u:ce. more ol'tel, ou,oi:ved aUlonU
ice-fl.oc;s, i„ patchcu o;' opcn wate r.
i1].'i1.•J.t Cli
on t lOJ.7 U(1.Q:Li,;,`,i i IIcI UII(? 1)r11:11i^c.}.C'ril].'].UU;; 11C1.Illilltll
^pr:ci.eG have boon found in 'tI:a.i.r C3tonlla0il, i.tiGG:3i;inei;, liver, and Ut11o:C
o 1: ^ ctJ'1^1 .

• • 230
Pheir diseases have not been studied, but some bone tumours
have be'en recorded.
Killer •whales, groups of which attack lene individuals, are
enemies of lesser rorquals.
Lesser rorquals are hunted most actively near the coast of
Norway,. in the Darents z)ea, and in the Shetland Islands region from
March 15 to aeptember 15, with a break from.July 1 to jUiy 21. ln
the. region north of 70 0 N and east of tue Ureonwich meridian the'
season closes on. july 1. Yhe highest annual kill, in 1954, was 4,541,
• and in subséquent years it has been from.2,150 to 2,755. Data on the
kill of lesser rorquals are presented in Ampendix.12.
* lae flesh is used both for human food and for feeding animals
on fur-farms,
After World War II an increaSe in the proportion of juveniles
• among the whales killed was observed in the Norway region. That ten-
• dency has been maintained in subsequent years, which points to a
decrease in the numbers of lesser rorquals.
Elsewhere, especially in the western part of the north Atlantic,
uhe situation with regard to the stocks of tuese whales is much
better as a result of less active hunting.
blierm Whale 0: ,hyseter catodon)
-,• - • -Females, juvenilesi.and young calves of this species mostly
live south of 40 0 N, and only in certain places where' there are warm
currents uo they come-farther north. 11:very year, or almost every
year, the males makemigrations.from temperate and warm waters to
the Arctic waters where warm branches of the gulf tream penetrate.
.In the western part of the north Atlantic males nave been
reporded in summer from Labrador, newfoundland, and -Davis Stait.
Later in autumn they .migrate southward along the eastern coasts of •
north America, and they spend the Winter in tue ■Julf er 1:exico and
in the regions of tue Antilles and bermuda.
From . Lay t0 Sertemoer, and «sometimes in Octo ber, sperm whales
are observed in the vicinity of Iceland and the Faeroe Islands, and
also of the sebrides and tne Shetland Islands.
• The Spitzseri,en reCon is apparontly t1,0 nortnern limit of
'sperm whale eistribution.
ther na,t unnn tn,
whn:les save not j)c.•n reeor:.ed far-
-aper whales are founu in

'
.. .. 231
trie southern part of tne'ortii oea practically all year round. Irom
there s'orne of tnem may go'into the baltic Sea.
In winter the sperm ,haies depart for.warmer waters, from the
Azores to the Cape verde Islands.. During.th migration soue of them .
go away from the coasts of bpain and l'ortugal, where they are hunted.
sperm whales are found all year round in the mediterranean
Sea, both males and females with calves being seen there.
In tué westernIceland region sperm whales feed a% tic seaboutom
in summer, at depths of- 500 metres or more, mainly on fishes
(up to 9 -8')c);
on lump-suckers (pyclopterus lumpus), ocean perch
(Sebastes sp.), and angler-fish (Lophius piscatorius),
Around the Azores the chief item in the diet is cephalopods,
from eight to thirteen species of these, but predominantly (up to
85% . of . the - stomach contents) members of the family ilistioteuthidae.
Whose are large molluscs, up to 2.0-2.5 metres in length, and the
total - weight of them in a-whale's stomach has been - as much as 250 kg. •
Individuals from four to five metres in length occur much less often,
and one or two squids of the genus Architeuthis, measurine: from ten
to • twelve metres and weighing 200 kg, have been recorded. . 'ne fishes•
found most often in the whales' stomachs are
and albacore.
In the-Azores region .female sperm whales attain sexual maturity
at a body length of 8.4-9.5 metres (average 6.8 metres); the
males become sexually mature at• a length of 9.6 metree or even
slightly less, and with testes weighing 1.5 kg or more.
sperm whales mate in the Azores region from danuary to duly,
with a peak frola March to 1._ay, Gestation lasts for 16 months
Lew-
born calves are about 3.92 metres • in lengtn, tne maximum record length
being - 4.25 metres. The calves are born from may to i;ovember, tue
peak_of births being from July to September.
«.i2he youni, are milk-fed
for rather more tnan a year, and by the end of tnat period attain an
average length of about 6.7 metres.
- ost of the females bear Yoi.ng once in throe yearh, a sinsle
calf beinu produced; twins itaVe been recorded in 0.66
of females.
sperm- whales have often been found sLrandod in «die northern
part of the Atlantic, in many places on tue coas%«of Lortn A:nerica
and more especially te. _uropc.an countrion thc•coats
nelminnic parasites are found in all sper.a wnales, in the -
stomach, intestines, kidneys, ,and otner or;:ans an d .
par Lu of t,.e body.
'frationlly no rtn(ly hao 1)unn . , 1d() of hiseasen in s:«orm whales.

..... 132
At the beginilii-,g of the 20th century sperm whales were killed
in the •2dorth ntlailtic only wnen occasion offered, and not more tïian
50 were taken in a season. uuntâ.ng for them was intensified in the
years preceding the beginninj; of World lrlar 1:1:,
rose to some hundreds of the animals.
and the annttal take
he 'Lake in all North Atlant.ic waters during tc:e 1550's was
from 834 to 1,290 annually, but from 1964 the inaustry gradually
declined. Data on the take are preseni;ed it. Apj.,ençl.i.xeU b. a,il« 11.
The chief product obtained from sper,,i whales is oil, which
is used for technical purposes.
A lump of ambergris weighing 422 kg
has been extra.cted from a sperm whale killed off 1:he.Azores (for
further details see the chapter on " Cetacea of the 6outhern- nemisphere•i
) .
ho census of sperm whale numbers has been taken. On the basis
of the ratio between observations of baleen wrlales and of sperm whales,
the number of the latter, in the northwestcrn part of the Atlantic
has been esticnated at 9,500.
igated.
I,esser :inern ',lhale (Kogia breviceL).
The migrations of lesser sperm whales have not been invest--.
It has been stirmised that during the summer tlle,.e whales not
only go away from. the coasts but perha-ps miL;rate nor-ahward into areas
of ricner food supplies, anü..that in winter they E,o south.for mating.
An instance is known (January 1923) of a female periFliing under the
ice in the port of Halifax, hova Scotia, Canada.
'21]e
diet has not been well studied. -..'he stomach contents have
consisted mainly of ce-phalopods, with occa:,ional off--ore crabs,
Tt is believèd that nlati.ng cakes place in suim.,er. Gestation
lasts for nine months. The length of a new-born Calf. i., about one
metre or a 1â.ttle more;
tile calf remains witli t,ie r•lotllcr for almost
a year. the i'emales bèconle sexually mature on a-ctainiilg a length of
slightly more t,la.n 'Lwo.metres. f•Iatin,-; is posJiU.e G.ltl:ill^_; lactation.
'.1'hese w taleù sln^ly, rarely in pi3.].I's l c':. Tei:la.l.e \di.tll a
calf or a male with a 'fem^Llo) , ana occa.;iio11L11:1y in :.n

..... 233
North A-lâ.ntic Bottle-nosed Whale ('t^l^eroodon aut-pu7.latus)
In winter ti.ese bottle-nosed whales ],as:, ctirou^,ii the tbill-,pe rate
zone and, a:^e observec. in the waters ofï C;ape Verde, in tire r.editerra-•
nean Sea, and ^very rarely) in the naltic aea; in t,te wes-cé^-n part
of their range tr.ey are observed in Long Island âciund and. bou,;h from
the state of :tihode T:;land.
In spr.ing they miÜr.ate to more northerly reg,ions, often into
regions warmed by branches of the Gulf ^;tream. nc(:y arrive at Jan
hayon Island in i:arch ana A;^:ril; they appear off the coast of I,1orway
in npril. and later, Some of them go as far as Spitzber[;en, and they 156
have been recorded eveii at 760 i,;, at the very ed.,,;ei of the ice-field
and amonr, ice-floes. They are scarce in ti're: eastern par-i; of the
Barents ;^,ea, and have been recorded near iiovaya Zemlya; they have
been knôtan to enter the ^,lhite Sea. They r.ave been observed in stunarer
in llavis ^;trait and Hudson Bay, and in thé waters adjacent to the
eastern and western sides of southern Ureenlanci and Iceland. It is
believed that tne range of A;oruh Atlantic bottle-nosed whales is
limited by.the isotherm of 20-•j0 0. Their de]rartur.e soutnward has
been recordea as early as âeptember, but is tSrotracted until winter..
These whales feed mainly on cephalopods, in search of which
they dive to considerable depths. Fishes, holothurians, and starfishes
have very rarely been found in their stomachs. `Z he finding
of pebbles ^sometii7tes as large as a pear) in their ut^machs is evidence
of feedin; near the sea-bottom.
Little is known of their reproductive biology.. The a^e at
which they attain ;sexual maturity has not been precis'-ly' determined.
They mate in spring ^in May?). It is bc;lieved •cirat ges cation lasts
for about a year. -.r•he young are born in ;;;,.i.dna and sur:lmer, from 1..arch
to June inclusive. 3,1ew--born calves are from 18^ to 350 cl.l in length,
usuall.y about 250 crn. Milk-feeding lasts, perhaps, for four to eight
months, af tc:r which l^erioa tue youn^ are r.}. 5-1.. 9 i:letres in 1_ nLçtii
'i.'he herd insti net is m;lnif e;;•ced very sti:one;ly in bbt Clo--noseci
whales. t.:enerally t;cey live in oriall groups of ï:i•our two or three to
twonty anir,ts.l.i^, mi-l; sometimes hords of :evel.al tnlnci•r.'ocïU ai-e 20en.
A 4;.r.oup, 41irLCh i s Liaun.l,].y c(5ui).oa(.-)c.l of fem,i.l.e:c, yu a1; c,tlvau, ruRu adult
malc , is hcaded by a l111'ale.
l;ottl.i;-»no0ocâ wlur,le13
can lii,"Iy u.ndor.• wri.tor i:ov. 15 1,0 1,0 luirnttc:s,

• 234
- and:occasionally up to one-and-a-half or two hours. Ifter diving
.they perform a long:Series of.inhalations and exhalations on the
'surface, with short intervals between them. The sound of their
breathing is short and sharp.
• In Arctic waters an incrustation of diatoms may be found on .
the bodies of bottle-nosed whales. The most commonly-occurring ectoparasites
are whale lice, which attack the head, beak, and corners .
of the mouth; copepods and barnacles are observed les S often. Varbus
helminth species are found-in the .stomach, oesophagus, - intestines,
and kidneys
• The diseases of-these whales have been very little studied.
bone tumours and dermatomyeosis have been observed.
.iNorth Atlantic bottle-nosed whales were first hunted see
•Appendix 12). near the coast of Forway at the end of the 19th century.
).rom 1938 to 1 967 the annual kill varied from 8-20 to 612. They
.are now.hunted off the coast of l'orway and in adjacent waters çin
some years as far as Spitsbergen), and also in the Shetland islands
region, where in recent years whaling has:been very successful, from
148 to 686 being taken annually.
. In the western part of the .lorth Atlantic a few tens of these
whales are taken in the best years.
Very large males yield up to two metric tons of oil and up
to 200 kg of spermaceti, butdialf of these quantities is*more usual.
The oil obtained from the_subcutaneous blubber, whicri is WO tO 15 CM
thick, is used ior technical purposes. .Lhe most , valuable oil is that
extracted from the lower.jaw, wnich is used for lubricating delicate
apparatus. The flesh Is used as food for fur-bearin& animals. . . .
The weight of a male (.3.6 metres long was 2.18 metric tons. • .
The status of the stocks of tnese wnales has not been studied.•
White Whale or Beluga (Delphinapterus leucasj
wh ite whales are found nortn of the Gulf Of St. Lawrence and
Newfoundland, along the coast of Labrador, i
avis Strait; anu morth
of ia11in bay (beYend 00 ° N), in Lancaster Sound, in nudson S trait,
and in hudson
ln trie eastern part -of their.range wnite wnales have been
reported at 82 0 30' '2. near Shitbergen, and in tue •arents,
Lam, ana Laptev Seas. In some years they enter tne Laltic nea and

. • 25D
penetrate even into the Gulfs of bothnia and einland.
They nave also
been observed off the coasts of the Netherlands, Denmark, and Great
britain. In nay and June 1966 a white whale entered trie river Lhine
and ascended 400 km above its mouth.
The white whale is able to winter in the ice-ïields, finding
small patches of open water.
to 2.5 cm thick, with its back.
It breaks easily througn thin ice,• up
White whales make migrations in various directionsf depending
on the area in which they live. In the Kara Sea, for instance,, they
appear in APril and May and stay all summer, but a large proportion
of them go away west for the winter, into the Barents,s -ea; a certain
number spend the winter in catches of open water in the Gulf of Ob'.
The principal items' in the diet of wnite whales are shoal
fishes: in the White Sea, herring and capelin, in the Kara Sea, Arctic
cod;•and in Greenland waters, cod and ocean perch.
They often eat
demersal fishes such as halibut,•flounder, etc., and . also various
invertebrates.
The period during which they attain sexual maturity is very
prolonged. The females mature when they reach a length of 515 cm or -
more, at the age of three years and upward. iexually-immatura specimens
. three or four years old have been observed.
The - mating season extends over about half the year, - from the
end of February to the end of August, with a peak
the second half
of April and early May. Gestation lasts for about' s'. year, and the
young are born mostly in spring, with a second peak at the end of
summer. Births have been observed in September and even in 1,ovember.
As a rule a single calf is produced. Lew-born, calves.are usually
about 150 cm in length.
The lactation period apparently lasts for about half a year.
The.milk has a fat content of up to 27, sometimes as much as 33.
• Cases are known of embryos being found in females that were
still lactating. Therefore L:ome of tne females talw part in repro- .
duction.every year; others produce youn twoe in v,hreu year:.;, end
sometimes,oven less often.
sonietirum SOCh.
When a white whale aPpears on tne surface a slaall 'Jpout ln
he animalo are ureu.arioun and ,,enorally rowain in •
groups, uometines conre;ating in herds of hundreds or even thousands.

.... 236
Their rate of niovement depend s on tlie circurnstar,ces .
Alarmed white
whales i-iiay.swirn at a rate of ten to twelve knots.
The most.intensive hunting•' of white whales takes place in
Hudsôn. Bay from Juno to ijeptember, with a peak in July and Au6-ust,
and in adjacent areas; from 93 to 708 o.i the animals are killed tnere
annually. In Greenland waters they are hunted all year round, but
the maximum kill is in January and May. Up to 540 white wiiales are
killed there during the season.
ITntil recently there was small-scale hunting of white whales
in the Barents and. 1t:ara ;jeas, the annual kill being from 139 to 1,333.
Data on the kill are presented in Appendix 12.
Por the yield of prouucts, see the chapter on 'Cetacea of the
Pacific Ocean and Adjacent Waters of the Arctic Gceailr' .
l1arwhal (T•:onodon monoceros)
The narwhai lives fartrier north than any other cetacean, in
thc region adjacent to th6 edge of the ice-fields. I•.umer.ous grou}rs
of narwhals are observed in sumfner in the Franz-Josef LL-.---d reg-ion
^a.s far north as E30o-850 14; and near I^iovaya Geialya; alon€; the coast
of oiberi.a they almost never approach the land. ..Che-j are abundant
in the uanadian 1;retic arcnipeJ.a[;o and around Ureenland. Dr. winter,
because of ice formation, the narwhals move southward; sometime.s
they enter the ti•thite aea.
'a'hey have been r.ecoraed off the coasts of urcr-tt L;ritain and
even of the Ne eherlands.
A!arwhals feed mainl,y on cephalopod:r and also eat. vc.ri.ous species
of fishes, principal ciemei•sa1: fir.hes.
Almost no studies have been made of narwh^^.'1 rc .proutiction. 158
It is posbible tiial; rnatinL; and. Pa:l.'tu"J.'S.tioï_ take place tiii•ou,;,.ou-c tire
year.. i.è1•r-born narwhal calves are from 1.5 to 1.7 uretres in lengtii.
i:arirlials stay iii ^;xoups rrumberin^; i'ror:i a. few aiii,anls up io
.huge herds of hundreds ^.i'ormerly even thoue,a.,ûs) . •,.^;ce,y a.jlrroacir siii,p.5
and me.y fol.loFa Inern fol: F,ori;e ti.rne.
zricy are aclo to uive to a (iepth
of 400 rnetre._ and to rurua.in for a lonU time under wate:>_•. _-,rey break
oc
tiaiouf.,n fruc;îi ice up to ^ 5 cm thick, maicx.rr{; air-,:olc:s or everr sniall
n
patche:, of ore:, wacer.
1)rlta on the t;1Lk(: of nr>>•w,rsl.,. ^^re 1res.:nt-eu in :t..pcncri:_ 12.
1)" :^o^nc yc^nra 1.1 f.'ew tcns of trrr::m are i:illed off tia cu^,c C oi ^;r ^ i:nl^tc u,

..... 237
but in 1962-63 551 were taken. Local residents use tiieir flesh for
food, and also make use of -clieir hide., and oil. '-.riie t•reic;nt of 'larce
specimens may a;:tount to one metric ton. There is a belief that na,r--
whal tusks have medicinal properties, and in former yea.rs thc:y were
highly valued.
The, weight of a tùsk may be up to 12 or 1ij kg.
lch:i-:s)
Ooramon J)olphiii (Delpnu:^ Cte - -_^ __
Dolphin migrations have not been i.nvesti.,;ated. i;oJ.pltà.ns appear
i.rL
the 11ewf.oundland rej;ion at -tne enci of July and
stay there for the whole of August. lit the olaci. Sea dolphins do
not, it is believed, make special s,:asonal mik2;,,ations; -k;heir r:love--
ments are affected by tc_e distribution of tiie shoals of fishes that
form the chief itel•, in their diet.
In winter i3laci. Sea dol ahins feed on [,rea -G pipe-fish and an-:•
chovies, and in summer on sprats and. pipe--fi,sh. In otiier ret,ions the
diet includes herring, ° anchovies, sardines, and other fishes, and
around. Corsica tnei.r stomachs oft-en contain cephalo;oods.
uolphins
are in their highest sta.t.e of nutrition in 'P;arch anà April, and in
their lowest in August.
The fem_t.les beco?:]e se?Cuall^r mature at the end of their third
year of life, wnen their body length is about 100 cm, and the males
at three or four years of age, when their length is about 170 crn.
14a.•L-ing.takes place in summer, with a pealc in July. Uesta.tion lasts
f'or about ton months; new-born calves are 80--95 cm in len{;-ch; they
are fed for about six months on milk, -,]-ie fat content of which is
41,,-4L^1^.
i,,a.tiTig takes place during lactation, i4ost of tne i'eulales
mate almost every year; usually, after -t'riree reproductive yeal:s,
sex.ually--laature females are barren for the fourt;l year.
t:o;nmon dol^Alins are tite swiftest me:,tbers of t;te fa.;,li1y j-)elphiniclae,
being able to cïevelo-a a speed o.L 3J knots. 'l'heir 7-ivL.s are
spent entirely in surface waters. ahey ca:, dive to a at.ptn of riot,
I-ilore t1tn.Tt '(0 Ineti:es and. stay under water :t'oz i.r^x.'ee tiu five Ininut.es.
i5o?aeti!Ilef.3
the-y- chCl.tie :;tloal_ o.L' f].sh to the suriaCSe, a .LZct oïl; en
talCen -ad VF1.n Gaue of b`,' ' l Ci1'^GI'7'L1,T1(?^1,1': 11.5 ltr?].'illt'T'I.
üommon dol!ihi.ics do not usua.J-J.y r,ra.il; sj,out.,, and. I-111011 in ^-.'Xoujjs'
they dive inaividua.ll,y.
slii:y oftr:n follow a"rtip av "ri àe" on t,.e
lave L o7:It1GC! ] 1: !]"on t o1: t1!' ])rob" o:f of ^:Lr vet-,:,C:l, ,ttic, '7:.•lvi`]. 1,01., '301110
time in that w^l.y. "'i ►ey have, ùeoli scen to le;t,^ to. a rtei,;,it of Cive
or I;iX In(" t,Y1(:IS.

• • 230 .
They endure captivity well,,very easily adapt themselves to
new circumstances, and are very amenable to training.
Endobarasites have been found in various °items and parts of•
the body, and some parasitic species that infest tEe. lungs may be a
cause of death. Emphysema has been recorded in the lungs.
The nSh ha u prohibited the killing of dolphins in tne Black
Sea since 1966
od
• Dolphins weighing.from 40 to 60 kg yield from trie subcul:aneous
A
blubber layer, and the oil from the lover jaw iu used as lubrication
for delicate machinery. The flesn is not inferior to veal in chemical•composition,
and is used .
in the leather industry.
p romote
to make sausages. The hide can be used
Whe prohibition of dolphin-killing in tne Black bea shOuld
restoraLion of the dolphin stocks there.
, Bottle-nosed Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus truncatus)
Practically no investigations of . the migrations of bottlenosed
dolphins have been made. In the Black Sea their movements are .
governed by the. nature of their diet. During the shoaling of Azov
anchovies, for instance, the dolphins are found in the vicinity of
the Strait of Kerch.
In summer they occur more often in the northeastern
part of the Black boa and on the southern coasts of the Crimea
and the Northern Caucasus. • -
They mostly use-demersal fishes'as food. In'the Black iea •
such fishes are haddock, flatfish, skates, mullet, etc. lelagic fish
spedies are eaten if -tney form dense concentrations • In captivity
(in an oceanarilua) these dolphins eat 20-32 kg of fish every day.
Their reproductien is confined to the warm period of the
year. • According to oceanarium observations, the rut lasts for several.
days. Copulation takee place during movement, usUally at night or
in the morning, and lasts,lor not more than ten seconds.
lasts for about a year.
•
Gestation
The young, which at birth are about one e - metre in length and '
weigh 10-12 kg, are milk-fed for from three-z .,nd-a-nalf to• 16 months..
The customary interval between periods of sucklini; is from ten to
. 30 minutes. The fat content of the milk is LID tO
.Thee dolphins swin.very rapidly, at 25-8 knots, ...neir life
cycle is mainly associated with coas -Gal waterr. iLei are able to

..... 259
dive to a depth.of 100-150 metre,, in search of food, and to stày under
rrater for ten or fifteen rninittes. Off the Ivory Uoast (^•'est Africa)
the dolphins fec:d at deptâs of 500 to 500 r!letr.es, ai.d sometimes 300
metres. `l'ney are able to bond themselves into a, circle.
emiC
i'hey re,rel.y ^spouts, i,Thich are up to 1.0-1.5..laetres hi;;h. •2hey
usually'dive in a group cotlsi.sting, of some tens of the animals. `i'hey
can leap au hifjll as six metres out of the water. -.L'hcy are ;3eldom
seen to follow ships. They are often kept in captivity, to which they
reodà.ly boconte accustomed, and are easily trained.
^^ They l,rere hunted in trie Black Seauntiil 1 ^^.i5, the tak.e a nounting.to
several hundreds.
The weight of .iamales from 220 to 250 cm in length was frôrn
'97 to 197 kg, and that of young males from 210 to 24u cm in length
was from 120 to 150 k9. i;ottle-nosed dolphins three rLetres in length
weigh up to 400 kg. The products obtained from tllem are the sa,se as
tho::e from. common dolllhins, but their yield is four times as high.
'.L'he
nua:lber of bot-Ule-nosed do'1_^hins in the lslack :jea is. not
great; it is much less than the number of conimorl ciolphins there.
Harbour l'orl.oise (I1h4coena. 1phocoena)
The movements of harbour porpoises i^: the aea oi Azov and the
Black Sea are associated wit h the migrations of fishes . Harbour
porpoises are seen most often and in largest numbers in trip southern
half of the oea of Azov from YTnieh they oÙ-: ained thé icussian name
azovka), in the ;,trait of Kerch, and in aajacent watersoi' tiie black
Sea.,In autumn, followin' anchovy shoals,. tney ].eave t„e Sea of Azov
to spend the winter in the Black Sea, approactling Anapa al:c:. i:ovor4ss.-
isk and even lsatunl, where they feecL on Blac.ï Sea anchovie:,. In
sprint,, togettier with the anchovies, ircey return from taie coasTs of
the Grimee, and the Atorthern i;a.ucasus to t,-,e Sea of Azov.^
Ilarbour porpoises are found in tue ?,o.y of .r^undy, on the horth--
eastern coast of tue 1f,,S.A,, in I^

111.04 240
Porpoises usually snatch their prey, but they have been.
ob•erved to suck fishes - into their Oral cavity from a uistance of up
to 10 cm, '2!hen fed twice a aay in an oceanarium narbour porpoises .
consume 3-5 kg of fish daily (up to 15p of bneir own weight).
Porpoises attain sexual maturity when their booy length is
about 145 cm. In the Black ea mating takes place from july to October.
The young are born after nine or-ten months of gestation, usually
from April to June inclusive.
Their average length at birth is 'about
75 cm, and their weight from 3 to 5 kg; they are s fed for four months
on the mother's milk, which has a fat content of up.to 46. By the
time that the young porpoise changes to an inaeDendent diet it has .
attained a Weight of 25 kg.
The females mate eVery year, or almost
every year, at a time when they are still suckling their young.
In the Bay of rundy region mating is observed from june to .
August; parturition takes .
place in june and July, after from 300 to
330 days of gestation. The . young porpoises measùre 60-90 cm at birth;
they are suckled for about eight months, and stay with the mother
for the next year.
Harbour pori.oises usually swim in small groups of ten or less,
but during the period when they feed on fish shoals they congregate.
in herds of several hundreds. When they dive tney seldom stay under
water for more than two or three minutes.
Numerous cases of stranding have been recorded. .
Their enemies are killer whales and sharks.
Porpoises were hunted in the Black Gea until 1965.
A small
number are tai.z.en by Danish fisherman in the Littlo.Belt. ..uhe largest
specimens (measuring 170-180 cm) weigh from 70 to 90 kg, but the avera,.
age weight of ivrt azovka is about 30 kg. .corpoisc-hunting was begun
as early as the ninth century. The flesh was used for food, .as a
delicacy,'and the oil for illuMination.
Porpoise-hunting has been 'prohibited in trio Black Sea since
1966 it is belioved tnat harbour.porpoiscs are less numerous tnan
common dolphins.
in ṅorm;mdy in 1090.
Yhe first prohibition of porpoi;:e-I:illin.,; 'as ifjsued'
-
Common Ilackfish mclaena melacna )
• •
uommon blacfisn i.;.() far north ie summer ans mi ë,rate into more
southerly waters in autumn.
..chey usually appear in Lne newfounelanu
•

..... 241
rej;ion at the end of June or the begi.nT)i.ng of July, folloW-n8 the
cephalo•nods 1lleV illecebrosits, and re,.:ain tnere until 1:ovember
before t,oin- soutli again. .
'l'heir chief items of diet are cephalopods and l_ml)llil)oda.
Judging by the finding of pebbles and particles of soil in tneir
stolîlaChs, conumon blackfish dive to the sea-botto^.i in shallow areas
in :Iearch of food. In an ocea.ï)arium they di.splcly a 1)rel.crencc for
cephalonods ^aJ.thou,r_;'h they usurLlly eat fishes l;tla^ ,;ai;hel' in snoals)
consumi.ng from 9 to IS k- -- sometimes as much as 25 to j2 kE -- in
a day. 'i'hey ra::idly b,^coi:le used to tne persons who attend to them,
and take fish from a ma,n' s hand.
in the I:ewfour,dland region the females atl,aii) sexual i;la.turiLy
at a length of 350-360 cm, usually at the at;e of six or seven years
over the period from 4.5 to 8 years). The males become sexually,
mature at a length of 490 cm, with the weight of tneir testes about
500 grams, at the age of 11 to 16, years. The mating season is pro--
longeâ., with a peak in April or ifiay. The ,youn^ are born mostly in
the middle of August, after gestation lasting for 15.5 months. At
r
birth they 'are about 170--180 cr) in length. 'Cor tneir z irst six to
nine IlloTlttls . tiiey feed only an 111i l1C, a.i:'i;a:iiïi.nd ^-,, ir3i,e; -h of û JOüt 2 70
cm, and then change to a diet of cepilalopods, but they continue to
be suckled ùntil they are two 'years old.
In appearance the common blackfisai differs frôm other 1)e1phinidae
in its rounded head, which shows high in the water, and its
dorsal fin, which is locai,ed in the first quai•ter of the boci;y length.
The spout is small, up to 1. 5;aletres in height; tlle_:e whales cola-e to
the surface uy) to ten times in succesNion, but co not leap out of
the water. Inhalation and exhalation last for one second.
Oolnmon blackfisn are grel;arious a1li.aals. Agroul) ustlally consists
of ua to 15 or 20 of them, but in tiii.: hcwf ouncilwnù. ret;ion
groui)s of 150 or 200, or even more, have uc(-,rl rc:coràed. A group
may consist of mature :males and fev)a.les, am: alsr)- of' juvoctiles.
JjaOllelOl' ^;T'Oll})S Of ?/OLlll^; c^?ItlLlon bl^lckfiSll are L;oLletiill('
ot):>e].'Veü.
Tue rate of mov(..nent is ur to 22 knots.
Cases of :,-6x•ar)din, of coTn;:lon blacki'i2.l Ilave tic''11 reporLed in 161
many pla.cec), c,on.ieti.mes in l.;rouj>(> of 00111e teuti or c'V0I1 11iL1')(1:::f.:dJ.
t!11l:i.J.' L^ Î fJ('Ll.Liet.l ÎIiL J(r no t ^)(;G`11 j IlVht; l] j.;^ ^.(.1i.1 "One lUr IUlU:.., lIt1VC:
bB .T7 .}'OI.ITICl 11i I:llelil, l^U'^11 (:X,'}:'J1'11i11 é].I'IG iJl'l..',l.'21

•
242
.The killing of comMon blackfish (sec Appendix 12) is mainly
concentrated in the Paeroe Islands, where from 1,400 to 2,200 are
taken eVery year; in•Newfoundland in the middle 1950's from 2,00 0-
4,000 to 6,600-7800, or even 9,800, were taken annu ally. 2hey are
hunted on a small scale in the Lesser Antilles (Barbados, Santa Lucia,
Dominica, etc.), the take being up to 250 annually, with peaks in
June and September.
• • Among . tne largest specimens, a male 6.1 metres in length hau
a weight of 2.9 metric tons, but most animals 'ken are much smaller.
A single common blackfish yields up to 250 Le of blueber and
265-280 kg o2 meat. 2he internal organs (heart, lungs, liver) are . .
used for food; the meat is eaten fresh, salted, or dried.
No count of the. numbers of common blackfish has o,..en. made.
'Killer whale ('Orcinus ores.) ,
. The migrations of killer whales in the northern part of the
Atlantic are associated with the movements of Atlantic anu Scandinavian
herring shoals, which the animals pursue for long distances.
In the Hebrides region peaks of their arrival are . recorded from_
February to May and from july to!‘Jeptmber. They arrive off the '
coast of .,cotland also at two peak periods, in lity and in Augus -tand
September. Killer whales are seen off southwestern .Lorway moLtly
in l'ebruary, and in more northerly regions, where thç herring shoals
go, in May. At tne end of summer and the beginning of autmnn the .
killer whales appear again Off the northern coasts of Norway and
eastern Iceland. Their arrival in ;he Newfounuland• region is observed
from April onward, ana on th Labrador coast from July. They pass
r:ewfoundland in spring and summer, heading north; sometimes their
arrival follows that of rorquals. The movement in the opposite
direction is observed in autumn.
.The chief items in their diet are fishes, when tnese lorm
substantial concentrations, ana cephalopods. oometimeS killer males
attack various marine mamraals.
The males attain sexual matbrity when their booy length is
about 5.8 metres, and the females at 4.9 metres. It is believed that
gestation lasts for aeout a year;•parturition taLt.'s laabe mostly in
autumn. Ilew-born whales are ■s rarely PU much as 2.5)
metres in lonRth. after a year,. èturin wfnich tiate tney remain with .
thclv moolers, their length rhohes 5.5 moto.i.

Ob
'^'ile
..... 243
behaviour of ljorth Atlantic r:illcr t•rhales is similar to
tllat - of• 1:iller whales in tue norchern part of th(.: lacil'ic. (.,cean.
'l'heii' diseases nave not been stuaied, 'Diseased teeth, bone
tumours., and va.rious excrescences have oeen recorded.
':'he huntin6: of ltii.llér whales ^ see A1)r)endf.:: 12) is very well
Organized. It is mainly carried on by 1i01'\•lc6-ian:; off the. coas'u-s of
i^;orvay a: d tiil. 5hotlal,cl T.s.lallds, from 104 to 161 bèirl,s taken a nnually.
tons
^h(: w 0 ,.01t
of the 1a.rt;est ;•ciller wriales is about ei6;llt we't.ric
Most killer whales yield f'rom 0.5 to 1.0 ton of oil, Wllich is
used for techniciÿl. -purnoses.
converted into mea.t-a,ea.l.
''flesh inc is uced for animal fooct or
The oil from trie lower jaw is hit;illy valued,
as it is used to lubricate delicate m,^cùanisms and a;,i:aratus.
Atlantic ^-'hite•--sided .Uolphin ^I,a;t;enorhyncl^us a.cutus)
The biôlogy of this dolphin is almost unl.no,:,n. l'lle females
attain sexual maturity when they are about 225 cm in length. Uestation
lasts for almost ten months, culminating in the birth of a calf
about one metre in length. Ma.ting takes place in autumn, ana parturition
in sum:ner..
These clol_phins leecl mainly on fishes ^harriril; and llaelcerel) . 162
'i'hey usually stay in groups of' a few tens, but ti,ihell tney are feedinr;
on.shoals of fishes up to 1000 or 1,500 dolphins may congretia'Le.
There is no specialized huntinU for trlem
acvanta.,c;'e
of the cir.cumsta.nce that dolphins in pursuit of fish-shoals aE)uroach
the coast and enter bays and fjords, fishermell cover the outl.ets from
these ar.:,ls of t::e sea with nets. in recèr,t years fewer than 100
dolphins have been taken in each season.
1-'rom 52 ûolp'rlins killed in X,lrch 19^2 off the soutlii-te stern
coast of î`ort'ray, 3,162 k-; of inec.i; for feeding .;'ur-bearers, 1, 500 k^;
of Ulubbér, and 1,E100 k-g of bones were oùtainel.i.. A female 225 cm in
length weigheù 161 kg.
t,hite-bea,ked ijolphin t^.^^ ;enori^vr,clllas al, ir.ostz'à.
1jecau ie of d.ec].'Ca:;e:, o0.ie1'VCCI in
of
(t01•°
],)h1.Il;i
in the waters off th,: a,L'].tlsh lsle:î anG .ol'wA.y, .L'G Î11.1:i UCeIl
ûu,m;;e:'te(1 ï;I1CLt ttle:f rla,}:e seasonal Ini.i;ration;.
l',,(:y
lire (',encrC,.ll%
seen in coastal LlatP;rE,'. '1'11(:,r fe.:(I oll
IIGi']:.1.11-,, CO-C(, cüJ)(:1.].11,
.and
na.vrl.^^ïL)
and also on cCT111L7i0_^o(Is.
^^.b ll)(^; ;'1,1,G
iI(Lt'Lll]'].b1.0I1
lCl^ti4

.4 111:0 24 4
place'during the . summer: Wile new-born young are from one meLre to
1.2 Metre in length.
White-beaked dolphins are hunted to a limited extent off the
ceasts of lorway and iewfoundland. '..L'he weight of males from 2.6 to
3.0 metres in lengtn is up to 275 kg.
False Killer Whale 0›seudorca crassidens)
The migrations of false killer whales have flot been studied.
Their food consists of cephalopods, sometimes also of.fishes; they
often come near the coasts, and are found stranded on both sides of
the northern part of the Atlantic and in adjacent seas.
'i2hey attain sexual maturity at a lenbth of not less tnan
370 cm. l'he mating period is prolonged. Lew-born calves are 170 cm
or more in length.
l'aise killer .whales stay in large groups consisting of sonie
hundreds of the animals, - mainly in the open part of the sea.
ney are ndt hunted.

..... 245
C HA??7.';^ i 3
CBTAC EA OF Y0's^:.'1:I PACIFIC AND A"L'JACJJA^T2' WATERS
07.^ THE ARCTIC OCEAt`;
JAN 15 1974
The region â.iscussed here consists of the waters of the
Pacific"'`C>'cean north of the Y^;qua.tor, and also the East Siberian,
Chukchi, and Beaufort Seas.
species-composition of the cetaceans that were formerly,
'i'he
or are now, hunted in this region is similar to that of the North
Atlantic anc. Arctic Oceans and of the entire southern heniisphere,
except for grey whales.. In this region more use is made of the
products of the stocks of small cetaceans (Delptiinidae of various
species, com::1on blackfish, killer whales., beakec. whales, etc.)-
11
he roz^imary quarry of whaling ships under sail consisted of
snerm whales and right whales in the temperate and warm zones of
the Pa cific Ocean. Grey whales also were hunted. on both sides of
163
the ocean.
At the end. of the first half of the 19th century whalers
},àg-a„ to hunt right whales in the Sea of Okhotsk and the Bering Sea,
and within two or three decades they had -pra.etically exterminated
these animals there.
At the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century
the Jaranese began more intensive hunting of whales off the coasts
of Japan and Korea. Coastal whaling stations arose in the U. S.A.
(California, Alaska, etc.), Canada (Vancouver Island), and several
other countries.
LTntil 1941 not more than three pela,^,ic S•rhaling• flotillas
otiera,ted at the same time in any year, During that period the' whales
ta.ke?i were mostly fin whales, sei whales, srer-m whales, and sometimes
hmmv-ba.ck whales.
The situation changed. substantially after 1951, ;-ihen -- in
addition to the Soviet Aleut flotilla -- Japanese flotillas began
In some seasons as many as seven flotillas i•rere enE;aged
to onexate.
During the 1969 season three Soviet flotillas (in 1970, two)
there.
ope.rated. in the nort'iac,rr_ part cif ti'-e Pacific Ocean, as well as eigl-it
Ja»anese coasta.l s-ta.Uons and th-ree Japanese flotillas, and one 1rnerican
coastal station in California. with 82 whaling vessels. The^,^^,1 ^, ,
;D ^^ -
^,•.^
n c. ^^i
r 4TtiOrfi :• 4O r•
oT , ^;'^1J=^•
5,10kA
7^ t: ;^:; .,^ ^,•:^
^ s^e-•ç^lj; ^• S -

Canadian station on 'Tancouver Island did not operate in 1968-70,
and the U.S.A. discontinued whaling in 1971.
246
Sperm whales were of most importance, in the whaling industry,
constituting 55cA of the total take in 1968; in the Antarctic season
of 1968-69 thc take of, sperm whales was 3.4 times as large as that
of othehales. The take of sei whales has risen rapidly in .recent
years (largely on account of the activities of Japanese whalers) to
5,740, i.e. almost as much as the total number of whales taken in
the Antarctic season of 1968-69 (5,776 whales). Only with regard
to fin whales (1,846 taken) does this region fall below the Antarctic,
where 5,020 of theSe whales were taken in the 1968-69 season.
Since the 1967 season the total number of whales killed in
the northern part of the Pacific Ocean has exceeded the number killed
'in the Antarctic.
In 1969 i;he number of fin whales and soi whales
killed in this region was 91, and the number of sperm•whales was
75%, of the total kill.
The hunting of baleen whales from coastal stations is restricted
to a continuous six-month season. The pelagic flotillas •
also hunt baleen whales during a six-month season, which lastS from
APril 15 to October 15.,
sperm whales.
There is an eight-month open season for
• Whaling is prohibited for the pelagic flotillas in waters
north of the 66th parallel, with the exception of the following
waters: from 150 0 E to 140 o and from 66 o N to 72 o ri; from 150 o W
eastward between -3 5 0 N and the Equator; and from 150 0 W westward
between 20 0 1 and the Equator.
The taking of right whales and grey whales is prohibited
until 1973, and that of hump-back whales and blue whales until 1975;
the taking of lactating females and their calves is also prohibited.
The minimum lengths of whales that may be taken are: fin
whales 16.8 metres, sei whales 12.2 metres (for pelagic flotillas
and coastal stations), and sperm whales 11.6 metres (for pelagic
flotillas) and 10.7 metres (for coastal stations).
When the whales'
flesh is to be used for human or animal food the minimum lengths are
reduced to 15.2 metres for fin whales and 10.7 metres,for soi whales:
Sirce 1971 the International Whaling Commission has fixed
quotas for the taking of whales by species.

..... 2417
At the end of the whalin ; season reports on whales killed
are sent, on standard report forms, to the Bureau of 1r^te.rnational
Wh-el..ling Statistics at Swndef jord, '•;orWay.
Data on whales taken by the Soviet Union are presented in
Ap pendi x 13.
Bow-head IThale (lsalaena mysticetus)
164
The Bering-Chukchi herd of bow-head whales passes along the
edge of the ice-field in the southern part of the Bering Sea in
winter, sometimes appearing on the coasts of Kamchatka and the Aleutian
Islands.
Beginning in April, the whales grad.ually move north--
ward as the ice melts and soon pass through Bering Strait and arrive
at 1:1rangel Island., keeping generally to open parts of the sea. Some
of them penetrate farther west, as far as the East Siberian Sea. In
September and October the whales are observed migrating in the opposite
direction. As the ice advances they pass through T3erin.8 Strait
to their wintering-grounds, where they remain for almost half of
W
the year.
Their ô.iet, reproduction, and behaviour are similàr to those
of bow-head whales in the nort;nern part of the Atlant!LG.
'l'he
hunting of boi•r-head whales of the Bering-Chukchi herd
began in 1 84.3, and ended 20 years later because the whales had been
almost completely killeà. off o il;he hundreds of ships that eng-aged
in whaling there every year took tens of thousands of the animals
during that period.
bot•r-head whales.
^:ow only local residents are permitted to kill
At Chukotka the local po.^:ulation kills no more
than ten whales in the best years. The annual take in the Barrow
area averages from five to eight. The products obtained. from the
whales are si,nila.r to those obtained from bow-head whales in the
Eorth Atlantic.
North Pacific N.i;25ht Whale (i,-,ubalaena Elaciali s japoniéa)
it is believed that there are two herds of these whales,
Asiatic and American. So:netimes the Asiatic herd is subdivided
into a Sea of Okhotsk herd and a kacific Ocean herd. The former
spends the winter from the southern part of the Sea'o.f Japan to the
northern part of the East China
Sea (i.e. between the 20tn and 40th
In summer the whales of this herd travel mostly into
parallels).
the western part of the Sea of Okhotsk.

• •
.
" 248
The rignt whales that winter-seiith:of.the Japanese islands
begin moving north as early.as February; .7 keeing to coastal regions
on %heir route. In March or April they arrive at the southwestern
Dart of the island of Honshu, and are'seen there until July. From
May to September they are seen off the east coast of the island of
Hokkaid'&: By May some of them have reached the southern part of the
Kurile Islands, and have even been recorded at 50 0 N (in Boussole
Strait). In the summer-autumn period (September-October) some of
the whales stay in the Kurile Islands area, some move into the Sea
of Okhotsk,' and some go northeast along the coast of Kamchatka to
the Aleutian Islands.and into the Bering Sea. Some whales already
begin to move in the opposite direction in September. That migration
also extends over a long period, sometimes until December.
During the same periods the whales of the American herd are
also migrating. By June or July they are already observed in the
Gulf of Alaska, where they remain, perhaps, most of the time; but
some of them pass through the straits in the Aleutian chain into
the Bering Sea. Their principal habitat in summer is believed to
be the waters near Kodiak Island. Concentrations of the whales are
dependent on the distribution of the plankton on which•they feed.
The whales feed mainly in the uppermost 25-metre layer of
the sea, their chief dietary item being Calanus (especially C.
Plumchrus and C. cristatus) It is estimated that an adult whale
consumes up to 3.5 or 4.0 tons of food every 24 hours.
Mating and parturition take place during the winter months;
gestation lasts for about a year, after which a single calf about
six metres long is born. Lactation lasts for more than six months,
and when the calves are about 10.5 metres long they transfer first
to a mixed diet and then to independent feeding.
The females mate for the first time at a length of about 165
14.0 to 14.5 metres, and the males at a length of 14 to 15 metres.
Recent Japanese data put these figures at 15.0-16.0 metres and
14.5-15.5 metres respectively.
North Pacific right whales do not usually stay under water
more than ten minutes. Their emergence on the surface is accompanied
by emission of a Iwo-jet spout up to five metres high. After making
a se -Pies of e::halations with short intervals between them the whales

dive aga.i n.
.... 249
if a wha.le stays under water for one or two minutes it
emerges slowly, both head and back appearing almost simultaneously.
The rate of movement is not high, and when the whales are
undisturbed it rarely exceeds five or six knots. They are not afraid
to corne into the surf zone, and they have been observed in water
three ôr four metres deep. They usually occur in small groups, but
sometimes concentrations of several tens of the animals are observed..
Their chief parasites are whale lice, which usually settle
on prominences on the snout and lower jaw and also around the uro--
genital orifice.
their internal parasites.
Several helminth species have been recorded among
;,Ihaling ships began to hunt I^^:orth Pacific right whales early
in the 1°401s, and within 25 or 30 years th^y were almost comple.tely
killed off. Several thousands of them were taken. The killing of
them is now totally prohibited. Their nLunber was estimated at 300
in 1971.
Each whale yielded up to 15 or 16 tons of oil and about 0.5
ton of whalebone. The-ir flesh was also used as food. Males 11.6
and 12.4 metres long wei,7•hed 22.90 and 22.25-tons respectively, and
a female 171.4 metres long weighed 106.5 tons.*
t•'hen large baleen whales are weighed in parts, up to 816
of the total weight is lost as blood; with sperm whales the corresponding
loss is up to 12L,:) of the total weight.
Grey Whale (^;schrichtius ,;ibbosus)
Grey whales survive only in the northern part of the Pacific
Ocea.n. they were exterminated in the northern pai!t of the Atlantic
before the 18th century. There are two herds there: the Asiatic
(Okhotsk-iiorea.n) and the American (Chukotsk--Californian), with
diffèrent migration routes.
The grey whale's of the Asiatic herd are seen in the Ulsangmang
Bay region (South ILorea, 35 0 35' A!) by the end of November.
The first to arrive from the north are pregnant females, followed
in December by whales of both sexes. Migration of the whales to the
north begins in February. Some of them remain a long time to feed
in iCorea. Strait, between South Korea and Tsushima Islând. The migrating
whales pass through Tatarskii Strait into the Sea of Okhotsk

...,. 250
and disperse through almost all of that sea. During the reverse
migration the whales keep to the western side of the Sea of Japan.
The Americar herd of grey whales sUends the winter in the
bays and lagoons of the west coast of the Lower California peninsula
and also in the waters of the Gulf of California, where they are to
be ^sE:en 'à.ll through January and 'Tebxuary.
Their northward migration
, ^:^^^^ the first whales going nortn. (a
begins at the end of Jc^riuary, ^+;
few individuals are still goin

(Phe Mating period is prolonged, and generally lasts from
251
the end of December to the middle of.February,..with a possible peak
in the second half of January. Both mating'and the birth of young
take place in the shallow bays of the small islands south of South
Korea (Asiatic herd) and in the numerous lagoons in the Gulf of .
California (American herd). The females breed once in two years,
and sometimes every year.
Gestation lasts for almost a year (according to recent data,
for 13 months). Eew-born calves are 3.7-5.5 metres long, averaging
4.7-4.8.metres. During the lactation period, which lasts for about
six or seven months, the calves attain a length of about 8.5 metres.
The milk is very rich, with a fat content of about 50-55%.
Grey whales are.usually (40%) seen in pairs.
The spout, if
seen from in front or behind, consists of two jets, but the jets are
closer together than those of right whales. The spout is usually
not high, about 2-3 metres, and rarely as much as 4 metres. .
• The maximum rate of movement of grey whales is 14-16 knots,
but ordinarily they move at 3 or 4 knots.
A distinctive feature of these whales is their close adherence
to the coasts, near which they keep praCtically throughout
their lives.
Before a prolonged dive grey whales usually display their
flukes in the air, and they go down almost vertically. Their return
to the surface may take different forms. Sometimes only the head
shows above the surface; it is supposed that in that way the whales
can look around and even orient themselves in their movement. They
are rarely seen to leap out of the water.
A grey whale 5 metres in length and weighing about 1.5 tons
has been kept in an oceanarium.
one-and-a-half months.
It died from an infection after
Grey whales, more than any other whale species, are subject
to infestation by a number of skin parasites, chiefly whale lice,
and are also overgrown with.barnacles possessing large (up to 5 cm
in diameter) limy shells.
The barnacles usually settle on the head,
but they are also found on the flippers and the flukes.
Grey whales' internal parasites have not been well studied,
only helminths (cestodes) having been recorded.

. .
• 252 .
•By the beginning of the 19th Century the Japanese were very
actively hunting grey whales of the Asiatic herd in the South Korea
region, and during the century the animals were practically wiped
out.
Hundreds of grey whales of the American herd were taken on
their wintering-grounds off the coast of California. It is estimated
that by the beginning of the 1930's only a few hundred grey whales
of the American herd survived.
At present the only hunting of grey
whales is that by the aborigines of Chukotka and Alaska.
there is insignificant.
The kill
From 1959 to 1969 316 grey whales were killed in U.S.A.
waters for scientific purposes.
From two or three tons up to 5-7 tons of edible oil used to
be obtained from a single grey whale.
size, -
In spite of the animals' small
the thickness of the blubber layer was 11-15 cm, and sometimes
even 19 cm. The meat is edible•and was used for human food.
.The weight of adults seldom exceeds 30 tons. The weight of
a female whose iength was 13.35 metres and whose maximum 'body height
was 270 cm was 31,466 kg, while'zhe weight of a female whose length
was 13.55 metres and whose maximum girth was 880 cm was 33,850 kg.
According to a survey made in 1970, the American herd is estimated
to contain from 8,000 to 13,000 grey whales.
•Hump-back Whale (Megautera nodosa)
. The northern part of the Pacific Ocean contains two herds of
hump-back whales -- Asiatic and American -- with different migration
routes (see Appendix 16).
The whales of the Asiatic herd spend the winter in the wajers
around the Bonin, Mariana, and Marshall Islands, i.e. they go south
almost to the Equator. Hump-back whales have been recorded as early
as December or January in the coastal waters of the island of Kyushu,
and in subsequent months they are seen even farther north.
It is believed that the whales travel northeastward from the
coasts of Japan into the open ocean with the North Pacific current,
and come out at the eastern Aleutian Islands. (this has been supported
by Japanese tagging records). From that area some of them move west' .
the Aleutian.chain, while others pass through the straits into along
the Bering Sea and appear in the Gulf of Anadyr; a Tew enter the
Chukchi Sea.
Olyutorskii Bay.
From the Gulf of Anadyr the whales Go south as far as

..... 253
The southward mij^iations apparently take place in the
opposite sequence.
The principal wintering-grounds of the American herd are
located near Lower California (:qainly between 30 0 A? and 22" i^`) and
off the coast of Mexico from 23° I' to 18° N. S:nall groups of wintering
hump-back whales have-beer_ observed near the Revilla Gigedo
Isla.nd^-. A very few cases of wintering hump-back whales have been
recorded in the waters adjacent to the eastern Aleutian Islands.
Migration northward begins in 1111arch, and the first ht^^np-back
whales are observeô. in the Gulf of Alaska in the middle of April;
later their number increases, especially in ï,`ia.y and June. By the
end of Julie and the beginning of July hump-back whales are also to
be seen in the western Aleutian Islands.
The chief summer habitat of hump-back whales embraces the
waters north of the 50th parallel from 170° W to 145° W.
In the Bering Sea notable concentrations have been observed
only between the Aleutian Islands and -Nunivàk Island, and in the
-vicinity of the Pribylof Islands and Cape Navarin; also in the Gulf
of Anadyr and north of St. Lawrence Island, where they appear in
July and stay until 'September. When they entered the C1lukcnz Sea
they were generally seen near Cape Serdtse-Kamen'.
Among crustaceans they eat Euphausiacea, some P+Iysida.e, and
also Copepoda and Amphipoda. They readily eat fishes t_l.at travel
in shoals: herring, capelin, smelt, walleye pollock, cod, navaga,
sand-eels, anchovies, various Hexagr.amidae, chum salmon, and pink
salmon. Their stomachs have been found to contain from 600 to 800
kg of fish.
Their methods of procuring food vary. When t.liey are pursuing
fishes the whales' movements are jerky and abrupt. At such
times a half-turn of the body round its axis is very noticeable.
Trrhen they are feeding on c.emersal organisms hump-back whales dive
straight down, so that their flukes ap:)ear above the surface.
I'ale Intmp-ba.ck whales of the American herd attain sexual
maturity, on an average, at a body length of 71.7 metres, and fema.les
at 12.0 metres- These whales mate from October to April, but also
168
may mate (ap;?a:L-ently in individual casés) in surzlner on their feeding--`rounds.
Gestation lasts for less than a year. At first the

254
calves stay with their mothers for half a year and feed on milk,
the fat content of which is Up to 47.5. During the lactation neriod
the.calves almost double in size, attaining a length of 6-9 metres.
The females produce young once in two years, -
in the warm zone
off the western coasts of Mexico and Lower California and around
the Maràhall, Mariana, and Bonin Islands. The mother takes great
care of her calf, and will protect it from danger at the risk of her
own life.
a year.
The family pair appear to remain together for less than
Physical maturity is attained at the age of about 17 or 18
years, when the body length of the males is 13.6 metres and that
of the females is 14.6 metres.
Hump-back whales often approach the coasts and enter river
estuaries, where they rid themselves of external parasites, which
perish in fresh water.
While they are feeding the duration of a dive may be six or
seven minutes or more, depending on the organisms eaten and the
depth of the sea.
Hump-back whales are called "happy whales" because of their
playfulness and their leans in the air.
Their parasites and incrustations are the same as - those of
the whales in the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean. Little study
has been given to their diseases.
The hunting of hump-back whales in the northern part of the
Pacific Ocean has been very irregular:
take was from 166 to 726.
In 1912-1914 -the seasonal
During the period following World War II
hump-back whales have been hunted most actively since 1953, the
seasonal take being from 115 to 487. The highest takes in the whole
history of the hunting of hump-back whales were recorded in 1962 and
1963 (1,312 and 2,339 respectively). Data on the kill of hump-back
whales are presented in Appendixes 7 and 11.
oil.
A single hump-back whale yields up to five or six tons of
The flesh (up to two or three tons) iS used for human food.
Sometimes other parts (the liver, the pancreas, etc.) are also used.
Weighings made on the whaling factory-ship Aleut have shown
that a male 12.92 metres long weighed 27,714 kg, and a female 13.9
metres long weighed 32,374 kg.
On the coast of California males

..... 255
13-44, 13-75, and 12-5 metres long tti*ei pjhed 39, 916, 40,823, and
37,195 1'19 respectively.
The huntine, of hunnp--back whales has been prohibited until
'1973 inclusive.
In 1971 the number of hump-back whales was estimated at 3,000.
Blue Whale (Balaenoptera musculus)
Blue whales are distributed very unevenly in the northern
part of the Pacific Ocean; a large proportion of them are concentrated
in the eastern regions.
The blue whales that keep to the Asiatic coasts spend the
winter between 34 °--31° 111 and 24°--23° N (from the southwestern end
of Japan to the island of Taiwan". They begin to migrate in a northeasterly
direction in spring; some of them may remain all summer on
the Pacific side of the coast of Japan. Blue whales are seen at
the Kurile Islands in summer, and off the coast of Kamchatka from
May to October. There is no uniformity of opinion on the -subject
of how far north they go (see Ap,)enciil. 17).
The ?'_merican herd of blue i:rliales spe.ids the winter in the
waters lyin^ mainly
sol2th of -° 1?, from the ?-1a^aaii an Tal anr7,q to the
coast of California. ï'ossibly there are two wintering groups: one
northeast of the Hawaiian Islands, and the other from 160° W -L-o
California, between 23° N and 33° r•ï.
In spring (apparently in March) these whales begin their
northward migration along the American continent, and by May they
have reached Vancouver Island. Thence the main stream-of mit,,;ra.ting
whales continues to flow alon^, the coast, and they spend the summer
in the waters northwest of the CLueen Charlotte Islands, including
the northern part of the Gulf of Alaska as far as Kodiak Island.
Another group of the whales moves west along -the 50th parallel,
comes to the Aleutian chain, and moves southwest along it. Blue
wïjales are usually found in two small areas, mainly restricted to
places of crustacean concentration: between 100 0 and 170 o W and
between 175° and 170° W, north of the 50th parallel. Even there,
hoi-rever,
they do not form large concentrations, and for the most
t7
--art rem=ti r_ sir_E;ly .
^;iove;:,ent towards tue 1,1ii:terin,;--Urounds î^e^.ins ir•. September,
and takes place in genera.J_ alon; the same routes.

256
The stomachs of blue whales killed in the region of Avachinskii
and Kronotskii pays have been found to contain the crustaceans
Thysanoessa inermis and Yematoscelis megaleps, which attain a4rength
of 2-2.5 cm. In more southerly regions (in the Kurile Islands)
lunhausia -eacifica and Calanus sn have been recorded in the stomachs.
There is po reliable record of these whales eating fishes.
During tie fattening period blue whales show a great increase
not only in the thickness of the blubber layer but also in its oil
content, which makes it possible to obtain no less than 4O addi- •
tional oil proôuction from it.
•
Their reproduction has not been adequately investigated.
The females become sexually mature on attaining a length of about
21.5 metres, and the males on attaining a length of about 20.5 metres
and the age, apparently, of about five years. Off the coast of
central California the average length of females when they reach
sexual maturity is 20.5 metres, at the age of four or five years.
Kating takes place mostly in winter. Gestation lasts for less than
a year, and the calf has almost one-third of the length of the
mother at birth; twins are extremely rare. Lactation lasts for Six
or seven months. The milk has a'fat content of 45-46"A, The calf
grows rapidly, and by the time that it graduates to independent .
feeding it has attained a length of 14 or 15 metres.
Most of the females ;:ive birth once every two or three years,
and fecundity apparently lasts throughout the female's life.
After a long stay under water (from 15 to 35 minutes) a blue
whale emits several (up to ten, rarely up to 20) spouts at intervals
of from 10 to 25 seconds. Sometines the whale remains on the surface
as long as three minutes, but usually only for a few seconds.
The spouts consist of single jets, relatively thin and high (from
9 to 12 metres), When the animal dives for a long period its body
is exposed rather longer on the surface. After spouting it puts
its head below the surface, bends its body, and sinks into the water,
its small dorsal fin remaining visible; then its caudal section
gradually disappears, curved into a semicircle.
The rate of movement is the same as that of blue whales in
the 3S;orth Atlantic. Sometimes these • hales follow ships.
The parasites of blue whales, both external and internal,

.... 257
and. `;hcir diseases have not been adequately investigated. Off. the
COc FJ't Of l c.l1fOrI11.?. tSll^ S1tC'l:Orial f1.Sh R^T'?7 I_ej- iç :.ttS_^.'_'2?.11 S has
b C:811
fCiu7,C:
on t;leir bodies,
Their baleen '?lates are infeSted by :éi.laen--
optera unisetus, and traces of attacks by la.m-:)rey.s have been found
on ti,eir â raCr?_OEx skin
At the beF^;inr_ini; of the 20th century the J apan.ese began to
egu i p their coastal stations tjith modern i^rhalir_b ships, which enabled
them to increase their kill of whales. Blue i-:hales were then found
almost all yeer round off the coasts of Korea and Japan. The most
intensive huntin^^ toolc place in winter from the coastal stations in
southern Japan between 31o P' and 34 0 N.
Whaling from the west coast of the North American continent
was carried on. from the beginning of the 20th century, but the kill
of blue whales was irregular. From 1911 to 1923 the seasonal kill
fluctuated f rom a few whales up to 112,
From 1952 on the k11a. Of YJllle whales by pelagic whaling ships
rose sharply: in 1954 it was 157, and in 1963 it was 4.04. During
the next two seasons it fell to 119 and 121 respectively.
During the period following World War II the kill of blue
170
whales in. all waters in the northern part of the pacific Ocean was
from 150 to 207 per season, and in 1963 it reached 443.
Data on the take are presented in Append.ix 7.
The chief product obtained from blue whales is oil. The
average yield from a sing-le animal is not more than 15 tons of oil.
A blue whale 23.7 metres in length weighed 82.5 tons.
In 1966 the hunting of these lr _ales was prohibited until 1975
inclusive. Their number was estimated to be 1,760 in 1971.
Fin Whalc (Ralc..eno;^tera ph.^^ salas j
The fin whales of the Asiatic herd spend the winter in the
south, from the coasts of South Korea and Japan to the island of
`.Ca.ii-ran.
They ai:e found th_oughout the year off the eastern coast
of japa.r_.
Their migrations to the north ïollot-r two routes ^see Appen--
di x 1 II) .
A P,'rouz) of fin whales (accordi ng to recent da'.a, segregated
into the 01=hots'1.-Ja-).--rlese he:ud; noves from the t•resteriz part of their
wintering range (t:ne soutnern parts of the Sea of Japan, the li;ast
China. Sea, and the Yellow 5ea; through tilL, bea of Ja,.an to their

258
summer feeding-grounds; at the beginning of April they reach Peter
the Great Bay, and by the end of April and May they arrive at the -
southern tip of Sakhalin and the Kurile chain, where they are seen
all through the summer. Yheir numbers increase notably in September.
in
and October on account of the arrival of îlue. whales from the north
on their.southward migration.
Fin whales are to be seen in almost
all parts of the Sea of Okhotsk c:uring the summer, but most of them
stay in the central and eastern parts.
They depart to the south in
autumn, and only a few individuals can be found there in winter.
Another, more numerous, group of fin whales (the -Japan-
Kemandorskie herd) migrates in spring out of the northern part of
the Philippine Sea and the waters southeast of the island of Honshu,
travelling along the coast of Japan, where hunting of them begins •
at that. time.
By April or May they reach the coast of eastern Kamchatka,
and from May to july they pass the Komandorskie Islands on
are seen there all through the summer, but their way north. They
in August and September fin whales travelling south appear.
A few
individuals even winter there. Some of the whales go eastward along
the Aleutian Islands (possibly as far as the Fox Islands), while
others continue to move north. Groups of fin whales stay all summer
and part of the autumn in Kronotskii and Avachinskii Bays; where
they feed on crustaceans.
Fin whales remain some time in the Chukchi
Sea, but in August and September they form groups preparatory to
their reverse migration to the south. Their southward migration
begins in September, the whales moving more energetically during
that period and never staying long in any locality.
Fin whales from the East China Sea fatten in the southern part
of the Sea of Japan:
Ii is believed that they do not mix with other
herds. These whales have a longer head and a longer caudal section.
The principal wintering-grounds of the fin whales of the
American herd are located off the coast of California, possibly
north of the 30th parallel.
Fin whales have been observed, however,
farther south, as far as the Revilla Gigedo Islands .
(19 ° N, 112 ° W).
The northward migration of fin whales begins in early spring,
ancl the first of them are observed at Vancouver Island in March.
Some of them continue to move northward, passing the Queen Charlotte
Islands and the Alexander Archiflao. Others (arparently the

..... 259 .
i_ia.jority) turn west along the 50th parallel and go as far as 160° W.
There some of them go to Kodiak Island. The most notable concentrations
of fin whales in the Gulf of Alaska are observed west of the
Alexander Archipelago, and later in the southerrunost part of the
Gulf of Alaslca, at approximately 52° N, 14'7° W, and from the Shumagin 171
islands to Kodiak Island and in the northernmost part of the Gulf.
The ::Ia.t•raii--Aleutian herd spend the winter in the waters
around the Hawaiian Islands; in summer, possibly, they feed in the
waters adjacent to the northern Kurile Islands, eastern Xrmchatka,
and the Komandorskie and Aleutian Islands, also in the Bering and
Chulï.chi Seas and in the western part of the Gulf of Alaska.
U
a
The nunibers of fin whales on the Pacific side of the Aleutian
chain are very sinall, and diminish to the west from the Fox Islands
along the 50th parallel. Only in the area about 46° N, 175° E are
small concentrations of the animals sometimes observed.
In summer and autuinn (from June to November) fin whales are
found in the western part of the Bering Sea from Cape Navarin south
to Ya.ra.ginslcii Isla.nd. Sometimes large groups of them are seern
northwest of Bering Island. In the Gulf of Anadyr they usually conceni,rate
in the central and western parts.
Fin whales occur less often in ti,e northern part of the
Bering Sea. Those pas::ing into the Chukchi Sea, concentrate mainly
in the Cape Serdtse---K-amen' region. According to some reports, they
sometimes ;o as far as Wrangel Island and Herald Island.
In the open sea iiu to 58 0 AI fin whales feed mainly on crust.-
aceans. _^ett-reen the IComandorskie Islands and the Blizhnie Islands
Euphausiacea ( Thyûa.noessa j and Copenoda ( C^ lanus) constitute up to
60;;: of the stor.lach contents. 1^1orth of the 58th parallel fishes
(capelin and herring) predominate in the diet, 1_ sanoessa occurring
less often. Along the Alaska Peninsula the whales feed on walleye
pollock and various crustaceans, and in the Gulf of Alaska they
feed mainly on crustaceans.
During the fattening period._ sezually-immature fin whales
usually stay in the northern waters of the.Aleutian Islands, and to
a lesser extent in the western -^.art of the Bering Sea. - Solitary
s^):cime:ns are ger.era.lly ( in 75;.o to 85i; of all cases) sexually-mature
males or females, the latter often being I.re;rnant. Sor,iet:im-es males

260
and females (usually sexually mature) stay in pairs, either a pair
of one sex or a male and a female; in other cases they form groups
of from six to eight animals of one sex. I% has been obserVed that
the males show a greater tendency to congregate together, and form
larger groups.
From April to June groups of females predominate in the Gulf
of Alaska; from July on there are more groups of males and mixed
groups. That indicates that the females that have already mated are
the first to arrive in the Gulf; then come the males, and the migration
is completed by the rest of the animals.
During the fattening period there is a reMarkable change in
the state of nutrition: the-thickness of the subcutaneous blubber
layer increases from 3-5 cm to 7-10 cm and even 13 cm.
Most of the males attain sexual maturity on attaining an
average length of 17.4 to 17.6 metres, the weight of the testes
Icing not less than 2.6 kg, and the length of the penis not less
than 1.3 metres. The females become sexually mature at a length of
18.2 to 18.6 metres. The w_:.e of such whales is from four to six
years. The fin whales in the Uast China Sea, which do not go beyond
the boundaries of the Sea of Japan, are more "early-maturing" and
begin to take part in reproduction at the following average lengths:
males about 17 metres, and females about 18 metres.
Mating takes place mostly from November to january, with a
peak, apparently, in the middle of December; it is consummated under
the water, sometimes on the surface, .A few cases of coitus have
been observed in summer on the fattening-grounds.
Gestation lasts for about 11.5 months. The average length
of new-born calves is about six metres (from 5.0 to 6.9 metres:).
As with other rorquals, parturition takes place in warm water, as
the new-born calf does not have a protective layer of blubber. For
its firs% hours of life the calf is very sluggish, and then it gradually
begins to move. For more than six months it feeds exclusively
on its mother's milk . The fat content of the milk is from 20% to
45%, with an average of about 35.
The lactation period ends when the calves have attained a
length of 12 or 15motres, somet,ies even 13.5 metres'. The calves
l'eed for some time on both .Milkaiid crustaceans, after which they
advance to the regular diet of the srecies.

..... 261
After a long sta,r unde':• water in i:-.(tales co:ir to : sur-Lace V(2
W
at a. low a.n.C;le, Ize hea,d, t^ie blow--hole, a.L,pears first, and
thon t..:re is a s;.out u;) to 5 or 6 metres iii height. After that
the wha.le dives aga in a. few tir:ies, but then the spouts are not so
high, and at the same time thed^^^^;^^^^^ivisible. The flukes are
not usually displayed before a dive.
The length oI stay under water by fin whales varies from 2-3
minutes up to 10-15 minutes, and on rare_occasions even more.
The rate of movement while the whales are feeding on the
fattening-grounds is not great, two or three knots. During migration
the rate increases and reaches five to ten knots. Migrating fin
whales are capable of deiTeloping great bursts of speed..
When alarmed
or wounded they may develop a speed of 15 knots or more. Modern
whalers are not always able to pursue and overtake such whales.
Fin whales atta.in physical maturity, on an average, at a
length of 18.9 metres for males and 20.1 metres for females. '1',ieir
maximum longevity is estimated at 50 years.
Tnfesta.tions of Copepoda (I='enella, sometimes numbering hundreds)
have been observed on t._ese whales; in more northerly regions
diatom algae settle on their skin.
Itelminthic parasites are usually found in the intestines,
liver, and kidneys. Fin whales' diseases have not been well studied.
Cases of attack by killer whales are rare, tr^e victims usually
being young calves or juveniles.
Since 1910 the fin wtiale has been the leading species among
baleen whales hunted in the northern _part-of the 'Pacific Ocean.
Japanese whalers have taken mostly members of the Asiatic herd, and
before 1939 they took from 2c.1 to 1,040 of the animals from coastal
stations each season.
With the inauguration of,Japanese pelagic
flotillas the intensity of whaling increased, and since 1954 from
2,503 to 2,602 were taken per season; in 1964 and 1965 the takes of
fin whales were 3,991 and 3,166 respectively, whereas in 1969 the
total take in all the northern ,part of the Pacific Ocean was only
1,276. Data on the take are presented in Appendixes 7 and 11.
As in the North Atlantic, up to five or six tons of oil are
obtained from a single fin rrhale. remales measuring 19.0, 19.8,
19.9, 20.8, and 21.65 metres weighed 51.5, 4.8.1, 48.6s 53.8, and
59.0 tons r.espectively, and males measuring 17.9, 18.5, and 18.85
metres weighed 31.3, 36.9, and 34.0 tons respectively.

-
262
In 1971 the number of fin whales in the Asiatic herd was
estimated at from 5,150 to 7,650, and the number in the American
herd at from 8,050 to.10,340; the amounts of the permissible kill
were estimated at 400-460 and 620-690 respectively. The following
national kill quotas were established for the 1972 season: USSR 560,
Japan 454, and U.S.A.32, a total of 1,046 fin whales.
Sei Whale (13alaenoptera borealis)
The soi whales that live in the western part of the Pacific
Ocean spend the winter in the region of the 30th parallel and Dossibly
semewhat farther south, but west of the Bonin Islands. Their
migration to the northnortheast begins in April. At the beginning
of Ma., but more ofton in the second half of May, the first sei
whales appear off the east coast of the island of Honshu. They are
observed off the northeastern coast of Hokkaido in the second half
of June. Then some of them go up along the Munie. Islands as far •
as Kamchatka; in july they form concentrations that can be commercially
hunted in the rogion of the Komandorskie Islands. Sometimes,
between June and October, they are observed even in the Chukchi Sea.
A small number of them apparently pass through -the Kurile straits
into the Sea of Okhotsk.
•
Only a few of the whales reach high latitudes. In summer
considerable numbers of sei whales remain in the waters from the
southern Munie Islands and the northeastern part'of the island of
Hokkaido to the 38th pa:éallel. They depart in a southerly direction
in October or lUovember, Prom JUne to August commercial concentrations
of soi whales are observed south of the Aleutian Islands.
In the eastern ')art of the Pacific Ocean soi whales are
found in w5.nter from the coast of Mexico to southern California,
where they stay about four or five months. Their departure in a
northwesterly direction along the coast of the continent begins
in spring (see Appendix 19).
Sei whales are seen in the California region from June to
October, but most often in August and September. They appear at
Vn.rcouver Island in May, but most of them arrive there somewhat
later, and they are usually observed in Juno and especially in july
(sometines in Aust) They also appear in th:i Gulf of Alaska in

• 263
commercial numbers in June and july, less often in August. The
nuutbers of soi whales decrease in August in tne northern Part of
the Pacific Ocean east of 180 ° W, • Dossibly as a result of their
departu•e to th ,. south.
A very small number of the animais pass
beyond the Aleutian chain (into the southern part of the Bering Sea)
in July and August.
The diet of sei whales in the northern part of the Pacific
Ocean is extremely varied, but crustaceans -- chiefly Copepoda --
predominate in it.
In Japanese waters these whales feed on EuphausL
iacea, anchovies, and cephalopods in May and June.
In the Kurile Islands sel whales feed from July to October
on Calanus and squids (from 1,700 to 3,100, weighing from 340 to
600 kg, have been found in their stomachs). Off the coast of California
they feed mainly on '2uphausiacea, less often on Copepoda,
sometimes on anchovies, and very rarely on'Pacific saury.
In the
northern part of the Pacific Ocean they prefer Copepoda, and seldom
eat fishes (Pacific saury); from 370 to 600 kg of food has been
found in their stomachs.
Male sei whales attain sexual maturity at a length of 12.8
metres, and females at 13.7 metres. Matin takes plaee mainly -from
October to Mach, With a peak in YoveMber. Gestation lasts for
about 12 months. By - the time of birth the embryo has attained a
length of about 4.4 metres and a weight of almost 650 kg. The 'calf
feeds on its mother's Milk, which has a fat content of 22-34%, for
more than six months, and almost doubles its length during that time.
The stomach of a male sei whale 9.14 metres in length and weighing
5,823 kg contained no milk but did contain a small number of Calanus.
The females produce young once in two years. Almost half of the
sexually-mature females taken off the coast of California were
pregnant.
Sei whales attain physical maturity at a body length of
13.6 metres for males'and 14.7 meres for females.
The behaviour of sei whales in the northern part of the
Pacific Ocean resembles in many ways the behaviour of members of •
this species in the northern part of the Atlantic.
Sometimes the
spout of a sei wh ale is of a different shape (it is conical, but
narrow and not high).
Tne bchnviour e:nd the frenuenCy of diving
de-end on the circumstances. Yhey are seldom seen to leap out of

..... 2011.
In some years sel whales approach close to the coasts,
the water.
and. they are. occasionally stranded at low tide.
G cc

i'he
..... 265^
0
first Dryde' s whales appear in the Kyushu region (33 N,
1?0° E; in July, but almost two-thirds of the kill is made in Sep-
It is possible that in that region (the northeastern part
tember.
of the ^ast China. Sea) these whales belong to another population --
their length is approximately one metre less than that of whales
of the Bonin Islands 01 roup
As soon as t^,,.e water temperature begins to fall, in September
or October, the Bryde's whales leave the Sanriku region a.nd go to
warmer southern waters, i,: ith a water temperature of 2no-29o C.
During the migration period the whales are observed to be
segregated according to sex. In the Oshima region, in years with
f^^.vourable temperature conditions, females are observed more often
than males. In the Sanriku region the numbers of females increase
froniMay to August, and decrease in September, but never fall below
50%; sometimes the numbers fall abruptly in the-middle of summer
(in July) and rise again by the end of September.
In the Sanriku region Bryde's whales feed principally on
'uphausie.cea, but mackerel and cephalopods are also
anchovies and ^,
found in their stomachs. Year Oshima t_zese whales feed in different
seasons on anchovies and Eupha:asiacea.
In the Bonin Islands region male Bryde's whales attain
sexual maturity at a body lc.ngth of 11.9 metr.es,, when the pair of
testes weighs 1.5 kg; the females beco!:ie sexually mature at a body
length of 12.2 metres. The age of suc.11 whales is generally five
yea.rs.
iiionths...
The matinv se-.ason is prolonged, usually lasting for several
Gestation appears to last for about a year; new-born calves
are about four metres in length.
In the vicinitJ of the Ja_^anese islands, males from 10.6 to
13.5 metres long and females from 10.G to 14.4 inetrès long were aged
from 1.5 to 16.5 yea,°s and from 2.5 to 14 years respectivelY>
The parasites and diseases of -,Rytt Bryqe's whales have not
been investigatee..
The hunting of B.ryde's whales is chiefly concentrated around
The anima.ls
117e11e
ara hunted most intensively
from i;a J 1 to June
Japan.
52 y Tlh^.n a.l+: ost 700 of tiic;n
10 1951 ar:.d from i':a^r 1 to Julie 20, 11
, ^
were killec; .
coastal sta:i:i o.le at Cish:i.mcl and in tcic: Sariril;.u a^°ea. take
..'r?e

266
from a. few tens up to some hundreds of these whales each season.
It is difficult te obtain more precise figures, as Bryde's whales
are usually included with Sei whales. Soviet whalers took Bryde's
whales (66 of them) for the first time in 1970.
The yield of oil is somewhat less than that from sel whales;
Bryde's whales are taken mostly to obtain their flesh, which is
•
used for human food.
Bryde's whales 11.3, 12.0, 13.1, and 14.0 metres in length
weighed respectively 9.27, 11.47, 14.0, and 16.83 tons. The weight.
of Bryde's whales is from 8% to 12% more than that of sel whales,
mostly on account of the blubber (including that in the abdominal
cavity), the head, the lower jaw, and the viscera (up to 30-35);
the weight of the flesh of sel whales is 10% greater.
At a close estimate, the number of Bryde's whales in the
Bonin Islands and Sanriku regions (including Kenan) is put at from
5,000 to 18,000, and the Permissible kill at from 200 to 300.
Lesser Rorqual (Balaenoptera acutorostrata)
Two herds. of lesser rorquals live in the western part of the
North Pacific. j7;arl -y. in spring (from February to May) lesser rorquals
arrive at the northwestern coast of the island of Kyushu from
the south. The migration takes place near the coasts. In May and
June larger whales are seen near the ±ip southwestern tip of Hokkaido,
on the Sea of Japan side.
The other herd arrives at the .eastern coasts of Japan from
the south. In the Sanriku recion their number increases until May.
Thence they travel to the east coast of Hokkaido, some of them staying
in the Kurile Islands region throughout the summer, while others
go farther to the northnortheast and are seen in summer in the waters
from Kronotskii Bay to the Gulf of Anadyr, some of them passing into
the Chukchi Sea, from which they return in October.
In the eastern part of the Pacific Ocean lesser rorquals
winter near California. In spring they begin to move north along
the coast; the first arrivals reach Vancouver Island in March, but
most of them arrive later. They are observed in summer in the Gulf
of Alasl:a and nea:r the &loutian islands.
Those that travel northward are, as a rule, adults, whereas
most of the juveniles remain in lower latitudes.

• 267
In the Sea of jaoan lesser rorquals feed mainly on krill,
but at Hokkaido they feed on fishes (walleye pollock, etc.) and
crustaceans; in the Pacific Ocean thoy usually feed on crustaceans,
an.' less often on sand-eels and anchovies. They also eat herring,
capelin, and navaga.
The males attain sexual maturity at a length of 6.7 metres
and the females at -7.3 metres, when they are two years old. The
peak of the mating period comes at the end of February and the beginningsof
March, and the peak of parturition at the end of December
and the beginning of January, after
gestation lasting ) perhaf
nine months. lew-born calves are about 2.8 metres long; they are
milk-fed for less than six months. By the end of the lactation
period they have attained a length of about 4.5 metres.
Besides the main mating period there is a second one half a,
year later. The females bring forth young almost every year; some
do so 18 months after the previous pregnancy.
The behaviour of these whales is in many respects the .same
as that of lesser rorquals in the North Atlantic, There are frequent
records of them entering river estuaries and getting entangled in
fishermen's nets, They do not avoid ice, but when there is ice on
shallow water they do not dive. Their spout has an unpleasant smell.
The presence of crustacean parasites on their bodies is very
seldom recorded. Their internal parasites include helminths, mainly
in the stomach and intestine. Their diseases have not been studied.
.Instances of attack by groupe of killer whales, terminating
as a rule in the death of the lesser rorquals, have been recorded.
The lesser rorqual is the first species among baleen whales
to have been kept successfully in an oceanarium. In the city of
Mito, in Japan, a lesser rorqual lived for three months in 1936, and
another, 6.0 metres long, survived for 57 days in 1955-56.
In the northern part of the Pacific Ocean the hunting.of
lesser rorquals is most highly developed on the coast of japan.
From 512 to 532 are taken in a season. Data on the take are presented
in Appendix 12.
The products are generally the same as those obtained from •
lesser rorouals in the Lorth Atlantic. The weight of a female 7.9
metres in lenc:th was 4,S46 kg
The status of the stocks has not been determined.

S;?erm !;!hale (:c'h?r, eter ca.todon)
t•Iintering srerin ?...,hales of the Asiatic herd are distributed.
-:IOStl?r in the lraters soui:h of the sout ern islands of 'a -, pan,
as the northern part of the Philippine Sea. Some groups of sperm
i•lilcl.leS, hot•Tevel" (sometimes even femwle.s with calves ),
remain through 176
the winter in the xe;ion of the southern Munie Islands. E arly in
spri:ng t-L).e whales begin migrating nort1rarard. :L'.•y A-pril they have
arrived at the Munie _I'sla.nds, whence some of them go farther to the
northeast and reach the Gulf of Kamchatka in May. The arrivals of
sper:a whales increase ciurin_,the f.ollowinE_,; months, and reach a peak
in July and August.
;i'clnales and juveniles also take aart in the migration, but
their movement »rcceed.s more slowly; a laxge nulnber of fe::i;:,les and
juveniles remain in the Z;rarm-water zone. l'hef go as far as Olyutorskii
Bay, f or ling concentrations in the region of Cape Govena and
haraginskii Island. The northern limit of the range of male sperm
whales is in the Cape 'Navarin region. Only in rare irlbta;nces have
sncrm whales been seen farther north.
The southward migration begins in September or October, and
usually follows the reverse sequence.
Some of the sperm whales in the American herd begin their
north;•,^ard movement as early as March (it becomes intensified in April
and Iyfay) along the wes.tern coasts of North America,
Some of them
turn west from Vancouver Island and enter the region of 50^ U,
1500 W, while others go into the Gulf Of Alaska. Fe-males N-rith calves
°
and juveniles are found there, sometimes as far north as 57 N.
S-Perm whales from the area south of 35° h and between 145 0 and 150 0 W
go north approximately as far as the 50th parallel.
The Hawaiian herd of sperm whales winters (as far .as is known)
i
northwest of the Hawaiian Islands, in the waters between 200 and
35° N and between 170 0 E and 160° W. Some of the whales in that
herd travel in summer to the eastern Aleutian Islands, whence some
enter the Bering Sea and possibly reach the coast of Asia, while
others go northeast to Kodiak Island and enter the northern part
of the Gulf of Alaska. Some whales nove to the west, and apparently
reach the I:omax.dors^cie Islands and even the Kurile Islands.

..... 269:.,
The distribution of sperm whales in summer depends chiefly
I
on that of the principal items in their diet, cephalopods.
Concentrations of sperm trha.les are generally restri.cted to
parts of the sea where the depth increases abruptly and where cyclonic
currents arise, favou-rin^, the transportation of the biogenic
elements required for the development of their food base, and also
to the zone of descenc:.in- water currents (zone of convergence).
The females, which are considerably smaller than the males,
feed mainly in the upper water layers, consuming principally warmthloving
forms of cephalopods. The males are capable of diving to
t^;rea,t
depths (300-400 metres or more), and. cold-loving deep-water
forms predominate in their diet.
In the Bering Sea, the Gulf of. Alaska, and Aleutian waters,
sperm whale stomachs have been found to contain remains of 16 spe--
cies of squids, two species of octopuses, and five species of fishes.
In the Loti•rer.. Ca.li:eornia region sperm whales feed mainly on the squids
Iloroteuthis and CTonatonsis, and less often on rays, A'ebbl°es wei^hin•^
from 10--20 g u7r to 1,, 4.00 g are quite often z"ouricï_ in their stomachs.
During the fattening -oeriod sperm whales remain in groups.,
which often consist of animals of a>articular size or age. When
tI,_e
lengths of the ar_izials in agrou}^ are from 1-1.6 to 13 metres
their ages are approximately the same, but in groups consisting of
larger animals there are individuals of various ages. In the Gulf
of Alaska region st erm whales measuring up to 13.0 metres -predominate
in the groups during Aï)ri1 and May, but in June and especially in
July the Erou-ns consist mostly of larger animals.
The females attain sexual maturity at a body length of about
8.5--8.8 metres; the males become sexually mature when their body
length is S?.5 metres and the weight of their testes is 1 kg or more.
Gestation lasts about 16.5 months. 'Hating usually takes place from
February to June, and parturition from June to October, with a peak
in All^^ust.
The new-born calves are about 4.05 i;ietres long (accordinf;
to other data, un to 4.27
meures). They feed on their mothers'
milk, which has a fat content of 36-3&D, for from five or six months
u^) to ^'. or. 25 months k ';'he .fe:^ia._les mate once in three or four years;
those to.•^in.^; ,^^.rt in rel^lo^-uc^Li.on fo,: '--o first time mate 1.5 months
later, on cn a.vera.,-;e, t_-ian t's-.ose that have proù.uced youiz`;.

een recorded—
270
Instances of attacks on whaling ships by sperm.whales have
by the Soviet whaling fleet-
Such attacks have also occurred during operations
The stranding of sperm whales has been reported from several
places in the northern part of the Pacific Ocean.
Incrustations on the skin occur relatively seldom. Usually
various barnacle species are found attached to sperm whales. Diatom
algae settle on them in Arctic waters.
mostly by whale lice.
Ectoparasites are represented
Endoparasites are usually found in every
specimen. They are located in the stomach, intestine% ) and kidneys,
and even in the placenta of pregnant females.
Little study has been made of sperm whale diseases. Dental
caries, tonsilitis, and various inflammatory conditions have been
reported.
During the period following World War II there was great
expansion in the hunting of sperM whales; the take rose from 1,345
in 1946 to 7,768 in 1962.
in 1967 it amounted to 15,469.
Appendixes 7 and 10.
In 1963 it passed the 10,000 Mark, and
Data on the take are presented in
The principal products are oil, spermaceti, meat—meal for
animal food, and frozen meat.
The ratios between the body length and the weight of male
sperm whales are given below:
Rawia, A' 12,4 13,45 13,8 1 4 ,6 16,4 16,8 17,0 18,0 18,1'
Z filacca, C 16,1 22,7 20,6 26,05 -30,6 32,0 38,6 53,4 57,1
Key: 1) Length, metres.
2) Weight, metric tons.
The weight of a female 10.7 metres long was -15.0 metric tons.
In 1971 the number of male sperm whales in the zone of operations
of the pelagic flotillas north of 40 ° N was estimated .at from
57,000 to 77,000, and the permissible kill at from 4,800 to 6,700;
the corresponding figures for females were: estimated number from
50,000 to 56,000, and permissible kill 1,900 to 5,100.
he following national quotas for the take of sperm whales,
including both males and females, were established in 1972: USSR
6,173; Ja;)an 4,608; and U.S.A. 60 -- total 10,641.

..... 271
; y^,my Sperm Whale (!rog ia. brevice-ns)
mi.-:?,^,tior.s of ;ïay s,: ?:-?i i,rl-ial es 1^_av: not been stud_i ed .
Str.andin;;s of taese ar,imal-s have been renorteâ fro:ïi the coasts of
Japan, Metiico, and the U.S.A. They feed on ceYïha.lo pods. Of f tne
coast of Ja.,)an they feed on fishes from depths of 250 metres or niore.
Their reT)rod.uction has not been studied. Active sper,►atogenesis was
observed i-: October in a male 298 cm in length. !.',o information on
their behaviour is available.
Pygmy snerr:i whales are not hunted. Oc-casional specir.rens are
found among small whales killed off the coast of Je.,Dan.
Their products are insi6-ni ficant. - The animals weigh no more
than ij.00 to 500 kg. According to some reports, ambergris has been
found in their intestines.
Goose-beaked ïr!hale (Zi-nhius ca.virostris)
Up to the present the biology of tiiese whales has been little
studied. Goose-beaked i•:hales feed. on cephalopods, in search of which
they make dives lasting for 30 minutes or even longer.
The feniales attain sexual.maturity at a length of about 5-5
^ ,, , ^ ,,^.,
metres, and the males at w:oï^ic:^,,t,.^a,^ snï^^^.^aÿ 1C17gtAA. 1 ^iG calves .^.re
born mostly in autumn, ti•rhen the embryo has attained a length slightly
less than half of that of the mother.
Hunting is on a small sca.le, and specimens taken are included
in the group "0ther". Goose-beaked whales are taken off the coast
of Japan almost all year round, but principally in summer (from May
to Septer:iber) near the peninsulas of Bose and. San-riku, both on the
1?a,ci.fic side of t'rie island of Ilonshu.
F rom 1948 to 1952 65 goosebeaked
whales were ta,lcen there, 51 being males and 34 females, and
in 1953 36 were taken. 1^iost of t.:ese were animals from 5.5 to 6.4
metres in length.
In a female 658' cm long, i:reiE^hing 2,952-5 kg, the weight of
flesh, blubber, and bones was 2,717 kg.
Porth -Pacific Giant !^ottle-nosed t•Jha.le- (73era.rdius bairdi) 178
The migrations of ti-ïese whales have not been investigated.
',hey are found. in J7.Ywariese waters in winter, but huntinL; of taeri
Û^,reral^.y be^;i.ris in A.^^râ.l, when they aut^roach tue coasts.
Sor:ie of
the a.ni;:.als sta^ t:,ere all su;nc?er, but otIners leave for colder

..... 272
waters and appear in April and May in the southern part of the Sea
of Okhotsk, at the Kurile Islands, off Kamchatka, and in the Bering
Sea. Their departure for the south has been observed in October.
Corresponding movements of whales of this species are seen
in the eastern part of the iqorth racific.
Their principal food items are cephalopods (squids, and much
less often octopuses), various fish and crab species, and starfishes.
The females attain sexual maturity at a length of about 10.0
to 10.3 metres, and the males at 9.3 to 9.6 metres.
The mating
period is prolonged, lasting through winter and spring. 'After ten
months of gestation the females produce calves about 4.5 to 4.8
metres in length, which they suckle for several.months.
cut their teeth at the end of the lactation period.
The calves
The spout is small, up to 1-1.5 metres in height. While
feeding the whales are generally seen in groups of a few animals.
They can stay under water for from 10-15 to 20 minutes, and -sometimes
up to an hour, after which they stay on the surface for 5-7 minutes
or even ten minutes, emitting from ten to twenty spouts during that
time.
They do not display their flukes in the air before diving.
They are seldom seen to leap out of trie water.
Whale lice occur as parasites on their bodies; barnacles
have sometimes been found on tneir teeth. Diatom algae settle on
them during their stay in Arctic waters, and sometimes lampreys
become attached to them.
Endoparasites have been reported in the liver, kidneys, and
some other organs and parts of the body
Killer whales have been known to attack them.
I;orth Pacific giant bottle-nosed whales are important as an
objective of Japanese coastal whaling.
Data on the take are presented in Appendix 12
Most of the
animals taken are males 10.1-11.0 metres in length and females
10.4-11.3 metres in length.
Females 10.0, 10.8, and 11.1 metres in length weighed 8.65,
7.5, and 8.56 tons respectively, including subcutaneous blubber
layers wci,T;hin:,,;
3.5, 2.3, and 5.6 tons respectively. On an- averauJe
one of these whales yields 2.7 tons of oil, including 1.7 tons from
the subcutaneous Uubber layer. trie oil yield is from 25;:; to 30';:,
of the weiht of the carcass.

White Whale (Delphinapterus leucas)
, -
273
White whales have been observed in the Beaufort Sea, near
Banks Island, in summer. They are common in Alaskan waters. • They
are often seen in river estuaries, and sometimes ascend rivers (the
Yukon river, etc.) for 700 km.
They •are seldom .seen south of Cook
Bay; tho most southerly sighting reported was from the state of
Washington in the U.S.A., at 48 ° K.
On the coasts of Asia white whales are known to occur in the
East Siberian and Chukchi Seas and in the southern part of the Bering
Sea from Mechigmenskii Bay (where they are found all year round)
northward. They appear in the Gulf of Anadyr after the ice breaks
up and remain there from June to September or October. They stay in
Bering Strait throughout the year, but are most often seen in February
and in May and June.
White whales are found in the Sea of Okhotsk, from the northern
part of Tatarskii Strait along the whole coast of the continent.
They are seen on the west coast.of Kamchatka in summer and autumn,
mostly in the waters in front of river estuaries during the spawning
migrations of fishes:
is also associated with fish migrations.
The movement of white whales in Sakhalin Bay
White whales in the Sea of Okhotsk and the Bering Sea, as in
other regions, spend the winter not only in open parts of the sea
but also in ice-fields where there are air-holes and patches of open
water, not going beyond the boundaries of these seas.
Depending on the region in which they live, white whales '
feed on various fish species (herring, navaga, Arctic cod, and pink
and chum salmon) and on some invertebrates
The females attain sexual maturity at a body length of 320
cm or more, and the males at about 340 cm, at the age of two OT three
years. Kew-born calves are 170 cm long in Far Eastern waters.
parturition period is prolonged and lasts from March to July, with
peaks in late March and April and from the middle to the end of May.
Data on the take of white whales are gdven in Appendix 12.
The weight of adult males reaches 1.5 tons, and that of
females 1.4 tons. The oil obtained from the subcutaneous blubber
layer is used for oiling hides and for soap-making, for medicinal
tanned
i.mrposes, and also in food industries. The hides are usau for
-
The

...., 274
::ia!cint; lea Gher, and vc;,lucb]... l;cc^_ni ct,l 1^^-•oâucts are also obte.ined
from them. The flesh can be used as human food, and also in the
preparation of ineat-mcal for feedin;; to animals.
Common dolphin (vel_^^hizius del,,his)
The colouring of the North Pacific common dol;phin differs
from that of common dolphins in other regions in that it does not
z)ossess lateral and diagonal stri:)e-s. The transition from the light
colour of the lower nart of the body to the dark colour characteristic
of the up')er takes nlace abruptly, without passing
4
through intermediate hues.
The migrations have not been studied. Common dol-phins are
found in the Lower California region throughout the entire year, but
they are seen more often in winter and spring, together with North
Pacific white-sided dolphins. Their principal food items are pelagic
fishes, mostly Pacific saury and anchovies.
Their reproduction, like other aspects of thei-r biology, has
not been well studied. New-born calves 75-76 ciu long have been
reported, without lactatin£, fer:iales bein^ seen near by. The peak
of mating occurs from the middle to the end of summer. At that time
the weight of the males' testes increases markedly.
Common dolphins are often seen together with IRorth Pacific
white-sided dolphins in open waters. They sorneti:-aes dive to a dey^th
of 200 or 250 metres in search of food.
Cases of stomach ulcers have been recorded.
Common dolphins are taken off the coasts of Japan, but apparently
in small numbers -- no p:_ecise figures are available.
; iales 213 cm and 1;88 cie in len;t,.i, taken in August, weighed
90 kg and 80 kg respectively.
Pacific Bottle-nosed Do1i)hin (Tursiops gilli)
The biology of this d-oli^hi.n has not been adequwtely studied.
Seasonal migrations have been observed. These dolphins come to the
Goto Island region (southern part of the Sea of Japan) to produce
their your_L. -- both new-born calves and females about to give birth
have been recorded there. The new-born calves are about 120 cvi long.
The sto:.iaciis of dissected fe._tales have boeri found to contain
:nackerel, horse-mackerel, and cc-phalopods.

..,>. 275
i'hesa c_olY;hins are ca..aLle of c^ivinE; to a depth of 300 metres.
(I
Their rna__iritun rate of i.lovem.cnt is about 1û knots.
Jananese fishermen hunt t_!e^i arouna the islands of Tobi and
Goto, 'taking a few hundred annually. Amon^, those ta,^ïen are feL^ales
measuring up to 300---05 cm and males mea.:_urin^• up to 520-330 cm.
The weights of males 1n1 cm and 225 cm in length -were 89 kg and 138
1;,; resceotively.
Harbour Por.-oise (I'hocoena, Ûhocoena;
'^!^^he migrations of harbour -,or-^?oises have not been studied.
'i'hey feed mostly on fishes (Clupeiformes, capelin, etc.).
In oceanarium conditions in ;rinter, ha.i bour porpo i ses eat from 5 to
7 kg of various fish species (herring, eels, sprats,'mackerel, 180
whiting, sand-eels, horse-mackerel, coalfish, etc.) every day.
Their reproduction has not been studied.
Harbour roxpoi ses stay in groups of several animals. They
kee D to coastal waters and do not, as arule, travel far out to sea.
They make shallow dives, lasting for 5-5 minutes. '1.'hey are rarely
seen to lea.-o out of the water or to follow ships. ;ven after being
kept for a long time in an oceetïiâ,ril.uil they beiîct•vc^ --larily, although
they can easily be trained.
Harbour porpoises are not hunted. ln the north of Alaska
the Eskimos take small numbers of thern, and articul^.rly value the
dorsal part of the body.
Common Blackfish (Globice-phala melaena sieboldi)
Little is known about the biology of common blackfish. Seasonal
mi;;rations by them have been repoxted. -- tl-,ey travel to higher
latitudes in summer.
The hunting of comi.non blackfish (,see At^nendi}. 12) is concen-,
tra.ted on the coasts of Japan, where from 60 to 300 are taken every
year. They are hunted all year round, but most are taken from May
to October, with a peak in i•i2.y and June.
The weight of a female 3.0 metres in length was 450 kg.
Killer Whale (Orcinus orca)
The migrations of killer i•riiales have not been investibated.
They feed priz_cil?ally on cepha.lonods and various fis)l species.

27 6
About half of the examined stomachs of killer whales taken off the ,
coast of Japan contained the remains of various species of lelphinidae
(mostly Dall's•porpoises) and•sometiMes those 6f gciosébéaked
whales, North Pacific giant bottle-nosed whales, common blackfish,
etc. Cases of attacks by killer whales on grey whales, lesser rorquals,
fur seals, northern sea lions, and other marine mammals have
been recorded. Among fishes, cod and flatfish are usually eaten by
them; in the Kurile Islands region they feed on - cephalopods, less
often on 'both cephalopods and fishes or on fishes alone.
Their reproduction has not been well studied. it is believed
that gestation lasts for more than a year, up to 16 months. Before
birth the embryo may attain a length of 2.7 metres, but a length of
not more than 2.5 metres is more probable. There is possibly a
peak in parturition from May to July..
Killer whales are gregarious animals. They are easily identified
by the tall dorsal fin and the distinctive colouring. When
appearing on the surface they often emit a small spout. USually
they stay under water not more.than three to five minutes. As a
rule they move in single file or (perhaps less often) in columns,
row after row. They are good swimmers, being able to develop a
speed of 30 knots, but they generally travel more slowly.- Uhen
feedinr on shoaling fishes their speed is four to five knots.
Captured killer whales survive well in oceanariums; they
allow their trainers to handle them quite freely, displaying no
aggressiveness tc;ards them.
The hunting of killer whales (see Ap7;endix 12) is mainly
concentrated on the coasts of Japan, where from 10 to 169 are taken
annually. Hunting is most active in October and November. It. is
carried out mostly in the 60-mile off-shore zone.
Oil for technical purposes is obtained from killer whales.
The average yield of oil from three specimens, males 7.85 and 6.5
metres long and a female 6.45 metres long, was 750 kg each; that
from a male metres long and a female 6. 7 metres long was as
much as 950 kg each (oil obtained from the subcutaneous blubber and
the bones). '2he Jaanese use the fresh meat as food, ar.d the viscera .
and old fl.esh as ferLilizer or as fish-bait.
The w.ii;hts of females ..95 metres and 5.4"metres in length

N
277
were 1,583 kg and 2,012 kg respectively, and that of a male 6.5
- metros in length was 5,270 kg. ,
Dall's Porpoise (Phocoenoides dalli) 181
Dallis porpoises are found both in the open sea and in
coastal waters. On the coast of America these porpoises are seen
in Lower California waters from October to June. In summer their
numbers increase farther north, particularly in the British Columbia
region and in the Gulf of Alaska. 'Ihey approach different parts of
the coast of Asia in pursuit of shoals of fishes. Migrations in
pursuit of salmon heading for their spawning-grounds are observed.
Their diet consists mainly of various species of cephalopods,
and to a lesser extent of fishes (capelin, herring, horse-mackerel,
etc.). In an ocennarium they consume from 15 to 20 kg of mackerel •
and horse-mackerel each per day.
The females attain sexual maturity at a body length of about
170 cm, and the males at 185 cm, at the age of three years or more.
Mating takes place in summer. The duration of gestation is slightly
less than a year. The embryo, which develops only in the left horn
of the uterus (the right ovary remains in the sexually-immature
condition) is about 100 cm long before birth. Birth takes place
from the middle of July to the first ten days of August. A female
embryo 77.5 cm long weighed 7.3 kg..
Both small groups of a few Dail's porpoises and herds of
some hundreds of the animals may be observed at sea. They readily
approach ships, and follow them at a speed of more than 11 knots
(sometimes up to 20 knots).
There is no special hunting for Dall's poroises. Japanese
fishermen in salmon-fishing fleets operating in the Bering Sea and
farther south (to the east and southeast of Kamchatka, between 46 °
and 60 ° If, as far as 175 ° W) are said to take up to 10,000 (!)
from their nets every year and to throw almost all of them back
into the sea without making any use of them ..
The weight of adult males measuring from 172-to 210 cm is
from 93 to 150 kc, and that of females measuring from 176 to 190
cm is from 100 to 135 kg.

..... 278
;eno-h;,Tnchus olaliauiûens;
These c

279
waters. rai se killer whales with an average length of 330 cm consume
un to 12.2 kg of food rerlf,ay: ..ey feed most intensively in
January and February. IL summr they feed mostly on mackerel. It
is believed that they form harems. Usually they stay in groups
numbering from a few tens up to several hundreds.
They are hunted on a small scale from the island of Goto in
Japan. 5:he take has included females un to 5.1 metres and males
UD tO 5.5 metres in length.
Striped Dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalbus)
Striped dolphins are distributed throughout the northern
part of the Pacific Ocean, up to and including the :Bering Sea.
Their biology has not been well studied. The females attain
sexual maturity at a length of about 215 cm. At the time of birth
the calf has attained almost half of the length of the mother's
body (approximately 100-110 cm).
Their behaviour has not been studied.
On the Pacific side of the island of Honshu striped dolphins
are hunted from September to January, rarely until February. It is
possible to hunt them at other times, but their flesh is most
palatable during that period.
Up to 10,000 are taken in a season. On a single day --
November 26, 1967 -- about 3,000 were taken, measuring from 184 cm
to 234 cm (females) and from 170 cm to 250 cm (males).
CHAPTER 4
CETACEA OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
All the waters lying south of the Equator are classified as
being in the southern hemisphere; they are subdivided into Antarctic
waters proper (south of 40 0 S) and regions adjacent to the continents
of the southern hemisphere (north of 40 0 S), where whaling has been
carried on, or still is, by sea-going flotillas or from coastal
stations.
The first American whalers came to the warm zone of the
southern hemisphere in search of sperm whales from the North Atlantic
during the 18th century. Towards the end of the century whaling
began also for the more-easily-taken right whales in the temperate

..... 280
zone, but the whalers also penetrated into Antarctic waters proper.
The first attempts to organize whaling in Antarctic waters were
made in-1851 on the Auckland Islands.
The real inauguration of Antarctic whaling dâ,tes from the
organization of the first coastal station on the island of South
Georgia in 190n-05. 'I )urin,; the following season (1905-06) a factoryship
was used. The nu:abers of coasta7. stations and whaling vessels
oypera tixijm, in Antarctic waters increased each season, equally ^,rith tho^,e
operatin.g off the coasts of South America, South Africa, Australia,
and elsewhere.
At first the whalers took hump-back whales, and
later blue whales and fin w',.-la:i.es.
,he beginni°:,; of modern whaling was marked in the 1925-26
season by the ^.in^ival in the Antarctic of the firs-6 Yorwe{;ian
Lancin€¢, with a ramp that made it possible to process
factory-ship
whale carcasses directly on the ship's deck. That innovation (the
invention of the ::ort•regian P. S6rlle) gave whalers wider possibi.l--
ities -- they beCan to j;o out in the open sea, whereas previ.ously
they had been obliFec!_ to keep near islands and they had needed calm
The highest
weather for treat ir_Y• l.,,T,n!le carcasses while afloat.
take of c-rhales in the Antarctic in all history was 46,039 (including
28,009 fin whales) in the 1937--30
31
season, when two coastal stations,
flotillas, and 256 i:;halir_^; ships were in oi;eration.
1}urine, the 1930's the largest factory-ships, with 12, 000 to
17,000 tons dis-Placement and crews of 60 to 70 sailors and technicians,
processed up to 30 blue whales or 45 fin whales with a, total
weight of up to 3, 000 tons in a da y, e__ tracting from them up to 500
-tons of oil. 121-e factor;;••-shi-ps o^}erating at the -Oresent day have
a disDle.cement two or three times as large as that of the pre-war
There has been a correspondii.g increase not only in the
ships.
canacity for processing whales but also in the possibility of ob--
ta.ining other products besides oil. L'uri ng the 1961-62 season,
for ins-.^a.nce, when there i,rere one coastal station, 21 flotillas,
and 269 ti•thalirig shifs operatirig in the Antarctic, they obtained
from 38,552 whales about 350,000 tons of oil, 179,000 tons of frozen
blubber, and -r>oritoneur.l, f1.8, 000 tons of meat-meal
1'2-•oilucts (..Zeat,
The
for aninal food, ant_ more ti_a.r_ 41,2,000 tons of other procl.ucts.
to be used more. rationellY : in r'L"1CLllar, a.
.^
rZ.^^'
matrri^ ^. bf._;^.:
nu^ntity of ^,:ua.le iiiie,^,.•t was prepa.ied for hu..ia.xi food.
153

i'oâ ma.ny ^,rea.r.s tll^^ An^t;axctic
was the ti•rorld.'s ^:.ajox
area.
I1ven before Idoi•lc^ ^lar_• IT, however, the
number of
had noticeably decreased, and. in the 1977-_ .'58 season fin
first place, which they continued. to hold until 1963-64
. . . , . 261
1•ra1 ing
blue whales
whalc-:s took
inclusive;
then ti-_ey were replaced by sei whales -- the last species of large
cornmercially-valuable 1•rhales.
As a result of the depletion of whale stocks there was a
rapicl. fall in the number of coastal stations. In the best years
(after 1c,)10) there were up to 17 coastal stations, 21 flotillas, and
93 whaling ships operating in the southern hemisyhere outside the
^:urino tne years following World War II there were un
A.ntarctic.
to 21 fl.otillas from six countries operating in Antarctic waters;
but during the three seasons 1968-69 to 1970-71 there remained only
six flotillas, three each from the TISSR anCL Japan. The last coastal
station, on the island of South Georgia, closed down in 1966. Outside
of the Antarctic, whaling (mainly for sperm whales, and to a
lesser extent for baleen whales) was carried on in 'thè '1968=G9
season by 18 whaling shins from five coastal stations in South
^,s„erica. (in C}1:Lle, l eru, and Brazil), South Africa (the Republic
of South Africa), and Australia•
The first agreement on limitation of whaling in Antarctic
waters was concluded in 1931 between Y ori•regian and British whaling
companies, and "equivalents" for whale s.xecies were established.
A sin^ le blue whale unit, with a conventional body weight of 83.9 .
tons and a yield of 110 barrels (i.e. 18.7 tons) of oil, was equated
with one blue whale, two fin whales, two-and-a-half hump-back whales,
or six sei whales or 3ryde's whales. At the same time the Antarctic
waters were provisionally divided into five whalinE; regions or
60°
sectors; there are now six of these: I) 120°Z'^r to 60 ° t^!,
to 0°, ITI) 00 to 70°.P, TV) 700 E to 130° E, V) 1300Eto 170 0 W,
and VT) 170° W to 120° W. ^
,
International Whaling Commission was created in 19Ai-n,
,:''_e
and was joined by the majority of countries enL,aged in the whaling
The International Convention for Regulation of Whaling
industry.*
_---^------------._^'-
.
:e ^nei;lbers of -clle In .`^erna.t i onal 5 rh^^,lin`;
l:oLnliliN - i on on
y ,e,,r.: ^,i^,: Aust^.o•li

came into force on November 10, 1948.
282
Changes and addition that
are approved by the annual sessions of the International Whaling
Congission are included in appendixes to that Convention.
Whaling in the Soviet Union is governed by the Whaling Regulations
approved by'the Minister of Fisheries of the USSR, with
amendments made in September 1970.
A six-month open season for baleen whales and an eight-month 184
open season for sperm whaleà have been established for operations
by the coastal stations in the southern hemisphere, as in other . .
regions.
In the 1945-46 season the pelagic flotillas in *Antarctic
waters began hunting baleen whales on rovember 24; in subsequent
years (until the 1960-61 season) they began on dates from December
8 to January 7. From the 1961 - 62 season on,whaling has begun on
December 12.
As a result of the depletion of blue whale stocks the
open season on these whales began to be shortened in 1953-54, when
the opening date was changed at first to January 16; in 1955-56 it
was changed to February 1.
That date remained in.foree'Until hunting
for these whales was prohibited in 1963. When hunting for hump-back .
whales was opened in 1949-50, at first the kill quota was set at
1,250. Later, instead of a quota a time limitation was placed on
hume-back whale hunting (hunting was permitted at first from February
1 to 4, and later from January 20 to 23). The open season for baleen
whales ends on April 7, or when
completed a fixed kill quota.
the whaling flotillas have
The kill quota fixed by the International Whaling Commission
for baleen whales*, the seasonal kill, and the kill attributable to
* For the 1971-72 season the I. W. C. fixed the quota at
2,300 blue whale units. The national share of the USSR was 904 units,
that of Japan 1,346 units, and that of lorway 50 units.
the pelagic whaling fleets are shown in Appendix 7.
The reduction
in kill quotas expressed in blue whale units is due to the general
depletion of stocks of baleen whales, 'which is also evidenced by the
sharp decrease in the kill by the whaling fleets.
The killing of right whales, blue whales, and hump-back
whales is prohibited in the southern hemisphere, as .is also the
killing of lactating females and their calves. The following minimum
lergths have been prescribed for the whaling fleets, which may take
baleen whales only in the waters south of 40 0 S: fin whales 17.4
•

283
metres, sei whales 12.2 metres, and sperm whales 11.6 metres Sim-
ilar limitations have also been placed on coastal stations (except
for sperm whales, the mini.ium length of which is 10.7 metres), but
if the flesh of the whales is to be used for human or animal food
the minimum lengths. are lowered to 16.8 metres for fin whales and
to 10.7 metres for sei whales.
Reports on whales killed are submitted to the Bureau of
International Whaling Statistics at Sandefjord, Norway.
Data on the kill of whales by the USSR pelagic fleet in
Antarctic waters are presented in Appendix 14.
and 30 0 S.
Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena glacialis australis)
These whales spend the winter in the waters between 20 o S
They are usually, seen off the coast of South Africa in
late .September and-early October. They appear in the Tristan da
Cunha area (37 0 S) in July, With a peak in numbers in October, and
disappear in December. They have been seen in Antarctic waters at
o o o o
55 or 56 S, but they usually stay farther north (45 -50 S),
especially in February and March (at the island of South Georgia).
Mhere is little informatio n available about their diet. in
Antarctic and adjacent waters they feed on Euphausiacea (principally
Euphausia superba); in more northerly latitudes they feed on other
species that also form mass concentrations.
Their reproduction has not been studied fully. Eating and
Parturition are confined to the winter of the southern hemisphere
(June and July) and take place in the warm zone of the ocean. Gestation
lasts for about a year; the new-born calves are about 5-5.5
metres in lensth. The are suckled for more than six months.
females attain sexual maturity at a body length of about 14.5 metres,
and the males, apparently, at about 14.0 metres.
and behaviour.
They resemble other southern whales in their mode of life
The number of southern right whales south of 30 ° S is estimated
at 4,100, and of those off the South African coast at about 180.
Pnmy Right Whale (CaDerea marginata)
Yhe bioloi;y of these wh ales is almost unknown; all our information
has been derived from stranded carcasses of t.e animals.
The

• • • • • ^8^^
Soviet whalers too'` three pyv-'my right whales, including two pregnant
females, in Antarctic waters for the first time at the end. of 1970-
In Austa-ali a.n waters only a small movement northwar.d from
-a
their usual habitats, associated with breeding, has been observed.
An embryo was found in only one of the stranded sneciviens. It is
believeit that gestation lasts for about 12 months, and suckling of
the young for six or seven months (by a.nalocy with other tiahales) .
A characteristic feature found only in this whale is the
-oresence of a, narroi•r white st-ripe ru.nning along the whole upper jaw,
which is conspicuous when the whal e surfaces after diving. The
dorsal fin, which is about 15 to 20
cm tall, is bèhind the blo,•r--hole.
under water longer th-an other whales
'.1.'i-le pygmy right z•rha.le can stay
on account of the structure of its ribs (the ribs are not joined to
the sternum, and are flat). It i s surmised that the whale can lie
on the bottom for a long time, and therefore is seldom seen at sea.
pyts;my ri-,-ht t;riza,les are not hunted, and the status of their
stocks is unknown. During the last 80 years not more than 35 carcasses
of this s;lecies have been recorded as being tl=ros•rn up on the
coast, mostly on the island of Tasmania. The weight of a female 547
czl in length was 2.85 tons, and the weights of females 621 and 635
cm in length were 3.2 and 3.43 tons respectively,
rjurnn-back ':ihale (T'ie^^.ptera nodosa)
The migration routes of humU-back whales pass along the
coast-lines of the continents and are.therefore more easily studied,
which has made it possible to d.istingu.ish several local herds (see
Ap.iiendi x 16 and Table 9; .
it has sometimes been sui^gested that the hump-back whales
ISG
found off the coasts of Ara.bia, and 3eluchistan constitute an independent
herd. Individual specimens appear in the fattening--t;rounds
in October, but the majority arrive in )^ovember and. December. . tiur.lpback
,,!hales movin^, sout'nFrard have been observed at Porto Alexandre
(Angola j from the middle of August to the middle of hoveriber, at
Capetown from October onward, and at Durban in August; at Cloatos
Point (^^:'est Australia, 220 40' S, 1130 401 E) the first hu.,.p-back
On the east coast
wha.les a.-,;e recor.c:ed as early as tih^ end of July.
of l-ew Zea.laa7d %460 S) ,Zu.'in-back vhales are seen from the beginning

285
C.Ta,Da Ic z)63.11:1X HilTen (.1 itbUI V.S1 110,1y1tVapillt
T a 6 HU, a 9
CTay.,o
MCCT3 311M0I40K
Mcera :te -n;ro pecnpocTpaneitart
( i . tory or 40 to. Di.)
411.11iiicK0-
iley.)ỵaitcNor.!
1.0e: noreop-
Banzanc-
'1;14)111;31:cl:0c
BDC:1011110-
..appxattc.yoe
13 3aaaAllc.ial.3-
.c.rpacFmc
Bo..:Totwoau-
'
pHoltoātvialuome.
■;:t_TuxooKalt-
' cRoe (?)
TABLE 9.
Hemisphere.
331ar.olaax Ceperon
3KnaTopa
CH0lbE0 Cenepuee
oT (Seperoa
JIHIL — pa..II cc-rponot.% Tpill1H;HITH
H At3p1'IM Bac
B,10J11, 33cm:abtx 6epero3 A4)-
pnizu 01 Trinitiii(a 1 .03epora ;.to
nraltelic:scro 33Jilvaa.
B:w.ah aapor03 10ro-p,ocToq1Ioil
cei.epitee 11,yp6a1ta, 0E0-
JI0 o.
cetvcry 01 10 .-mioro
mopt
p3ri1F:a
ilKHHT01)H1 0CTp0RD13
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ji T \io -ty
Or IlleTJlatteKlIX OCTpoaos
7,0 103 (110f 3. A.
• Or IHICTOtlitb!X 6:- 1erOB 10:•HUO11
Ame.pliKti o 10Z:1IIAX CIIHREHtle-
BW".`; CeT1)050H
CalLatilltiemax oc -rp0000
0 yiterioro me.plignatta
(Z. ar 0. Byoe ocTp000ts Kipme
(nor:mom:no Ao o. Kepreneat)
:';80-110'
a" 140-170' n.
170' B. À. IUP 3. À.
,!4>150--110' 3. A.
Herds of Hump—back Whales in the Southern
Key: A) Herd. B) Wintering—grounds. C) Area of summer
distribution (south of 40° S).
1) Chile—Peruvian. 2) Along west coast of South America
to the Equator and somewhat farther north. 5) From the South Shetland
Islands to 100 ° (110 0 ) W. 4) South Georgian. ,5) East of the
coast of Brazil -- region of the Trindade and Martin Vaz Islands.
6) From the east coast of South America to the Sout:c, Sandwich Is.
. 7) West African, 8) Along the west coast of Africa from
the Tropic of Capricorn to the Gulf of Guinea. 9) Prom the South
Sandwich Islands to the Greenwich meridian.
10) East African. 11) Along the coast of southeastern Africa
north of Durban, an near Madagascar. 12) Yrom Bouvet Island to
Crozet Island (near Kerguelen Island,
13 s) West Australian— 14) 1:orthwestern Australia, north of
the Tropic of Capricorn. 15) 80 0 E to 110 0 E,
16) East Australian, 17) Coral Sea. 18) 140 0 E to 170° E.
19) row Zealand- 20) Waters adjacent to Tonga, Samoa, and
Fiji Islands. 21) 170 ° E to 150° W.
22; racific (?). 23) Waters adjacent to Society Islands
and Tuamotu Island, 24) 150 ° W to 110 0 W, •
of October to the middle of December, with a peak at the beginning
of Ëoveraber. 1iump—back ihales appear off Chile in Dec'ember.
Kum—back whales heading northward havL been recorded at
South Georgia Island in April, at CapeIown in May (with an increase

..... 20 6
: r. Là}..^ Je and in the Porto Alexandre region at the
of ,:une, ;i t;i a, rca.l: in :.re ?niC,cle of Ju].y. The first
hutllp-ba.ck i•!h£l,les a3.-,:tL?ear of.:.' the l•.T"rtS^ coast of Australia in June.
The first of them reeach the coast of eastern Australia at the end
of May. They pass ?ieti•r Zealand from ^.Ia.Jr to August, with a peak in
the middle of Ji.i_ne.
The rate of travel of adults during the northward migration
is from two to four knots, and. that of females with calves is 1.5
or two knots. They stay in the breeding areas from 1.5 to 3 months.
Hump-back whales reï::ain in Antarctic waters from three to
five months, fattening in areas of krill concentration; krill forms _
practically thnir sole item of diet, as with other baleen whales.
Only in more northerly regioTls is krill replaced by other species
of Eu??hausiacea.
In the fattenin,;--Y,rounds hu:tip-back whales are found both at
the edge of the ice-field and in the open parts of the sea, even
among numerous icebergs.
They eat five or six times a clay (every
three or four hours). Their stomachs contain from 500 to 750 kg of
food, and sometii:ies even up to 900 or 950 kg. During its sojourn
in Antarctic waters an adult hun,p-bac.k whale cons-ames u,^p to 450
tons of crustaceans.
In winter hump-back whales ap.parently feed much less often
and on smaller amounts of concentra.tion-forming organisms, such as
crustaceans and a few fish species.
There are two races of hump-ba.ck whales in the southern
hemisphere. In the larger race, which includes the South Georgian,
West African, and. East African herds, the males attain se.tiual maturity
at a body length of 11.9 metres, and the females at 12.4 metres.
Hating tak.es place within a relatively short period of time (two or
three months).
Gestation lasts for more than 11 months. The average
length of a new-born calf is 4.7 metres (most are from 4-5 to 4-9
metres). 'l'hey are suckled for about six months. By the end of the
lactation period they have attained a length of eight or nine metres.
Most of the adults mate almost every year, mainlÿ in July and Iiùgllst.
The hump-back whales of the Australia-Yew Zealand-Peru ^;rou1i
bccome sexually mature at the folloi.rin{, minimum body lengths; :Aa les
11.2 metres, females 11.7 metres.

• 287
The adults in the Australian herdsusually breed once in two
years, but lactating females that were already pregnant have been
recorded.
At birth the calves are about 4.3 to 4.5 metres in length;,
they are suckled for more than ten months, until the end of June.
The average fat content of the milk is 33ciL* Gestation lasts for
* The milk of the females in .the Chile-Peru herd containS'
from 45% to 4e of fat.
almost a year. The peak of mating occurs in the middle of August,
and parturition is at almost the same time in the following year.
Cases of multiple birth are rare (0.5%), and more than three embryos
have never been found. Soviet investigators were the first among
whale specialists to describe a case of Siamese twins, in a female
12.7 metres long, in January 1961: there were two embryos grown
together -- males 120 cm and 124 cm long.
These whales have been found encrusted with barnacles
(poronula), on whose shells there were the goose-barnacles Conchoderma<
Diatom algae are often observed on their bodies in Antarctic waters.
Endoparasites infest their kidneys and ureters, and less often their 187
alimentary tract.
Their diseases are almost unstudied. Tumours.
have been found on their lower jaw, tongue, and lungs.
Hump-back whales have been one of the first objectives oe
modern whaling in Antarctic waters (as in other regions) and in the
entire southern hemisphere .
The first coastal whaling station was
established on the island of South Georgia, and during its first
season 180 hump-back whales (out of a total of 195 whales) were taken.
From the beginning of Antarctic whaling until the 1967-68
season, coastal stations and whaling-vessels have reported taking
69,287 hump-back whales in Antarctic waters (the actual - total would
be not less than 80,000).
The nu-.1bers reported by African coastal
stations, and reported as taken in other regions, since 1910 are
38,726 and 43,302 resT,eOtively (the actual figures would be not
less than 45,000 and 50,000 respectively). Data on the take are
presented in Appendixes 10, 11, and 14,
A single hump-back whale yields up to eight tons of oil,
which is used in the food and confectionery industries. The flesh
is used for hu:.lan food. The liver and various endocrine glands
are also processed,.
•

.... 288
As with other cetaceans, the weig'ht of the animals increases
on the fattening-grounds towards the end of the season, The weights
of males .e^.surin^; 11.7; 12,,1, aric? 12.8 metres were 17.0, 17.5, and
31.6 tons respectively, and. the weights of fe__1a1es measurinE; 10.4,
12.35, 17.6, and 14.; metres were 15.95, 25.95, 36.65, and 41.9
tons res pectively. The weights of separate fa-_rts of the body are
shown in Table 10.
The numbers of hum-p-back whales in all of the herds have
decreased seriously.
The takinf; of these whales was prohibited in
1963. The number of hum.E,--ba.ck whales south of 30^ S has been provisionally
estimated at 3, 300 ^ in the summer of 1971 ).
Blue Wha._e (Ba.laeno-ntera mu.sculus)
Blue whales have always been more numerous in the southern
hemisphere than anywhere else.
In spite of the great extent of the whaling industry and the
use of tagging, only a general outline of their migrations can as
yet be compiled. In winter blue whales apparently concentrate in
areas that are seldom visited by ships. During that period only
single individuals or small groups are generally seen. Their. -principal
wintering-grounds are located south of 20 0 S, in the' temperate
zone of the ocean. On migration the whales keep mainly to the open
parts of the sea, in waters of c.onsiderable depth, and seldom
approach coastal areas (see Appendix 17).
The first blue whales appear in Antarctic waters in October.
They gr,-:duall,y »enetrate. farther south, and are often seen right
at the edr,e of the ice in sum_:er. As tagging has revealed, these
whales frequently return to the same fattening-grounds, even many
years after tagging.
he blue whales stay on the fattening-grounds until February
or March, and then begin to migrate northward.
It is believed that there are several herds of blue whales
in the southern hemisphere. The Chile-keru herd winters to the west
of the coasts of Chile and Peru, and fattens in sum;ner in the Bell-
inghausen z^üha.usen Sea (possibly visi-tij: ti1:., Soufii Shetland ï:slai^ds) ) . r'
e
South Geor`.,i".
is loc^.i.ed from Lay to Sc;_.)tember oC.ti;-c of the
co:.l.t3 t
of ^3-"'a sil l, 1..'.iC_ S':'C:ïld.s ts:i: sulIl`?10r in the Antarctic f rom the
t^,-:Sttr11
CO .SG of .)outil !'i^le:,'lc^i. tC) the South ,^anCLl^^icT? 1sln.IlC.s• ^T'21e•

• •
. 289
whales of the West African herd leave.the waters adjacent to the
-
coasts of the Congo, Angola, and South Africa in spring and head
for -U.s.e A.ntarctic, where they are found in summer from the South
Sandwich Islands to the Greenwich meridian. After winterinçe, the
• hales of the East African herd migrate south into the region east
of the Greenwich meridian approximately as far as 60 0 E.
At the
ond of summer the West Australian herd leaves the Antarctic (from
Co E to 110 ° or 120 ° E) for the region lying northwest of West
Australia.
The Coral Sea is the wintering-place for the whales of
the East Australian herd; they spend the summer in the Antarctic
from 140 0 E to 170 ° E, including Balleny Island.
The New Zealand
herd occupies the region eastward to 145 0 W; it winters in the seas
around the Fiji Islands and in the waters east of these.
While in their fattening-grounds in Antarctic waters blue
whales feed exclusively on Euphausia superba, one of the most abundant
species of Euphausiacea, which forms mass concentrations in -
these waters. The stomachs of different specimens have been found
to contain from one to one-and-a-half tons of krill. Other crustacean
species, such as the amphipod -2arathemiSto gaudichaudi ,
occur ver rarely.
During the period spent in the fattening-grounds the thickness
of the blubber layer increases by from 15'; . : to 2 5:), ensuring a
great increase in the oil yield when the whales are processed.
The females attain sexual maturity at an average body length
of 23.8 metres, and the males at 22.6 metres. The peak of mating
occurs in winter, apparently in May and June. Gestation lasts for
ten months and three-Quarters (on an average, from the end of May
until the middle of the following Avril). The most intensive growth
of the embryo takes place during the last five months of pregnancy:
its length increases from 1.5 to 7.0 metres, and its weight from 20
kg to 2,500 kg. During . the last two months of pregnancy its weight
increases by more than two tons, from 420 kg to 2,500 kg. An embryo
7.46 metres iï lew;th weighed 2,800 kg.
The calf is fed for more than six months on milk containing
from 35 to 50: of fat. During the whole lactation period the calf •
doubles ii length, atainig a length ofe 15-16 metres or more. A
ferlale with a calf 12-1i; meures long ras observed in February at 70 o S.
The transition period of mixed feeding (on milk and crustaceans) is
not 7-,roomeed.
1 89

.
..... 290
0
CO01l0!1,'CHItC ttIIerC:i T•y't;a! 1i^_7tOTU,lbtX If!!1•OS A?ITa;;:!TFXtt (n '1'.) 061-MC311 M-tCCbt T)+Gltt)
(no K. A. Mpovÿeny, 196.S a, 19(iS 6) •
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Ta61ii ii a 10
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;pi'xm:!!a, sCsblt< ........ 11,0-_2
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:;:,Cr, (n.cru) . . . . . . . . . . 18,3-28•2 22,0 18,5-29,3 22,8 33,1-44,5 3G,o 31.1-40.6 35,9 34,7--44.8 40 ,4 32 ,-1--117,0 I0.8
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2.;,J
t ^CIl1:li!IV . ..........
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j(;'0
'r 4 1? 9 10 6 L` 1--11 3 :1 i It 1;t,1-?(t,5 12,0-iS,1 15,G 1d.8-22,9 16,9 1 13,â--^.3,3 17.3
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h!lyrpe•lulnen! (:lc.,rr!) ...... , 7.0-10,3 8,8 7,1--19,0 9,1 4,0-10,3 7•8 4,8•=10,9 7,G 5, 7,3 5,1-10,2 7,9
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%p .tin:C7. . . . . . . . . . .
•'
2rS__j,^
3,9 2.7- .0 3.8 2,9-5,0
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; f neven :. ........... I l."--1.8 1.1 0,9--I,9 1,3 0,7 -1,4 i,0 • 0,13-1,5 1,0 0,7--1,: 0,0 0,7--1,4 1.0
Z sr ly;;e!c !! tattuc vssn; ..... I 1,`.!-5,G 3,5 2.•1--G,3 6,0 1,1--4,3 2,7 1,9-5.1 3,2 2,2-•1,! 3,2 i,9-•4,7 3,5
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1
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TABLE 10. proportions of l'arts of the Body of Some Antarctic
Whales (expressed as -.?ercentages of the total body weiL--:ht).
(From K. A. Mrocl-A>ov, 1968 a, 1968 b.)
Kef: 1) Parts of body. 2) I-1tiuap-back whales. 3) Males.
4Fema.les. 5) Range of variation. 6) Average. 7) Fin whales.
8^ Sei whales.
9) Subcutaneous blubber. 10) l'eritôneum, tongue. 11) Head.
12) Lower jaw. 13) Sine and caudal section. 14) Ribs with flesh,
flippers, and flukes. 15) --'lesh (total). 16) including: 17) dorsal.
18; ventral. 19) Viscera (total). 20) Pluck. 21) Liver.
22) Stomach and intestineu. 23) Balee,n plates with :gums.
Most blue whales mate once in tVro.or three years. The males
attain physical maturity at a body length of about 24.0 metres, and
the females at 26.0 or 26.5 metres.
The height of the spout is usually from seven to nine metres,
but occasionally it reaches 10-12 metres or even 15 metres. The
;•ri-lal es'
be£17-vl.olir on the surface is a7.^lost the same as that' of blue
whales in the northern hemispliere. In tne fattenin;,-C:rounà.s they
usually stay under water for five to ten minutes. 1'41nile under water

291
they
may change their direction of movement abruptly. An alarme. blue
A
whale may attain a speed of 20 knots, it is reckoned that it canot
for more than 10 or 15 minutes.
Calculations
show that at maximum speed a whale 27.5 metres in longth develo -es
up to 500 horse77ower.
Blue whales are not afraid of floating ice,
and are often found in small patches of open water near concentrations
of krill.
External parasites (Pencha and whale lice) are occasionally
found on their bodies,
Various helminthic species are known as
their internal parasites, being found mainly in the intestines.
The diseases of blue whales have been little studied. Various
inflammatory conditions and tumours have been recorded in the pleura,
uterus, lungs, tongue, and mediastinum; there are also records of
diseases of the lungs and heart, cirrhosis of the liver, and
inflammation of the thoracic glands.
Antarctic whaling for this species was begun by a coastal
station in South Georgia in the 1904-05 season, when the fit 11
whales were taken. Luring the 1930's from 14,081 to 29,410 blue -
whales were killed in the Antarctic every season .
The post-war
maximum was reached in the 1946-47 season with a take of 9,192 blue
whales, of which only 527 were taken by the South Georgia coastal
stations. The take fell sharply in subsequent years.
Blue whales were hunted from South African coastal stations
most intensively from 1923 to 1930, when from 727 to 1,744 were
taken every season.
The take of blue Whales (including pygmy blue
whales) off the coasts of Chile, Brazil, and other countries except
South Africa was small.
Data on the take are presented in Appendixes 10, 11, and 14.
A single blue whale yields up to 20 tons of edible oil and
several tons of meat.
The yield from the largest specimens is much
higher. For instance, 50 tons of oil were obtained from a blue whale
33.3 metres in length. The liver, the pancreas, and several endo- 190
crine orans are also used.
Blue whales are the largest and heaviest animals on earth.
'.7'he weights of two feNales 27.1 and 27.2 metres in length were 136.4
and 12 2 tons res7;ectively.
hl the sume ,- of 1971 the number of blue whales (. including
pymy Uue whales) south of 50 0 S uns estimated at about 15,000. .
maintain that speed
•

Pygmy Blue - Whale (Balaenoptera musculus brevicauda)
292
Little is known oe the migrations of pygmy.blue whales..
the southern hemisphere they are found in summer in the waters
between 40 0 and 50 0 S, where they remain until autumn. Early in
summer (at the beginning of December) separate groups approach the
Antarctic waters proper, being found ai 56 ° S, but later they return
to more northerly latitudes, and at the beginning of April they are
observed at 44 0 S. Their distribution in winter is unknown. It is
possible that at that season they are dispersed more widely, and
they are found off the coasts of Australia and South Africa.
In summûr they feed mainly on the small krill .uphausia
_ _ in the princial areas of concentration; sometimes they
varentini
feed on other species, in particular Parathemisto .gaudichaudi,
luring their migration into Antarctic waters they eat the ordinary
krill E, superba. Off the coas .tof South Africa in September they
feed on E. recurva and E. diomedeae, mostly . (up to 75.) on the former.
It is believed that a length of 19.2 metres may be the
borderline between sexually-immature and sexually-mature females.
The majority of males become sexually mature at a length of 16.7
metres.
Mating takes place in winter (possibly somewhat earlier than
with ordinary blue whales), but occasional cases of copulation have
also been'observed in summer.
The length of new-born calves is apparently about 6.5 metres.
Pygmy blue whales are less mobile than true blue whale s .
uhen escaping from a pursuing whaling vessel thûy dive and make off
in various directions, whereas ordinary blue whales move more quickly
and usually swim in a straight line.
After diving the pygmies stay on the surface for up to five
seconds and emit from three to eight spouts, 4-10 metres high. They
display their flukes in the air before diving.
These whales are taken together with ordinary blue whales
and other whales, and are not counted separately. In 1928-29 113
of them were taken in the Kerguelen Island regio .n .
he modern neriod of hunting for the began in 1959-60, when
jaT)anese whalers took the first 30 -ygmies, During the following
season 1,127 of 1tI wore tp.kcn: tJC 36 in 1961-62, and 714 in .

...... 293
1962-63. Thus 2, ,540 _)yC_^mies were taken by Japanese whalers alône
El
in four SL'^ sons ,: li':i.o i::IC.].viG.ualS taken were mostly sexually ;i:ature.
-V^ - '• The C.iscrL'-!^^^ncy in t.f'l.e; e fi,-;ares J iS not eX7)1Fi.7.'P_@G., -- `.l'r.
The "'`i:°::ortion of se^.uallûT-r.lature individuals zluc'l;uated fror!i season
to season, from C^5.1;i to 97. 9,;) for males and from 71.6% to 80. ^j.;^
for females.
Soviet whalers have hunted the pygmies on a limited scale.
Apparently the total nuuiber of all pygmies taken by them is slightly
more than `),000.
=Py^•my blue whales are heavier than ordinary blue whales of
the same length. It would appear that that is brcause they are older.
For instance, the weight of a pygmy 22.0 metres long was 68,916 kg,
whereas a., ordinary blue whale 22.11. metres long weighed only 04,348
kg (without the blood). The chief difference is in the weight of
the internal organs. In pyL-mies they weigh 15.8",_-, and in orcc inary
blue whales only 111P, of the total weight. The relative weight of
the musculature is almost the same -- 36.9;V and 39.5^O respectively.
Calculations made by Japanese specialists indicated that at
the beginning of the 1960-61 season thc.re were almost 10,000 py&my
blue whales in Antarctic waters. There has been a close season on
thers since 1963 (extended to 1975}.
Fin ?;,'hale (.ra.la.enontera physalus)
191
Fin whales are widely distributed throughout the waters of
the southern hemis phere, and. are found.. fror^^ the edge of the ice-field
in the south to 20° Ss in some re6ions, taking advantage of cold
currents ( e. g. along the west coast of South America) they go north
as far as the Equator.
In winter (from Mlay to October) the majority of these animals
stay in temperate waters. Fin wha.les rarely enter warm waters. It
has been observed that in some regions (south of St. _,.elena Island)
t..liey occur just as .frequentlY as in the Antarctic.
°i`here
are several herds of fin whales in the southern herci--
sphere, with different wintering-grounds (Table 11 and An
The majority of the fin whales in each of the fattening-
^
, :^ ths. I!'s^e water's from 60 U S
zïround. , remr3.in t^-erc. for a.Lout four ^o^^
to 65° ', (_;ast 'rii.r_d ".Drift) are regarded as the richest in krill

..... 294
concentrations, but in the Atlantic these concentrations are found
in more northerly latitudes, near the island of South Georgia
(540 S). Krill is most abundant from January to march.
Ta6nl:lta 11
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; t Pcüoh. oCTpo!los
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n^:^n ;era!o!1,ne
i^61ieCT3a 11
6 OT 100 (110)0.3. ;j. xo npo.mll:a
)Ipeï2'ls Il1eT:la1QchilX oCTpoaou•
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,1 ^IQ--$v° lo. lll.
^U50-110 (120)° B. ;t.
,Jr 110-1702 B. ;I. (BI

295
The period of aurival of the whales at their slimmer fattening-grounds
is prolonged, and lasts for some months.
The first to
arrive are pregnant females and males, and the last are se:ulally- - -
immature individuals, many of which arrive in January and February.
Tagging returns have shown that even 20 or 25 years after
tagging fin whales have returned to the place where they were tagged.
That indicates that they have definite migration routes and permanent
fattening-a rounds. But in the course of their movement to the
fattening-grounds dispersal of the whales has sometimes been observed,
that being on a wider scale in the regions south of 50 ° S.
The-longest migrations are made by fin whales from the Falkland
Islands region: they have been recorded after one year and four
months off the coast of West Australia, having travelled 8,500 miles.
. The principal item of diet of all baleen whales in Antarctic
waters is krill, !Juphausia superba. :Krill is widely distributed
throughout all the fattening-grounds, and is always found in the
- whales' stomachs. These crustaceans usually remain in thé Uppermost
layer of the sea, forming large concentrations.
The -
stomach of an adult fin whale usually contains several
hundred kg of krill (more than one ton has not been recorded). The
krill taken from the stomachs generally consists of organisms of
the same size and the same degree of freshness, indicating that the
swallowing of the food took place in a brief period of time. The
stomach is filled several times in the course of 24 hours.
rem-a ie en
whales atIain sexual maturity at a length of 19.8 to
20.0 metres, and practically all the whales more than 20 metres in
length are sexually mature. The average length of whales killed in
Sector I was 50 cm loss than that of whales killed in Sector II.
According to some data, the fin whales of the Chile-Peru herd reach
sexual maturity at a somewhat smaller length.
Sexual maturity is observed in the males at a length of •
slightly more than 19.0 metres,
Fin whales mate in winter. 1,.aximiLd activity is observed in
the males from April to June, and minimum activity in January and
February.
The peak of the mating Period comes in 1.1ny and June.
Gestation lasts for rather more than 11 months.
At first
the embryo devclojs slowl:r; us pl-inciDal i.;rowth takes place in the

..... 296
last t7:/o l:nonths of C;esta,•t1.on, when it ri,ttai.r'_s
a len,^,,•tn, of about
6.4. _..etres and an avera.;,e wei.-ht of 1,900 The calf is fed for
six or seven mor:tl?s on with a fat content of from 25;..'i;o 40;.:.
l:urinF; that perioc it follorrs its mother persistently (a lactating
;1oars _i_!; has been froia .?,155 to 2,893. _:uriï_.L,,' the _^G:riod. followini
female wit'r.l a calf 10-12 ,netres in length was observed at 68 o S in
early 3'ebruary} .
These whales a»parently mate once in two years. 1---regnant
females have frequently been observed still feeding young calves.
In such cases the reproductive sequence is abbreviated, and reproduction
may take place twice in two or three years_
'l'he
behaviour is very similar to that of fin whales in other
regions.
There are indications that the height of the spout is
somewhat greater in soutixern than in northern fin whales, and may
be as much as eight or ten metres.
Unlike blue whales, fin whales with a harpoon in the body
can tow a ship behind them for hours, sometimes even towing it at
a spec:6 of two or three knots.
l;oth single whales and small groups of two or three, or
d
even five or more, are observeâ. in the fattening grounds. The
composition of these groups varies.
The bodies of almost all fin whales are subject to incrust--
.ation by diatom
The film of these algae appears, it is
believed, after the whales have been in cold waters for a month.
Solneti.nes ^'enella i s also observed.
Internal parasites consist of
various helminth s_oecies -- trematodes, nerlatodes, and Acanthocephala.
They generally infest the liver axid the intestines. The diseases
of fin whales have not been well studied. A baleen disease, first
recorded by Soviet inve^-ti.gators, i s of interest. During the 1*951-52
and 1952-53 sea.sons, and also in other years, falling-out of aarts
of the ba7.een -- sometimes as much as half the length of a row --
was observed in fin t,^ha.les in the Atlantic sector of the Antarctic.
The investigators t;*ere able to establish that the disease was caused
- by the activity of certain microorganisms.
Fro;:i 19'.57-33 until 1964-65 fin wliales took first place among
the w'=i.ale s^)ecies '.cillect in ^nt4xctic waters. The seasonal kill has
fluCt,u£3ted froi!1 ÿn i9^in^1Ci to 28,C09 in 1937In recent

297
World War II the kill of fin whales off the coasts of Africa varied
from 477 to 964. The hunting of fin hales in other regions of the
southern hemisphere has not •been particularly active.
Data on the take are presented in Appendixes.10,11, and 14.
For many years the chief product obtained from fin whales
WRS Oil (17';"; to 185' of the body weight). In recent years large quantities
of frozen meat have been processed for both human and animal
food. A single fin whale yields up to four or five tons of meat •
(7/, to of the body weight), besides meat-meal for animal food up
to e or 1O of the body weight. The total products amount, on an
average, to 55c/ of the body weight.
The weights of males measuring 18.5, 20.8, 20.9, and 21.1
metres w ore 41,075 kg, 51,495 kg . , 56,350 kg, and 60,466 kg respectivel'y,
and those of females measuring 19.2, 19.2, and 23.1 metres
were 46,490 kg, 44,700 kg, and 61,475 kg respectively.
of separate parts of the body are shown in Table 10.
The weights
The total number of fin whales in Antarctic waters at the
beginning of the 1971-72 season was estimated at from 68,000 .o
02,000, and the permissible kill at about 5,000 (according to other
calculations, at from 1,700 to 4,250).
Sei Whale (Balaenoptera borealis)
-
The migrations (see Appendix 18) of sel whales have not been
adequately investigated.
As in other regions, only the general
principles have been discovered: in summer they move to higher latitudes,
and they spend the winter in the warm zone of the ocean,
where•mating takes place,
At that time sei whales are observed even
in low latitudes. At the beginning of spring they are seen to move
in a southerly direction, but in October,and November (sometimes
even in December) some of them still remain in the zone between
30 0 S and 40 0 S. These are mostly lactating females and young calves,
and also juveniles.
Sei whales, unlike other baleen whales, appear late in the .
zone between 40 0 S and 50° S -- usually not before the beginning of
December. Their numbers gradually increase, and there is, as it were,
a flocking or %Le whales l;efore some of them depart for Antarctic
waters proper inat process usually lasts until January, although

...... 298
the f.irst sei I-•;}rales are observed south of 50 0 S as early as December.
!t'he ïirst to axrive ii ^.n;;arctic waters are prenant fe,lla.les•., then
come males and unmated females; and. finally, lactating fei:.a les and
young calves. i:ot all of the i•rhales, however, t.,o to. ni.g:ll latitudes.
Many of ti:em find favourable conditions (as the resul.ts of whaling
prove) in the-zone of the forties (400 S to 450 S)° There are also,
it appears, areas where lactating females with their calves, juveniles,
and even females that have just commenced reproduction stay
(e.g. the Falkla.nd Islands region).
:Cn
winter sei whales are found both in open parts of the
ocea.n and .in coastal waters.
On the basis of whaling statistics, ta;oing data, -and. obser--
vations we may d.istin.guish herds of sei whales analogous to those
of fin *•,Thales.
he e1xistence of herds does not e_ clude the -aossi--
bility of whales .lovi.ng from certain fattening.-•g'rounds to others
located near theXn<
The chief item of the diet of sei whales in knta.rct:i.c waters
Their diet in the zone from 4.0° to 450 S has been found
is krill.
to include the krill Euphausia_ valentini, Calanus tonsus, and other
erustacecans. The we-
IC;ht of their stomach contents reaches 300-4.00
kg or even 500 kg. 1,1hi7_e the ti,i.lales are living in i;•arm waters the
dietary spectrum is more varied, and includes a number of s_oecies
of Copepoda and T,upha.usiacea.
Sei whales eat less actively in the
coastal zone, where their sto^lachs usually contain not more than
50 or 60 kg of food.
Off tize coasts of South Africa male sei whales attain sexual
niaturity at an average body length of 13.6 metres (from 11.6 to 14.3
r^ctres;, with the weight of the testes being 3.0 k9, and fema.les at
a le-nuth of 13.;'-14.0 metres* in Sectors IT]. and IV of the Antarctic
the corresponding figures are 12.9 to 13.2 metres for males and 13.a
to 13-9 rnetres for females.,° in Sectors V and VI the average l(:nbths
a.:^°e
sornc^•rhat greater -- 1^.25-°13. 3 iae l;res for males and 14-0-1411 .2
metres for fer:la.les,
.0he mating of sei whales takes place fro

299
The average length of a new-born calf is about 4.5 metres from 4.0
to 5.0 metres). Usually only one embryo develops, but twins occur
much more often than in other baleen whales (during the period from
1931-32 to 1967-6 3 , 1.64 of twins were recorded). The maximum
number of embryos -- five -- has twice been found by Soviet whalers.
Siamese twins were observed in 1967.
Lactation lasts for about six months, sometimes slightly
longer; the milk has a fat content of 2i to 2e. During that period
the calves almost double in size, attaining a length of eight or
nine metres. Lactating females stay longer in moderatelY-warm waters,
and only a small proportion of them penetrate into Antarctic waters
proper.
:lie females usually breed once in two years, but cases have
been recorded of pregnancy beginning during the lactation period.
In spite of the fact that soi whales are re6arded as a
warmth-loving species, they have frequently been observed at the
edge of the ice-field, and they also enter open patcheà of ater
among ice-floes, it is possible that they break through thin ice
layers with blows from the head and back.
Small groups of sei whales semetimes travel at high speeds
(12-15 knots or more) and are difficult for whalers to overtake.
Occasionally they are Pursued for a long time without succesp.
Their rapidity of movement and frequent changes of direction make
the outcome of pursuit uncertain, On being wounded soi whales may
make rapid, but brief,.jerky movements. « Usually they do not travel
far after being hit, but sometimes they may run out considerable
lengths of line. In january 1970 a wounded sei whale twice rammed
the whaling ship Vostorzhennyi.
Diatom algae, and very rarely Penella, have been found
attached to the bodies of sei whales. Helminths are found in their
intestines, kidneys, and some other organs. Their diseases are
practically unstudied. A few cases of necrosis of some parts of the
muscles and the liver have been recorded, and also tumours in the
skin of the lower lip.
During the first years of whaling in the southern hemisphere
sei whales were hunted mostly from coastal stations in the Falkland
Islands ana elsewhere, and 346 of them were taken. The relative

300
importance of sel whales increased as a result of depletion Of the
stocks of other baleen whales .
The take of sel whales in the Sou .U1 Africa reion increased
only in the 1950's. In some seasons it amounted to more than 1000,
but it fell abruptly in 1967 (to 218) and especially in 1968, when
only 24 sel whales wcre taken. Frem 610 to 958 sel whales and
Bryde's whales were taken off the coast of Brazil from 1959 to 1961,
but in later years the take was much less (from 55 to 64).
The intensity of hunting for sei whales was greatly increased
after the killing of blue whales and hump-back whales was prohibited
in 1963 and after the subsequent reduction in the baleen whale
quotas.
Dy the 1964-65 season sel whales had already become the
mainstay of the industry: 20,380 of them were taken, i.e. 2.6 times
the number of fin whales taken.
In recent years the take of sel
whales has been from four to seven times as large as that of fin
whaleS, and only in 1968-69 and 1969-70 was it slightly less than
twice that quantity.
Data on the take are given. in Appendixes 10, 11, and 14.
Sei whales yield up to four or five tons of oil (from
to 15% of the weight of the carcass). The meat is highly valued --
it constitutes from 12 to 14.5 of the total weight. The weight
of all the parts obtained from a single soi whale is from 305b to
35% of the weight of the carcass.
Males measuring 14.9 and 15.45 metres weighed 25.6 and 31.05
tons respectively, and females measuring 15.3, 15.7, 15.9, 16.1,
and 16.4 metres weighed 33.1, 34.4, 28.65, 36.1, and 40.45 tons
respectively.
in Table 10.
Tine weights of separate parts of the body are given
The total number of soi whales in Antarctic waters at the
beginning of the 1971-72 season was estimated at from 75,000 to
82,000, and the permissible kill at about 5,000.
Dryde's Whale (Balaenoptera edeni)
The mir:rations of Bryde's whales are very limited.
Off the
western coasts of 'Jouth Africa these whales are usually seûn between
St. helena hay Saldanha Bay Ore group of them sometimes distinguishee
as the coastal race, B. oftri -1-,:eoy2er)
is found ii. coastal

.,... 301
waters, usually within the 20-ir.ile zone, all year round. 1-or.om May
to ;,entember inclusive it sta.ru i^:ith fish shoals. Anotlter •,:);roui],
whicl'-, is usually observed. beyond the 50-mile zone, is classified as
the race B. bry dci . I t appears in autumn 'in Karch j and rezlai.ns
until May, after which it ap,)arer.tly migrates northward; it ap1pears
again in October on its way fa,r.ther south, but it does not go far--
ther t,-,an 4.0° S.
Bryd.c:'s whales in the South Africa region ieed mostly'on
krill f ror:i March to May, on fishes (anchovies, sardines, and horsemackerel)
in June, and on krill again in October. The wilales of -the
coastal race feed, mostly on fishes, and those of the other race
almost exclusively on crustaceans.
The weights of tneir sto;.iach
contents have been recorded as up to 120 kg of krill and 165 kg of
fishes:
Off the coast of l-'est Australia the whales feed on anchovies;
in Wanganui Bay (Tdet.T Zealand) they consume more herrings than crustaceans.
Two out of three stomachs of 13ryde's whales killed in the
northern part of the Indian Ocean contained Stomatopoda.
The males attain sexual maturity at a body length of 12.0
to 12.2 metres, with the weight of the ,pair of testes being from 1.0
to 4.8 kg. The females become sexually mature at approximately the
same length. Matin,; takes place, possibly, all year round.
Gestation lasts for about a year; the length of the new-born
calf is slightly less than four metres. The milk of a female taken
off South Africa contained 29.6% of fat, 14-7% of protein, 52.1%
of water, and 1.21,11, of ash. From analogy wi lw4 other baleen whales
it is surmised that the lactation period lasts for rather more than
six months, and that during that time the calf doubles in size.
According to the findings of Soviet investigators, i:Lxmm-:
trematodes occur in the liver and rectum, nematodes in the kidneys,
and Acanthocephala in the small intestine. Parts of the muscles
and kidneys have been found affected by necrosis.
The first Bryde's whales (a very small nl.u,iber) were taken
off the coast of South Africa at the beginning of the 20th century.
In the middle of the 1960's the huntin^ of Bryde's whales became
slightly more active, from 100 to 1 r0 being talc.en eac'ri season, but
i t declined ap;aixi sharply to a take of four in 1968 and. three in
1`-'69. The total kill there from 1922 to 1969 was 1, 55^.

..... 302
'.c'hree :;ela.-;ic whalii;= flotilla s o peratecl. ii_ the- ^.nt;ola
from 15 ^ ^ to 1952, ai-id a coastal station also o'iierated in
ti,o?'c.e secl.Sons, i:iirin.- that tl..:.C at 1(.'iy:'t Ct;);j .hI-lt%dL' s whales were
talc.en.
'i'liese whales have also been taken, but very rarely, off the
coasts of West Australia, New Zealand, and lirazil.
The s>>°ocucts a._ e si^_ailar to those obtained from taha.les in
the northern part of the Pacific Ocean.
No esti,.:ate of the number.of l,ryde's whales has been made.
.
Lesser Rorqual 1.-----------_•--___
la.laeno7^tera acutorostrataJ
______._..___.__
T,esser rorquals are jqi(je1y ^^.istributed in the southern hemi--
sphere, and are found from the tropic zone in the north to the edge
of the ice in Antarctic waters. TPheir movements have not been stu--
d.ied.,
as there is no hunting of taese animals.
Lesser rorquals are often seen throughout Antarctic waters,
f rom the 40th varallel to the ice -f9.eld., fro*n 1)ece.libèr to Narch.
17uring that period they stay in grou.,)s consisting of ten, tt.!enty,
on lriore. . 'FreCp?ently. herd.S contalnln,-,, many hunCLï•edS of the i•:!1aleS
ax e seetl; ^Iostly in the Indian Ocea.n sc:ctor of the .Hn-L-arctic; these
r
herd.. herds are soi:Leti..nes , co^_cent7_^.:^ted. ^ ^ in a sa:_all area of ^ r^ii, water and move 190
in a single direction. Suc]-: concentrations have been recorded in
the reg ions of 02° S, 72°- 75 ° L; 620-640 S, 85 ° -9 5 ° E; and others.
in late e,ut.^mn tile lesser rorquals leave the tti.ntc^..rctic
waters and migrate to warmer r.4r,ions, A very few cases of wintering
by lesser rorquals in small areas of o:-.en water in t:^e coastal zone
of the A.ntar_ctic have been recor.ded.. The males are most often seen
° o 01 ry
south of 60 S, as far as 8^.1 or S5 S.
In s-prin,^' lesser rorquals are observed not far from the
coasts of Brazil (in .A_U.guSt and Se ,)tember, and especially in October)
and South Afr.icu. (during a1:_proximately the same period j
The chief item in the diet of lesser rorquals, as in that
of other baleen whales, in. Antarc :•ic waters is krill, up to 100 kg
of which has been fourd i i^ tt=eir stoinachs; tiiey also eat Calanus
tonsus.
ti e Ntr^.7 :
It may
sl'ioali.n;; fishes,
be surmised that in more northerly latitudes, in
,one, 1:1ese whales 'r,ay elso f ec..^l on v_^ii.ous sy:^ecies of
' neir re i^.r.octuc't:ior.: has ;:o i, bon well studied.
In Sector IV

• S 303
of the Antarctic the males attain sexual maturityat a body length .
of 7.1 metres, with tuc weight of a testis being 0.55 kg, and tue
females at a body length of 7.9 metres, correspondig to the age of
seven or eight years. It is believed that gestation . lasts for about
a year and takes place almost every year.
The calves are born,
possibly, in June or even in July (in the Ta:mlania region a recentlyborn
calf only 2.2 metres in length was found in June)
Usually,
it is believed,• new-born calves are about 2.7 metres in length.
Lesser rorquals move at a speed of up to 25 knots.
Sometimes one finds single specimens of Penella on lesser
rorquals' bodies; they may penetrate deeply through the skin into
the subcutaneous blubber layer. Various helminths are found in the
stor.ach, intestines, and other organs.
in this region have not been studied.
The diseases of these whales
As in other regions, their ,chief enemy is the killer whale.
The weights of lesser rorquals vary in proportion to the
length of their stay in Antarctic waters.
tening period they are much heavier.
By the end of the fat.,-
The weights of specimens from
7.3 to 8.2 metres in length varied from 5.4 to 7.0 tons, whereas
the weights of those from 8.3 to 8.5 metres in length varied from
7.3 to 8.8 tons. The weight of a female 9.5 metres in length was
9.2 tons, and that of one 9.2 metres in length was 10.0 tons.
With regard to hunting, see Appendix 12. Usually no more
than ten lesser rorquals are taken in Antarctic waters in a season,
but more are taken in some years.
The average yield of oil is
about 16', of the body weight; of frozen meat, 15:; of meat-meal,
6 ; and of liver, 0.9. According to the oil yield (0.57 ton) 52
lesser rorquals may be equated to one conventional blue whale unit,
and according to biomass (average weight 5.52 tons) 15.2 lesser
rorquals may be equated to one unit.
Oalculations show that the number of lesser rorquals in
all the waters south of 30 0 S is appronimately 217,0n, , and consequently
the permissible take is placed at 8,900.
Sperm Whale (Physeter catodon)
Ithales with calve
and juveniles n:D u to the
waters near ti“ -: /0th Parallel, but in some places they have been

..... 304
, o 0
observed a G /,1 and d-2 S. Seasonal movemenirs, t;OVeriied by the
:'eCluence of -i;)'(e seasons of the y('ar, have be:=sn ?°c_`co2'dCC...
(a
Gi'aly males more than 11 metr_es in lc:ngtii enter Antarctic
.ters. !l';.iey are found in a17.. regions, and even penetrate as far
as the edge of the ice-field.. At the end of March 1948 Soviet,
whalers came 11-?on sperm whales only 30 miles from the coast of
Anta..r_c tica., at 69 0 S, 0 0 30' B,
It has been observed that in Antarctic waters sY)erm whales
form denser concentrations at the times of new moon and full moon,
and the kill is greater at these t-i_rnes.
It is possible that in the southern hemisph.ere sperm whales
form se;;;aralle herds in summer, occupyiri- areas similar to those
occupi.ed by blue whales while fattening.
The diet of sperm whales has been studied best in Cook Strait
(i:eti•r Zea.land) . I-11fore than four sp::cieu of squids have been found in
thei r s tOlilachs, but 75;:: of them were I_oroteuthis from 30 to 120 om
long and weit;hine from 0.5 to 3.0 kE. The total t•r'éi^;Yit of stolaa.eh
contents was up to 112.5 kg. Fishes of various species were also
found ^Lo^on, southern Reâalecidaey G-ohidium barbatum, etc.),
each weighint, from 4.5 kf;, to 15.8 k8, eri'cn a total weight of up to
62.0 kg. 5per.:n whales feed. in all water depths. In Antarctic
waters the chief item in tI'ieir diet is the squid 0nychoteuthis.
In. South African ^•rate^s female sperm whales attain sexual
maturity at a body length of about 8.5 metres, but the males attain
full sexual maturity at a lentith of from 13.7 to 14.0 metres.
According to some data, gestation lasts for 15.5 months; according
to ot:aers, for 14.6 months. Consequently different estimates have
been made ret^arding the mating period: fro::. the bebinaiine of October
to the end of April with a peak in December, or from the end of
August to the end of March with a peak in November and December.
The length of new-lnorn calves is from 404 cm (weight about
774 to ;25 cm: ?irths take nlace, according to some data, from
the end of January to the first half of August with a pea,k in April;
according to others, from the beginning of. i\tovember to the beginning
of June wi.tlt a peak in -Pebruary and ilarch. The lactation period
lasts for up to 24. or 25 months, c.urii ; i•rhich time the calves increase
tiieir length to about 'J.8 me ;,res. The females breed once in four
years, rarely once in three years.
197

30 5
, In the southeastern part of the.Pacific Ocean - the males
become sexually mature at a body length of about 9.7 metres, and the
females at about 8.5 metres, The duration of gestation is 17 Months;
the length of a new-born calf is about 4.02 metres. .
Mating takes '
place from April to February, but most often from June to December,
with a peak in September.
The parturition period extends from September
to July, but is mostly from November to May, with a peak in
February. Lactation lasts from five or six months to 17 or 18 months.
The fat content of the milk is 30% or more.
the warm zone, or even in the temperate zone (35 0 -39 0 s)
The calves are born in
After a prolonged dive a sperm whale usuall y spends not
less than ten minutes on the surface, and after a brief space of
time (about half a minute) it emits spouts that incline forward and
slightly to the left; it is then changing the air in its lungs and
its air-sas, and that is the best time to approach it. If its
flukes apnear in the air when it dives, that ,
to dive to a great depth.
means that it is about
During migration sperm whales do not, as a rule, form concentrations,
and it is only-in circumpolar regions, in small areas
of open water, that groups .of a few tons of the animals are found.
Instances have been recorcTed of -sperm whales raising part
of the head out of the water, or leaping partly or wholly out of
the water.
'The usual rate of movement of sperm whales is not great (up
to six or seven knots), but in the event of danger they can develop
a speed of up to 15 knots for a short time only.
Cases have been
recorded where a sperm whale, after lydng mounded with a harpoon,
have rammed a whaling vessel and smashed its boats and guardrails.
Srperm whales entangled in transoceanic cables have been hauled up
from depths of 120 to 1,120 metres, usually frOm 500 metres or more.
In Cook Strait sperm whales have dived to depths of 360 to 1,650
metres, with a maximuta of 2,000 metres. They can stay under water
for from 50 minutes to 1
hour 15 minutes,
Stranded sperm whales have been reported from various parts
of South America, Africa, ardi Australia.
DD r c 1 e
Tncrustations AJAve been observeè .
on the teeth, and less often
on the bodies, of sDer• whales. In Antarctic waters diatom algae
settle on their bodies.

• 306
!hale lice are usually obs,rved near the urogenital orifice. 198
irdoparasites occur mainly in the stomach, intestines, kidneys,
liver, and other organs. Little study has been given to the diseases
of sperm whales. Instances of attacks on them by killer whales
have been re7x)rted..
The highest kill before World War II -- 2,585 sperm whales
-- mas recorded only in 1938-39. rrom 1945 to 1954 the kill varied
from 1,431 to 5,485 per season; since the 1954-55 season it has
remained within the range of 3,856 to 6,974.
During the second .decade of the 20th century hunting off the
coasts of Africa took from 486 to 594 sperm whales in the best years,
but by the end of the 1920's the take had risen to 1000 or more.
From 1957 (when the take was 1,232) the number of sperm whales
killed began to rise, reaching its highest level (3,006) in 1965,
after which a tendency for it to fall became evident (only 1,211
were taken in 1968).
Sperm whales are also taken in South .America and Australia.
Data on the take are given in Appendixes 10, 11, and 14.
The weights of males measuring 11.1, 13.7, 14.3, 14.8, and
1.6.1 metres were 15.5, 33.4, 35.6, 40.1, and 4i).5 tons respectively.
A medium•sized sperm whale yields nu to five or six tons,
and a larger one up to seven or eight tons, of oil. The total oil
yield is 2O%-22Ç of the weight of the carcass.
Frozen meat up to
5, and meat-meal up to 3, of the carcasS weight can be obtained.
From the liver, which weighs up to 350 kg, vitamin A is
obtained, one gram of liver containing about 5,800 international
units.
In additien the liver contains water-soluble vitamins of '
the B group ( 1 PP (niacin), and B It has been noted
1' ' 2' 12' 0'
that the livers of sperm whales in the northern part of the Pacific
Ocean contain more vitamins of the B group than the livers of those
living in the Antarctic. •
The flesh of sir; whales is used as food for fur-bearers,
and also goes into the preciaration of meat-meal.
The average yield of products is as much as 30 of the
wei,,,:ht of the whale.
Amberris is a •I•oduc -b of the life-processes of the sperm
whale and is formed, apParently, in the small intestine, from which
it passes into th v rectum, in the distal "part of which most of the

.... 307
lumps remain and continue to increase in size. Lumps wei„hing- f rom
1.5 to 2.0 1ce; may leave the whale's body through the anal orifice.
Ambergris consists mainly of high-molecular alcohols.
When they
are e3.t.racted from the body of a sperm whale the lumps are usually
cove.red with a^^am::iy coating.
The lumps are spherical or oval in
shape, and hard to the touch. In the raw state they usually ,,ive
off an offensive odour. The quality of a.nber8ris is determined by
its colour and its odour. Black ambergris is regarded as the least
valuable.
Ambergris is highly prized in the perfume industry as the
best fixative for scents; light--E.•rey and dark-grey ambergris are
generally used for that pur,,ose.
Gold-coloured and white ambergris
are considered to be -Uhe most valuable varieties. Commercial ambergris
often gives off a delicate a.roma.
Taumps of amber^;ris vary in weight from a few hundred grams
upwa-rds.
The largest lump extracted. from the body of a1.Iale sperm
wizale weighed.'455 lcg, and the largest from a female 50 kg. Lumps
of amberg,ris weighing un to 270 kg have been found by Soviet uhalers
in the ADtarctic, and up to 2,169 kg has been psocessed in a season.
Accordi I,.g to preliLlina.ry data, ambergris is most often found in
sperm whales from 11.6 to 13.0 metres in lengtli. Amiber>Y.ris is for.I:ed
in females and small males during their sojourn in warm waters.
Soviet whalers processed S, 034
kg of ambergris from 19558-59 to 1969-70.
The nunibers of sperm whales are estimated au: South Atlantic,
20,500; Indian Ocean, 4,550; soutiiern part of Pacific Ocean, 20,700.
On the Pacific coasts of South America (Chile and Peru) the
number of male and female sperm whales was estimated at about 45,000
at the beginning of the 1960's, ofi' the coasts of South Al rica
(Durban" at from 21 , 000 to 56,000 in the middle of the 19601s; and
in the coastal waters of West Australia, at 31 , 400 in 1905-66. The
0
total niuiber of sperm whales in the waters south of 30 S was estimated
at 217,000 in 1;'71 .
- =-ly S,_er::i Whale (Ko;=:ia brevi.cens)
•;-, . _._ _.___-^...._
The migrations of pygny sperm whales have not been studied,
but strandings of these animals have been reported on the coasts of
199
Sot?. th n f ri Ccl.a '_'^.°."12n1.a, C:'ilil^-^.,
and k^eru. .Ln he Australian re6ion
such stra.nCt inr;S occur more frequontly in i•.inte.-C, and in r:e4•I ûea.la nd
in `Jurillnc?r,,

.... 30f3
t^e9.r
).1.1Ps
feed on ce'`?ha lo :oQ.5.
re-r»'oductiot:, has not been stt?died..
of Pre;^°nanc,; in sucklin^, fe'inales.
ce,-,se to be milk-fed ^,^^en th.^y attai n
Cases are recorded
it is possible tt at the calves
a length of aôout 170 cm.
i^:u-nerous traces of attachment by barnacles have been observed
on the bod^,y behind the dorsal fin.
These whales are not hunted.
Southern Dottle-nosed `,!hale ( jIyi^eroodon planifrons)
Southe-rn bottle-nosed whales are found in the southern hemis»here
off the coasts of Ar[,entina, Australia, Tasmania, and New
Gea.land . In s
um.1e-r they are widely distributed through Antarctic
waters, although they are rarely encountered; they have been observed
in the Atlantic sector a.lmost at 61° S, in the Indian Ocean sector
about 560 S, and in.the Pacific sector near 64 ° S. They usually
occur in saall grouPs of not more than ten or twelve. When feeding
they stay under water for 30 or 40 minutes, and then for three or
four minutes they emit up to
six or eight small inconspicuous sl-^outs.
t•ihile travelling they sta,y' under water for ten. or twelve minutes and
then emit two or three spouts during a period of 10 to 30 seconds.
They migrate to temperate waters for the winter.
Their biology is almost
maturity at a length of 550-570
of 257^ to 321;'^..
The weights of a, male 700
unstudied.
cm.
cm in length were 5,200 kg and 3,800
cm
cutar.eous blubber contained from 6c.)^
the
Their
in
kg
lungs, heart, and liver were 50 kf_r^,
These whales are not hunted.
The females attain sexual
milk has a fat content
length and of a female 570
respectively.
Their stiibto
71^^ of oil. The weights of
13 kg, and 32 kg.
Common Dolphin (Delrhinus del^^his)
In the waters of the southern hemisphere common dolphins
are founâ off the coasts of i3ra.zil, South Africa, Ceylon, Australia,
0)
Tasmania, New Zealand, and other countries.
Their biology has not been studied. They keep to waters
Wit,-, a, tem;,era.ture of 14° to 17o C. Ii. October 1964: 93 common
dolphins i?rrished. in sha,r?k, nets near Durban.
They are not hu-r:ted corl."E.^^.,ciall.,y. In 1953 ^^^ ^'-I>out

• 309
100, and in 1954 about 30, common dolphins were killed in the Ceylon
region by means of hand-wielded harPoons 4.8 metres long, of which
the metal tips accounted for 0.45 mette. '
Their flesh -- fresh, dried, or salted used for human
food; leather is made from tnir hides.; oil is processed from their
blubber; and meal is made from their heads and bones for use as
animal food and fertilizer.
Bottle-nosed Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus aduncus)
These dolphins are distributed in the Indian Ocean from
equatorial waters to Australia, also from hew Zealand on the west
to tho coast of South America on the east, and off the coasts of
ArGentina and Brazil.
Little is known of their biology.
They are not hunted commercially. In 1954 eighteen of
them were killed near Ceylon.
Common Dlackfish (Globicephala melaena melaena)
It is believed that common blackfish make seasonal migrations
in the waters from the equatorial zone to 70 0 S. They stay .
in small groups, but occasionally they form herds of several hundreds
or even thousands. In 1955, for instance, a herd of almost
200 was stranded on the coast of Tasmania. Strandins have also
been reported from the Falkland Islands, South Africa, Australia,
and Eew Zealand, the majority of them in summer,. -
They feed on cephalopods. Their reproduction has not been
studied. They are not hunted commercially.
• Killer Whale (Orcinus orca)
In the southern hemisphere killer whales are found from
equatorial to Antarctic waters. • A group of them was observed in
Ross Sea at almost 79 0 S. The nature of their migrations has not
been studied.
As in other regions, they feed on cephalopods, shoaling fish
species, and. marine mammals. In areas where whales are hunted,
killer -hales tear out tee torue and glso pieces of.blubber from '
killeC, whales left afloat, and swallow whale offal u.)ieces of meat
and viscera that fall overboaW_1.): 2hey are ver:i voracious; the sta -
in: eh a male 0.6 letres long was founê, to contain 80 kg of flesh.

310
Their re7roduction has not been studied. By analogy with
killer whales of other regions we may surmise that gestation lasts
for a year.or
more, and that the length of a new-born calf is about
2.5 metres,
Killer whales usually stay in Eroups , numbering from a few
up to several . tens, in Antarctic waters. They often congregate near
a whaling factory-ship, especially in the Atlantic sector of the
Antarctic.
As in other regions, instances are frequently reported of
killer whales being found together with baleen whales (fin whales,
hUmp-back whales, lesser rorquals, etc.), the former not being aggressive,
anc: the latter showing no fear of such neighbours.
In South Africa the sounds made by killer whales have been
recorded, and later Played bebk under water to scare sharks away
from bathing beaches.
The hunting of killer whales (see Appendix 12) is very limited,
as it is very difficult to take them with modern whaling
vessels. That may be illustrated by the fact that from 1954 to 1966
only le killer whales were taken in Antarctic waters.
Their products are oil for technical purposes
ton, the oil yield being 15% to 17% of the carcass) and meat.
to one
The weights of killer whales from 6.7 to 7.0 metres in length
were from 3.4 to 6.5 tons, and those from 7.5 to 8.1 metres in length
were from 6.3 to 8.15 tons. The weight of the largest specimen (a
male), measuring 8.6 metres, was 9.9 tons, including 2.75 tons of
blubber, 3.2 tons of mest, 3,2 tons of bones, and 0.8 ton of viscera.
False Killer Whale (Pseudorca crassidens)
The migrations, diet, and reproduction of false killer whales
are practically unstudied. Sometimes they congregate in huge herds
'An instance is known of the mass death of 835 false killer whales
in the Mar del Plata region (Argentina), and similar cases have been
recorded in Australia and New Zealand.
These whales are often found together with common blackfish.

311
PART II
DRI12.^' I' - .; t';TU^ 1=tT^..T li' :Ai?.-i; PJ OGi]SS11:G 0'
OS
r1 :II )IA I^^T;ü C,,I, i^.AC^__ , ^.;
, These matters are discussec, more fully in the folJ_otring
books , "rrocessin„ of jThaa.e 1,ro^ucts on Whaling F,--Shins" by
V. A. j3odrov and S. N. G`l].gor' ev j "Whaling Technique",
Golovlev; "Oi J.s of Marine tïe, •,mmals", by 1, V. Kizevetter; etc.
201
CHAPTER I
SEALIT•:G 91-ID WHALING, AND 1IÜ1;T:1:.«G 111iI'.I'L WHALES
SLALI 1-;G
1115''O1tY Or THE ±^^'EI^OPN ^T y G^ S^l^LTI:C^ IN RUSS7 A
R'herc are reliable records of a treaty concluded between the
l:on•regians and the li.ussians at the end of the tenth century or the
bet;inning of the eleventh century, defining their respective
spheres of influence in the T.orth.
The beginning of sealing in the North is placed in. the 12th
i:l.nii.
1^tiï centuries, '.:rhon 'the far nortnern ;l, -arts of Russia began to
be settled intensively by emigrants from Great IùovL;orod... -in the
14th and 15th centuries seal-h-anters in thei3: small boats reached
TTovaya Zc^ntlya and even the 1=ara river estuary. In the early 1830's
organized huntiri,-, was already being carried on in the I^Iovaya Zemlya
r.e^;i on with ua to 80 vessels taking part; they took mostly white
whales and fishes i^chiefly Alpine char). Seals were a secondary
objective of huntint,' in that a.rea.
Sealinî; by Russia-ns reached its pealc of ci.evelopmen.t at Sj.,itz--
berr en at the end of the 18th century. In the 1790's there were as
mony as 270 Russian sealirie vessels, with crews iiu::berin,; 2,200, in
that repion.
Their chief quarry there was not seals but walruses.
La.ter the character of the industry c^^anged considerably, and ringed
seals a.c bee.rd.ed seals became the chief species hunted, with the
area of activities moving southward to the West Kurman coast and
northern Ilor.wa.y.
Pro::, 1875 to 10.19 _Pussi< ï:. sec.lers took 1,1;46, 550 iLar-P
seals
an avera.e of 32,11^5 seals per ia.nn-aill. ^;uliliî;
ii", the élhlte S ea, -.,e.
tl,i., carie t)eriod. :. orweE;i a.n se^lers took 1,956,"05 seals, or an average

312
of 43,500 per annum. The total annual take averaged 76,645 seals:*
* Translator's 14ote: The arithmetical discrepancies in these
figares are not explained.
The maximum take in one year by Russian sealers was 14,469, and that
by iorwegian sealers was 118,358. During the 20th century there was
a great increase in the hunting pressure on the seal herds.
Eefore World War I the most successful sealing skippers took
motor-equipped sailing ships to the sealing-grounds. With the establishment
of Soviet authority in the North, ice-breakinE steamers and
motor-driven sealing schooners began to lead sealing expéditions.
with a total take of 17,300 seals.
in the industry in 1919, There were already four vessels engaged
In 1921 six ice-breakers and
steamers took part, killing 50,000 seals; in 1922, with two icebreakers
and 11 other vessels, the take was more than 61,000.
1923 the Sedov and the Rusanov took about 48,000 seals. The sealing
fleet in 1924 consisted of the Sedov, the Malygin, the Sibiryakoy,
and the Rusanov, and their take was 71,000 seals. Except 'for a 'few
years, the annual take of seals has constantly increased.
To regulate Norwegian sealing in the territorial waters of
the USSR the Soviet government concluded the Olesund concession
treaty with Norway in 1923.
Under the terms of that treaty Norwegian
sealing vessele had the right to operate only in the northern part
of the White Sea, in an area bounded by a line joining Cape Orlov
and Cape Terskii on the south and Svyatoi Nos and Kanin Nos on the
White Sea and the Barents
Seal-hunting in th A southern part of the eitm Sea almost
ceased during'World War II. The industry was revived in 1943, when
the ice-breaking steamer Sedov was sent into the White Sea. In 1944
sealing ships of the Dezhnev type and regular ice-breakers began to
operate.
More than 500 crew members took part in each of their
expeditions. r rom 1953 ten sealing vessels, an ice-breaking steamer,
and a regulnr ice-'creaker were sent annually into the White Sea on
sealing si:Peditions. Local coastal sealing became merely casual.
As a result of decrease in the numbers of the White Sea seal
herds, ship-based sealing in the White Sea w as prohibited in 1965. .
.2,esides opera.ing in the 'hite Sea, northern seal-hunters
began to tae harp seals and hooded seals in the Jan Mayen region .
In
north.

...>eni»sula ceased., and. seven or eight years later
sealing on the islands of the Afsheron archipelago also. came to an end.
At the beginning of the 20th century the mainstay of the
industry was the •riuntin,; of seals on their breeding-grounds in
winter from tTilen^.i. ^eal-boats} . in 1938 the seal-boats began to
be replaced by more re:l.iable and manoeuvrable motorized fishing,
vessels of from 25 to 35 tons dis-^lacerlent, with "jrolinder" engines
of up to 4.0 Àzorse?oower. in snite, however, of th:-.ir i!:iproved stxucture,
additional reinfc?xcements, and metal sheathing, these ships
were ill-s.uited for sailing through drift-ice.
Marine mamL^a1s have been hunted by the loc,al population in
the Far East uâ.nce ancient times. That inGustry has always been the
chief means of livelihood for tue Chukchis, the Eskimos, and the
small tribal groupN in Kamchatka and the northUrestern coasts of the
Sea of Okhotsk. It wa,;; always, however, of a domestic character.
At the end of he 19th century foreign traders began killing
fur seals, sea otters, and walruses on a destructive scale. The
stocks of fur seals and walruses were seriously depleted, and only
a few tens of sea otters survived. Only the seals renlained in
adequate nurvibers.
The date when i:iari ne-ma.:imal huntings began on a commercial
scE•.le in the Far East must be regarded as 1932, when sealing schooners
bei.;an to be used in the industry. The sealing schooners Nazhir;i and
TemD, bought in Norway, first entered the Sea of Okhotsk itl 1932.
In 1935 they were joined by..the schooner Iirest' yanka, and in 1947
203
by the .^a1)itan Iospelol_ and the I:a:n_Ctan Voronin. ï^y 1956 the sealing
fleet consisted of 15 units, :lav:i.i,g been co:apleteâ by schooners
built in l'inlanJ. We .,;ive their teclinical statistics below.
Greatest 1engtl, , . . . . . . . . . r0.5 metres
ear; < . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;^ .2 metis:e.,
of deck to highest point
araidshi ,^s . . . . . . . , . 4-3 me tr.es

314
Average draught when fully loaded
1.08 metres
Displacement when fully loaded
718 tons
Deadweight ...... .. 296 tons
Capacity of holds .
207 eu. metres
Uegistered gross capacity
344 reg. tons
Type -and size of ship's principal power
installation: diesel
300 h.p.
Top speed when loaded
9 knots
Total power of electric plant
63 kw.
Peried of independent voyaging
37 daYs
Accommodation for crew of 26
AERIAL SURVEYING OF SEAL ROOKERIES
. Aeroplanes began to be used for aerial surveying of marine
mammals in the North in 1925, An aerial survey was first carried
out in the Far East in 1950, by S. V. Dorofeev in the Sea of Okhotsk.
• When the use of aviation for surveys of marine mammals began, the
types of aeroplanes used were "ShA", "Star-2", and "P0-2"5 now we
use "AN-2", "DI-2", and "IL-14" aeroplanes, and helicopters.
The principal function of aerial surveying is to locate the
larest concentrations of animals and to notifysealing vessels of
the co-ordinates of a rookery, its area, its population density,
and the most accessible route for approaching it,
Aerial surveys are classified as prospecting and operational.
A prospecting survey begins before the ships set out to hunt seals,
du -ring the process of rookery-formation. The aim of such surveys
is not merely to locate rookeries but also to find out about ice
conditions. The findings of the prospecting survey make it possible
to fix the date when the ships will set out and the area in which
they will operate. Operational surveys begin after the skis
arrive in the area of operations.
In the White Sea an aeroplane constantly observes ice
conditions, the existence of open water, and the movement of driftice
with discovered rookeries- All of these data are transmitted
to the sealing vessels.
Durin thc Jle:iod of mass T'upping the aeropine should not
fly lower tIlar 800 motres. When puppine is completed the surveys
:Aay be made at a lower altitude (down to 300 metres), because a

..... 315
lactating female will not abancion her pup. As moulting seals are
vory timid, they may lea.ve an observed rookery and form new ones,
and
.^refore the observers on an aerial survey shoulc, carefully
moultlng seals.
1000 metres.
the ice-.fields- to search for possible new concentrations of
That survey should be made at an altitude of about
As soon as the location and size of a rookery have been
determined the pilot-observer makes a survey of the ice-field and,
if there are stretches of open i•*ater, gives directions for the course
to be tVken by the ships.
Seals do not form such large rookeries in. the Caspian Sea
as in. the ';,'hi-lue Sea.
spend the greater Part
(as »ew-bo-r.n seals are
plane, as
ible from an a.ero .
;::oreover,
of their
called
after
giving birth the fer,iale,s there
time in the water, and the ^^rhitecoats
on the C^-gspiar! Sea) are almost invis- 204
C',aspian seals select hum..oc^cy ice for
:Pupl^ in^; .
The fer?a.1e Caspian
seals tnake air-holes in freshly--f'ormed
ice, throu{;h which they thrust
out their heads every five or ter_
minutes and look around. ';`hen the air-holes are used so frequently
,e ;e a; -r-hol?s a.re always clearly
-th:.^ water cannot .fyec.ze over.
visible from an aeroplane, as
tne water in them looks dark against
the background of snow-covered i^ae. ''.-
.,he presence of a large nurnber
of air-holes is a characteristic sign of the existence of a pupping
rookery in the vicinity.
The Caspian sealing vessels are lotr-powered, not very easy
to manoeuvre, and poorly adapted to movement in icy conditions, and
therefore nrospecting aerial surveys are of special importance in
the Caspian Sea. :!'hey begin two weeks before mass pupping takes
place, i. e. about the end of the first ten days in January.
About January 20, when mass pupping begins, the prospecting
survey has the task of searching for the pupping rookeries. At the
peak of the pup}.rinL, period tfrom January 20 to the beginning of
February) suckling females can be seen in the pupping rookeries;
on the approach of an aeroplane, even at an altitude of 700-800
metres, they.q_ui.ckly plunge into the sea. -
A dif.f.icult,y of aerial surveying in the I'ar East is caused
by the need to identify the s-,,,.c:cies of the animals. 'l'hat is a very

-
• 316
important consideration because, for instance, a sParsely-populated
rookery of bearded seals (the distance between individuals being
200-300 metres) is regarded as being of commercial value, whereas
the same concentration of ringed seals is not suitable for hunting.
Determination of the species of seals from an aeroplane calls .
for experience in the observer. The ringed seal, for instance, is
distinguished by its very small size and dark colour. It doee not
react to the flight of an aeroplane even at a height of 300-400 metres.
The colour of the harbour seal, as seen from an aeroplahe,
varies from light-grey to dark-grey, almost black.
The harbour seal
is very wary, and begins to react when an aeroplane descends to 600
metres (during tne pupping period, to 500 metres).
Ribbon seals lie separately on the ice, as a . rule, and do
not make air-holes. They react to an aeroplane at an altitude of
600-700 metres.
The bearded seal is the largest seal in the Far East, and
is fairly easily identified from an aeroplane. These seals lie
separately . or in pairs, and only during the moulting period, when
little ice remains in the feeding area, do they form rookeries (but
extremely rarely) of up to 100 animais per sq. km .
They react to
the noise made by an aeroplane at an altitude of 300-400 metres.
Before setting out on a survey flight the pilot-observer
defines the area to be investigated, marking it on a marine or topographical
flight map.. At an altitude of 300-400 metres the aerial
surveyor is able to observe marine mammals on the surface of the ice
at a distance of 2 to 4 km when horizontal visibility is not less
than 10-12 km,
TACTICS An TECHNIQUE OF COASTAL SEALING
Coastal sealing takes many forms; there are many methods Of
taking thc, animals, depending on the seal species and the locality.
Harp Seal.
rookery on it drifted near th,:,
In former years, when an ice-floe with a seal
coast the pilot-observer reported
the direction of moveilent and the distance to the rookery. The
hunters, taking into account tao local currents and the direction
and force of the wind, set out in boats to the ice-floe described,
pulled up their boats on t.e ice, and a(:vanced on foot towards the
a -r)roachirc them froni downwind.

.1 .... 317
(V
When hunting seals from the shore the hunt'ers used lightbut
fairly-stron€; boats, equipped ariti: grapples for pulling them up
on the ice. A?^ill.ed seal was dressed on the spot, hauled to the
boat, loaded, into it, and. brought to shore. . ^0
Sea.l--hurltinr; is restricted, as a rule, to daylight hours.
205
Coastal hunting is now no longer car.ried on. Aviation has come into
use in the industry. In the White Sea, for instance, after à puppin,;
rooker',r has been located by aerial survey, the ;.zunters &o to the
area, adjoining the rookery by helicopter. They set up tents on the
ice and. begin killing seals. As the seal carcasses accLUliulate the
helicopters carry them away to a processin.-:, base on the coast, and
after the end of the hunt (when t^?e fixed limit of kllliIlr, has been
reached) the hunters and their equipment are also carried a.shore.
Pi{C. %Ü, Ct'Tll j0I$ aoifFl TYJ:?@IIC.1:
a .. rPa:;IL., -- }^^f;liiCP:lf;'II:^tS i1'^^.,G :1•r:a?;^bS; t: - 8:i..1
CII^11FY: .J -- Ff Fü!'...^^•.^.fI C':Tb.
FiL. 76. Nets for catching seals under the ice: a) square
net, spread under the ice; b) vietafrom above; c) conical net.
Rinc-,-ed Seal.
In winter ringed. seals are shot 1•rith rifles
or are taken in nets with 18-cm meshes : When set out the nets are
30 metres long and :E'rom 16 to 22 meshes across, depending on the
d.enth of the water.
Caspia.n Seal.
Apsheron archipelaGo.
After 1936
Coastal hunting used to be carried on in the'
The seals were killed with rifles and clubs.
volokushv (primitive ^.ra,j:L;in=; c.evices made of
poles1 began to be used for^taking seals. The iunters a,^proachecï.
the rookery from downwind on a moonless night. They anchored their
bo^.ts and then c:escended into the water, drag;inc,^ the volokushy.
friGhtcned
Some of the hunters, a2proa.chinÜ the rookery from tue rear,
the scals by :sizoutint_;, ë_riving taern towards the volokusliy.

The seals were caught in the volokushy, dragged out of the water,
and killed with clubs.
hunt with volokushy•in a good rookery.
318
Up to 600 seals,might be killed in a single
In the Far East shooting is the most widely-used method of
taking seals. When a s'eal appears above the water surface the hunter
shoots it through the head, quickly launches his light boat, rows to
the animal, impales it with a harpoon, and tows it to the shore.
of fast ice.
IL. winter and early spring the shooting is clone from the edge
In that case the shot animal is hauled out of the water
with a peculiar "throwing-board" -- an oval piece of woo& about 10
cm long s
with from four to six sharp prongs firmly attached to it
ai a slight angle, and tied to a long rope.
Since the bearded and ringed seals stay in the coastal zone
all winter and make air-holes in the ice, local residents have
devised several methods of taking them at their air-holes. These
methods require special skill on the par% of the hunter, and are not
of great economic importance.
netting.
The simplest and most effeeti -ire is
The hp.nter fixes a quadrilateral or conical net in an airhole
in such a way that the distance between the lower surface of
the ice and the upper edge of the net enables the seal to . emerge
freelylDn the ice.
When it dives through the air-hole the seal
inevitably becomes entangled in the net and dies by drowning.
Seals . are also taken by means of hooked traps set up on the
approaches to the rookery. To construct these traps, a rope 25-26
£5 laid down
mm in diameter, and every 50 cm alonE its length "leashes" (pieces
A
of rope 6-7 mm in diameter and 75 to 100 Cm long are tied; very sharp
fish-hooks with barbed tirs are fixed to these leashes. That •is not
a productive method of taking seals.
lets are used to take harbour seals in summer near fixed
traP-nets and at the mouths of rivers, and to take bearded seals on
the aPproaches to rookeries.
I:he nets are made of cotton cord Le.
20/180 or Uo, 34/240, or of flax or hemp netting with a diameter
of 3-3.5 mm.
On Lake aikal and Lake Ladoga the most widely-used method •
of seal-hunting is by stalking.
On secinc; a ,3eal the hunter, camouflaged
in white overalls and pushinG a white screcï.1 in front of

..... 319
hi,, (tk?e screen being r!Iountecl on light runners or skis), steals up
w-i thin p°unshot a.rid shoots the seal ttr.ou[;h the head.
2.no'tüe?' itletaod i s used in early Sp'r7.n-f:;' .-- s-uo17i7il1 ṟ-r
The Lake Ladoga seal makes several ai•r•-holes (as well
uu.) air-holes.
as a hole at its own r,es'i;il:it;-place ) at whi e-li it peri.odically raises
its head to b^ceathe. If these holes are closed up with ice or snow
the seal is obliged to come u-p at the hole at its resting-place,
near which the hunter lies in wait for it with a harnoon.
To ir_cx.ease the r:Io bili t,y of hunters and to speed up t;:i leir
tra.vel, an;?hibious ski-planes were first used on Lake Ladoga in 1970.
"}lese s1 i-;^la.nes love freely on powdery snow or water, over bushes
uu to onc metre in height, over thin friable ice, and over waterways
:. ^
impassable for boats in water not Mio•rc than 5 cm deep, and even
over sandbanks 50-100 metres ac.^•oss.
P --,!c. 77. Aqpoca.lll-a14)"51ta.
fii€;. 77 p Amphibious ski-plane.
V^~ ^ iiunters in ski.-planes are able to reach the hunting area
quickly.
After a. seal is shot the men and tne carcass are carried
to another area by the ski-plane. One of the merits of tne ski-plane
is that it is extremely simple to handle.
We give below the chief technical statistics of the ski-plane.
Weight of empty machine . . . . . . . . . . ,70 kg
Maximum weight on water . . . . . . . . . 1 , 050 kg
Maximum wei!^.;ht on snow . . . . . . . . . 2,070 kg
F,'conomic load on water . . . . . . . . . 500 kg
.ii_,conoll].C load on snow . . . . . . . . . .
..a.:\illum
speed on water . . . . . . . . 75-50 k111,,'hollr
650 kg 207

320
Maximum speed on snow
more than 120 km/hour
Cruising speed on water
55-60 km/hour
Cruising speed on snow . . .
50-60 km/hour
Maximum range on snow with economic load of ,
650 kg and two men, including driver 500-600 km
Maximum range on water with economic load:
500 kg 4. two men 200 km
300 kg 4- two men 350 km
Amphibious ski-planes have come into wide use for hunting .
seals in the Caspian Sea and especially in Far Eaetern waters, where
dense fragmented ice and brash-ice sometimes keep sealing vessels
from approaching the places where seals congregate.
Where sealing is carried on at sea the amphibious ski-planes
are carried on board a base-ship, and are lowered on to the ice or
the water by the ship's tackle. After taking on the hunters the
ski-planes disperse to the rookeries. To increase their transportation
capacity, freight-trailers are attached to the ski-planes.
Each trailer can take a load of 500 to 600 kg, The ski-planes are .
able to tow two railers at the same time,
Fur Seals. Under current regulations the hunting of fur
seals is permitted only on the islands from June 1 to AugUst 1. •
Only bachelor males, three years old or older, may be killed. Each
year a kill-limit for fur seals is fixed on the basis of a census.
The hunting of fur seals begins with a drive. Wind and
precipitation do not impede it, but it is desirable that the air
temperature should be from 5 0 to 7 0 C during the drive. The seals
are surrounded, headed off from the sea, and driven through the open
gates of a corraL hunters drive them by.making noises and rapid
movements and by hitting them with special clubs made of hardwood
(ash or oak), about two metres long and 5 cm in diameter at one end
and 10 cm at the other. One man strikes a seal on the nose with a
mallet; the stunned animal is dragged aside and turned on its back,
and thon another man stabs it in the heart with a dagger-like knife.
when females, pups, yearlings, and two-year-olds are accidentallY
taken up in the drive, they are let out of the corral
through a special gate.

..... 321
TACTICS OF SiiIT'--L' ASED SEALING
Ship-based sealing in thc White Sea is divided into winter
sealing (killing the animals on their pup ,ing-grounds from March 1
to March 20 or 25) and spring sealing (killing them in their moulting
areas from A.oril 5•-10 to May 5-10). That division is purely conventional;
in some years the shius opera-ue in tne White Sea until
the middle of Mlay without a. break.
.After receiving all necessary information from the aerial
survey about the ?,resence of seals and the ways of approaching them,
the ships come to the rookeries on the leeward side and stay at a
distance of 0-5 to 1 mile from them.
The seals are killed by two metisods: pu-,.)s and yearlings are
killed by ha,rpoon:i-ng in the head (better, through the nose), and
large ani^nals are shot. The shooting is usua:Lly done at dawn.
The skinners reniove the hides from the dead seals on the ice.
The blubber on the hide is piled separately from the flesh. A flag
is set up beside each carcass to notify the ship's crew of the
0
location of the dead ani'Mal.
In spring it is better to shoot seals a fter the evening
mea1, so that tirie seals, having climbed. out on the i c.e, will (as
they say) settlE: down. It is desirable to shoot seals only where
the ice-floes are compacted together, which increases the efficiency
of the work.
In the Jan Mayen region the hunting of harp seals and hooded 208
seals begins on i-iiarch 20, i. e. at the end of the pupping period.
°3oth sl)ecies -- harp seals and hooded seals -- form rookeries of
different age--^zrouvs on the ice. Females that have given birth are
foune', both on Arctic ice more than two metres thick and on fresh
ice 30 cm thick.
Harp seals do not form large rookeries in the jan Mayen
rc:gion their rookeries contain from 1000 tô 4,000-10,000 aniL ►als.
?;ooded seals lie on the ice in se,Darate families or in sl.iall gï•oups
of families.
Success in seal-lu?ntinF; de-pends lark;ely on timely discovery
0
of
location of the ed,,.!•e of the ice-f i eld, or' tae areas occu?>ied
by local ..nc Arctic ice, and of the presence of s-Gretches of open

. . 322
water. Therefore the ships must arrive three or four days .befere
th(r. beginning of the hunt and make a survey of the belts of winter
ice (the possible locations of harp scal rookeries), and of the
areas of Arctic ice to locate the hooded seals' pupping-grounds.
Throughout the sealing season the chief tactical procedure by the
ships is the search for seal concentrations. That search by ships
is very difficult because of the bad ice conditions. Aerial surveys
are necessary in that region for successful sealing. Tue Norwegians
use helicopters based on an auxiliary ship.
Caspian seals do not form large and dense pupping. rookeries.
The animals spread over extensive water areas, soMetimes more than
1000 sq. km , in separate groups or even by separate individuals.
The most favourable time for taking the fur-bearing seal -- the
whitecoat -- is from January 20 to February 10. The ships come
early to the edge of the ice and, having obtained information from
the operational aerial survey, move into the area where the seals
are to be found, using the available patches of open water. Because
of the low power of Caspian sealing vessels they cannot force their
own way through the ice, and when there is no open water they are
sometimes obliged to wait at the ed.e of the ice for a long time.
The method of killing adult seals in the Caspian sea does
not differ from the shooting of ringed seals. When the rifleman
sees an air-hole in the rookery area he conceals himself and waits
for thé seal to appear out of the water. The seal is usually shot
in the head, and then immediately dragged up on the ice with a
harpoon. Whitecoats are killed by harpooning, as in the North. The
carcass is dressed on the spot, beside the air-hole, and the hunter
drags the hide and attached blubber to the next air-hole with a strap.
The hunters usually travel in pairs, having with them a
special long sledge (chunki). After finishing shooting they collect
all the hides, load them on the sledge, and haul them to the ship.
In the Far :.ast seal-hunting is carried on front ships in
the Sea of Okhotsk. The chief species hunted are akibas (ringed
seals), bearded seals, ribbon seals, largas (harbour seals), and a
few northelm sea lions. These pinnipedes do not form dense concentrations,
and are found on the ice either sins:1Y . or in small groups.
.cach sealin schooner carries on its deck five motor launches

..... 323
with a freight capacity of 2.5 to 3 tons. The crew of a motor
launch consists of tiiree men --- a-rifleaian, an en;-ineer, and a-,pilot.
cealin", equi _oment consists of a rifle, aimmunition, auxiliary
harpoons, -tnr.ee or four harpoons of s.;?ecial construction, three
hooks for hauling seals out of the water, and 50 metres of one-inch
hempen rope for tying up hides not loaded on the launch and hauling
them to the ship. A radio outfit for communication i-aith the ship
is installed on the motor launch.
When a ship arrives at the ice-floes the look-out man examines
the::, from t',-ie crowf s--nest.
As soon as floes with seals are
seen the motor launches are lowered. It is important, when a:pproach-
.in; the anir,ial.s, to proceed for some time without chan,ïing direction.
In the first place, that ensures the most accurate shooting, and in
the, second place, when a boat moves directly towards a seal the
latter pays little attention to its anproach. Skilful approach to
the animals, especially to such wary s^,ecies as the harbour seal
and the bearded seal, is one of the basic requisites of the hunt.
7iffer.ent seal species react differently to an approaching
vesseJ.. The ribbon seal sometimes lets the vessel come wit1iin five
or six metres, and shows almost no reaction -uo the crack of a bullet. 209
If the hunters observe certain precautions they can approach ringed
seals fairly closely, as most of the animals are usually asleep,
while only one fills the role of a"sentir_el.", staying on a high
part of the ice. If that sentinel is shot first the otïter animals,
sati.sfied. that he is still at his post, do not take to the water.
Ringed seals must be killed outright by the first shot, because
even a ser.iously-•wrounded animal plunges into the water, and when
one does so the whole group follows immeâiately..
It is much more difficult to ap.roac'ri within shooting distance
of bearded seals, which have quite sharr hearing. They are
shot tt:rough th-. head,
The most wary seal, i;ihich can seldom be
ached within rifle range, is the harbour seal.
_he moto:L- launches carry the -orocucts of the lnint to the
ship for further processing.

324
WHALING
HISIOUY 0 .2 T7;.1E 1):.:1VLO.PLNY (1:2 WÀALiNG IU RUSSIA
The first information about whaling in . 11e hussian r,orth
goes back to the ninth century. The aborigines of the North --
Lapps and Finns -- paid tribute to the Dukes of Northern Russia in
the form of whale hides, whale-hide ropes, and other whale products.
In 1703 Peter I issued a ukase for the creation of the "Kola
Whale-fishery", ordering that harpooners should be brought from
Holland and sailors recruited from among the coastal inhabitants.
As a result of the energetic measures undertaken by Peter I, by the
second half of the 18th century more than 2,000 nussian whalers
were going to Spitzbergen every year.
The Kola Whale-fishery, like
many other companies, lasted only for a short time.
In the 1780's the "Lake Onega Whaling Company" was established;
it lasted for about two years. Then the "Lake Onega Old-
Believer Company" was formed; it also lasted only a short time.
In 1603, on the initiative of Archangel merchants, the "White Sea
Company" was formed; whaling took a secondary place in. its operations,
and it was liquidated in 1815.
The "First Murman Association for Whaling-and Other Industries"
was established in 1883, and lasted until 1890.
The "Whaling Association of the Murman Coast" Was organized
in 1884, Aide-de-camp Sheremet'ev being officially mentioned as its
founder. That company suffered heavy losses and was wound up in
1887, because whales had already been almost exterminated in the
Arctic Ocean and the North Atlantic during the 19th century.
It is impossible to state with certainty the date when
whaling started in the Pacific Ocean. One thing is clear, that the
aborigines of Chukotka were the first whalers of ancient times.
Their equipment was very primitive -- harpoons, nets, and even poisoned
arrows, and fragile canoes made of the hides of marine mammals.
In 1782 sonie of the largest fur dealers established an
association with exclusive rights to the marine mammal and fur
industries, In 1794 the "North &merican Company for Operations
p long th- Coasts to tc. NoTLh of the Alaska reninsula" was formed,
and the above association was amalgamated with it.

I
..... ;25
'.rw.^.. ; . . .
:Cn 1050 the constitution of an association for whaling in
t:,e-Pacifie Ocean, x•rhich was formed in Finland, was confirmed.
Amont, the T,ar.tn; rs in
a.ssoci.a.tion, t^rhic.^. was ca.lleù. the "iïusso--
Flnnish 1l11hal.int:; Com;?,1ny?' , 1'iels tile !'u;-:so--f :11F:-'j:Cc.n i:Om.igany.
After i,:aat corr;.a.ny was liquicLated in 1863, i^l'fsberg (a.
?jo I
c?.,^tai.n-7.i euLer_ant in the Russian I•:a.vy j or,,:anized a small whaling
factory in '1'u ;ti^.rskaya. Bay in the Sea of Okhotsk, at ï•iamge at the
1:louth of the Tugu-r rive.r. it o°•era.ted for three years.
F'L ind.holm' s Z'uL;^lr S^ffiale-•fishery" was organized at the beginning
of the 1860's; it lasted for more th an 20 years, and occupiès
a special place in the history of I'Lussian whaling. zfaving x•eceived
no sup-;)ort from the f^,overnment, Lindholr_: finally wound up his undertakin;.
A major role in the liquidation of Lindholm' s co.apanÿ was
played by Lieutenant Dydymov, who decided to or;anize his own ^^rhali_nF,
busineos ind.epen6_ently. :k year later, however, in 1890, while
Dyd^^rllov was travelling to Japan (apparently. during a sever.e storm)
he went down with hi s ship and its entire crew.
One of the 7.a.r^,est Russian whaling orL;aniza.tions was "Count
Ke:i.serling' s 7:'acif i.c Ocean ':'ha:tir.rr Coirlpa.ny" , formed in 1804 and
re•-named "T'iC `'acif:l.C Ocean ldi18,lini; and. 1,1i shini; Joint-stock Associa-Lion
of Count G. G. Keiserling and Company'' in 1899. 'r!hen the
ttusso-Japanese '.rar broke out tile best steamships of that company,
i.ncludinE the floatiz,g, factory Ti_i.k.hail (2, 100 registered tonsj ,
were seizec. by the ene-diy, and the company was liquidated after the
end of the war, in 1909.
In 1923 the Soviet Covernment gave a concession to -the P:ori%•é{,ian
t•rha.lin^; company "Vega", with inc right to take w1riales from
Cano Lo,)atka to Cape Serdtse-Y a.men' in the Chukchi Sea. As a result
of a breach of the concessior_ary whaling regulations in 1.926, -i,he
company was liquidated.
In 1929-30 the 1Car.ichatka. Joint-stock Company (..AK'O) bought a
lar^,e carg-o--s Lec..mshi n and converted it into a t•rhalin+^• factory-ship
under the. naa.le âleut.
^t was the firs^u ship of that type in the
Soviet Union. On its voyatn,_,,^e from Leningrad to Vladivostok it made
its ;'irst e..Perimente.l whale-hunt and killed its first whales, in
thc vici.nity of the 1_0vill._. ttiF;edo Islands, or, UctooeY• 25 , 192.
a.,.
f
;.e :,.leu-L 1'loti.7.l^. be^,e.n r.e:^^ltle..r wha.'lin^,; in ^aie northern part o

326
the Pacific Ocean in the 1933 season, and continued it until 1968
inclusive. The new whaling technique was mastered within a short
time ) and qualified workers were %rained: captains, harpooners,
blubber-boilers, and other specialists. The technicians trained in
the Aient flotilla were used in the organization of the first Soviet
Antarctic whaling flotilla, Slava, in 1946. Soviet whaling in the
Antarctic began on january 27, 1947.
Coastal stations were constructed in 1948 in the Kurile
Islands, and operated until 1964 inclusive. In some seasons as many
as five stations were in operation.
The first Soviet-built whaling factory-ship, the Sovetskaya
Ukraina, was launched from te Nikolaevskii shipyard in 1959, and
was followed in 1961 by the Sovetskaya Rossiya. These factory-ships,
the most modern and the largest in the world, have a displacement
of 44,000 tons, and can process up to 75 whale carcasses a day.
The Sovetskaya Ukraina and Sovetskaya Rossi ya flotillas
began operations in the 1959-60 and 1961-62 seasons respectively.
The factory-shi-,1 Yurii Dolgorukii, which was converted from a passenger
vessel, set out on its_first Antarctic voyage in 1960-61.
The new medium-tonnage factory-ships Vladivostok and Dal'nii Vostok
began construction in 1963 and 1964.
In 1966 the factory-ship Slava was transferred to the North
Pacific, where it remained until 1969 inclusive, after which it
was taken out of service.
On January 1, 1970, therefore, there were actually in operation
in the waters of the northern part of the Pacific Ocean the
Vladivostok and Darnii Vostok flotillas, and in Antarctic waters
the Sovetskaya Ukraina, the Yurii Dolgorukii, and the Sovetskaya
Rossiya. The Par Eastern flotillas and the Sovetskaya Rossi
flotilla5were based at Vladivostok, the Sovetskaya ijkrainaat Odessa,
and the Yurii Dolgorukii flotilla at Kaliningrad.
Data on tae whales taken by the pelagic fleets and the
coastal stations in the USSR in the northern part of the Pacific
Ocean are given in Apendin 13, and on those taken in the southern
hemisnhere in Ampendix 14.

327
BRIEF ïàï;SC^^T2`i.'101`.d OF I'AC1.'OBRY-Slill'S
;•'iiale
floati_n, factories.
carcasses Ma,,' be ';l'ocess ed in either coastal or
^• n
!`lierC 4:^:re Sever^.l coastal sta^lOi1.^ o;G:Catin{;
in the Soviet Union from 1943 to 1965, located in the ÿurile Islands.
.
The processing, is now carried out on t^^?F: or:en sea, and all the oper.
ations of cuti:inL, up the carcasses and preparing and packing the
fi.nished products t^,ïre place in floating factories -- whaling
fa.ctory-ships.
A base foi.- ?orocessine,• whale products (a factory-ship) is an
ocean-going tanker-type vessel of large tonnage, eqtiiipned for the
recention and cuttin.t;-un of whales and for the _creparation and partial
packing of the finisiled products. ht the same time the factoryship
provides sup_olies to the t•;haling-shi-^?s assiLïned to it.
the factory-ships are designed to stay at sea for an unlir:li ted
perioâ, and differ in their operating and technical characteristics
(Table .12).
The largest factory-ships in the world are the âov'i.e t-built
All
which have all-welded
Sovetslca^a ï7kr•^ina and Sovetska^;a Ross-i^,^ahulls,
four-decked bow and stern superstructures, and a two-decked
central superstructure.
The short but high (consisting of four or five decks) bow
superstructure of a modern factory-ship, which is moved well up
into the bow, contains several control posts and also the living,
eating, etc. accommodation for the lnembers of the crew. The central
part of the ship contains the superstructure separating the bow and
stern processinL, areas; a transportation corridor runs along the
middle of it, Several cranes and winches are installed in that
sunerstructure.
ComF:artraents in the superstructure are used. for
servicing various items of equipment, for s-coraee of tools, etc.,
and as the location of productive workshops.
The multidecked stern provides sleeping quarters for the
crew; va--:ious do._lesti_c, official, and auxiliary offices are also
located there.
be located on the top deck.
A hangar and landing-space for helicopters may also
In the stern pa2:t of the ship (alon^; its lon^,itudinal axis)
-trier.e is

328
Ta6Jinua 1 2
O
OC/I oinade cacelnin O KnTec,i1Bw.x Ga3ax
- 7 Pa3M:CpC.1111FI, P , '
:::
e e".
1 2.
''3. •c...
,... 3 -4 .I..,
t-.

(11,.>
329
Yhe ota1 leiÉtàf the two mrocessin d o cks is 70 to 80 metres
and their breadth.is
metres. Beneath the flehsing decks is
the factory, which occui:e.È 'a total area of 2,000 10 5,000 square metres.
Lower down, between the blubber-procossini; deck and t;,(: tr,nk deck, is a
horizontal coffer-dam, which can b(. used for storing meat-meal.
Tanks of • arious capacities are used for holding fuel oil and
whale oil prepared for commercial purposes. 'Frie total capacity of all
the tanks depends on the displacement of the factory-ship, and may be
up to 30,000 tons. Separate fuel-oil tanks are installed in the stern
part, where the engine section is located. Powerful pumps, installed
in the central superstructure, are used to trans-ship fuel oil and whale
oil. The bow part of the ship contains refrigerated holds for frozen
products, and also a freezer section. There is also a hold for provisions
and whaling equipment,
Modern factory-ships use a number of cranes, winches, and saws
for cutting up whale carcasses, and also a number of deviceS and appliances
that make it possible (for instance, in the difficult conditions
of the Antarctic) to process up to 3,000 tons of raw material from
whales in one day. We give below a list of the items of equiPment used
for processing whales on a factory-shim.
•
4 Komi-
• "V =wen()
blexa-
11113MOB
•flaponme .qc6e;J,Kil
3 40-To 2
2
s')" 10- TOillible 15
5-T0:111ble 10
`,/ Tlapotue 111111U111
18
L. 9
Sacmpowrimil jm i T1THBaTI1I1 riporyweiima, no-
Rhp.aemoi.o c KitT060fi:{1,1X cy;.1.-eB 9
IC Ilaponie ini.ribt win pacinuioulal ronosu I 1103130 -
nolvvra (3
ii Prime; ..neCiegyli jvm no .a.Tami lmçcuTeteù 4
12s 1'pporme cTpe:rui 8
Key: 1) No. of machines. 2) Steam cranes: 5) 40-ton 2.
4) 20-ton ... 2. 5) 10-ton ... 15. 6)-5-ton ... 10. 7) Steam.winches:
e3) 3-ton ... 18. 9) •Uectric winches for hauling cables from the .eree-t- -
?biTryert -m whaling ships ... 2. 10) Steam saws for saving um the head
and backbone ... 6. 11) Hand-operated winches for hauling in tiependants
... 4. 12) Loading derricks .... 8.
•
, Kooks one metre long are used to load the oil-etraction boilers
with sall pieces of blubber. A muiding device 1.5 to 2 metres long
keeps the blade of the steam saw in the plane of movement,

SHIPS USED FOR ifUE`I'DO?G Wkf._qLES
..... 330
^
A whaling ship is desi i ned for searching for whales, killing
them, and to^^.n;• t^^,^:m to the fa,G'i0ï^r-SI117) A whaling ship does not
take loads on board, and has only a small hold for carrying equipment.
A harpoon-j n is mounted on a platform on the bow part of the
upper deck, with standing-space beside it for the harpooner. From that
space to the i%rheel-house, a.lon& the starboard (sometimes the port) side
of the ship, there runs a passage-wa,y, which allows the harpooner to
avoid the main deck and 1)ass quickly from the bridge to the gun platform.
The bow of the ship ends in housing for two reels. The deck
reels are mounted behind the ha.rpooner' s stand. On the deck, between
the foremast and the harpooner's stand, there is a.tiainch

.... 331
1 J,.,iillla H;I,Go.îhular,, M . . . . • . . . 65,:3n
2 I111iptlHe, tl . . . • . • . . • . • . . 9"q
3 BhlcoTa CupTa ;to 13171 ita nu:; ^n• ,.u. . . 5,45
rp ^ii:2•:hC_t C^?i'^fll53ft ^3 Fi071?tT:,t r71',,}'), A 4,4
:) liOlOitz>i^;llr?Hlii' B IIOJIÜU::( TFj'3)', in . 1272
,/ I[e^ne;ir, nt . . . . . . . 384
7 Ba.rtoraft pcTHC:I'UOBaq Rmecrf!mtocTU, In 810
^ 14t11 F'.9a!1Holi Cft,1060l: \'CT.fif0.8?:If .. .•• Z;'I'C.rb J.4CICT1)i1
9eC3•:aA
^iOIIi.T10CTh l'.3aliH011 CHaOHUIi y'CTa?iOBTCIi,
n. G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4X900
(J (:I Oj)pC'Ch !CO;jB, )'3:10 . . . . . . . . 1•1,5
II (J;)'u!aH n10ilIHC:7b 3'e?ST17JCTflHII?Tli, K6l2 1,:!620
t' PalioH llaal3allllN .. .. •. .. t•i .. •. H' OTr?ilti?ISPFIHbiÏ;
11 P13TUIiOMIi0C1'S, Gi aLti1H1Ifl, C)'TKH . . . . l'
lij 1-1f(CaE.'aII0CTb :ü al?TaifCFl, jl(.'.'iGüCti . . . .
N^
Key: 1) Maximum length, metres, 2). Beam, metres. 3) lieight of
draught with
side of ship to upper deck amidships, metres. 4) Average
full load, metres. 5) Dis- placement with full load, tons. 6 j Deadweight,
tons.
7) Registered gross storage capacity, tons. 8) Type of main
power plant -- diesel-electric. 9) Power of main power plant, h.p.
10) Speed, knots. 11} Total power of electric plant, kw. 12) Area of
operation -- unlimited.
13) Period. of independent sailing, days.
14) Number of men in crew.
EQUIPMENT OF A ti`!-lALII:G SHIP
Whaling equipment includes: harpoon-gun, shock-absorbing system,
whale-line winches, slot-plugs, whale-mooring cleàts, whale-mooring
hawse-holes, box for harpoon-lines, screw-stopper, capstan, compressor,
planksheer reels, etc.
Harpoon-g-un. For killing large whales a smooth-bore, 90-mm,
GKP-7 harpoon-gun is useti, and for killing small whales a 60-mm GKP-Pri
gun.
The GKP-7 harpoon--gun weighs 650 kg. The powder charge is exploded
in a brass cartridge-case, which is placed in the breech of the gun.
The breech is t_-,en closed with a locking-bolt. The harnoon is inserted
at the muzzle end, and, pushed down as far as the wadding that stops up
the powder in the car tricq;e-case.
The gun-barrel contains only the
cylindrical shaf t of the harpoon; the head, with barbs and bomb, remains
outside.
To nrevent the harpoon from falling out of he gun before it
is fired, it is tied with a. rope. T;Then the !,-,un is fi.red a pressure of
7
more than 1000 lcc/cT-.I` is created in the barrel. The recoil distance
is from 100 to 130 mm. The initial velocity of the harpoon is up to
95 metres rer second.
L --
SSOr ;^11a1S, 1°;ï!:LCil I?av ' soute aCLV ,ï1tS._;CS Ove?' Of.te Gi ï'-7
;1?Tl,
are more . ociern.
^•ven b^'f o Î.'e the ir_vc^ntior of the har?)oon-^;uli
in 1ï;Ù ^,

332 •
Li
a patent was taken out in Germany in 1852 for killing whales by means
of an electric current. Ordinary cannons were used for shooting the
electric harpoons. In site of its great advantage's over the existing
method of killing whales, the electric-killing method was slow to be
introduced into whalinE practice.
The shock-absorbing system has separate structures for port and
starboard whale-lines. The system includes shock-absorbers, blocks,
and a steel cable 31.5 mm in diameter. Spiral strings made of steel
bands, of the type used in railway cars, compose the shock-absorbers.
The installation on each side of the ship contains two horizontal
pairs of arms and one vertical 13air. The horizontal pair contains ten
pairs of springs, and the vertical pair contains eight pairs. Fixed
blocks are installed at the base of the system.
The steel cable is attached at one end to the fixed carrier of
the shock-absorbing system and, going round all the blocks of the system
and a fixed block suspended from the mast, ends in a movable block. The
whale-line Passes through that block, running from the drums of the
winches from the deck reels to the bow reels.
Translator's Pots. By an apparent printer's error the preceding
two paragraphs appear on page 215 of the original, instead of under the
proper heading on page 214.
The whale-line winches are designed for paying out line when a
harpooned whale swims away, for braking and stopping the running-out of
the line when the pull of the whale on it slackens, for re,winding the
line, for raising a sunken whale to the surface of the water, and for
mooring whales. These winches can also be used to raise and lower the
anchor and to load supplies from the factory-ship.
port winches are mounted on a common framework.
The starboard and
The slot-nlugs are designed to close the deck hawse-holes,
through which the whale-line runs from the rope-box to the winch. The
slot-plug helps to keep the line stretched as it runs to the winch, and
so Prevents the coils from becoming entangled on the drum.
The planksheer reels are installed on a plank at the shrouds
and in the bow. Their function is to prevent the working ropes from
becoming entangled with tne stationary cordage of the mast.
w;iille-mcorir:r cleats serve fur atacment of the chains by
which tkc whaleG are moorcd to -LIc side of the ship. The cleats are
fixed behind the whale-moorinu hawse-holes.

333
The whale-moorin hawse-holes are made of cast steel and have
two openings, side by side. The forward opening is placed lower than
the after one. :_i-2he hawse-holes are attached both to the bulwark and to
the deck. g'here are four or five hawse-holes on each side of the ship,
depending on the length of the hull.
The whale-mooring hawse-holes serve
for passage of the whale-mooring chains when a whale is moored or towed.
Box for harpoon-line.
The harpoon-line is kept in a special
box between the pedestal of the gun and the bow reels.
The bottom of
the box is lower than the harpooner's stand. The box is made of metal,
with the front side sloping slightly forward. All the sides of the box
are covered with cal: planking.
The scrow-stooper can be used instead of the whale-mooring
cleats to lighten labour and ensure safety.
The capstan is used in the work connected with the mooring of a
whale to the side of the ship and delivering it to the factory-ship.
It also assists in making the s kip fast to the quay or to the t'aminry.
zhixa side of the factory-ship.
The compressor is installed in the engine section.
It is needed
to produce compressed air, which is kept in an air-tank at a pressure
,
of about 10 kg/cle 9 . The compressed air is required to inflate the carcass
of a killed whale and to prevent it from sinking.
Small whaling equipment consists of hooks, crowbars, flensing
knives, compressor .rods, etc. Whaling appliances include harpoons with
bombs, ammunition, whaling ropes, etc.
A harpoon with a bomb is a device for killing whales.
The harpoon,
when striking a whale, carries a harpoon-line and fixes it to the
body of the whale A GKP-M-53 harpoon is 1,530 mm long and weighs about
63 kg. ?:!ith the bomb, explosive, and fuse, .te harpoon weighs about
70 kg and its total length is 1,890 mm.
The harpoon consists of a shaft and a head with four barbs and
an explosive bomb.
The middle Da::t of the head is traversed by two
mutuall7f-per7DentĪicular grooves,.iL each of which two baT'bs one long and
one short) are fixed, divering at an angle of 75 0 .
5ccket
There is a -eIrt, in the front end of the head, threaded for the
bomb to be screwed in. The shaft and the head are united by a ball-and- , 216
socet "joint consisting of two s - ).ings fastened toge cher lie the links
of P chain.
To prevent the barbs from spreading before the gun is fired, ti,ey are
•

.... ;34
drawn together by several coils of the line.
the ha.rpoon i s forcibly t:-trust backward; the
t^e ü,:.r.^^oon ._;;ay i^. t^_e ,..^a 1e' s bOc ,y-. 'i}e
harpoon to the outside line lies in a groove
The bomb is of truncated-cone shape.
lower end of the cavity being threaded.
h e
j:ffien the bomb e::p7.odes
barbs sprea.d out and hold
counlin^; that joins the
a long tire harpoon shaft.
it is hollow inside, the
bomb is made of cast-iron,
weighs sli^htly more ti.an 8 kg, and is 400 mm long. The diameter of the
lower section is 110 mm. :t3ef ore the bomb. is screwed into tue harpoon
the hollow is filled with explosive pot.Td.er.
!lmmunition.
`.i'hecaxtridge-•case is made of brass and holds the
firinz; charge. It is of trurcated-cone sha.ne.
--l 'he f iring, éhar.g•e is prepared from i7}3--i 1-130-100 nitro i--,ilycerine
powder. The charge weighs 210 grams. it is detonated with ordinary
(not smokeless) :DR? No. 2 gunpowder weighing 15 grams. The charge is
placed in a calico bag with a double bottom, into which the detonating
powder is poured.
The wadd.?nis a mass of cellulose, intended to keep tïie charge
confined in the car tridge--case .
The capsule insert is intended to detonate the explosive charge.
It is threaded, and is screwed into a socket in the cartridLe-case.
The bomb charge of powder explodes tne bomb, which is thereby
fragmented into sor.ie 30 pieces of varying size. The bomb contains 525
grams of No. 2 smoky large-grained powder.
A GKT detonator sets off the bomb explosion.
Whale-line.
Each line (port and starboard) is 1,100 metres long.
One end of it is firmly attached to a stanchion in the hold, and it is
;)a.cked in the ro-ne--box in clockwise coils. of ecual size. The other end
passes through a spout-stopper to the deck, and is wound on the steeringdrums
of a winch; then it runs through the movable block of the shock--
a.bsorbing system and the deck reels to the gun in the bow, and through
the bow reels to the side of the ship,. where it is firmly attached to
the ha.r_poon--line.
Formerly manila rope 175 riim in circumference was used
as whale-line; now nylon. rope is used.
The har-noon-].ine also is made of artificial fibre; its circumference
is 110 Y.un, and its length 100 metres.; the breaking strain of
th,, nylon line is 18.5 tons s
z :.o.^.,_^.1.•, tool^^ , ^l•re com-:.,rosso.r_ no^zle is d.esi,^,ne

• 335
the whale's carcass with air. It is a seamless pipe 25 mm in diameter
and 125 cm long.
The comnressor rod is used to thrust the compressor nozzle into
the carcass; it is a steel rod 17 mm in diameter and 200. mm long, welded
into a funnel under a pole. The rod is fixed on a Pole six or seven
metres long.
-
Working tools also include a knife for cutting the line, gaffs,
hooks, plumb-lines, grapnels, marking and flensing knives, a box for
storing harpoons, steel and wooden poles, etc.
Whale-mooring apparatus, The whale-moorin chain, which is 5.5
metres long, is made of rounded steel 45 mm in diameter. The links in
the main part of the chain are 220 mm long, and those at the ends of
the chain are 320 mm long.
The number of chainS carried is one or two more than the number
of hawse-holes, in case whales should be moored in stormy weather.
An angle-iron is used to attach the end . of the whale-mooring
chain to the clea -L
A cable, joined to the whale-mooring chain, serves to moor the
whale to the side of the ship. It is made of steel rope 22 mm in diameter
and 50 metres long. The cable is joined to the chain by means
of a 28-mm cable-clamp.
The mooring crowbar is 1.2 metres long and 30 mm in diameter.
One end is spade-shaped and the other end pointed, with square cross
section. It is used to tighten the rope that attaches the chain to
the cleat.
The tow-rope is a steel rope 28.5 mm in diameter. The whale is
brought to the ramp and delivered to the factory-ship by means of the
tow-rope.
Equipment for nflagging" the whale. A red woollen flag, measuring
140 x 170 cm, is fastened to a bamboo pole from 6 to 6.5 metres
long. The number of the whaling shim is painted in white in the centre
of the flag, and the serial number of the flag appears in te lower left
and umper right corners. The ship's number also appears every 50 cm
along the flagstaff.
There is a steel spike at the lower end of the flagstaff, made
of seamless pipe 35 nu in diameter. A sPear-li1(e tip' is welded to the
lower end of the pipe.

..... 336
An electrzc amia
^ -^ff, con-
Av^j^xjz3;:^^;j,.{ is fixed to the cross-ùar of the fl^..s;^^t^^
nectec^ ,^ -^^o a ^ >_ ^^A'n -,•T_.^'-
-10 or a. 2ShZh1^^ .1 `i--1 accul-nulator battery, which is fixed
a.t
the top of the spilce in a hermetically-sealed case. The battery
supplies the lam-L) with constant current for 30 hours.
The flag can be seen for eight miles by day, and the lamp for
three miles at night.
A buoy is attached to the wizale' s tail and. furnished with a
portable radio set, which broa.âca.sts signals at regular time intervals;
when a fla^^;ed whale is beinf^; searched for, these signals give course
directions to the radio stations on the whaling s'tlio or the tuF,boat.
WtIALlM ZdORiL
Vhaling work consists of several operations: the search forwhales,
the hunt itself, the treatment of killed whales, and finally
the collecting of carcasses and towing them to the facto.ry--ship.
Whaling ships do not usually hunt more than 100 miles from the
factory-ship.
That limitation is due to the fact that the carcasses
must be delivered to the factory-ship in not more than 18 or 20 hours,
otherwise they begin to decompose.
,.^..:;;;#^
;,earchin1 for_^rhales , Observations are made from the crow' s-
nest and from the bridge. An assemblage of birds may be a sign of the
rossible presence of whales. Whale spouts can be seen at a distance of
five to eight miles, and in good clear weather up to ten miles. When
spouts are seen the whaling ship heads -towards them, The speed of the
ship during the search is up to 12 knots. In recent years helicopters
b2.sed on the factory-ship have been used to search for whales, greatly
reducin^ the tir_ie spent in the search.
';'he hunt-
On an-.}roachila_, a ^,roup of whales, or a single whale,
all crew iiien-ibers are at their a-p_sointed posts: the harpooner beside -the
loaded -ur., and the pilot on the ca_tain's bridge beside tile telep:aone.
The most ex-Deriencec seame.n i s at the helm. The look-out man remains
in the crow' s-l.,est.
A
on tne surface for literally two to five seconds,
and therefore for successful hunting the ship must, at the mo-ment of the
first s-?out, be within "unshot -- i. e. from 10 to -0 metres away --
l;i:_^ i;-'e ale is i.lov_'._-'..- on the surface. _1iie loo"z-out :ilc 11 ].YY ti10 Crot1, s--
nest cr n observe ^, ^; :ale t,^ i]_e it is still at a depth of ten or fifteen

..... 537
metres, and he imr:lediately informs the harpooner of the direction in
which the i•rha.le is moving.
:iavin,!: chosen the correct moment, the harpooner aims the "un at
the whale's most vulnerable spot and fires. The gun shôuld be aimed
two or three metres behind the flipDer (the most lethal places to hit
are the whale's thoracic and abdominal cavities).
At the souniL of trie shot tiie engine is immediately stopped,
because the line might accidentally get under the stern and be cut by
a rro-oeller blade.
To ?arevent that hap-penine.,, at the moment that the
shot is fired. the rudder is turned to the side on which the whale is.
,fllhe harpooncr makes sure that tiie rope Dulled by the whale is
in a direct line with tLe bow of the ship. '.t'he ha.rpooner's assistant,
218
Mclcd by
the look-out man, ieload-sthe gun for the coup de grace.
On being, shot the whale tries to dive to agrea.t depth in an attempt to
escane .from the ship.
At that time the brake is applied to the rope.
When the whale is only slightly wounded the ship moves in order to
lessen'the strain on the rope, and when the whaJ.e maï.,-.es violent move--
-raents the rone is paid out. As soon as the rope slackens it is pulled
Jr .and p..r^red in i+s box,
Pi ^;. 78. The 1•11^alint; factory-ship Peder Huse.
:;oil].ï F; and the ro-,e b',' ^1:r1C'. takP.s t'•r!o sailors un to 30
;ni.nutes. Or. some Far .;a.s >;^^i_alint,; sili^^s i;::e ropes are packed by
means of automatic drunis.
';.'reat7,.t_:nt of the carcass. Af te::: the whale 's carcass has been
-i•owei?: -^o bow of k,;.e shi -) it is i>>f1.a.te

..... 338
the harpoon-line is paid out, and the carcass turns over belly upward.
Then the compressor nozzle is inserted again and the inflation renewed.
On an average the inflation of th carcass takes five minutes.
that process a tail-buoy is attached to the tail.
During
It occasionally happens that the bomb does not explode inside
the whale's body. In that case the factory-ship is immediately notified , .
so that precautionary measures may be taken for safety in cutting no
the carcass.
A separate "passport" is filled up for each whale killed. The
first part of the passport describes the circumstances of the hunt and
the whale's behaviour.
whaling ship.
That part must be signed by the captain ,of the
The second part, which contains all possible information
about the killed whale, is completed by the scientific group on the
factory-ship.
If the whale has to be "flagged", the flag, lamp, and buoy must
be attended to before the line is cut.
When searching for a tagged whale the captain of the toWing vessel
finds its direction frem the operating radio installed on the buoy,. and -
as he approaches it he is guided by the flag during daylight hours and
by the lamp at night.
Ships with equipment for both killing whales and processing them
%appeared in the late 1960's.
One ship of that type is the Peder Huse
(Norwegian) (Fig. 78). That combined whaling- and factory-ship is 58
metres long and 10.5 metres eoad, with a displacement of 727 tons. A
90-mm harpoon-gun is mounted in the bow, and has a line connecting it
with a 10-ton hydraulic combination winch, which also serves to haul the 219
whale up the ramp to the after deck, where it is cut up.
A blubber-
boiler with a capacity of eight cubic . metres is used to extract the oil.
The flesh is frozen in a multiplate freezing apparatus. When the meat
is intended for sausage manufacture a rapid • freezing apparatus is used.
The finished frozen products are kept in two holds with a capacity of
800 cubic metres, at a temperature of -30 0 C.
A 2,400-h.p. diesel engine ensures a cruising speed of up to 13
knots, and a maximum speed of up to 15 knots uthe speed of modern whaling
ships is up to 18 knots.
There is a fuel-oil tank with a capacity of
540 cubic metres. he crew consists,of 20 men. 5:he ship is fitted out
wi.th modern naviationca and ot ṉer equip:aent
-2ol: whale-hunting.

.

340
?he uper anc: louer edge-ropes have loops for attachment. ne diameter
of the meshes is 500-550 mm. 7',.ylon nets have 400-mm meshes, and nets
made of tarred, Manila, or sisal rope have 330-mm meshes.
To increase the chances of catching a white whale the nets are
usually set in pairs, perpendicular to the shore, in staggered order.
The lower edge-rope of the net is attached to an anchor, and the upper
edge-rore to floats. The animal is caught in the net by its flippers
or its flukes.
"Drivine method. From 20 Io 30 nets are tied together to make
a single wall, and two or three walls are prepared. The location for
the walls is selected with a view to the course to be taken by the whales
in the drive. The walls are set us in such a way as to form an artificial
bay (Fig. 79), and are anchored to the sea-bottom. An open boat
is stationed at the end of the enclosure to close the aperture. The
drive may be from one side (a) or from two sides (b), depending on the
course taken by the whales.
,
_—------‘
t -------
'
e----- - ‹.---..

Tire WI-lite Sea netting, iaetiroâ_ requires
cipants and o-pen boats,' each boat carrying up
nets.
Cn seein` a. white w'-.,ale tiLe hunters go
:efore the b^_`inning of the hunt the separate
tied toge :.her to form a single net.
..... 341
a large number of partito
150 me tre.s of stveel>out
and form a semicircle.
sections of netting are
As soon as the whale enters the
semicircle the huntei_,s draw in parts of the net, and the
ually encircled on all sides by several rows of nettinÜ.
drawn so close that the hunters can come up to the wila.le
animal is grad-
The circle is
and kill it.
Far Eastern drap,-seine net. The total length of the seine is
t-n,,e_°
more than 1,200 metres. Its lo1.7er edge is ^•rei^hted. and the ^z^wxr ec.ge
has floats attaciied.
The denth of the seine is ei;_,h.t to ten metres.
The depth of the central part is 15 metres, and the meshes in the
central part are S ^c 12 cm.
The seine is gathered together in an open seine-boat. A lookout
is kei^t from a, tower. As soon as a school of white whales cornes
within range a cutter begins to tow the seine-bôat, fror,l the stern of
whic;^ the net slips into the water by the force of gravity. At first
the cutter travels at a right angle to the whales ' course, and then it
turns and :rcves parallel to the shore, tryin^ to encircle the animals.
: hat i.lethoé is used when the T-;hales are passing at a 'distance of not
more t 1an 500 metres from the shore.
1,1id--i-ra.ter seining. 'i''Irie mid..-water drag-seine is ua to 2,r-00
metres long.; andrmakes it possible to catch white whales at a distance
of up to one kilometre from the shore. The seine is stacked on two
seine-boats, which have their own towing-cutters. A buoy is anchored
1 km fror.i the shore and the seine-boats are moored to it. The cutters
also drop their anchors. After the seine-boats are moored, stern to
stern, and the cutters are anchored, the two semibeams of the net are
tied together.
As soon as the school of whales cor:tes within range, at a signal
from the look-out tower on shore the cutters, towing the seine-boats,
begin to go in different direc-^ior,s, and the nets then sli.0 into the
water (Fig. 80). After a short time the cutters turn towards the shore,
221
cutting off the whales.
;ee,)-:ra1,er. r?ettin,;. The net is of equal height throut,•i^rout,
Wi. 6hout a d'ifferent contrai part, and is 1000 metres long. It is made
of 180-thread cotton cord. The u;_per anâ. lower edges are made of i^^:anila,
ro-ne.
The d.enth of the net-walls is 18 metres.

..... 342
{•.i;;^,_
.^i^•;.^ ,
T.;7'T.^?7/ï77777?T/T'7in?^^Tii /; T.rT,7i,^•: T^i7; ^
-^Tn
( S ^:vdr,,.^•r7nmty:^H^a
^^^ 6e,^•rkrr
ullc. 80, C:(C.-,fa :iot31 Ilo;lyt]I}'JmBB:*,i
I'i^. 80. Diagram of the catching of white whales by means of
a mid-water net.
Key. 1) Look-out tower.
Lwo cutters and a net-boat are detailed for work with this net.
In addition the brigade has five boats. .A tow-line 675 metre_s long.is
carried on the net-boat, with the net attached to it; the net has
lar;er meshes at the running end.
On approaching within 150 to 200 metres of the white whale
scaiool the cutters move in opposite directions and begin to run out the
net.
One cutter, towing the net-boat, cuts across the path of the
Cr , ^r, al
i•;hales', while the other, paying, out the rope, begins to encircle them.
A
':'lxe cutters then come tor.etixer, towing the net, until they form a socalled
"corral" (111,-. 81, b), which they tow to shore; there the trapped
whales are taken out with a drag-net.
A parse-net consists of three parts; a fixed wing 14.0 metres
long anc':18 metres deep, made of 210-thread No. 34 cord, with 280-mm
meshes; a corral made of 540-thread No. 34 cord, with 280-111n meshes,
475 metres long and with t•^alls 25 metres dee -p; and a free wing made of
540-threa.d. E0. 34 cord, with 350-Li.^i and 450-•mm meshes, the length of
The
the td_Î.nr; being 9°u5 metres and the deT)t'il of .the walls 20 I2etres.
!)
total lenr,til of the net is 1,600 =ne (,res.
^:-n obscrvin^; a sc:iool of whales ti.c schooner bc:^ins to drift.; 222

343
C")
e-• 0
c:.
N:41,v-ts.. Ai
(4"1.‘S.r•---7.;rr i'' S V./7, _fc'.:- 1 "?,,, ...
----2
.A, ,'•
(3. ,e-
Pue. SI. C:zema jioua nny6LCItIANI 11C1300M.
Fig. 81. Diagram of the catching of white whales by means of
a deep-water net.
Key: a, b) sec text.
'
.the end of the fixed wing is transferred from the cutter to the schooner
and the end of the net is anchored. Then the schooner and the cutter
go side by side towards the whales at full speed. On approaching the
whales the vessels, paying out the tow-lines attached to them, go in
opposite directions, laying down the net and encircling the school of .
whales. The ends of the corral net are tied together and the net is
closed up, for which purpose the cutter holds one edge of the net against
the current until the two ends corne together.
After the net is closed up the upper edges are brought to.g:ether,
and the net is kept like that by the vessels until the whales become
entangle(fi in its walls. *hen the net-boat comes to the net and the
hunters remove the whales.
OTHER METHODS OF TAKIEG WHITE WHALES
The killing of white whales by shooting is not widespread in
Soviet waters, because 50,, or more of the shot animais sink in the water
before the hunters can secure them vith harnoons.

To kill a white whale one must shoot
the b1o,,:--ho1e, at f^.irly close
Chukchi, and 73eri ng Seas white whales
from the shore, the hunters tryin,^; to
range.
..... 544
it in the head, a. little
In the parents, ïLara,
are tracked and shot, as a rule,
select the highesi; possible point
for a look-out.
For more than 200 years white whal e s have been
of St. Lawrence by means of pole-traps. The traps consist of some thoumetres
long. These
sands of poles 7.5 cm in diameter and six or seven The
poles are (12-
distance between the poles is from 2.0 or 2.5 metres to 1.0 or 0.5 metres,
de^oend.ing on their distance- from the centre of the txa.p. ^'ollol;ing the
line of the outer wings, the ;hales enter the central corral. The poles
vibrate with the movement of the tide, frightening the vrhales, and ulti--
mat-ely they are stranded and fall prey to the hunters.
2ttemT,ts have been made to kill white whales with harljoon-guns,
but because of the bulk of these gans and the difficulty of handling
them they have not come into ^•eneral use.
J'^nother method. is to chase white whales into narrow inlets,
,ahcre they are t1E?^. tra,A^pecl..
the air--holes they make in the ice for breathing.
in winter they are sometimes killed at
CHAPTER 2
DRESSING CARCASSES OF FIEI:IzEDES AND CE`i'ACLAKS
DRESSING PIKNIPEDE CARCASSES
^-,'he dressing of pinnipede carcasses begins with flaying.
Flaying
is the process of removing the hide and attached blubber from the car--
cass.
The hide and attached blubber are together called the -Yhorovina.
During both winter and spring hunting a seal must be flayed
immediately after the animal is killed. A seal carcass must not be left
in the undressed state during frosty winter weather, because then the
so--called "me r7 lva'ïwbich cannot be flayed, is the consequence.
^...._.....^^..__.
he carcass is turned on its back, and ti-le hide and blubber are
cut through in the centre of the ventral sidè from the lower jal.r to the
rea.r flip,)ers.
"nen the khorovina is removed from to carcass by cut--
a. ^• .olacec. or. one sicte.
ia
-i.:...• ^,,^out;îl ^.;;^.c. co,^-_^e^: ^ive ^i ^ ti^ e, a... ..
!t ile 1^Cte?^. ^-az-(` S
of t'3.^it? fɕi.ic.le
are lef'^ in the ca7.'c?.s.S ^ tue
C,:il'•.(.•^.l
C^.]'ï'.1?.;E 1.s cut off, and 1::;e snout is cut of'- titiitil t1ïL ^''l1lSiîerS.

(4)
345 •
:uring the flaying process, when the khorovina has been removed as far
as the front flippers the latter are cut away from the pectoral girdle
at the shoulder-joint and are left with the khorovina for the time being.
When th: fleshy carcass has been separated from the khorovina
the hunter proceeds to free the front flippers from the latter.
humerus is twisted out and the connective tissue is cut through almost
down to the claws, where a circular cut is made. A properly-removed
khorovina has an evenly-cut edge, with two holes where the eyes were and
two ustockingsn with holes where the front flippers were cut out.
When a seal is being flayed no flesh should be left attached to
the blubber and no blubber should be left attached .to the carcass. The
hunter must take particular care in skinning whitecoats only a few days
old, when they do not yet have any blubber and when the hide lies dir-
ectly against the flesh. Careless skinning of whitecoats lowers the
quality of the hides.
After the flaying, the khorovinv (plural of khorovina) are
stacked in small piles, one above another, and tied together by passing
one end of a strap through the holes made by removal of the front
flippers. The piles are hauled to a definite place where the Products
or the $114)
of the woric of tne brigade conderned are concentrated.
A
After a seal has been flayed the fleshy carcass is immediately
cut up.
That process begins with removal of the stomach and intestines.
or that purpose the abdomen is slit open from the thoracic cavity to
the anus. • The entire alimentary tract from the oesophagus to the rectum
is pulled out of the carcass and left on the ice.
The
When the abdominal
cavity is freed from the viscera it is wiped clear of blood, and the
gall-bladder and sex organs are removed. The heart, lungs, and kidneys
are left in the abdominal cavity; the liver is taken out, cleaned, and
taken to the ship, where it is preserved with salt as the raw material
for preparation of vitamin concentrates.
Then the rear flippers are chomped off along the line where the
khorovina was cut away; they are taken to the ship, being a goOd source
of glue.
The front flippers, which are more fleshy, are processed along
with the flesh; they are usually packed into the thoracic cavity through
cuts made between the ribs.
Ḻefore the carcasses of fur seals are dressed they are sorted
into age-groups, the criterion being the zoological length from the tip

346
,-,1---. '......-----------, --......._
.5 ..-:':',.
-----;----- --7b- --'
---,_ . [■.....—/- l___T \ _3
1 - ------ ------..,
^-,,k.... • 0 i"--" .
-----; -------2 --- .
Pnc. 82. 111:Ipouccrs.
.1:11
CbCNIK
;;Opobilti
1 — pyqn; 2 auxisarm;
3 — OCIr: 4 Gem. auxuaTa.
5 — KO:11.:20 AMA
Fig. 82. Wide-grip pliers for removing the khorovina from
a fur seal. 1) Handles; 2) grippers; 3) pivot; 4) pivot of gripper;
5) ring for rope.
of the snout to the tip of the tail). The khorovina is removed after
the sorting. There are three methods of removing the khorovina: the
usual method is by hand, using a knife as described above for other
seals; the others are by hand, using pliers, and by mechanical means.
The first steps are skinning the carcass and cleaning the head. The
skinning is done with three special Pairs of gripPing-pliers. One pair
is fixed to the middle of the front mart of the khorovina and the others
to the edges, the carcass being meanwhile held immovable. The pliers
are then pulled apart by means of ropes.
32 \
70
Pvc. 83. B11,111,11allei
saxBaT:
— Bil,-1Ea. 2 -- ynopm;
3— 4-- prmn.
Fig. 83. Gripping fork. 1) Fork; 2) cross-piece; 5) collar;
4) handle.
The mechanical method of skinning differs from the above in tliat
modernized wide-grip pliers are used (Fig. 82), attached to a rope in
rairs.
hey are pulled apart by the working-drum of an electrical winch.
Yhe seal's body is h.?ld with a s7 ,2cial griing fork (Fig. 8 3 ) .
DRESSING WHALE CARCASSES
'113 c7resif.ir. of whale carcasses indludos several «Operations:
recoiviny the carcass from the vhaling ship and then raising it to the
flensing Ô.eck at the stern of the factory- chic; cutting uï) the carcass

..... 347
A-
on the flensing- d.eclc; cuLtinr; up the carcass on the central (or bo^a)
dressing deck; and. preparing the raw'material for further treatment.
',.iIhe transfer of the whale from the whaling ship to the factory- 225
ship calls for .^reat care on the part of the crews of both vessels.
The whaling ship ap;^,roaches the ste?-°n of the factory-ship (usually on
the starboard side) to within 15 to 30 metres, depending on the weather
conditions.
Avreight is thrown from the stern of the factory-ship to
the i. halinG ship and. tied to a cable (manila ropej on board the latter.
The ca,ble is then attached to a supple:qentary tail-rope and connecteâ.
to the stern winch of the facto-ry-ship, after which it is passed to the
whaling ship, where it is clamped to the line attached to the i,•rhale' s
tail.
IL'hen the mooring chai n by which the ;:rhale is held to the whaling
ship is detached, leaving the whale held only by the supnlementary
tail--rope, which is wound u-p by the winch to the stern of the factoryship
and made fast by a slip knot to tho stern cleat. On the most successful
days up to 10 or 15, or even 20, whales are thus brought to the
stern of the factory-ship.
The whale is raised. by a number of winches. It is brought to
A
the ramp by a ten-ton winch, the rope from which has previously been
jo.ined to the suptalementary tail--rope with use of the winch on the stern
reception-platform.
The tail-rope is then cast off from the cleat, and
the winch hauls the whale on to the lower part of the ramp. By that
time erap-pling-hooks from a five-ton winch have already been taken to
the ramp.
At the skipper's order they are lowered to the whale's flukes
l^
and firnl,y^ hooked to Lhem, and then a 40-ton winch raises the whale to
the stern flensing deck. When the whale's tail part has reached. the
stern flensing deck the clamp that attached the supplementary tail-rope
to the line attached to the whale's tail is loosened. The tail-ropé is
then wound up to the reception-pla.tform, and the i•;hale' s carcass is
brought completely to the stern flensing deck, which is covered over
by a "false-deck".
LnLSS11.G tlALL,',_. VIIIIALE CARCASSES
Dressing baleen whales on the stern deck (Fig. 84), 11hen the
whale is hauled on to the deck cuts are made with special hooked knives
into the Oort e.l layer of blubber and the ^)eri toneirm alon{:; the lon^;ituc?inra.l
a-.'As
of the 'body, after i,Tnich the whale's 1r:-n&til from tiie fork of
the f;_Ll:^es to the tip of i:tle snout is I(lea:.ureCi and records are made of

348
the species and sex of the whale, its serial number, the number of the
whaling shi.p, etc.
..o x:e,:iove t:,.(, subcuta.l^cous blubber layer, cuts are macle on the
up-per jaw along the rows of baleen to the eyes and the base of the
flippers. ".Longitudinal lateral cuts are also made from the tail to the
level of the flipners; several cuts are made in the peritoneum, along
the ventral grooves.
A slit is made in the blubber layer taken from
the head, and a chain is threaded through it; tue chain is attached to
a rope from a winch located on the su>>erstructure amidships, which pulls
the blubber layer away. At the same time the cutting operator uses a
flensin`^ icnife to cut t_arou ;ki the connective tissue attaching the blubber
layer to the whale' s body.
The o-Derat-or makes a slit in the peritoneurn at the "chint" and
inserts a hook in it, the hooît being attached to a rope from a winch on
the superstructure amidships. The ventral layer of blubber is thts
pulled off the carcass. Then the lower jaw is hitched to the winch in
the central superstructure by means of a s-Pecial strap. The point of
junction of the jaw with the head is cut -through, and the jaw is pulled
of f and ta,?.en to a stearl-driven circular saw for final cutting-up.
^
efore the
of the ^,^ur-Zs to facilitate its removal.
baleen is removed, a cut is made along the inner side
A x^? ^^^is -oa.ssed through that
cut and -ti-ed to the soft baleen tissue, and then to a winch-rope that
passes
-Ghrough a derrick on the stern superstructure, gradually lifting
off the row of baleen. The baleen is thrown overboard.
\ca;;n o ma

ack.
• • • • 349 .
The Pe -,-tly-stripped whale carcass is then turned over on its
A strap from the lower flipper is connected through a derrick to
a roPe from a wincb on the starboard side (if the carcass was lying with
its ventral surface towards the port side of the ship )
of -Lie stern
superst ,-ucture; a rope from a winch on the port side is first passe •
the carcass; and then joined to a strap attached to the upper under
flipper. With simultneous operation of the two winches the whale is
turned over, and then the second blubber layer and the second row of
baleen are removed.
Only in rare cases is the head separated on the stern deck.
When the grappling-hooks have been taken off, the whaleT,s carcass
is hauled to the central cutting-up deck through the transport
corridor in the central superstructure; by means of a 20-ton winch in
the bow superstructure.
Cuttin ,r up a - baleen whale on the central deck (Fig. 85). First
the head is cut off. To do that a strap is fastened to the tip of the
snout with a slit-knot and connected to a rope from a winch located in
the central superstructure.
At the same time the cutting operator cuts
through the muscle tissue in the region where the occipital condyle
articulates with the cervical vertebrae, and completely severs the head
from the body (to the ventral side; less often to the dorsal side).
The dorsal flesh layer is removed by means of a winch on the
stardeck (bow - superstructure. A rope from it is pulled up t6 the head
and fastened with a slip-knot to a part of the flesh layer that has
already been separated from the spine. A deep cut has previously been
made with a flensing knife from the tail to the head, along the spinous
trocesses, While the rope from the winch is being pulled in, the flesh
is cut underneath and separated completely from the seine.
Simultaneously with that operation, ropes-from winches in the
central and spardeck superstructures are being tied- to the upper flipper.
The former of these enables the cutter to separate the first ribs with
a flensing knife. At the same time the ventral flesh layer is - cut along
the lateral processes of the saine from the tail to the head.
When the.theracic part of the layer has been separated, the
second winch comes into operation -- it makes possible complete semara- .
tton of .thc upor ventral part of the flesh from the carca'Ss. The cutter 227
nssists in the sellaration of flesh from the spine by us‘inE his knife.

111 ,00. 3 50 .
Pitc. 65.
yearouo mrra Jul neirrpa.ly.iort
na:iy6e
i—nonono‘ounz: 2— criminal naacr rdlica: 3— 7111;I:Mil (.-
..al) rputon u:nAmr: 4-- orn,e.leaubul
msiza; 5 — mwe ■rr1, iiioi ..icir;eamt
ita,-turpoill: .,t; reica: 7 —
rairrp:movIcTI; ••— pora caMrrI l — IttleXVIZSI
(rIpalla vs) Maella /V n;ouronte ;ten acTit
85. Cutting up a baleen whale on the central deck of a
factory—ship.
Key: 1) Spine. 2) Dorsal flesh layer. 3) Lower (left) part of
thoracic cavity. 4) Senarated ventral flesh layer. 5) Rope from port
winch on central superstructure. 6) Unseparated ventral flesh layer.
7) Internal organs of whale. a) Horn of uterus of female. 9) Upmer
(right) part of thoracic cavity. 10) Flukes.
The internal organs (lungs, heart, liver, and stomach without its contents)
are sent for further processing, but the intestines are thrown
overboard. The tnoracic (sternum) part is taen away, suspended on a
hook (usually joined to a pair of ribs by muscle tissue) for further
rocessinu.
for further Prscessim:;.
veLtral flesi layer is sc -,'arated fi-cm it and also sent
;Do121times the spinous processes of -Lie vertebrae are cut off at

..... 551
t:e same time with a special hooked knife, with the aid of a winch in
A
cl-iz^?â.lo superstructure
The second half of the sternum is separated by means of the same
it is ec.si er to seiaarate the ribs from the spi ne ti^ilile the rope
winch.
^1•t;iie same time the flukes are out
from the winch i s being wound u^^ - :^. ^
off, at the last vertebra. To remove the seconc, dorsal flesh layer from
228
the spiz;e, it is turned over by the winch in the central superstructure
(sometimes that i s clone with ^. windlass; •>
The flesh layer, which has
previously been undercut, is hauled away by means of a slip-knot tied
in the rope from the bow winch on the correspone'sin" side, and is cut
away and se parated from the spine; the latter is pulled by a windlass
to a power-driven saw and cut into small vieces.
Cuttin; up the whale' s head is the most diff icult operation.
After being cut transversely in-',-,o two parts, the head is sawn again
lon£;•itti^_dinally into pieces 50 to ^0 cm long, which can be put into the
boiler and are best suited for oil-extraction. Fat fl,esh is also out
into small -pieces and put into the oil-extraction boilers. These items
are loaded into the boilers with windlasses and special hooks.
T 'Cr 8-'^;'ü^? t,,1j_ULE CARCASSES
Dressing a sverm vrhale carcass on the sterndeck. As with baleen
whales, when a sperm whale is raised on to the stern deck the dorsal and
ventral blubber layers are cut through along the body. In addition, a
longitudinal cut is made in the blubber layer alon& the lateral line
from tail to head. A vertical out is made in the head not more than
0.25 metre froL*1 the anterior plane of the snout, followed by a horizontal
cut that joins up with the, longitudinal cut_ The rope that was used for
removin^; baleen is ,?assed througii a trian^;ular hole made near the vert
ical cut. °l'hen removal of the blubber layer is begun by means of a rope
from a loading derrick. At approximately one metre from the first hole
a second hole is made, through which a hook is passed; the latter is
attached to a. rope from a five-ton winch located in the central superstructure.
:-'he dorsal and ventral blubber layers are thus pulled off.
'.^'he
carcass is then turned over by means of winches on the port
and starboard sides of the stern supers t,:cucture.
Por that purpose a
lar^, f?_i:^-:•e^^•--ro-?e is i]nder. ti-.c caz^ca.ss and fd to a flii) :^er,
ard a sr;a.ll f-li-!,_:)cr-zopc is at uached to the lowea.• jaw. 1^.z•ter t•_e carcass
is turned over he re:;t of t^ie bluDl)(, -'T• 1:i removed, and the lower
jaw is rc:»oved, by means of winches a.nd windla.sses.

Cuttinfr un a sperm whale carcass on the central deck.
352
Sometims,
before this operation, the sperm whale's head is separated from the trunk •
by means of winches and windlasses and brouL;ht to a desinated area (the
head may also be processed without being. separated). The head is div-
ided with a• flensing knife, while being pulled by a winch or a windlass,
into an upper part (spermaceti-bearing) and a lower part (upper part
with attached subcutaneous blubber). no bones of the upper jaw are cut
into several pieces with a power-driven saw.
The spermaceti-bearing
mart of the head is cut. ut by Lleans of fleneing knives and windlasses
into the spermaceti sac with xat capsule and the alveolar blubber, by
cutting through the soft tissues of the head and the subcutaneous.
blubber. The alveolar.blubber is further cut up into two or three
pieces, depending on the size of the head, and these pieces are put
into the oil-extraction boiler. The spermaceti sac with the oil capsule .
is nomnt±mme usually put into the boiler whole, but is . sometimes cut .
into two pieces.
to that for baleen whales.
The cutting-ut of the rest of the carcass is similar
DRESSING WHITE WHALE CARCASSES
• The carcass of a white whale is usually hung ut for dressing on
board a whaling schooner (Fig. 86). First the flippers are cut off with
an axe. Then longitudinal cuts are made on the dorsal and ventral sides
from the blow-hole to the tail. The skin on the head is not cut in two,
but is taken off toFether with the hide and blubber from the two sides.
Fig. 86_ Dressing a
white whale carcass,
Puc. 86. Pamemi

...,. 355
C-7
The iLhorovina (hiè-e 1•rith attached blubber) i s reptoved while ti e
and the carcass is
carcass i s susnend.ed (a slinzi is put round the tail ar:
hoisted on a loading derric>> ) . '-;Iz•ro
cut Lers se;?a.rate ti.e khox•ovina from
the flesh with tnei-r hands and knives. As t,ne l:ho rovina, is beinb taken
off the whale is lifte« hi!-,'her by the derrick, and the i^iiorovina is
easily separated from the carcass by its own weight.
After being skinned the carcass is lowered, and the abdominal
cavity is slit oy)en,
The viscera are removed, the liver being se;aarated.
The carcass is then carefully washed and cut into pieces.
We give below the weights of parts of a white whale carcass, as
percentages of the total weight,
^ L3acrb v)• ^^^
^ ^oj,o;uua . . . . . . . . . . . . 38,0
3 B TG`t IaiCae
^'^
i+ t^^i:}'pa, c Spot:e" . . . . . . .
) C .O . . . . . . . . . . . . ^^,U
ii .^Isico . . . . . . . . . . . .
j] c^Ttt . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.0
g 13,:_.ipen^io it . . . . . . . . . . 11,^
3 Û Tp.'d 11.C.70
ncuut, . . . . . . . . . . . 2,5
^a Por,t . . . . . . . . . . . . . n,0
r r.arteet:ocT;t . . . . . . . . . 2,5
^
Key: 1) Part of the body. 2) ?Lhorovi,,s ^ 3l i.ncludin0:
with ' ar_mour coating. 5 j lsl uû;uer. 5) - ï'le;ah. 7) so_nes.
4)
,•
8`) Viscera. 9) Liver. 10; 31ood. 11^ 1lippezs.
CxAP T LR 3
PBOCESSIï:G OF PEODUC`l'S OF PIi1hIPr,lDIA AND CETACEA
PROCESSING OF P IK'^IPBDE KEILOï)UC2'S
The sealing industry .aroduces leather- and fur-hides, oi1, meat,
and raw materi a.l from t,=iii ch vitamins and glue are obtained. Local res•-
idents in coastal seal-hunting distric-i;s use se,-,1 leatizer ^the hides of
adult sea.ls; to make footwear, to stretch over the frame,

..... 354
Seal blubber is a source of edible oil, used mostly in the mart;?xis1::
incàustry= " of semi-fi.ni.szied iileC?1c].nal -Droducts for Illanufactur?1!g
vitaaninized oil; and of technical oil. Production of the different
kinds of oil depends on the quality of the blubber and on. the degree
of its purification.
Salted seal meat is used mostly as pig--fcied, and fresh or frozen
seal meat is fed to fur-bearers ( Arctic foxes, red foxes, and mink).
Protectionof fur-hidesfrom snoila^e. When hunting seals the
hunters must give all possible attention to -oreserving the quality of
fur-hides.
If the blubber is not scraped from the hide on the, spot and
the khorovina is brought by ship to a shore factory, the khorovina must
be chilled on the ice as soon as the animal is killed and skinned. For
that purpose the khoroviny are stacked in two rows on the
i ce, with the
fur underneath and the heads to one side, and with half of the second
khorovina overlying half of the first one. That metiiod of stacking -
hastens the chilling process. A khorovina is regaxdeâ. as chilled through
when the teriperature within the blubber is -6o C.
On board ship the kn.oroviny are packed in the hold one above
another, spread out without fnldi n.g; with the fur
s?orinkled with salt.
underneath, and are
In saltin ,• the khoxovin _ particülar pare i.s given
to rubbing salt into the "stockings" formed by removal of the front
flippers.
hid.e.
This method of preservation, however, is not good for lightcoloured
furs.
The salt must be distributed evenly over the surface of the
Because of the capillarity of the hairs the oil seeps
into the fur, giving i t a yellowish tinge, which greatly reduces the
Z34
quality of the hides.
The hides stand up better to the preserving Drocess
when the
khoro_viny are freed from blubber immediately at the time of skinning.
1:t is -recomraended that the hides, after being freed from blubber, should
be 13assed between rollers to squeeze out any residual oil, and. only then
should they be treated with dry salt.
A new technique for preserving fur-hides is in use at _)resent
on the White Sea. The khoroviny are washed in cold flowing water (fresh
or sea water) in a vat of "Gash.^^il l" type for 20 to 25 minutes.i'hen
i;l.Ley
are sco^.red. in a i•1,1--2I•7 _ scourins; machine; the oil is squeezed out
by hand or by .:achi.ne ; and t,le 1:horoviny are i•rashed in a wa-shing vat
in a solution of "I;ovost"'
der(12 grams per litre) or ]Daste (10 grams
11

355
per litre at a temperature of 40 0 C for 45 minutes, with constant
stirrinf,; by ;nechanical ales. The hides are rinsed in clean warm
water at :je t° 35 0 C for 15 to 20 minutes; then the moisture is squeezed
out and they are allowed to cool. Then they are salted in concrete
tanks, spread out with the fur underneath. Each hide is covered with
a layer of salt 1 cm deep. &fter three or four days the hides are washed
with brine of density 1.2. Seven or eight days later the brine is pumped
out and the hides are taken out of the tanks, sorted, and packed in
flooding-barrels with polyethylene lining. Each hide is sprinkled-with
salt, and then the barrels are filled with brine and packed away.
Previously the hides were merely stock-piled with dry,salting
in coastal factories.
A relatively-smooth platform of the necessary size lie, assigned
for the stock-piling and dry-salting of seal hides; it has a flat floor
tilted at an angle of 4 0 or 5 o to allow brine and oil to drain off..
The area of the stock-pile Irzà, covered with a layer of salt 1 cm deep.
The hides for salting are stacked with the fur underneath, and a layer
of salt is spread evenly ov'er the flesh side.
Particular care is nec-
. essary in rubbing salt into the edges of the hides and the holes left
by the front flippers.
The stock-pile is built to a he,ight of not more
than one metre, with a somewhat-extended base, as the hides are spread
out in an overlapping way, being arranged lengthwise on the tilted
Platform.
days.
In summer (May and June) the salting process lasts for up to 12
The salt content in large seal hides after salting varies from
20% to 24%, and in small (fur) hides from 18% to . 20%. The stock-piles
are examined at tho same time.that the hides are sorted.. Hides from
which the oil was not squeezed out before salting are SqUeeZed in .the
salted state. The.oil is squeezed out of fur-hides and light leatherhides
on ST-3 planing benches, and from heavy hides by hand with a tupik
on a wooden. block. The tupik is a steel plate 450 mm long, 40 to 50
mm wide, and 2 mm thick at the working edge, with two wooden handles.
The most valuable fur-hides are those of whitecoats and Caspian
seal pups after their first moult; they are packed in cellophane bags
or barrels after salting, washed in brine, and sent to the furriers. - •
A similar method is used to preserve the hides of fur seals,
which are first carefully washed in water; then the water is soueezed
out and the hides are dried. Pox - saltine them, the floor is covered

with a continuous layer of salt (white Daskunchak crystalline sait,
the crystals being 3-5 mm in size). The hides are spread out on the
356
salt, fur side clown; a layer of salt.1-1.5 cm deep is strewn over them,
and then another layer of hides ofxh± added.
is from 1
to 1.5 metres.
The height of the pile
On the I-'ribylof Islands fur seal hides are preserved by the wet
method, The khoroviny are carefully washed in sait water from a hose
under high pressure. Then they are placed in tanks with circulating
sea-wator for 24 hours. After being washed the khoroviny are scraped,
and then passed tnrough cylindrical rollers, where they are again washed
by strong streams of water and the water is squeezed out.
The washed and squeezed hides are put into a vat With brine,
singly, with the fur upwards, the hides being completely submerged in
the brine. Mixers (paddle wheels) move the hides slowly round the vat
anti-clockwise. During the salting process brine-pumps ensure constant
circulation of the brine, in which the concentration of salt is kept at
a constant level. After being salted the hides are kept drip-drying for
a long time (up to five days) to free them from brine.
Tiefore being sent to the fur-factory the hides are covered with
boric acid and brown medium-grained salt over their • ntire eurface.
In an attempt to accelerate the delivery of marine mammal products
to the industry, one of the Far Eastern sealing schooners was
equipped with a 1'M-2 scraping machine, a FVS-150 sausage-machine, a
super-decanter, and a ISB dirt-separator. That made it possible to
deliver to the industry in port cleaned hides and processed blubber of
high Quality. The question of preserving fur-hides by that method,
however, has not yet been settled.
The Uorwegians have achieved good results in the preservation
of hides. The technological processing of hides on Norwegian ships
consists of five main operations- After te khorovihy have been chilled
they are thoroughly washed with water on both the fur side and the blubber
side. Then they are dried on deck. When the fur is comletely dry
the blubber is scraped off by hand.
The blubber-free hides are tien
an anti-oxidizing agent, particular care being
carefully rubbed with
takil to have the hairs saturated with it, and a thin layer of it is
applied to the scraped side. The treated hides are stacked in the hold,
fur side underneath, carefully flattened out, and covered with a layer
of salt UD 1;0 1.5 cm in depth.

...:. 357
(I
ra' . rom 0,
The technology is somewhat different in the coastal factory at
to which slight].y-chilled khoroviny are brought.. The blubber
but not coT^^letely, by machines; a le.ye^. of blubber ap-proximately
1.5 to 2.0 cm ttiick is left on t-rie hides, and tr:,-n they
is r.enioved,
are
passed through a pressing--machine to squeeze out the remaining oil.
with sawdust, i-rhich absorbs the
The squeezed hides are put in a drum
last traces of oil. After being well shaken up in the drum t;.iey are
dry-salted.
A number of Soviet-made
through experimental industrial
anti-oxidants are at present being put
tests.
The scr_api-r_g-off of blubber is done by machine or by hand.
hand-scra-oing, a scraping-knife 400 mm long, with a round-ended blade
120 mm broad, is used on seal hides. The wooden handle is made so that
With
it extends along two-thirds of the blunt side of the blade, overlapping it.
For scraping the hides of Caspian seals and some species of Far Eastern
seals "Lithuanian scythes" are used, with blades 700 mm long and 80 mm
across at the broadest part; they have wooden handles at each end.
Ordinary fishing or hunting knives are used to cut blubber .off
sliees of flesh. Before the blubber is scraped off the hides, they are
spread out on spe.cial benches or blocks called navoi (l.iterally, weaver's
beams), with the fur side underneath. The navoi are made of squared
beams and boards of hardwood. Their size depends on the kind of material
being treated.
The navoi is inclined, with the higher side towards the operator.
Its height depends on his height. About one-third of the khorovina is
snread on the t•,orhing surface, the rest hanging freely over the upper
edge.
The blubber is scraned first from the head end of the hi de, and
thon the hid.e is turned round and, scraped from the cail end.
If the blubber is to be used in the manufac-ture of vitaminized
medicinal oil the scrauing is done in two operations. Pirst the upper
r:_
( soileci.) layer of blubber is reiaoved, and a.^ lerwa.rds the final scraping
takes -ol^ce.
For mechanical blubber-scraping one uses a hide-scra; ii.e machine
constructed on the base of a remodelled hide-scraper of P1M-2 type. The
e^ic
of t;:-^ :_llo:.•o -v- i.ria. is :;queczec, between a x•ubbor i:•oller -ar.c. a;:,rooved
roller, rri:ich can be ar.;justec_ verticall^r accorc: ii ; to 'clie thickness of
the blubber layer.
1i:sc rollers pass t:ie ^tihoroviiia to blades a.r_ranged

..... 358
s:;irally on a,steel roller. These blades cut the blubber from the hid.e
and at the sa-ale time chop it into sriall pieces.
3-type sc32f3,An€;
_l•'or Scra_)1n" lar_rer idin oi°ov1n1 one can use a
.machine of much 1ar"er size, after appropriate remodelling. The best
results from these machines are obtained ^:ii th litihtly--•salted '_choroviny.
^7.uï^ber .^rocessing consists in extraction of the oil by breaking
uo the ^ra.lls of the fat cells. 'i'here are several methods: mechanical,
ti,ermal, by bacterial fermentation, chemical (hydrolytic splitting of
proteins), and extractional with fat solvents.
The most widely-used method of oi1.-e__traction from seal bJ.uhber
is a combination of the uiechanical and thermal methods. The technological
sequence of the process is as fo1lows:
choppin; up the blubber in a blubber-cutter;
running the blubber through the grooved rollérs of a rolling--
press, where it is subjected to pressure of 20 to 30 kg/cm 2s
cooking in boilers, with periodical stirring;
pouring off the oil and water;
allowing the oil and water to settle;
squeezing the residue in a screw-press to get out the oil and
water; and
drying the squeezed residue, which is a food product of high
value for farm animals.
If the blubber cannot be processed immediately it is lightly
salted. The amount of salt applied varies from 5i'o to 15^, depending on
the environmental temperature and the period of storage.
Three kinds of oil are obtained from seal blubber, according to
the quality of the original raw material. The yield of the various
kinds of oil depends on the seal species, the age of the animals, and
the time of processing.
^:^rocessin^' of seal flesh. ''he flesh of pinnipedes is used. mostly
by fur--f arr.is as food for fur-bearers. ilurin- the winter liunti^-_e season
the aniula.ls' carcasses are frozen on the ice and taken to port in that
state. in spring the flesh is usually salted, and in the Far East it
is Ureserved with sodium pyrosulphite. To preserve the flesh, it is cut
into pieces of from 5 to 7 kg, pac?tied in barrels, and interspersed with
the pyrosul^^hite (2;: of the weiCh-t; of trie flesh). 'i',:e flesÀi can also be
.reservecl with a 3;: solution of sodium pyrosu].r,hite. :^ he vyrosuli)hite

359
is dissolved in sea-water, and the solution is poured over the pieces
of flesh in the barrels..
Salted flesh, as well as that treated with sodium pyrosulphite,
is generally used as pig-food. Salted, or even frozen, seal flesh is
not a food product of high quality. The product of highest value i s .
meat-and-bone sausage-meat.
The design of a new sealing ship includes
a fine-grinding.machine and a deep-freezer, in which briquettes of • meatand-bone
sausage-meat will be frozen.
• 253
PROCESSING AND USE OF WHALE PRODUCTS
74
• One of the chief products obtained by all Soviet factory-ships
is oil. Its quality depends on the siïëcies, sex, age, and state of nutrition
of the whale and on the part of the body from which it is taken,
and also on the region and time of taking of the animal.
Whale oils are complex esters -- glycerides of fatty acids and
glycerine. The oil of sperm whales contains fatty alcohols (waxes).
The fatty acids are classified as saturated (solid) and unsaturated
(liquid s). Yhe first group includes palmitic acid (up to 8-12),
myristic acid (up to 8 ) , capric acid, stearic acid (up to 4') .'0), ad other
acids; the second group includes linoleic acid (up to 12()4 , oleic acid
(up to 37), gadolinic acid (up to 16c ) , and other acids. Atmospheric
oxygen, light, high temperatures, and moisture cause oxidation of unsaturated
acids, making the oil turn rancid and emit an unpleasant smell.
The oils contain very small amounts of unsaponifiable matter --
various sterols, thosphatides, lipochromes (the latter impart colour to
the oil), vitamins, various proteins, and moisture .
The colour of the oil depends on the original raw material, the
duration of the oil-extraction process, the duration of heat-treatment
of the oil, etc. The density of the oil also varies considerably. At
20 0 C the density of the oil from baleen whales varies from 0.910 to
0.928, and that of the oil from toothed whales from 0 .870 to 0.900.
The refractive indexes of the oils also are qualitative characteristics
of them, and are usually in the range from 1.4708 to 1.4745.
The quality of an oil is usually assessed from its water content,
its deLree of oxidation, and its acid number, and its specificity -
4!!)
JSroln its sa:onification number anc. its acid nu,liber.
According to the
current State Standards for marine-mammal oils and fish oils, the acid

-,^
..... 360
cGf,1fl8 c?:I? N fs.i3>1K3 Si21,:o71.117blX PITj(U3 F'CYO^'
Yti^t334CC'ib:;i
(no K. A.
Ta6nu},ct 13
, ^ M Tlr,ur,t.re
^ •'. Esnorn i3:np
]IOi:^1 ^TUî b
- aziucc:r„b
,......--`,Clt}l}t.i.. }:S[T
na ,nomü" I
W li c ,.pusuce ca^e ), 12,62 °S 20 57,00-43,90
e:}:; t}teîo r.: ast;n.:a
16 F;Ci-`'O,CJ
70,50-76, 1^
To xSi: y c}CS}o:,11,;3> r}1J3b1 .. ^'ï ^C 1,i 4
S^:S:SU 6" oUl:iQe . . , . . . . û9,1``.^ a-^ÎJ.11
3 10 ^J 5E,39 1
`1 a :^;,tx . _ . . . . . . . . .
i04}SitSi;aa
U 11a,:;}es!tae calSO I?a ,i;i0P.3•'_' C'.11}1t} 14,20-23,60 68.110,00 50
r Iç, __,2 ^. , 70 tï6,30 1
r0,90
2J
^ c
7'^: )° 46 6;• -=1g.80 3'^, 8--..•.,^0
^et^}tic:
n^
,.^ . . . . . . . . . .
513b!K
.
I
5,80--•12,7;ï
6,3^,--:),20
16.92--19,O1
9,51
5,30--1Ÿ,25
S, ;•--i.1,21
17,'1^-13,0^1
7,94
I
(I 1^Vÿf?aTbtj3 }:FtT
ï),1?v„l,ot!;!cL: c^.,^o ....... 21, 73 66,37
(l.iotru}o_ . . • . . . . 42,;i6 40,30
ï Ca:o 34,15 57,10
^ St^t}r. . . . . . . . . . . .
1".>C zrean
, . Il ,7--42,5 42,0-£t3,0
1^-TC:ITO . . • . . . .
42,7-64,5
11,5•-36,0
J:f 1>^'•SOSLkika . • • • • • • • •
fi, 76
17,14.
8,455
6,3-2ô,S
19,0--2n,0
iD 1` 11 T ^! n 33 }+ e
111,1_1815
1Z } 1^,:pnrTtue ca.1o . . . . . . •
^f7 1
;,.f. l,h:i,:SJiP-ia . . . . . . . . • ,
668,0--.78,4 4,5--13,5.
3`> } 20,8
` r l
t^ 1 io,,;,o}sitce Ca
1LIN,au1a:1UT
}...... • I
34 Ot) 509^ 15,03
1,9$ i `•)(,='8 0,1.3 0,73
-ABLE 13. Chemical Composition of Blubber and ^,onSue of
Various l'ihale Species (;,, ), from K. A. T^trochkov ^1955) •
Key- 1) ^Ctem. 2) i-ioisture. 3) Oil. 4) Solid matter. 5) Blue
6) Subcutar_eou.s blubber at dorsal fin level. 7) Do. at ^ base of
whale.
head.
S) Abdominal blubber. 9) I'on^^.te. 10) !'in whale. 12) Subcutaneous
blubber. 1'
ei ) whale. S 14) i eritonewu. 15) I^esser rorqual.
16) Saerm whale. 17) Spermaceti.
number foredible oils should not be higher than 4, the saponification
number shoulc. be from 175 to 220, and the iodine number should be from
100 to 150. In addition transparency, the odour, and the taste of
t.Ie oil are taken into account, and also the moisture content. Technical
oil ^:1•.ai:r^a^ obtained from toothed whales should have an acid nunber not
higher than 3.0, a saponification ur:iber n from 125 to 150, an iodine
nu^Ibe^*` from 62 to 92, and unsanoi:ifiabl.e matter from 28 to 42.
^re,lious species of t•r!t^.les, diffe^^,in^ in the t:reiglit ratios of parts
^,.)`i
of the body
and or^,•ans (see ^.'ablc^ 10), yield oil and other products. `.Chere..
are differences in the cl}emicàl con?oosition of the blubber and tonglle
(Table 13) and of the bones and flesh (`ï^ables 14 and 15).

36 1
d
. . .
XommecKai COCTall K6CTeri Itegine BeAon Huron
(no K. A. Mpouony, 1958) W,
I P.up, Kina, cupbe
P...rid•ra
-------
• Ta6aqua M
.? A30Trta
is? twiltaa . •Dona
Cininil }(UT
•
7 romna 33,10 33,79 11,79 21,14
..6 nuwunn me.ltocrt, 11,82 30,57 48,60
7 ritnuonolnro ■c 13,87 39,81 19,66 26,48
i:: pe6pq 19,40 25,11 20,73 35,39
Ehnman
/ ro;iona 37,30 33,78 28,97
'6 IllOittifill Me=110Z1b 31,05 34,86 34,08
'Inwaouowin- 21,96 20,70 15, 8 1 . 32,38
le' pc6p1 24,79 19,02 18,09 38,10
It rop6a .rwri RUT
Y rcoona 17,16 30,64 15,39 36,56
kimannn ,ICMOCTI, 20,90 41,85 13,48 24,64
'1 nomonogimi( 13,21 32,34 20,79 31,09
k; pe6pa 13,34 12,61 24,73 48,81
12, kmmamv
/4.ro..loaa II UUWOIRRReJPOCTb 19,96 43,11 12,54 24,41
'1 nomonon tnn: 90,38 39,45 15,17 24,93
i,-
19,30 26,20 20,00 34,47
pe4pt
TABLE 14. Chemical Composition of the Bones. of Some Species of
Whales (%), from K. A. Nrochkoy (1958).
.Key: 1) Whale spepies and source of oil. 2) Moisture.
4) Nitrogenous matter. 5) 'Ash. 6) Blue whale. 7) Head. 8) Lowe .e jaw.
9) Spine. 10) Ribs. 11) Tin whale. 12) Hump-baok whee. 13) SPerm
whale. 14) Head and lower jaw.
XumnnecKni: cocrau mnca nel:oropf..ix
(no K. A. Mpoln;ony, 1955), %
T a 6 .n n.a 15
r Z AelTIICIble MilneDnal,
' DIM Kara Bnara Alp Emi l CCTEla Ilbie fiente-
CTIla
(.7
iL
.
CIIRIIrl KM'
.4
■ MR co CURUHOC 69,50 6,92 22,00 1,01
Y. 6piceuilnbl 66,47 7,71 24,75 0,04
intean
Y m›:co cruninee . ..... . . . . 69,67 6,37 22,05 1,01
1-- ..,.•. c p96ep • 62,29 16,10 20,60 1,00
» 6p!olmmu 73,26 6,09 19,65 0,93
rop6aT i A I.:11r
"Imnco cnnnuoe 67,77 10,06 20.31 1,01
.,' I, 6paennum 72,95 5,47 20,07 1,21
io › c pe6ep • 62,94 17 ; 96 18,05 1,12
Ceilaa.-:
7 mco in -..e 74,0 4,0 22,0' --
Kama:Tar
% àmco eni.ihnoe 72,90 3,11 22,40 1,00
» c iniameli cv.ponta nonumioentui.? 74,17 1,93 22,63 1,07
• 11.u.1::,•...1 beakerrea.
TA2,I, 15. Chemical Comnosition of the Flesh of Some Species of
from K. A. Mrochkov (1555). (See . ne:Kt page for Keyj

..... 362
Key: 1) Whale species. 2) Moisture. 3) Oil or fat). 4) Nitrogenous
matter., 5) Mineral matter. 6) Blue whale. 7) Flesh on the
baCk. 8) Peritoneum. 9) Fin whale. 10) Flesh on ribs. 11) Hump-back
whale. 12) Sei whale. 1 3 Sperm whale. 14) Flesh on lower side of
spine. 15) Solid matter.
of whale oil.
There are appropriate All-tinion State Standards for all kinds
Information on whale oil production during the last ten seasons
is given in Appendix 15, and on products other than oil in Appendix 8.
MEYHODS OF OB'I'AINILG WHAL -11.]
OIL
In modern factory-ships whale oil is obtained by melting the
smooth subcutaneous blubber, and partïY the peritoneum, of whales in
vacuo, and by boiling Whale flesh, bones, and peritoneaf blubber under
pressure, with further extraction of the residual oil from the boiled
bones and muscle tissue left after boiling.
Die most widely-used method is that of extraction with live
steam in oil-extraction boilers. As much as 80% . of the :oil-bearing raw
material is processed in that way in Soviet factory-ships.
After being put into the boilers, the raw material (bones,, flesh,
peritoneum, tongue, and viscera) is acted upon by live steam at a pressure
of four atmospheres and a temperature of about 140° C.
It is
gradually cooked to a•pulp, and shredded by the turning of a reticulated
rotor in the boiler. The boiling lasts for three to four hours, depending
on the kind of raw material. The boiling produces a mass consisting
of oil, water, and residues of the uncooked parts of the raw material.
he entire mass is transferred to an oil-separator, where it settles
into layers of oil and n .graksa" (a “soun° thick with protein framents).
ne apparatuses for extracting oil under pressure are simple to
construct and to operate and are distinguished by high productivity.
When they are used, however, a considerable proportion of the protein
raw material is lost, ard the application of hiL;h temperatures lowers
the Quality of the oil produced.
The most ,)erfect meti:apd is that of processing the raw material
in a vacuum (the dry method of oil extraction). Up to 98% of the oil
ir the subcutaneous blubber is obtained by this method; in recent years -
the :erItoriouia a10 is partly used. With the vacuum eiod the raw
_
Inatcrial is trca:;ej at a tenre—ature of not more than 10 0 0, which

.... 363
makes it possible to obta:i_n ilign-qualit,y oi1 (up to 20;,.. of the total
ar:iount processed). '_;'oreover, the protein part of the raw material is
all p^^eservecL. ^l';^e oil is completel;^ removed. from it by pressing, and
mea,t-meal i; ith a protein content of up to 85;•) is o bta.ined.
After the oil has been removed from the oi 1--se ^Parator, a considerable
amount of oil (.Fro:n 41^ to 6;^,,) is still retained in the resic.ua.l
mass or ^,raksa: it does not separate out in the oil-separator, as
the gummy matter in it makes total separation of the oil difficult.
Therefore special a-ira ratuses are used to extract that oil ( superc.ecanters,
dirt--se;)arators, various receptacles, etc..). Up to 30^, of
the oil obtainec' on factory--sl'iips is extracted i'ro-m graksa.
Cooking out oil in boilers with oroen rotors. An oil-extraction
boiler of "bone-cooker" type is a horizontal cylindrical boiler, consisting
of a steel tank with walls 22 mm thick and two lateral spherical
bulges with onenings. .he boiler contains a perforated drum with
openings of up to 20 mm in diameter, consisting of three: parts. Inside
it are ribs made of strips of steel, 120 x 150 mm, which ensure mixing
and -meehanical shredding of the raw material. The capacity of the
e
boiler is up to 40 cubic metres, which permits it to be loaded t•:i.th 35
tons of raw material. The drum makes about three r.p.m>
Raw material of all kinds can be processed in boilers. of this
type, but they are generally used for bones, flesh, and viscera.
'r;hen the boiler is being loaded the perforated drum is rotated
a few times to distribute the material evenly. The lids of the openings
are closed imraedi ately., The rai•r material i s cooked with live steam at
a pressure of four atmospheres. The duration of the cycle from loaC_ing
to opt.ninü the lids is four hours and 40 minutes.
Separatio_'_ of oil and s ^ructure of the oil-se-parator- The cooked
mass is transfer-red. through apipe to the oil-separator, where it settles
and separates into its components of different densities. The lightest
fraotion -- the oil -- fozl:"s ti^e to,. layer; •i ^.ei^. comes a layer of t,rater
^•ri tii suspexi^ec^ ^;ral.sa
scraps of protei_: substances,
and. e;lluisis'ieü oi1., ii'_ ^rni cii are
loi•rc-r part of the oil--seoarator contains
water with suspendec ;ra1 sa and a large amount of protein matter.
The fills u-, beco.use of a diffe:r::.«ce in .,,restiure Uet.•reen
it
0,110, t:.. boile T + , ^ 1.2 to 0. j a.- è...o.:,:.e .:s^
its ;>>:o .res1 2-s viet:cc'. t;_^:ou;h
r.s the seG:aratec oil a.ccu:_ule.tes

^.le res?âüal
a gla,ss ti, inci.ota; it is poured off into scttlinU--tani:s.
-oart is tre.nsferred to super-decanters for further - :processing.
°t e oi l-separator i s a vertical tank, consisting of a cylindrical
Oi.l-se]parators are of several types
body and •'pr;o spherical bulges.
art of its
l'he principal part of an oil-separator is the stean--dome.
The end. of the cylinder may be
cylinder lies within the oil-sepa.rator.
drawn out into a cone and may terminate in tne middle or upper part of
the oil-senarat.or.
r
acuia.-^i-^•
r^aratuses. '.rIie essence of this me thod 237
Jb_ta.i _oil ; r: v ^ ^v..
is the removal of moisture frorn previously-shicedded raw material (sub--
cutaneous blubber, and partly peritone?,,rR; in a vacuum at a relatively
loW temperature.
The line of va.cuu_-i--apT)aratuses contaiï.s the following machines.
The raw meaterial is finely cut in a disc-shredder or a multiûisc
blubber-cu'u Ler . 'raithin the steel tank of tfie disc-shredder is mounted
a roller with a cast-steel disc, on vhich there are two (so:::etir,_es more)
lamellar knives.
In addition, a fixed ^^nife is attached to the lower
-nart of the tank. As the roller rotates the contained raw raaterial is
machine,
cut into small l)J.eces, which are passeCt out into a
In a multidisc blubber-cutter rows of disc-icnives are mounted
on two rollers. The rollers rotate in opposite directions at different
speeds.
The pieces of blubber pass fro:.i that machine -co the sausagemeat
machine for shredding.
The sausage-meat machine consists of a cast-iron tank, within
which a cast-iron screw (worm) rotates. The entering mass is passed into
a cutting :rechanism, so much end-thrust beii!g created that the pieces
of blubber are forced. tnrougii a fi-xed disc-knife and ai:e finely chopped
by a rotating cross-shaped knife. Ther_ the chopped mass passes through
a fixed screen with apertures 18-20 mm in diameter. The blubber is
further shredded by a moving.cross-shaped knife, and then passes through
a screen with apertures 8-10 mm in dia.meter.
The finely-shredded mass then enters a heater-tank, whi.ch may
be constructed in various ways. it is usually a metal vat witil•,•ralls
7 mm thick, i;*itn a steam-jacket. The mass is passed on by a stirring
E
cevice ••mour.ted in the tank, shal:ec. liice two racks arrangod cross-wise.
;
e ca.,,a.city of the heater-tank is 21 . 35 cubic metres.

365
The mass, now heated to 30 0 or 35 0 C, is conveyed through a pipe
into a vacuum-dryer, which consists of a horizontal boi:_er or drum made
of sheét-steel 15-16 mm thick, with two spherical bulges
roller with a stirrer runs through the boiler
A hollow
A. vacuum-pump creates a vacuum (600-700 mm of mercury) in the
dryer, as a result of which the mass, which weighs up to 14 tons, is
dehydrated.
or condenser.
The water vapoUr enters a steam-dome, and then a cooler
The fatty mass is dried foi about
two hours, and is then removed
by an air-compressor from the vacuum-dryer to oil-separators.
The oil
that.settles in the vacuum-dryer is trensferred to an oil-separator
with a conical bottom, in the lower Pàrt of which is mounted a platefilter,
the spaces between the plates being from 1 to 15 mm. It also
has a worm-screw for transferring the residue of dry prbtein matter to
a special receptacle, a heater.
In modern factory-ships the fatty mass from the vacuum-apparatuses
is transferred into a receptacle for oil and residues, and only
then into a super-decanter, where the oil is separated from the residues.
Processing of the_graksa.and the graksa-water. The graksa, which
varies in chemical composition, is conveyed from the oil-separator into
a supply-tank above the super-decanter.
At the same time seawater is
added to it in such a proportion that the resultant mixture has a temperature
• of about 90 0 C, the Araksa having arrived at a temperature of
140 0 C. After a sufficient amount of graksa has been received from the
various oil-separators the mixture is transferred to horizontal centrifuges
(the super-decanters), where the solid matter, which has a moisture
content of 50-55,, is removed. After further drying, graksa-meal is
prepared from it.
The graksa-water passes from the super-decanters into reception
vats and then into the supply-tanks of dirt-separators with capacity of
up to 12 cubic metres, into which water at a temperature of 65 0 -95 °
is also added. .1he oil extracted in the dirt-searators, which has a
water content of 0.5
the supply-tanks of purifying separators.
is passed first into settling-tanks and then into
urification of whale oil. -Lhe oil from the oil-peparators,
which contains an adlàixture of water and protein matter, is conveyed
into a settlim:;-tank u -1 cylinder with a conical bottom). 'hence it

Passes into the supply-tanks of the separator section, and the sediment 238
is removed to collecting-tanks for further oil extraction.
I! )Ta, ebipbe vi[C.10
»:npa
-- _
4 niezoKone. eemtmanilor,nee
racbmtem- "aCb'" ="" bfW.0 lie- -
‘eiclo 111,10 b::•10- 11100 n""" igf22 -r:.,a,
.1cfrie., %" .1(/111. %* Vo .I.
366
The supplytanks
are rectangular m-Aal containers, within which are steam coils
for heating the unpurified oil.
Ta6..nnua 16
Coca' wlipon i pa-J.Inumx game TrAa ycarmx Willn H luquamoTa
no (1)• 1':icalleac41 u K. A. Mpotwouy, 1967, (1). M. P*2.11Ci, 1970)
C7.1111115 RUT
noKpomoe caao 198,2
ic, 6fmoullw.a, n HIURHMR
1;e:liocr 1 6C-2
P UOUlt figmf.:onceluKa . . . 195,5
U ■nr.00 H un)TpemuocTit . . . 196,1
13(Anna:1
ca.h.)
9.01,0
C.;pionatua. 513 ■AK ;i 11;M:1151:1
ile/HOCTI, 9.01,0
illuEOC7H 193,6
i/RucTm . . 203,6
Uwe() H BuyT2eucT1 . . 195,8
/bbpp6aTb:ii KMT
nonor,noz c,rio 192,8
to Ciploamna, ILThK I{ HT/Kling
tlemocil 197,2
I# XOCTII r0,10:PÀ 191,8
it NOCTII . . 195,4
(2.m}ico H Burrennocut . . 199,5
/CCernlaa
qnoKpouitc.i?. cm') 195,9
je Cipo:untia, SI:1',U;11 littaCHnil
..... • . . 198,6
4Kocrn FOAOHM 191,8
rMmna.lor
iA-mgco It wayrpenuocm . 204,5
iKICnepmauer
fq wporox 141,4
20 2MTOWleHilWi1 ..... . 144,6
,?noEpcirmoe cmo . . , . . 131,0
gimlet) H Noun 130,9
115,6 21,3 21,8 1,7
118,3 19,0 20,1 1,4
103,0 21,1 23,0 1,4
120,2 23,1 20,4 1,8
1 96,4 24,0 18,7
120,7 23,0 17,1 1,5
116,8 22,4 21,9 1,8
114,7 23,4 21,2 1,9
135,5 27,6 17,8 17
125,5 23,1 21,5 1,5
121,6 21,5 18,6. 1,6
120,0 19,0 22,8 1,4
127,1 23,3 20,4. 1,4
130,5 22,7 17,8 1,5
137,8 25,6 21,9 1,4
124,6 22,9 21,6 1,8
121,8 25,4 25,3 1,4
138,5 27,3 18,5 1,5
53,0 10,8 24,2 48,0
62,0 7,3 23,6 40,0
78,0 0,8 22,2 44,0
70,0 8,8 . 28,0 42,0
• ;Jim yea -u!): lutroD 1;,' A in nawn.no .ea--I3 macce XCILpa:iaX
Kmchor.
TABLE 16, Composition of Oils from Different Parts of the
Bodies of Baleen Whales and the Sperm Whale (from F. M. Rzhavskaya and
K. A. Mrochkov, 1967, and F. M. Rzhavskaya, 1970).
Key: 1) Whale species and raw material. 2) Oil indexes. 3)
Saponification number. 4) Iodine number. 5) Highly-unsaturated acide,
Saturated acids, 7) Unsanonifiable matter, 8) Blue
whale. 9) Subcutaneous blubber. 10) Peritoneum, tongue, and,lower jaw.
11) Spinal bones. 12) Flesh and viscera. 13) Fin whale. 14) Bones of
head. 15) Hump-back whale. 16) Sei whale. 17) Sperm whale. 18) Spermaceti.
19) Sperm oil. 20; Heated. 21) Flesh and bones. 22) * For
baleen whales these figures are percentages of tne weight of the'oil;
for tLIÔ sperm whale, Lerentaes of the weight of fatty acids.
•

..... 367
Li:yuid-ceni ri.fuk;es ^, separators) are used to obta,in t'rie oil.
The princi.pal i•ro_•1--ing, jDart of the se,para.tor is a dxum cî at rotates at
6,0'30
1.11zc
contained mass, which consists of fractions of dif--
ferent densities, is separated by centrifuGal force into its constituent
parts.
Solid particles and water are throl,•rn to the walls of the rotating
drum, w't!il.e tl:e lighter oil. frac-Lions are concentra.ted near its centre;
The purifà.ed oil i s
they rise u-^p and en-cer an oil-collecting cl,axnber.,
then conveyed into stora.ge-tanks.
qllO,llti j of Zi!^
J
^l'ïle n^c^.x;?i^'^'II]_ off obtai.ned depends on the ?)rocessin^ method. 2•)
The best•-cîuality oil is produced by the vacuum process. 1-11he "physical
propeit;.es, cîua.li.t^r, and co__^?position of the oil also de;.^end on the
snecies of whale and the part of the body yielding the oil. The characteristics
of oils from various whale speci.es are given in Table 16.
Oils obtained from
^raîtisa are usually distinLuisheü by higher
acid numbers (up to 2.1, as compared with 0.7 for other oils) and by
lower capa.city for hydrogena.tion.
Edible whale oils should meet the requirements of All-Union
State Standards 8714-55, and technical and sperm oils should meet those
of All-Union State Standards 1304-60.
11
PRit'^?RA'^ :COi:; OF 1^1,A^'-I4i^1,AL FOR AîsIliAl FOOD
The nrincipal. source of meat-meal for animal food is the flesh
of whales, but the liver is also used. The yield of mea-L-1 from various
baleen whales and the sperm whale is shown in Table 17.
Whale meat contains up to 25i or 26-^ of valuable proteins. It
is-very close to beef in its composition, and also contains various
amino acids and. histidines, -,rîli ch are required for the growth of the
hur.iar_ boc.y:
On account of its hi;;h content of cor•nective-tissue proteins
hale meat has a more fibrous s ^ructure than beef.
,; ^- ,> its fat content °•l;he ventral part
^^ ^,le mea^ is not uniÿo_i,i in i^u ^
conta,ins z_rucii more fat than the dorsal part.
If the nea.t is desilned. for human food it sl_ould be briz,ht in
b
hue the la,, se of ti..r.e _^tcr î.illin; is usu:^,l1y not more than nine n.ours);
it sîlould be
to dark-red (depending on the wha.le suecies, and it
•
s?-.ould have a si)ri.z_,r consistency.
It should be free fro,(i foreiEn matter.
resi: :.c.wc it. r";J.t:'.iJl.e
or hu,.ia.n food is made into I.zeat-ra-a.l for
i^il.led T10re °^:_c'.l"1 11].Tle 11oU.rs
animal food, as, vel l as i:LCD."; :i].'Oi!?

.
568
before processin. In every case the 6.esignation of trie meat for one
purpoue or tnc othr is controlled by the Veterinary-Sanitary Service.
BMX011, i.i,ica 0'
(no 13.
}31..C.‘"P,1 >151Cil (n macce rn—eurt
Tyum Kure )
mn
yeaTi..tx i1!O 11 HatuanoTa
C. Batml,lencmcmy,
(Perina.1
.
roperaq
T a 6 mil n a 17
5
Cane)
(e Kennemr
..
Y 06arnik . 45--4,5 Oi-1:6-510 41,3— 16.4-17,2
37,6 22,0 42,6
:'
I3ILOji ninuenero
01. 17,9— 3,4--12.8 23,0— 6,6-7,7
22,8
,C)
"-) creffle — 20,0 10,5 23,7 0!.0.10 1,0
il L1Hx( ,;& neeoro idC K
a epa3,1e,1ill`.13111x
naacTc.In :■1RCa
..- 53,4 44 : 1 60,.5 38,6-47,0
1 1.1 P.O M. 101.N.94 ■In (M. Nihiweki), 1950.
TABLE 17. Yield of Meat from Seine Balcon Whales and the Sperm
Whale (from B. S. Vasilevskii, 1967).
Key: 1) Yield of meat (as of weight of whale carcass). 2) Blue
whale. 3) Fin whale. 4) Hump-back whale. 5) Sei whale. 6) Sperm whale.
7) Total yield of meat. 8) Yield of edible meat. 9) from ... to ...
10) average. 11) neld of edible meat as ';; of weight of unseparai;ed
layers of flesh. 12) About .., 13) 1 From M. rishiwaki, 1950.
gle
Peat-meal for animal food is obtained from the graksa as well as
from the flesh, i.e. from the protein residues after the oil has been
extracted by the vacuum-apparatuses.
Animal-food products also include
concentrated soups made from pressed-out fluids and graksa-water.
Apparatuses in .the meatmeal production line. The meat-meal
Production lines are compact, simple, and reliable in operation. They
censist of constantly-operating pressure-dryers.
The meat is carried on a conveyor belt furnished with a device
for recording metal fragments included in the raw material, and enters
meat-choppers of various kinds. The finely-chopped meat, in pieces 20
to 30 mm in diameter, goes into a washing-machine, from -
which it is
Passed into a meat-receiving tank. An agitator, installeà -ina horizontal
tlane, rushes tAle meat to a discharging hatch, through which it
enters a batch-divider.
The batch-divider is a vessel in which drums
rotate in opposite directions, forcing the meat in batches into a cooker
-- a boàler with o rotatini; perforated-drum wor:v.-screw. TiLe meat is
cooked in watc'r a% a temperature of about 90 0 for 10 or 12 minutes.

..... 369
The cooked mass is dehydrated in a special wrorm-press containing two
wor„r--screws turnin- in o:aposite c.irections. '_'here are four or five
turns of the screws from the loading-point to the outlet. The meat
leaving that machine is broken up in a disintegrator, which has a screw--
roller with breakinL:-up knives.
disintegra.tors furnished with toothed rollers.
;he mass thus -z
The best results are obtaine

..... 370
0 o is
The Zraksa water, whic'r? has a temperature of 90 --95 C,
i.u:q--,)ed into the vacuum-a-o-paratus and stirred. The temperature durin;
that n^ocess iû 00 0 C, and taie vacuum is not more than 600 mri of .nercury.
1,'ithin 24 hours u?) to 14 tons of concentrated soup i s obtainec-, with a
dry-matter content of up to 50'd., as compared with 9i to 12;:: in the
original L^,raksa wa ter.
The freezingoî meat and liver in the factory--si7ips takes place
in freezers with a capacity of 94 tons a day, the temperature of the
blocks of meat be:i-ng, -18 0 C.
The freezing apparatus may consist of up
to four lines, each line containing -ben or eleven Y-•apid-freezing• units.
.ach unit has a se i;arate unloaai r.E; hatch connected wit't. a regulator--panel.
An unloading trolley has 12 divisions, for successive delivery of a block
of frozen meat or liver i•reibhine 36-38 kg from each division.
The meat is frozen in a vertically--divided brine-type freezing
apparatus, which also contains 12 divisions. Cold brine passes through
the hollow partitions of the apparatus, ensurin:; that the block of meat
is frozen to --15o C in three or four hours. Before the blocks axe taken
out a..warra solution is circulated, thawing the surface of the blocks so
that they are easily unloaded on to t,ie unloading trolley.
A,ripper, consisting of a movable frame w.i:l.-'ri two _claws, takes
the blocks and packs them into receptacles in a transporter. The latter
;lazinb tunnel, where they are sprinkled with cold fresh
takes tllem to ap
water, forming ag1aze up to 1 mrn thick on them.
The blocks so prepared, which measure 800 x 500 x 100 i:im, move
on to a work-bench where they are packed in kraft paper from four to six
layers thick, weighed, marked, and sent to the hold to be kept at a
ter,iperati_re not hic,;her than 18 0 C.
.,3efore üeinp, sent to the freezer tiie meat is freed from dirt,
blubber, and large veins. ï ieces of ineat weighing from 20 to 30 kg are
loaded into a bin, where they are t•rashed. in flowing sea-water. The meat
-passes alon^; ahfil. conveyor belt to a meat-cut'ter, from which it emerûes
in -ni eces t•rei&,,i n^, from 0.1 to 1.5 k9; tizese ^;o first to a filling bunker
and then to a distributing bunker; after that tney are conveyed by a
worm-screi%r to a loading trolley.
a ccori:e-tce 1".ith a teci^nolo"•i-ca•1 schedule.
The whole process is carried out in

• in margarine and lard manufacture, in soap-making, and in leather-tanning.
•
UTILIZATIOE OF WHALE PRODUCTS
The oil obtained from baleen whales is•used by the food industry
Sperm whale oil from the subcutaneous blubber and the body is the base
for manufacture of higher alcohols, which are used by the textile industry
for washing fabrics and dyeing wool and synthetic fibres; for making
oilcloth, linoleum, varnishes, and various lubricants; and for making
neutral soap that does not dehydrate skin tissues. The oil is also used
by the rubber, leather, chemical, and metallurgical industries and in
a number of other branches of the national economy.
Spermaceti is used by the perfume and cosmetic industries and
also in the manufacture of candles and various wax compounds.
571
One very
valuable product is sperm oil -- an indispensable lubricant for delicate
instruments and for machinery working under heavy loads. It is able to
retain its inherent viscosity for a long time. Addition of a proportion
of sperm oil to mineral oils improves their properties. Such oils are
used for work in low and high temperatures, without forming depoSits.
Sperm oil has medicinal properties.
Kalinichenko's liniment,
used in the treatment of burns and various ailments, is based: on it.
A number ,of canned foods are made on shore from frozen edible .
whale meat. The best-known canned products are "Braised whale meat",
"Roasted whale meat", and "Whale meat pies".
Whale meat, in combination with meat from different parts of farm 242
animals, also enters into sausage-meat products (patties, sausages, etc.).
Pies can be made from whale liver, and jelly from whale meat.
On board factory-ships the liver is fried and the meat is used to make
shashliks.
Various protein concentrates can be prepared from whale meat.
One of these is dry protein, which is used by the food industry as a
foam-producer and as an emulsifier in the manufacture of several articles
of confectionery, sauces, and mayonnaises, and also to enrich bakery
products with protein. Dry protein is used in the textile, microbiological,
and other branches of industry.
The peritoneum of baleen whales is frozen for use as human food. •
In Japan the flukes also are frozen to provide a food proj.uct, being
used in the manufacture of edible gelatine.
•
•

372
Whale liver is the source of a number of vitamins (A, B 1
, B 2 ,
etc.) and of MZh campolon (an anti-anaemia preparation).
In the most
modern Soviet factory-ships, Vladivostok and Darnii Vostok, technical
production lines operate successfully to produce vitamin A in oil by the
method of mild alkali hydrolysis of whale liver, with subsequent extraction
of vitamin A with refined whale oil,
Among the endocrine glands, products are obtained from the hypophysis,
the pancreas, the spleen, the adrenal glands, and others.
Insulin is derived from the pancreas. The pancreatic juice
extracted from the gland is used in the food industry for processing
meat.
A softening agent used in the leather industry is also obtained
from the pancreas.
. The adrenal glands of whales are a source of a medicinal preparation
of cortin.
The hypophysis contains a number of hormones, but it is chiefly
used as a source of the adrenocorticotropic hormone ACTH, which is used
in the treatment of a number of ailments, especially rheumatoid arthritis.
A. preparation for the treatment of myasthenia (muscle weakness)
ia derived from the thymus of embryos and young whales.
The brain of whales contains a large quantity of lipoids, which
-serve as a source of cholesterin and technical leclthin.
Heparin with higher biological activity than that obtained from
faim animals is extracted from the mucous membrane of whales' stomachs.
Heparin slows blood-clotting, has a hypotensive effect, dilates the
coronary arteries, and also prevents the development of degenerative
changes in the cardiovascular system in cases of atherosclerosis.
Meat-meal for animal food, which contains not less than q5 ,;.;.-80 ,7,
of protein, not more than
of oil, and less than 12% of moisture,
is used as a supplement to the food of farm animals..
Graksa-meal contains from 50) .
to 75'f, of -protein matter, about
5% or 6% of oil, and 25%-30% of various minerals. Its food value is
almost the same as that of meat-meal. When th E:
amount of foreign matter
mixed with it is as much as 0.2 grams per kg of meal, it is used only
as poultry food.
Blubber-meal, which is made from the residues after blubber is -
,
processed in the vacuuu-ay)E.ratuses, contains up to g',5 of protein, but
has rather less food value than. meat-meal. It also is used as animal
food.

..... 373
Concentrated soui)s made from waste ^r.al^sa water have a content
of 50;-52_`:; of dry :iatter, 5, of oil, and 8:,:,14.-,. of ^_iine^•al ;.^attex;
they are a. valuable animal-food nroduct, and are à.dded to plant fodder
and. combina.tion feeds.
=.OC^SS7:l.G OF ?J='I'i't; W"iALI, CARCASSES
Str9.p_oing_the blubber.
Large wooden blocks are used in stripping
the blubber from white whale hides. A large wooden roller j00 mm in
diameter and 2,500 mm long is installed 1,200-1,500 mm from the lower
edge of a block set on a stand about 4.00 mm high. Before the khorovina
is strip-ped some longitudinal cuts are made in it, so that it loses its
elasticity. ^-L'he pr_i.mary blubber..--stripping i s done on an accessory wooden
roller.
block.
As the stripping continues the khorovina is i,ullecJ. up on the
As soon as the head-thickening (the foreheadj has been pulled.
to the upper edge of the block the final scraping begins. When the
middle part of the khorovina has been scraped, the frontal part is out
off at the level of the blow-hole, and further scraping is continued.
blubbex.
}3lubberÿprocessinC is done in t^>e same way as with ^inr_ipede
Veterinary and technical oils are obtained from white whales.
^.,.
The hides of white whales are salted in two operations. Preliminary
bench-•-salting lasts for five days, after which the "armour" layer
(external thickened part of the derpais j is easily removed.. ^-,^he amount
of salt used in the preliminary salti.ng is 15% of the weight of the
hide.
The hides are stacked with the flesh sides togel;her. They are
then laid out on benches to have the amour removed with trowels specially
ada.pted for that purpose.
When freed from the armour, the hides are --gain stacked and
salted t•ritn a solution of salt weighing from 4.0;":. to 50;.; as much as the
hides.
The stacks should not be more than one metre in height. The
hides are piled with the flesh side up. That salting lasts for ten to
twelve days.
Excess oil is squeezed out of them with a tupik. The
average weight of a wet-salted white whale hide is about 20 kg.
^'rocessin{; of ti hite i•haleflesh.
The flesh of white whales is
used a s animal food. At present the principal metilod of processing it
is salting.
The dose of salt applied on board ships is 5iL) of the weight
of the flesh in winter and about 10; in sumiaer. The carcasses must
also be salted inside.

vats.
..,...374
in port the carcasses are out into pieces, which are salted in
A 10-cm la.yer of salt is spread over the vat floor, and the pieces
of flesh are rolled in salt one by one and piled in layers in the va.t.
Salt is strewn over each layer. ',itien the vat is full, brine (density
1.2) is poured over the flesh and a wooden grating with a weight on it
is laid over the vat. The flesh is salted for eight to ten days. The
weight of the salt used is uv to 35% of the weight of the flesh. At the
end of the salting, the flesh is washed in brine (which should have a
salinity of 135, to 16,;') and packed in barrels.
There is a limited market for meat processed by the above method.
The best processing method is freezing, or making meat-and-bone meal.
Raw material for vitamiii prod-action. The liver of white whales,
----- -- ---^ ---
like that of many other marine ma.mr:ials, is rich in vitamin A. Liver
intended to be processed for extraction of that vitamin may be fresh,
frozen, salted, or sterilized..
ÿefore bei_ng, frozen the liver is cut into pieces weighing about
3 kg, washed, and packed in moulds. After freezing the temperature
inside a. briquette should not be higher than -12° C. Sterilized liver
is prepared in special vessels with closely-fitting (hermetically-ttiTe.ighing up to 30;j or
351- .^ as much as the liver is used. 1.'he liver i s packed in barrels in
layers, salt being strewn over each layer. The liver shrinks during
the salting process, and therefore the barrels are filled up in three
or four days before being sealed. The salted liver is kept at a temperature
not higher than 8 ° C. Salted liver keeps quite well, the breakdown
of vitamins being insignificant.
W

j-laanamin Jiacrouarux Alaipcmoro maita
• ilpii.nox.:etufe 1
575
.1 PyccKoe .11a0,KeKoe .3 Ant-neeKee
Ppertiatucknii
• ..gbicyn
3aXII., OaXII1K
11011 JI;11111110mop-
JIMA 7101eNb, 1C1351K
7 KZ1Crilli1CKIIii
rrepna, amit6a
Bailxambc Kith TIO.letit,
;-..061,1Knoneitithui,
end»i TiOJieiib eiapra
ii ephina -rEa, 11.111 n0:10CaTblil,
Tiuiciih
/3 Tioai.-Kpaboc,r:
Pi.cca
i5.1dopeEoil
/4-/Cpemi:semeam 'pc t; lift .1 to-
;with-Nu:ma>
t
1i0.1elti,-N1011li X
1 X0Xaaq
Kb ■ libtri MOP CKOA C.1011
Ceaepubril moacxort caon
r.topcK0f«. KOTHK
.:310>gitoameput:aucKiril mopckoil
K0111K
IOxzlioad,pmniicElift mopcnort
KOTIIK
;.15.1(epreiencKurt Nropcaorr
TIM
rya,aiLlynceffi 1■10prh«.(); .:
KoTHK
£1.Ancipaaltricmiii mopci:at
vodenb,1Pagophilaa groenlandicus
Erignathus barbatus
Halichoerus grypus
Pusa caspica
Pusa Ids,pida
Pusa sibirica
Phoca vitutina
Histriophaea .fasciata
Leptonyehotes weddelli
Lobodon carcinophagus
Omniataphoca rossi
Hydrurga leptunix
Mot;achus monachus
àlenachus tropicalis
Manaclius sehauinslandi
Cystuphora critata
Mirounga Icortina
Mirounga angl.strirostris
Callorhinus vrsinus
Arctoceph a lu s australis
A rclacepha lus
Arctocephalus
pusilins
tropicalis.
Arctocephatus philippi
A rctocepha lus dariferus
Greeland seal, Harp seal,
Saddleback
Bearded seat
Grey seal
Caspian seal
Ringed seal
Baikal seal
Common seal, Harbour
seal, Spelled seal
Banded seal, Ribbon seal
Weddell seal
Crabeater seal
Ross :eal
Leopard seal-
Mediterranean monk seal
Caribbean monk seal
I I a wa iian monk seal
1•Ioocted seal,
Crested seal, Bladder nose
Southern elephant seal
NortLern elephat seal
Northern fur seal
South American fur seal
South African fur seal
Kerguelen fur seal
Guadalupe fur seal
Australian •fur seal
Eumeloplas jubatus
;1-rrachiailuftcmik moncr:pil Arctocephalus tasmaniens
Rolm:
•,1-7 0is0.se.1111ii,er 'le! r. open() h Aretoeephalos fors (cri
lit.)1. 11K
30 Cuoyq
-3/ mapct:oii Zalophus :alifornianus
/tea
rdeprsofi Otaria byrunia
•
Ancrpaanitcka•;1 moitcr,,dr Neophocil cinerea
:tea
j41 .1otio3olair.w,art .ropi.r;oft Neopllwa
Tasmanian fur seal
New Zeland fur seal
Northern sea lion
sea lion, Stellery
callfornian sea lion
Southe.n sea lion
Australian sea lion
New Zeland sea lion
.3f.Mopy.:
Odobaeltus rasnutrus
\V -alrus
Ar::rpix 1. Names of Pinnipedes in the World's Oceans.
Key: 1) Russian*, 2) Latin. 3 ) Lnglish.
,
* Only names commonly used in Canada are given below. -- Tr.
4) Harp seal. 5) Bearded seal. 6) Grey seal. 7) Caspian seal. 8)
Ringed seal. 9) Baikal seal. 10)'Harbour seal. 11) Ribbon seal. 12)
Weddell's seal, 13) Crab—eater seal. 14) iioss's seal. 15) Leopard seal.
16) F.editerranean monk seal. 17 ' Caribbean monk seal. 18) Hawaiian monk
seal. 19) Hooded seal. 20)Southern elephant seal. 21) Xorthern elephant
seal, 22) Jorthern fur seal. 23) S. American fur seal, 24) S.
African fur seal. 25 LerT:uolen fur seal. 26) Guadalu ,pe . fur seal. 27)
Australia fur se[-.1. 2:?) ':'p.1.11anian fur seal. 29) -.L.Iew Zealark.. fur seal.,
O. Steller's sea lion. 51) Californian sea lion. 52) Soutnern sea lion.
5 3) Australian sea lion. 54, 1:ew Zealand sea lion, 55) Walrus.

,•.,•,.: ;....•,..^-.c•,:>.•r.•^-m•^.r....--.. , . e f. .-.-^.. .. , . . . ..,... n .
...., 576
rlplt:toxcetclfe 2
('iplt^Fifl;riQ?I^i^l(::.Fi p83MCpLd J!U?LI4U m Yd^.(7bi ; i'.Cy'(ipi)aaRllH
II^O;•:hfC::iT IaCT^):(^tîü:; L7 ^.^C!3:IÜ4i1:aK pi^-ë:0:!a:C ,1:11^:0.:!}Io OCl''.ai3
ZLlüCfP.S1ü^O75,
t c ,ce
1_• (no ;t^.1!uv:.t
I ? 196: r.), ro.7oa
/.. Air-t,6[ OX)aHLI
it n t}al:ro

Ai I^E:::7-rX 2 conti nued
..... 377
=-^ecier
i:
qH- ! 1a^I[C:(0°
r ï a; ji]
_ 0.. of ' _ ual . ill
an .1^'M-7 si ` I a da i,a..j
f
i^•Il_-..:?0(1 TidC. ,,, I lor,eerilii-
` 2!,3
i;oïjsc:x'vj_ti on mc^ sures
hun Liz,., re,;ulaLions
C Ia67 I'. 3FiIiM'[1I^?I
)'VOis Ca^.:olC B I:I'j)1!t);I
i[!!t7;I:CF[f!fl, CtliCjl;ttql`i^6!
c^f^Ril oiC0ihi21füf(i 11OU:.^6^;••
aa C Ilc'.1L!o o^p^!Ib^
l!,lX fi :[enoaoC,03pc.1:•^X
^K I!!Xl1'ilLlX. I'2l'\':!liaUfi :-
HIfC lI0611P111 CiC\')iIC^Ti).1S1'
e1l.i! ^.0(!e1Ci.0-[;V,IL.C1:.-
c^ip}^ [\O^.tilCCieiÎi f!0 •^10•lc:^
Ht: (.
c:
l I^(1X,78^I
-,A ICoar1I212n lie-O:41 :
i1 JC,ÿ0B1^T0i'o
Oü(?Ha
).'I 03+1T4If1Ci{a5I IT.f`jJ!11
Ft
300-500 •I I,I^_. ;JI-Iopre. (Ia --
40 i!ac.
^^•
20-30 'SLIC.
Hopmieri[s it
K8il::ga --
I4, 14,7 1 b`C.
(I-ib[oi))a^ IIJJILIIf,)
(1967 r.)
ÂS Î^ecil07bKO
, ^_'CfTP:or 1'I,lCS^tt
KO BCe:Y ^^3:10-
`12 X
:9 i;.ecsoat^co
Tblî,SiŸ roaoll
150 FCeX ^Sj 3Î 0?i.i::
iî3f7lfi:ChO.^O .
UhSt
;J f Cl ^',l{ij)UdBiilie fIJ .^•i!I
oî.^•l'ir•CTG:.F21'CN l.o3CTt:^o•
I-i^pu x:ck0!± Iici:(.,cCil €i
ilU l'IO,?Eflsill. C I:Li ï, 3a-
P.f)^[7[C'ü%1 7CJfd=(8 Td7.%:CI!il[
i18 .l[iI3316tX 33::eü(i:_i:< 8
;!dTCKOd: r^c^.^)IS•., u: paH:llIe!I
cpol:ûaa[ 6I'..^euI![l:<
IIflONIbice.l B p1L:0f[e 5111-
Y iIl l,.i)ay[In.?eH-
/1a \[epLl oXnwli6i 01cy-[.,1'•
I.j'!UT
^^OIC}^TCTB!JIilT
3C OTC)'TCTit}'fOT
Key: 14) Jan ,:ayen herd (of har-n seals) . 15) 150,000-200,000.
16) x.ortray - 21,500- 17) Since 1967 killing of females during the breedinm
-per.iou has been prohibited, and open seasons have been shortened to
rrotect adult and se..ually--imi:lature seals. ^-.'he take is reL:ulated by the
Soviet-i',orc,regie.n ^;eal Commission. 18; riooded seal. 19) 500,000-500,000. 246
20) r_:orway -- 40,000 (jan i'.ïayen); horti,ray and Canada -- 14,700 ^îvevrfound-
1ar.d) (1967) . 21) `T'n.e tase is regulated by the Soviet-'ior^'re^ian Seal
Comi_iission. Since 1961 the killing of seals in their r_ioultin^-grouncis
in Denmar't Strait has been -pr.ohibited, and the spring open seasons in the
Jan :_ayen region ne.ve been shortened. _.o conservation measures in ï^el-rfoundland.
22) R7n-.,','ed seal: 23) Atlantic and Arctic C)ceitin seas. 24)
2.0-2.5 million. 25) A few tens of thousands in all regions. 26) Idone.
27) Baltic seal. 28) 20,000-30,000. 291 A few thousands in all parts
of the _oa.ltic Sea. 30) l:one.

Arr,Ipix 2 continued
$ pecies No. of'
animais
"1"-.
Annual kill
(1968 data)
378
Conservation measures
& hunting regulations
.3i AihanTinie.cm1:1 mop- . 100-450 TWC. 3.3 IlecuonbKo 3a n pe:nen cyao nori n p o _
cnok TIAC51q 110.3C11Cii :,02C0.1 410pCi(01'0 3 Zara a E.
BO Beex Pa:onaxl no:Lax C.CC.P. Pa.::peuleua
.30Cib1tl TO:Ibit'.0 npuCipew.-
nomy ce.lemno
'31)
•
AIJIallilitleCiejta 20-2.5 Tmc. .7111›.-inT 3:3 Me)m;tynapognoo coma-
&Dace menu no peryanponaninc
1500 HIT. c.Tcy.rcTnyel%
Cw.toDori npombrce.a NI op-
600 arr. n; a 3a noemen n CCCP,
CCCP nec- Kana,:te, I f GI) Peru h • .?-1.0- Ko.nbxo .necfrfgoB 01.ma pa3peniena .ro:15no•
fOJlOil men y Room; nomy Ha -
C1110;1100 fl orpammena .131-
min om
Tlo:ienb ' 50-60 TbIC I le i HCCICOr.b1(0 4.. B CCCP cvmecynyer
Thicnn ror.on 3:1 ;ci }la qoal,Ko
130 ncex paiionnxi Liapeduenom 1`...01) 0, B.
4,6liTamm Anralin n nepitoP, p 313-
• ft flonncrun
(pailon 1.Iopmvepe) ;:anper .
gall a 0- na npommcen c
• 31 3.1131'yeTa
1/..3 061..In3tere3m11,
II SIT:
50-100
11r17e1 lb:
33.11111103T:taHT11-
xl(Me.351
• .1.01:1
Ocnponerim;nn
nyonn.nn
4.:1 -Inramb 03t? pa
Ym•aria
Ra)
rt0- b3-100 TbIC
Thle.
o6e.nx nony.95mMi
no
ne.c.no.7.m:y
TUC. WI r0.103
(11C iù ■iaft
CCCP)
-).../1-Ien3secina
4.
Mepu pervanpottamm
nnomucaa madonabecrum.
13 1iopnerun (paiion liophmepe)
3anpe'r 110 npombicea
c 1 man no 31 am,-
cTa
•)
672- Beer° 4,7-6,0 mfm. Oxmo 450 Tbic.1
Key: 31) Atlantic bearded seal. 32) 100,000,150,000. 33) A few
thousands in all regions. 54'7- Shin-based sealing is prohibited in USSR
waters Only coastal residents are permitted to take these seals. 35)
Atlantic walrus. 36) 20,000-25,000. 37) Kill limits: Canada -- over
15,000; Greenland -- 600; USSR -- a few tens. 38) •o international
agreement on regulation of the take. Shin-based hunting of walruses is
prohibited in the USSR, Canada, and Norway. Only the native coastal
population is permitted to take walruses within certain limite. 39) Grey
seal. 40) 50,000-60,000. 41) A few thousands in all parts of the range.
42) In the USSR the killing of grey seals is prohibited only in the Barents
Sea; in Britain, during the breeding period; in 1:orway (Nord-MOre district)
the season is closed from May 1 to August 51. 45) harbour seal: West
Atlantic population. 44) 50,000-100,000. 45) A few thousands in both
populations (excluding USSR). 46) Little is known about take-regulation •
measures. In Norway (rord-MOre district) the season is closed from May 1
to Aup;ust 31. 47) luropean population. 48) 50,000-100,000. 49),Ungava
lake sels (Canada). 50) 500-1000. 51) Unknown. 52) (2o -ta1. 55) 4 • 7
to 6.0 million. 54) About 450,000.

AJ z^tï:I.. 2 contintier=^-
,;1jecies iüi \,G^lCk.1{i 1 ^n yc,-itna9.iüb.tCTCa
,5'-f c,rrpo.a Illtfû,:i.^o i,fi-•1,S !.tnr,. 50 Tite. (CII11)
a TS)0it3
(CCCP)
L1; o. I^lU:cniai !40-160 Tulc, 7--3 Ts.tc.
,
► (CCcP)
t;r K,i,•pi:7bci:fie UCT- Tb:C. fli,oemi„caa IIe•i•
;7o9a
i
I^n:L.4a;aA HCpi!?, If 1-1,2 nt.vit.
7.^
160-480 Ti.tc. 9-10 ThIC.
[ 70 Tb-":. (CCCI')
ro:'iu,iïi :ui;1JIT ;;o6LY•tit.
3^ upe!ue^. ^!onCxo;i
1Race.I.
n^lQatiac.7e;jP!f .ïll:d

• i
■beete 380
APPEYDIX 2 continued
•
Species
ho. of Annual kill Conservation measures
(1968 data) & hunting reulations
Of;I2I01;e1lifb:il
Jiellb, Jlapra
• Tioeelib Pmapla
k
TuxooKealicKui1
LtOp:K
Clitryq
'fit>
Etlitee 60 T;.
(0):OTC ■ ;0?. 11 351
:■10 1')C) CCCP
. 100--200 lstc.
50-60 Ile.
'CO0-350 T AC.
Tognme
CirCyTCT:;ym«Yr
B CCCP-
Vfz.
1,1 'WC-,
• CUM —
1 , 5 TUC.
,•• • no
Inca yvie
o1'cyTCTI'•\'10T.
13 G.1finx.
beneTc2
DiCerle1lIIMetiTiLib-
151fi
n Ha -y=1111.1X
-;)-B 1971 r. IMIITun
Ly;;;)13y1c, ,Roz-)!ally coc -rauu.ri
13 Oxon:Kom (4,0 ThIC. roj10
1i) It 1;04.11111 OttOM MO 6$X
(5,0 Tb:C. vc013), zumlIT(1-.
ponona ii 61)croung j11315b1-
qa: 0;ioTCROM MOpe —
5,0 TUC., '!-.:•epnlironam --
2,2 TUC. yowls
,.1-len3necTum
„•
Me...Klyn a ponubix or..1 a-
ner, Cvitop.oP.
mbicea 3iinumnen CCCP
n CHM. i105i.1'ta paveincua
mecTue•my nece.le-
Ento i orpanlmeua ni•c.fn-•
Tamct (u CCCP --1,1
ro.lon)
13 Kana;ke n CILIA 11en3-
Beernii. 1 CCCP p23pcmen
Di:-.:nepumeirraftbnbe.:
npombwea
(PX Ka.rindlopnacEnii
mopci;.oit JIC*3
CC'1 ”e1, 1,1f1
pf i
/1 80--109
8-10 Tbte.
p
3aupeuien
upanirre.:11,.:.r13nm .MeNcui;11
c 1922 r.
te,. //. Beer()
3,9 —4,5 m.riti. 130.1ce 200 Tb1C.
g2 Key: 82) Harbour seal or larga. 83) More than 60,000 (Sea
of Okhotsk). 84) 8,000 (shit-based hunting) (USSR). 85) In 1971 the
ship-based take was limited to 4,000 in the Sea of Okhotsk and 5,000 in -
the Bering Sea, and the coastal take to 5,000 in the Sea of Okhotsk and
2,200 in the Bering Sea. 86) Richard's seal. 67) 100,000-200,000.
88) No mrecise data. 89) Unknown. 90) I'acific walrus. 91) 50,000 . to
60,000. 92) 1,100 in the USSR; 1,500 in the U.S.A. 93) No international
agreement. Ship-based hunting prohibited in the USSR•and the U.S.A.
Coastal population permitted to Hill walruses within limits (1,100 in
the USSR), 94) Steller's sea lion. 95) 300,000-350,000. 96) No data
on total Hill. In USSR waters tilere is only experimental shooting for
scientific purposes. 97) Unknown for Canada and the U.S.A. 1, xperimental
killing permitted in the USSR. 98) Californian sea lion. 99) 80,000 to •
100,000. 100) Unknown. 101) Northern elephant seal. 102) 8,000-10,000.
103) Killing prohibited by government of Mexico since 1922.
104) Total , 103) 3.9-4.5 million. 10 5 ) More than 200,000-
24 8
'
•

APPNDIX 2 continued
381
Species
No. of Annual kill Conservation measures
animals (1968 data) and hunting regulations
1r B it yypen 11 it e P. 0 ;.:. 0 C
ét.S' Kitcnthiicu,tii
';1.)0.-600 roc.
ft.2. ',5aikiciubenitil 113- /1 :10-50
Ç1:: :"...ontehninn 1 1-K-prit. ir..1 5--10 Toe.
_.«...71:-■ .„it,o:xttn
appà 03.
3--5 Toe.
P.: 60 Tee.
('A' I Tb:C.
/t
'lleeno,rth,Ko co-
Ten re,7on
Pa3mep1.1
ntt Henaeecyam:
/if C 1966 r. acn3auper
na uponore:h n3po9ux.
'110.1eilefl n nepho,i, p 3 3-
mito:«eltun, Trume thenonono.tpeamx
n
)icur.orhudx P3 ocentinx.
Aen ■ C■ tihna. I3e;ercn `10.1b•
KO 31 1 Nni -riip3Lallu 3 n
'la „ae=rrellt.Illicii 11 pa3m:pr:
60-65 Tue. “:;10:1.
'-Peryattpcisniliia
nu ocyniecTimshin
TOM th epoNitr,r; .3,05relit
f/ 'ilia 1971 r. htLi.-
6on cocrann.1 0.5 Tb1C.
3G 1958 r. 14111=u:uter1
nue.ien 3anper ;:zoCiburi
Tioactleil
ui Bcero 600-650 Tmc. 1-'65 Tble.
•
nY10w.lible 110AM H mopn AHTHPKTIIKH
K"):Kihmil mopct(o:i é.10-700 TMC. 3 i-len3necri1a 13 i Pe ry,Inpoa n Hue npomac-
• cnou
cynt,et1Ts';:.r
10MILlq N101/CKOr: 13 1 800 Tb1C. n4j1.0(51,HUI y no6ein
.en 1,0 mnth. AprenTnno "Ypyruan
pa3pennercn TOabK0 r.0
anneinnurNI
Coil nut
iVeo6b1na .anpetnena 130
" neex pailoncx afflattnn
Tioaeneft
4 11M03ejlaWrgEgri J3 j 50 Tb:C. sahlpeinena
mopen(A
Key: 107) Inland waters. 108) Caspian seal. 109) 500,000-600,000.
110) 60,000. 111) Since 1966 killing of adults during breeding period,
and killing of sexually-immature seals and adults in thir autumn rookeries,
have been prohibited. Only p us may be taken un to a limit of
60,000-65,000. 112) Lake Baikal_seal. 113; 40,000-50,000. 114) 1000.
115) Hunting is regulated, with limits and closed seasons. 116) 1-Linged
seal: Lake Ladoga ringed seal. 117) 5,000-10,000, 118; A few hundreds.
119) Kill limit of 500 in 1971. 120) Lake Saima ringed seal. 121) 3,000
to 5,000. 122; Size of take unknown. 123) idnland has Prohibited the
taking of these seals since 1958. 124) Total. 125) 600,000-650,000.
126) 65,000.
127) Southern waters and Antarctic seas. 128) Southern ele .2hant
seal, 129) 6e0,000-700,000. 150) UnknoWn. 131; Hunting is regulated.
132) Soutislern sea lion. 133) 800,000-1,000,000. 134; On the coasts of
Argentina and 'eruguay hunting is permitted on17)- under licences. 135)
Australian sea lion. 136) 10,000. 137) Killing prohibited throughout
its range. 138) 1:ew Zealand sea lion, 139) 50,000. 140) Killing
7rohibited.

..... 382
A^''_Pï.;I?Dlli
2 continued
0)
^necies 1-^o. of Annual kill Conservation mep.sure.;
anirl^^.:1s 1;65 da.taj huntin^:. r.cr;ule.tion.a
_...-- .... .:IJ:• '.C•^':..3E::ha;,[ i'!J._.1:11) Tf.'C. -I i'.>.a'!'O.i:'.^5: :^(?., ..•I-TLC\`;!it^?oûa'I:!c:
`,:(?jlCiC^::! ;iC ï t{;; • -
^i.t'-!Q )Ii.:t';t1%i !! ^1A C}'I.CC7lSCCT
• 4---5 T:^iC.
+ . {n'r.:il:i^!C1jiliF.7t!C6!1!: ^^fra•^- Ql^O
fF7eCT:lâ ^tyTG iiCe
uoeCho:i ;::.r:;i:
j. :'C.li'IICnFIi[
i:KC•.i hQï!;I<
TLIC.
(:J 1 lChtllf "!Op- (^';C::f_,:,:G Ct)ïeF!^
ïK6+f F:OTlih: (lü)• I'C:èOÜ ( n.v'l'Id0•),
'ifili ti•'i::11ié [l'c)
; •^ . ^c 1L Cf âaEGfCt:if•i P 1. I`•^-^O T
\.Il^?CSUa i

383
i-f 1;!tz1U:cCï.lt-,fe
f:^:fitttE; T2a:a It n41cc2. (Sf:c) ]ttt}Triatt!A7. Gÿ]'ativl3 11CxOT01,t1dx lac.l'of;UC1iK
1 Xoxaat]
.. li3F.^C.IL1;: /•. .fTC^f.>.tL.[ .--_.-.
,C 1Io•:d:+àrcnu
l 7^;I1!11a •1ex,, C.u
( 1ICJr!!^!c CTi30. q1T.
`1 ^ ïelxlte, z . . . ,
i -------- -
, ra I'1 ca^u:n c. ru
239
2i)•1---261
194
171--220
145
14
53
141
135-143
3
_3S
24-14
^11)
60-145
H
4fi
1r
22:)-- 2:,0
I
3
10111-160
ÿ
6
.-i
10,t
13 Ceac;et;!tr, ^.....
650--14T5
,
.^;
6 1t0."11j1!'C'f1i0, 1!1•C. . 1^^
507
300--703
14
300
I
1^0
isü-^cu
2
AYPENDI X 3.
Some Pinnipedes
Body Length and. Weight of Internal 0rgans of
Key: 1) --Vïooded seal. 2) Item. 3) Adults. 4,) 1-1ales. 5) Females. 250
6) Purs. 7) b'o^y length, cm. 8) Ko. of spacimevts. 9) Lungs, x:M^x:Elax-tz
1#x1ivur.xx-t4 gral:is. 10) Heart, grams. 11" Liver, r;rams. 12) Kidneys,
gra.ms. 13) Spleen, grams. ^^ 1
it)

...... 384
continued
nah a,^;eTFF
f3:1![1i^1:I^Cli1i7( •C?oaeFib
..^-
-------lspoc:FSFe
--•-• •-------- ------
Pta:e;t^.:e
r --- - V -- - -
I . ^&31RL1 _ f ^' =^^d^:!! ,y CEi\tlt6--_ 5 C21!XFC -
144
13G---15 ^
6
64,1
40,3
I=0_
120-- 114 S-'.--9J
J f el
i1,1
48-9û -!
__87___
75--.-95
19,9 Î 29,9
1
11,3
•.i ,SO^,;a:CT130, LIT.
7, :1enillc, .. . . . . . . .
^> a;o.•ur tecTno. h;T. . .
1, Cc•l^dtne, z . . . , . . .
r, su
420-7 50
10
:20
3J7--J20
3 tc^ ::I recrso, V.r. . ! 5 !
1430
fi 1 ^cileHi:, 2 . . . . . . . 1
1250-1600
^ Mo ^nl'•1CCTlo, urr. . . I 5
2cï0•--3G0
J
16',0-1200
3
J0---•120
6
170 .
90--320
4
430
300•-159O
4
ï 2J -I - îSü
HO:;!19i:CT130, Ifl'C. . 10
_ _29
91-36
3
13 Ce tc:aeraca, 2 . . . . . .
210--^^Oh -
149
93-278
104
5.--1"5
e xcPaav(:TI30, M-. . .
4
5
6
4
i % ,11o?r, . .
182
143
^ x^?.a;rdCCT80, FiIT. . .
I
Key: 2) Item. 3) Adults. 4 ) Males. 5) Females. 6) ups.
7) Body length, cm. 8;) i,:o. of specimens. 9) Lungs, "rams. 10) Heart,
, r.rls . 11,' Liver, Fri.ams. 12) IVr5.dney s, grams. 13 j Spleen, grams.
15) ïo(:y wcic;ilt, k-. 16) _ lzorovi.xza, _-- kg. 17) l;rain, ^;r^..ms.
14), 13e,i?:al seo.l.
251

385
APEUDIX 3 continued
l'acnnficKmü
2. 110h:him:la
,3 n3rocr.rec f. RentamM
camnm 5- camitn
umals! 5 camtat
11!!!)
e...inua -re3a, C.
1C0.9eCTI,O, 1.11T. . •
jlençue, 3
/0. CepAie,
il rleueub,
iz Ilotuzg, e
KO:linc.fCTI3G, WT.. •
(0.111 ,12CTEO, lUT. . .
nam(cTrio, WY. .
Ko.7upiecTue, urr.
13 Ce.lesenu, c
8 hojnttlecTrio, urr.
e
S' Rummer:rue, hIT. .
riopEe.1,w(oun %,:utem, 2
.ar , liommezTM, LiT.. .
152
106--155
25
420
18
380
316-620
9
1190
780-1310
8
92
60-100
12
148
701-30Ô-
8
193
1
-)
00.-100
7
1
1 92
119-125
5
480
420-560
2
290
240-340
2
1050
-
800-1020
10
81
60-100
4
150
110-160
3
175
170-220
4
83
70-100
3
102
95-114
11
210
160-230
16
190
8
540
40-80
18
61
40-100
8
140
130--150
9
18
30.-60
5
105
90.-121
15
190
120-350
18
190
140-260
11
570
360-740
11
56
40-70
11
69
40-100
8
140
1
2 .
Key: 18) Caspian seal.
2) Item. - 5) Adults. 4) Males. 5) -2emales 6) rups.
7) Body length, cm. 8) 1-;o. of specimens. 9) Lungs, grams. 10) neart,
r4rams. 11) Liver, grams. 12) Kidneys, grams. 13) SPleen, grams.
17) Brain, Erams. 19) Pancreas, grams.

5 86
3 continued
2o I' p e .1 a c ti T io e b e o e p e)
CO
F.0.1T4C2TB0, lui'.
/5. .Macca, . .
nomic.c1 1.PT .
178
170-194
25
139
164
178
170-192
13
116
6
90-116
8
qo
i1--.16
9
98
---- --
90-107
7
17
9,5-31
7
•
16 1Xopormita, se
(i5 KO:Illtiet.1130, Pi?. .
"/ ,Tkricile, a
•
RQS1W4eC*.'130,
to &pile, a
Youtleciso, .
it Flew:lib, a
1. 11utual,
F.o.d. ,:ec, et.) ; .
13 Ce.le3ema,
1:17. .
liMolr, a .
9 nomweeno, .
51
52-65 30-69
5 (3
760 030
300-1200 350-1350
50 27
700 670
600-960
25
2000
1500-2400
')5
220
140-200
450-1000
15
1960
1400-24 .00
180
140-240
44 20
317 373
150-400 160-700
15 14
283
230--300
3
9,9
9
170
120-230
18
1 (30
110--210
9
560
370--1050
9
72
50-110
18
130
5011320-
9
180
140-- 24 (-1
7
7,4
2,5-17
8
130
70-200
16
130
60-180
8
480
370-650.
69
55-75
14
100
50-160
175
H0-200
6 •:
Iey; 20) Haro seal (White Sea).
2) Item 3) Adults , 4)
5) Females. 6) Pups.
7) Body length, cm. 8) of specimens. 9) Lungs, grams. 10) Heart,
grams. 11'; Liver, grams. 12) Kidneys, grans . 13 ) Spleen, grams. A
17; 23rain, grpms. 19) 2ancreas, grams.
Khorovina, graFIS-:,)
6)

AI:'I'EI]1)I1
3 con tinued
:1 C It L y iI, -,r o p ri:
2; 133pr,c.71L:e ca:.nua
,2 itr;

..... 388
.f:"r'i 'E, KDT K, 3 conti_riuec.
,. YfuxalaTeml
I
I -ïJ.!utt.t -reaa, c.!r . • • . . . . 1 --
j; `Sa:ca 're,r,t, Ix . . . . . • . .
; ,: xopoIttu:t.t, x" . . . . . • .
►° cepilua; a
9 v"rxttx., a .. . . . . . .
Zj Atct^Ga
-^ :-• ---------------^..----
,
„ l c!!a,o!•;x oo.^^•,c.
^
{7 a::+. ) c:c.u.b! ( S aic.i. ) i camtc!! ( E
'
- --• ^ •---
O1
107
99--120
16,4 ___
36
11`,6_ 18,0 t 28--45
8,7
(i,9--11 ,il
198
ï6- 1`i':3
2i3
--i Y2--40
17,7
12,5--2'2,0.
198
10:3-248
C93
87-98
24
163
,12.5--200
3G8
98, 3.-:.^Ju
11 Ile9eA;I, 2 . . . . . . ,
471
300--600
55
977
800-1300
89
716
500-900
60
726 _
- I00--1100
si
55•-110
_9s__
80-116
30-f
200-435
_ _ 1416
1020-1800
155
4i)-M
81
65-100
263
215w-3b0
123G
10t;0--1500
12r,
1.`•iO-20•1
8.0--_00
81
60,^-
52
37-74
FO--04
40-75
_ 61 .____
- 40-80
Key: 29) Akiba ( Hinge

..... 389
AYP'"TiD1X 3 continued
Î_. jÎO3i83pit:7ll
l^ p nl .'I a r x a
-- - -i)enonoxo3p_a^:^c
:.(c-rca!I^:ImI--
t'.QCVIi!Cll I•7y,^^lfllLl. ^^ ^•l'^11'li
(J 3K3.1
(-1 51•:3.)
^7{ cal^+usl - •'•' Comm
(8 :.i.3.) (7 alcs. )
f
7.EinllElLI re.na, c.u
K'^tacca •re aa, xz
/_ Nopos}ifmf, na
f ^^ cep;ttta, . .
`7 merl•:ifx, a . .
--- 116 115
108-123
,Q_
2S--3•1
111-125
--1^'^ •-^---•--i^ -
1?,ti-17,G 11-20
??,; 3-42
-i----
151--iJ0 _iQQ_.d:il)
4-10 fî62
300--f,00
J16Q
403--1J0Q
1) 0--IC0C I
_ 131
121-•4^13
45
145
13ï,- 1(i8
79
43_.-49 65--95
19 31
16-•2:3 20-40
=410 '19Q
350--5;)(ü 4,12-650
7•7 --I------ 978
410--9_)!): 750---1300
I Q i° _- tiSJ 1373
960-1150i 700-12^0^ il(!U- !t3"U
15; ^
143--1G2
32
6-j--11Q
30
25--35
^;13 -•(i50
1(;Q0
70t}- 1500
1a03
1 1Q'l-l iiQQ
r lce.^c.esxn, e .
30
•r^--• 14 ï
122--'i50
F;8
-73--12Q
219 145 ^ 140 4 170
Î--------^ ---
i_---- 58-400 f 50--?00 lJ1:--1C+0 92-280
I 300 270 40 t 44 1
200-41001 13^-30011
300-160 300-^7^0
102 ! 1`•?z__ 1-:R 144
90--116 6'2----)CO
35^ 269
360--37011 .100--Ÿ20
60-1-31 100-2150
.;C16 463
.î00-1-; Q
H no,;a;r..}da
cli
3r
i;(c`élcSbt, d , `-
22-51'
7^_ 72 78 _ 103
6Q-90 I5---15U 40 130 70--150
_ l20 146 157 187
._...^ _---l _--.- ---
100-14G^ 5^i--2:^v 70-220 14l-230
Key: 34) Pibbon seal. 2) Item. 3) Adults. 7) Body length, cm.
9) Lungs, grams. 10) T-leart, grams. 11) Liver, grains. 15." Spleen,
hrams., 12) ï^idneys, grams. 15) Body t'reiF^;nt, kg. 16) -_horovina, k^;.
19) -Pancrea.s, grams. 25) Stomach, grams. 27) s)iap1>Lagrm, g'rams.
28) Mesentery, g'rams. 31 ^) Sexually imraature. 35) ups (sucitlings) (5
specimens). 36) I'^ales (4 specimens). 37) Females (4 specimens) . 38)
Males (8 speci_;lens). 39) Females (7 specimens).

.APPENDIX 3 continued
390
;?, 11mm:el:ems
Te.-n3,
15,Macca Tema, ha
/l9 xopo3ir.111, ice . .
ID cep,va, a
..leruvx,
I 1 negeliu ,
/ 3 ee•1C31I .1(1!,
Ziœwe.lyii,Ka, a
ZJI:Iletiiiinza, a .
noie, . , .
;1',1 glia(pparmm, a . . . .
,:fgreut.tin:f —
coe ylnim
(9 .DIc ) . )
145 165
132-160 132-160
8,2 119
52-100 100-176
43 49
43-55
325 565
250- -400 392-750
936 1916
800— 1100 1350-2860
1760
2100-1250
349 1
168-500 220--460
363 1298
270-420 1100-4600
2521 6177
1700-2950 4750-8000
195 332
145-280 197-450
306 614
240-420 297-1050
,3 B3 poca
1 0,3pugns
(i; ) 43 cam:zbf
( 9 (7 )
•
198
173-220
939
170-330
216
199-933
939
200-270
86
55-120 65-- 1 10
818
921
610-1100 800-1100
2570 2735 -
1S00-150 2000_4100
5005 5400
3850-7100 4200-6800
150 431
--
300-900 320-700
1606
1200-1859
8422
5000-12700
531
430-810
888
670-1070
1664
1400-2000
8107
2500-10700
600
450-800
875
Jle.31,1,
.,,Ke-
6phimerisol, a . • . .
95
40-150
148
7)612717
285
2°0-310
492
105-800
264
200-400
510
/00
230
157-300
590
:700-171-0
40) Bearded seal.
Key: 2) Item. 3) Adults. 7) Body length, cm. 9) Lungs, grams.
10) Heart, grams. 11) Liver, grams. 12) Kidneys, grams. 13) Spleen,
grams, 15) Body weight, kg. 16) Khorovina, kg. 19) Pancreas, grams.
25) Stomach, gra:Is. 26) Intestine, grams. 27) Diaphragm, grams.
28) Mesentery, grams. 41) Pups (sucklings) (9 specimens). 42) Yearlings
(8 specimens). 43) Males (9 specimens). 44) Females (7 specimens).
I' k

APPENDIX 3 . continued
• ••• • • 391
Aaatilparm m, a . . .
âapra
i
.3 Ibpouble
1 it t''13e.-trein bt:1):(c-ieuhluni
2. rioKaut veini (3 ) uce..,.e ..,■ niu.sit it 'zS,,,,,, " iff7 cemmu
(1 24:3. ) ( 11 3K3. ) ( 1 0 >R.'s. )
l
94,8 102 157 139
Romla, lena, cs.0 .... 94,5-95,0 126--199 113--156
1. Macca re.a, s
xoponum
ij cepua, a
-/ .nemmx,
neien, e
246., 318 - 1200 993
165-350 220-350 650-2-150 600-1600
438 425 2351 1641
425--450 374--183 1370-74-4730 - 135-6.1:000
1 9
3,7
103
26
17,5
127
86,5
29,5
532
61,7
26,0
398
10--13,8
3,0—.5,0
96--132
22--30
12,9--18,0
110-- 1 48
52--147
20-56
300-800
46-88
1 8--39
300--750
47 52 969 253
1 3. ce.ne3en RE ----- __________
. • 35 —60 40--73 _0--- .7O0 85 --600
86 79 813 571
- •
73--101 . 62--95 520--1510 390-820
2 6, rammny, :a, 3. .
notiez,
. .
58 64 204 178
55--61 ,1.9_,Inn — .,.., 90--400 180 •396
590 450 '2722 1976
430-815 422--510 1 700--6000 1600-2910
72 70 428 355
64--80 60--75 e0-740 225-550
num-l y; Dmiei x;e- g- ....a 33 170 148
.ne3m,
20-30 27--40 40--300 90--300
70 . 78 263 234
r.Apm -Aeh
70-70 71--80 165--640 1 85--300
Key: 45) Harbour seal-
2) Item. 3) Adults.' 7) Body length, cm. 9) Lungs, grams. 257
10) Heart, grams. 11) Liver, grams. 12) Kidneys, grams. 13) Spleen, 258
grams. 15) Body weight, kg. 16) Khorovina, kg. 19) Pancreas, grams.
25) Stomach, grams. 26) Intestine, grams. 27) Diaphrasm, grams.
28) Mesentery, grams. 46) Whitecoats (3 specimens). 47) PUDS after
moult (4 specimens). 48) Males (11 specimens). 49) Pemales (10 specimens).

'^.'i^J:DIX 3 continued
CF
3^)2
i
CTh
, ` I;CI,:G\711:7.3Y{,i .--
it
Ilor,a atc .n ^ Casq6t r, au::a
(1 9K3.1
( [ 9n3.
116
11.^•.-120
GSO
K50--800
ne9i?[[[i, c'.
1132
86
I
1
105
21
2?0
4.50
830
91
"0
W0
`^ ^t C1:11^tt•
(2
_ 171
172--176
122
760
700-- 710 0
1410
170U••-212Û
470u
3900-5500
^^-4 Cif\l:a!
_ ItS
115-122
ç1
;;9-•-?.3
280-
230-300
625
330 84
3'0-350 1 80_83
250
500_50 210-2,t)U'
10:,0
1000-1100
390
210
200
300
Key: 50) Fur seal..
2) Item. 7) Body length, cmt 9; Lungs, grams. 10) 1.1eart, 258
11 > ` Liver, r;'rarns. 12': . =;.idne3rs, c^:rams . 13) Spleen, grams. 15)
r;rallls..
Body taeig.2t, kg. 10) :.-,anc:ceas, grams. 27^ `ia_:>nraz?in, c:^Ta'.]1S. 2i^^ 259
ïiesente.ry, grams. 51 j' 'iiree-year-olds, 52) ;tig3it-year-olds. 53)) i^:ales
,5 s:oecimens; - ^ . 54) 'wer ales ` ^1 s-)eciTnen.)• 55) --.,ales ' 2 s-^:ecimens
- ) -
56' Females ^2 specilaens) .

..... 393
AI',?1^iTBIX 3 coiicluded
J-' FaFITYp
^-° 3 113,,oc,"[ae 2! 11•!;r.neaoap_.w!e ^ere[[t,uu[t
^ ITOS^9a7e ^:1
y) c;.uat /i' ca>;?,t ca`thu Ij1-ca:.uir,t
'ICaaua[
7 TvillHa 1C7i?, C.tl
-----f ,
100 ^t22 91,8 93'
15--1;0 Î ;; a`a a n tt e. Cnpnt`ir.tt!f,u: !.1ha-3cru;?t rr wpat:reuncstcxe e'[} ï j;Cfll!la opranouadCfOÜUfI•:i
f: I`i:fi[`.9,C!iP.l q O C. ^' 1^:1^t1F[l•!!:`!`t)C:1, ,:. ^''^ l.: A. 1^.72[rt ^8.16,
1). M. !s. A. .'l!!r!t.. 1 C. /\. P. 1\}7?Il(a.
A. C. A.
130 k,es r.!1.1:.u;ts te e!ir.r.l::`a^ rto!•^:,.!;c, cpe.l'[rr. sp}[^^;:er!rrectoe ?!taaenec a6.oiN!t-
I:U;1 WflCll,t q.;{! ltd3:a'1:., n Ju.:J!iCa11tA^. -• (i;l',-^,al.! 1:•^1,3Vaa:::1.
2) Item. 3) Adults. Q-) Males. 5) renales. 6) Pups. 259
V Body len^;th, cm. 9) Li:3:lt;s, grams. 10) heart, grams. 11 Liver,
rs.:as. •12) Kidneys, gra::ls. 13) Spleen, grams. 15) :ôody weight, kg.
"16`} 1101"OViYla, kip'. 25, :àto.:acrl, ,ranis. - 31) Sexually immature.
5>.) ?•`'otet 3:ia Data on the characteristics of pinnipedes' internal
orr^;i:?.n.s are taken from S. E. I;leinenberr;', A. V. Yablokov, G. A. 1Llevezal',
:1. M. :3ei ' kovic ^>., V. A. i tin, A. S. Sokolov, Cr. M. nosygin, A. B. Kuzin,
A. S. 'erlov, . A. '2i :Lhonli rov, A. P. Shustov, and A. N. Belkin.
In all the tables the numerwto- denotes the aritilmetical mean
of the absolute measure,nents or weights, and tne cenonl i nator c:cmotes
the range of varii:!.-l:ior.
-ICey; 57) Antur or Island seal.

..... '394
Nii.rc,!
GW'c..:Js ;'fNIThi:: M^j'ÙiZT!>IX :OT0:3
^rocr .,.nc,:o r o p. ^: tti-,,i:a^r !ICrrr)^!;:Irs.a^t}
rl Ptt : o.:t e if lie 4
I . T1o^

395
flpiuio ri
liaanamin KtIT013 Itti,eab4.11WOB
_
. ! . .
i Pycekee . 2 .nallilICHOe ,3 All: 111.M.K. ir, llopne.x.'n.loe ; 5 jinourv.r>c
I
t'.
rilenmallelidt. PO.,7154)11Mii Balaelia mystictitiu. Arctic ri11. \virile, Bow- l'ingva I, Rethva!, Gron- XOKKL'EY• Ey,1311pa
LIIT bead ‘ ■ ;I:o.e, whalebone la n dsliva l, I la lfisk, I Ival,
wi , tio, c-ni.w.o whalp, Sle`bark, Sktbag
(._.'t••,: • • : .. •••• C.,;7t1•11-
1:. , 1,1 f :_•, ■ . •,•.:. , t•
1
filicsaricsilri. 10,! ■ 11 ,_.11.... Euha!aena glociatis Atlaiiiic r4..,i1t %, hale, Bis- Bishaierhval, Id, Lille- Cei.ia nyii,:iiipa
1.o:}2ibranciali, oaerov:- glacialis cayan riglit w:iale, Bis- livid. LiF;elival. Northmull
aulauTimeciolâ mir I cay right wliale, Bli.ek raper, Nordhval, Sildual
right \\II " h.
se' .
Poolo,.:, 10› ,•;1!!.1à, na- Euhalaena glacialis Nordwes'. righ: whale. Stillehavets retthval Cemn xygoapo
1 -•;,) 53;:tilfi RIVC japonica Norlhein right whale,
Pacific - tighl wha le .
'i
AucTinfici;uri, rr,a )-ondi, Eubalaeini glacialis Southern right whole ' SyclUg rettlival ,
ie.k)mn.iii kilt
auskalis
,,...,
K a p,,,uRcau d r, ma;umii MIT CaptIrea marginata Pygmy right whale Dvi.srgrettlical kocemli KyKinpa
. _
ii
Cepraii, Ka,ottiliopttnAcKliii Eschrichtius gibbosus California gray whale, Grahval, kalifOriliske I(oKy xy,Roupa,•
KlIT Gray whale. Gray back, graahval . Konyaupil, 1(oxy
mussel-digger, Pacific
gray 'hale, rip-sack,
scrag whak, hard head,
'
Devil fisli
I.Z.
Iscglio:, ron6oTbii1. ,a.lioi- Megaptera nodosa Buneli, bunch whale, knôlhval, Trôldhval 3aTo xy,aaispa
iro:ivizilti n000caTIIK, BC- hunn, humpback, hun-
. ciimmil Kul. ■:i.:h .cUsd whale .
. /3
Cumin, rooyGoll, ou.nbwori Balaenoptera rnusculus Blue rorqual, Blue whale, Finghval, 1-leipereydur, Capoltaracy hyA-
110:10CallIK, r.Imoun.i Great blue % 'ha le, Great Rorqual, Blaahvalell, 31Ipa
• tiorlitrit rorqual, Osten- 'ulaahval
do whale, Sibbalii's rorqua!,
Sulphurbottom
-.ell„ le
eniie
APPENDIX 5. haines of Whales and Dolphins.
Key; 1) Russian*. 2) Latin. 3) . .;nglish. 4)Lorwegian5 5)JaDanese.
* Only names commonly used in Canada are given below. -- Tr.
6) Lowhead whale. 7) i:orth Atlantic right whale. 8) Porth Pacific right
whale. 9) Southern right whale. 10) Pygmy right whale. 11) Grey whale.
12; Hump-back whale. 13 Laue whale.
261
262

Aï'I'LlûB7X 5 con'twnued (ltames of Whales and. Dol-nhins)
.>.. 396
:..u.sian "a -lu- in ng 1ish I•iorwe^ian Jai)anese
_,
1'^•amy blue hale ! ----
%tyrbiont:er
Cu,!t,i, xap:,^!nont,!ït xnT,
I r.nr^lcit-t,^!oua t
(
Balaciloptera nlusclilus
brevicauda
[7llrnut cnpouaracy
xnT, P,alacnoptcra physalusf C:unnr.on fimvh»!e, Com-^ l'iriq^Tisk, f;nhval, Luddch- Haracy xy;tanFa
^ ns,c*^!s,u:nïl nn,^f,carvn,l . !l,:, rc^rqu.+i, fin •,vha!,^,- vra Rorhval, S!Idch^'a1,
u:;,r.:uc nc„u^,i, uu.^oc

....e 397
A.PPE1`DI:`ï 5 continued (Names of Whales and Dolphins)
1'.1tSü:La an Latin English 1:oiwegian J e,panese
!i17i:'ILIïI n.T•.!I')'Ei. IL9a11y11!l- -I3erarllitls avnURi --^ ^ Î.^tltu;IX^S bo11•;cd Whale, ÎAni!aKII ;IyTlt
f I;,^Zn 1c•x Zcct!a:lc1 beaked xy,1,311na
m. :ir!i, •, ;1l•,!Ih•r zipllid
- ^r!,:i!e. St,;?ther7 t;iant
I
b+':'fencs wllal_
_
Llcox0.106!,lil GyTw.jha;IOC I I.ypcroodon ampltlla- t3eaked w lal^., bott!ehead, I Anc!ehcal, bottlenosen• Knaroxxypn
tus :^tI811^iC 1,('! tlennseI Naebhval,nebhval, Stub ayR311pa
while, Pottnc!or's hccd
)'T;,Iai{OÜOC Ily-per"Odt1t1 pianifrons ;1a'.Ircl:c çn:;!hc;n hclttle- Atltuaa;a-TOrixyplt
l,osc, f; iat-headed bott- xyA 3npa
!ellOsC(i \Vhale, Pacifie ^
beaked Whttle
i-
Pe^tne:{)G 133,1-1111;11.1.151 NIesoplilc!or, densirost- ^ •:ltlalltic bectked wllalc, I;eGysa Ky tIupa
ris
I31cinvillc's Licaked wltale,
1'l'nwcr's bottleno c
whale, densebe

398
APPENDIX 5 continued (Names of Whales and Dolphins)
- -
Russian Latin English Norwegian Japanese
, - --
A‘kamilia, 6o.ai.inori ;Lem, Tursiops trunca Ms Atlantic bottle-nosed do:- Tandthùlje, Tumler Tail:7:5o 5a itRo
(pap, Ltepubui ne.abliiin, phin, boislenose dolphin, upyKa (C.:am° apyt5ypuil
,ae.liabint common bottlenose dot- Ka, miniamti 5aii,a0
.
phiti. Cov,lish dolphin
MopeKau cantiba, Ityluxa, Phocoena phoenena Common porpoise, har- Ise, marsviin, nesa, oisa, H9A3Y1M 1 IIPYKa
:130•GM, Ine,MIL czmyii, , bout pu Oise, herring nisc, tumter
a•soacKitii ,a,e,nialuoi bog„ esur grampuc
upyKa)
AirrapxiimecKam, it.rut °It- Phococna dioptrica Southern atlantic pot- Syd-atlantisk nisc hieratic upyita
Korian, mopcKaa enitiodi poise, southern harbor
porpoise, Spectacled '
prirpoh.e
.. ,... .
AprenTmicKasi, Milt tiep. Phocoena spinipinnus Black porpoise, Burmei- Svart nise Koxapu upyxa
, liais. >10pCK3 Si Cf31111bE ster's porpoise
Awe,
-
rptutaa, waporoaoublii Globicepltala mclaena Atlantic black fish, caaing Grinde, grindhval, grin- Maroup,o (cuorou-
, ne,ilittiiii, Ilep I ad: j1..C.II, • wha le, cotr.mon black zehva I, sv inehva I a,o, Koraipsroup,o,
(bun fish, drivingwhale, pilot Talma-uara)
whale, pothead whale, -
social whale, howling
whale
,
Koctrisa, mopcKoet paa- Orcinus orca Atlantic killer whale, kil- Spekkhugger, staurhval, Caxamara, catm,
6 (AI I 111i, Kiir-y6aina ler, killer vhale, orca, starnyn ning,stourvaga, Taxamatty, :. Taxa
swoon ish, Grampus statirhval, vaghting, van
hund Spaekhogger
i
Cesepubtri nirrosiutin,iii Lissodelphis borealis Northern nght whale dol- Rett-delfin 0:15111 upyKa
, .acJi,cluiti, 6ecnept,iii phin, Pacific rig,ht whale
ae.na'ait a porpoi.,, e. right whale
dolph:n
10}Kiudi KIITOBIIRlibl il Lissodelphis peronii Southern tight dolphin Ctipoxapa cens
.aeni,tbrin
upyKa
Beemphimaa hl Of)C1( a SI Phocoenoides dalli Dall's porpoise, whiteflan- Dall's nise Hen upyKa, xattcitinu.a
ked porpoise xypo, stiTo-upyxa
(pimy,trielt itpyKa)
Key: 1) Bottle-nosed dolphin 2) Harbour porpoise. 3) Spectacled 266
porpoise. 4) Dlack porpoise. 5) Common blackfish. 6) killer whale.
7) Lortern right whale dolphin. 8) Southern right whale dolphin. 267
9) Dallis porpoise.

AnSEDIX 5 continued (Eames of Whales and Dolphins)
Russian Latin English . Eorwegian Japanese
• '
Beao6oKiiii aseabtlmin Lagenorhynchus acu• Atlantic whitesided dol- tivitskjering, springhval raiiceiloKama-upyKa
tus phin, jainper, springer, 1{vitskjeving
white-sidcd bottlenose
Benomop,abiii, 6eriophinudi, Lagenorhynchus albi- White-beaked dolphin IIvidnaese, hvitsnutet, Xanaaupo-
6e.nonochiii Reabchnii rustris springer, K■illnese . Kania-upyKa
399
TuxooKeauciaiii KopoTicoro- Lagenorhynchus obli Pacific striped dolphin, hvitnes,?, Stripet Stille- 1(ama-npyKa
notmil 6eaoGoKiiii ,a,e,r0.,- I guldens Pacific white-sided dol- havs-delfin
tplui
[l in, striped porpoise.
Striped dolphin
10mblif KopoiKoroloaufi Lagenorhynchus cruci- Hourglass dolphin, Sou- Stripet delfin ' .Railikapaxama-upym
, 6eao6oKnii agamlinti ger
t-.
the m white-sided dolphin
—
,9 .
Cmyr.ribiii aeamlnui Lagenorhynchus obscu- Dysky dolphin Xapa-AanpoKama-
Ms ' • upyKa
- .
Ma.-,asi Kocana, liepnaa Pseudorca crassidens Faise killer whale Falsk spekkhogger OKnroimo cant-
6 Kucania molioKit, OliëKyli,
Rbiopit-rougo
riolocaniii npoki,e:nellitii Stenella coeruleoalbus Blue dolphin, blue-white Bladelfin Cyr,au npyKa
y dolphin, Euphrosyne
dolphin, gray dolphin,
. striped dolphin
•
ty
,-
Y31(0p1,1.11,1ii nportemdlniii Stenella dubia (nue- Bridled dolphin, Spotted Ilvitflekket delfin Apapn upyKa
(mmiarICKlie upoileoli- ouata) dolphin, White dotted (Kacypii) '
(Inni)
dolphin, Slender Beaked
.
_
Porpoise
I
Xey: 1) Atlantic white-sided dolphin. 2) White-beaked dolphin.
3) Porth 1--acific white-sided dolphin. 4) Hourglass dolphin. 5) Duslzy
dolphin. 6) 2a1se killer whale. 'P Striped dolphin. 8) Spotted .
dolphin.

..... 11-00
0
Ii pnJto;;celti!e 6
AOGWU, r,s?TOas 6ep•`_roP.blNn! CTBH!)SU;!+:!t u n'.:P,3rntleclCl!nt 4h:IC'.o:'*, n Bo.jaX
ceice1111oN acin ^'ï::?1'sT?!4eL'i{1)fp cAe.aN;i it Itm1.'.e;;cpU(Ilx GU;[aX
Cea.erlforo Jlc lol:;rioio oea}la t; 191r)-1969 ir.
(;fo pr:i'to-et:."t npomuw7a)
{ F'^ilo?t .?io>le?caa ;
...._.-_
_
l 1'^
Ftsan
( ro,,Cc=?
i
7
i,
t a^?a•. Î S IIce.o
celïya ; ^•• .1n,
:I!`J9f:E .
it,
i7e:i2t•1^fecfinü
lfpc>lhicen
Ct?i54p'rloii r^'l':181frlil:e 11 Ff
/kpxTnRe ........ 268 2 5,16 11; 36 80 4 3 649
Ile:l_r(lv;:cr,nii npoa!l,tcen a
;(esliconGtil npo.)e,e . . 135 372 333 99 183 •-- 10-?
PecT-141171iH . . . . . . . -- -- 170 - -- - 170
3anaa,lo no6epe>r,l,e hopnernll
.......... I S^ 10 071 4.3 3257 14,13 157 15110
Illrml.t,6epren ....... 75 251 5 6 -- 126 163
-lrupa:tTap . . . . . . . . - .66 - _.. 5 1 ._.. 71
[1lor,nanglM Fl l"Tp;;aljll:r. . 163 2,174 ` i 1141 GS
440 4207
lllor.naxAnsf . . . . . . . 176 2047 3 174 56 2 2 47$
iC:fûtl,:^ltSf ........ 285 6?.16( 15 11â6 1b91 103 11 10602
Îfo6epF;'rbe 3a113,111oli IpeFl- 1
nax ,n,t ......... 39 581 10•11 8 141 2 875
â^apej cactle ccTr o13a .... . ^ 102 5 e38 '!.8 624 G82 860 7 754
0
3a:ll:i3 CB. J1a3pe11T!:SI . . 28 56 -• ^- - 308 392
444 88-14 408 196 420 935 11247
1ionasl 11Io1.1alfllfsl .... 1 1 182
1
312 6• -- 1 5U1
1c•5epaacbe l irl:ann"J ... 2 G 616 3 44:4 1166 1 11 337
jcnailcsoc >11ac,oxlio ... 0 226 I --- 106 147 10 694
laopct:lle ocrpo3a .... - I `-. -.-- - 16496 7"2 17 278
1. hid:.lelipa 13 5 - 36,19 1 3638
ïo5epe,lcEC I1op-,yrijFli1. . 1 390 --• -• 191 1 583
^•% Ii •r or o...( 1814 1 47 318 1 1270 7246 29 072 5831 i 92 551
A^'.-P:;Jlti)IX 6. Take of S-;hales by Coastal Stations and Pelagic Fleets 269
in the North Atlantic and Adjacent Waters of the Arctic Ocean in 1910-69
( by w4la.lin^; reE;ions)
ys 1 ;','nalint; re;-,ion. 2j j;':taa.le species. jj Blue. Zj.j l'in.
5) 'riurar)-bacl.. 6`) Sei. 7" St)erm. 8" Other. 9 1 Total. 10) ï'ela„ic
w: a.lin^, in : orth Atlantic and. Arctic. 11 j rela.gic whaling in :Davis St-rait.
12) W. Tndies. 13) West coast of Eort,ray. 14) S-pitzbergen. 15) Gibraltar.
16) Scotlarld and Ireland. 17) Scotland. 16) Tceland. 19) r;lest coast of
Gre1-:nlanct. 20) 1,aeroe 1.s., 21 Gulf of St. Lawrence. 22) 1^ewfoundlpuad.
23, ova :iCOt12.
2 ^^ j ^io^ st of :io^.,J.2:. 2 51 iri)7•nls^l 1orocco : 26, ^^zores ,
27) :"acxei.riti. 28; Coast of I,ortuga1. 29 je!'otal.

,.... 401
11 p ;!.no e II e
61,1 q a sarrors iieperoy.stAmis si ne.narlittecKssm elLIOTONI B BOXIX
CBBepi ■ Ort '4r:cm Tsixon oKeatia IS 1 91 0— 1 96 9 ri.
(no pcilosiam ripombscaa)
BY,11, 1111:01!
erpaiin, patiou 5- 7
CiIRhii 4ina;a.1 repiSa4 I cerean Kamianor
r. poque
Ecero
to CCCP (ne ii
nromiewl)
CCCP (5epuor.oil nponshice.rt)
12. 51notim (K.:larsiliecKe
npombe - )
Sluoissin (6eperopofs
npomuce.-1) . . .
Bolussiciilse ocTpona .
iinacKa
l'\"anly.por-usq
ii Operon
.r;i o. PIOKIO •
11.06epem,e MeKcisKss .
o BpwraKeKasi Kempt6s1si
2 I Pa3nme. . .
036 I 13 797 5 086
••251 2 875 134
977 19 844 469
1873
289
56
--
—
132
223
1402
20 634 2 033
3 21
630 ' 592
1 164 1 000
7 2
811
4 571
.3806 870
1 876 3 511
8 281
1 793
18 273
31 748
1 342
1
401
1
10
2 850
172
75 -257
.07923
33 943
61 243
030
340
• 882
4
31
8
4 785
• 748
845
103
2
4 808
648
1 304
—
—
19
688
20 032
103902
28 235
73 515
123 289
2.001
2 500-
4 807
13
843
744-
13 222
27 741
29- ilToro. . . 5844 04 690 16 0001 64 872 200 950 28 456 380812: . •
APPEEDTX 7. Wake of Whales by Coastal Stations.and Pelagic
Pleets in the Korth Pacific in - 1910-69 (by whaling regions).
Key: I) Whaling region. 2) Whale species. 3) Blue. 4) Fin.
5) Hump-back. 6) . Sei. 7) Sperm. 8) Other. 9) Total. 10) USSR (pelagic)
• 11) USSR (coastal). 12) Japan (pelagic). 13) Japan (coastal).
14) Bonin Is. 15) Alaska. 16) California. 17) Oregon. 18) Ryukyu Id.
19) Coast of Mexico. 20) Brit. Columbia. 21) Other reg-ions, 22) Total.
BbspAcirEa CCCP nezatpreckii 1110;VKItit 1, .1(wr-Timisea
IlrousolKesine 8
1 zonr-Tonn = 1016 tra)
E: :b r.: hi, 6 '?, - q 1 1 ',I •-.• J :.., • _ .:,
c:
V. t: ia z.• a - i, e,
ceaem ›. :6,1): - .1.-› F. 'z-: r -,
17 c:q
;zi o›,
c.= —
•••• ›. r. (5
f. .AturapKTuKa
Ceaepriast tl aCTh Tiixore
oxealla
1900.'61 14 853
1901:162 17 843
1962/63 19 139
1903/04 18 142
1904/65 18 214
1965/66 12
1966/67 14 122
1067168 11 9ti2
1958169 11 539
1959/70 12003
1383 6 924
186 12 033
1160 13 229
2178 14 742
2542 16 799
1003 15822
1543 16 643
12
2
108
59
935 16529 123
1372 j941 152
1972 216:3 141
1961
1062
1963
1964
1963
1956
1967
1903
1909
1970
1 388 434
2 517 572
85:33 611
12 441
15 661
12 947
15 308
9 695
13 869
11 532
217
607
265
527
502
313
241
716
4090
5518
8639
4021
4151
316•
8019
8)24
543
287
218.
969
338.
657
185
356
APPIeDIX S. Production of ion-011 Products by the USSR, long
tons (1 long ton = 1.016 kg).
i.ey. I) Season. 2) liea -t-meal for ànimal food. 5) Uhale liver.
4) rrozen meat. 5) Other products. 6) Antarctic. 7) Lorth

. . . ,, . 402
H 1)11.n 0"1. ell sic
(jIJ!OT, PII3A1Cp KROTLi, 3'CT11:a(iA!IOII.^td0.: j(A9 11CI(flrlt'!CCk11Y ( I1P,OTN.9t4ii, 7f'63T'.!I1)1((IIX n A(ITâ,PKT!':KC, (Î7IIKTl14CCKi St )tO6iâ'iR
}I Ao1-11-1'la ela ycs:rsel IZ cesor.Lt i946/4,7-1970171 : r.
(B ycar,n!li"x clr,,Ilx 14(1'8K')
r010!t
npo^!l.cr,na
.
.^ c:
Q
Y
r= i+
^
^
R
Î
ï ÿ
bJ
c=^
r ? ^
h r^ V
c^ C
r J Î ^
a^ ! Ô
^
v^
c^n ;i.,^ r
^ vi,
O O
F. Y v
z ( z
!
-^
F
`^ ,,,
H'
t-^
C: J
'^â
v•,'ii
^`
O'
F t'` iJ
cn
`
; a,
L ^
1 ri^ ^••
19"6,!47 15 129 1 HCT 16517,6 I 14 41 : 1, 15 I I 1958/59 20 235 I5000 1GC.. to7,8 16 275 ? i'^ 0,98
1947/18 1 7 : G2 u 1i^04,0 'r
1 7717 t?, 09 1,;5^?j60 ^, 20 2^0
! 1 ,^c^C r ^ 16190,2
n^1 269 1 C,ïe
1^J48/• 19 18 191 I 16000 17207,2 ^'^^ qC2 0,91 1,.f>C;51 n, 21 252 lr_Te•. ^ 17199,1 23998 0,72
19491150 18 215 16C00 171:G,5 18128 0,95 1C^;/62 21
7.:!1 I;a1 15617,5 29952 0,J2
1950/51 19 23, 16000 174,19,4 18(J52 0,92 f 1962/63 17 201 15000 11253,5 2250'1 0,52
1951/52 20 263 16000 1695G,1 ':G902 1,00 1953,/6-1 1r 190 10000 81ï56.,7 20407 0,43
i972 1`â;; 18 2.30 ^^ 1 1^ 16 ' 000 ^ 15622,3 17 a!0i
0,..1 ^ 1n6 3,^, 1,",, 1 5 .F , ._. ^2 3 COJ
^^ ,31. 0, 1 II- ^'• ,1^r
0, 42
1953/54 17 206 Î 15 500 Î 16737,6 15630 1 1,07 .19: ,/G6 10 1`^8 45C0 41f?4.i 1112'l 0,32
1954/55 19 233 15500 1659(1,6 16 51;1 1,00 1966167 9 120 3 500 3503,6 11760 * 0, 'ss
19r,5/56 19 2:7 15000 1613:^, 5 14 893 1. (t8 131%/G3 8 97 3200 2801,0 9 785 0.29
i 1970/71 ^ 6• 56 2700 2'168,7 8,03 0,31
1856/57 20 255 14500 15817,3 15429 1,03 1968/69 6 84 32(10 2468,7 8327 C,30
1``J5!/5S 20 237 1.1 500 16036, % 16344 0,08 1 iC69j'7U 6 85"- 2700 2475,3 7 9^18 0,32 .
' YC!!.811C ( Opl!.I CY,10-C`,'Ti(U) -- !(O'1I1+ICC7M ,'^O(iLl'iLt^( lt::TO'! 0^111i!\3 KI[fOfh:+ÎAf.Cd 4;,R!!O\! Rt O{',F(1! npow,:cnonl.!it JICIt/•.
_ Oil!11q yC:1Ui;tiLat Cll!!:!it mur p:IllCll O,!'i!14A1V CI!:Il'JIy 1(1l"y, 31,11I J;niE( (1!+i!i7:iLq(1T;, PT.lI Anyn( C 1(rr!uc!uir.ïl a.111 IliCCT,( cfilrsnaa(, :IA}i alCCTI:
go y KI1T11a! Gpaün^!.
' lihm.(iva t oAllo K}rro6nüncc cy ^llo•KKTOGazy.
g"i:'pEhDlX 9. Ships, Quotas Assi,,:•,•r-ed to Pelagic Flotillas Opera- 271
ting in the Antarctic, a.ctual Takes, and Takes per Ship-day i during the
Seasons 1946-47 to 1970-71 (ia Blue !--!hale Ünits^
shins.
Key: 1) T:rhalinô season. 2; Ships. 3) Factory-ships. q-) Whaling
5) Quotas.' 6) Actual talces. 7) Ship-days. 8) Take per ship-day.
9) ï.e T.^er shi»-day ;lieans nuraber of whales taken by one whaling ship
in one operating day, on an average.
2A blue whale unit consists of one blue whale, or two fin whales, or
2i htun;a-back whales, or 6 soi whales, or 6 Bryde's whales.
31ncludcs one combined whaling ship and factor,y-ship.

11 p .r) o e it e 10
:1,oribeta RH ron C3eperctulew. cratuninmit H Be:I:rifle:ern« c1).o -rom ino.r.tx
10)Kuoro nonyulaptig B ce.30tibt 11:09,1 0--.1908/69 rr.
(623 ./1.11 -rapx -rtuot)
40 3
ElITOB
rpombtrAa
1-
C;fitIla I 41111.13:1.71
ropGat I ceilaun
7 HZ, 111k1-
.107
npoute
Bezro
• Aef)p);Ka Ma.:(aracua
11 KancEaq Eo.r1;:):::in . . . . 6 682 9 515 4001 9 100
i r.,.. H al 2. 15 3 174 21 548 8 381 5 724
/3 IloGepeyne A.Hrout . . 1 105 358 6 595 915
IA. I1eep2H:bi? BocTotnioli
mommll ' ' • — — 2 269 —
I . Yo.rnitut-132 0 , . 1 781 874 584 7
k, nocipemlue KoHro . . . . 2 26 14 892 761
ri Ma)..iaracwap : . . . . . 7 34 .5 019 13
lie ('a.nRalta-Beii 248 417 27 145
/1 1106epc.H(I-.e I'Bilnen . . -- — 396 12
20 Xamr.r:Hn 120 1:.',7 3 14
z; 1'a6oH — — 160 ' 4
10 661 5 565 41923
38 028 1 759 78 614
245 5 479 14 698
20 . 1 154 3 443
40' • 543
308 i
3 329
15 990
174 1 240 6 487
1 1 020
L 409
43 5 3', 2
14— 178
23
24
25'
X‘
27
H o r o . . 13 220 2409i38726 16 635 49 616115 747 I 166 413
2. OuraabHbre pa cum 10 H.: H or() no:13 , 111a )11s1
-
F1o6cptrinc limn* . . . 4 431 6 588 1 222 1 288 28 652 1 225 43 507
fIc)6epembe. Tlepy . . . . 428 1 094 299 1 523 64 822 -- 68 166
nnam.rnm*''
‘)
– 86 1 333 4 975 384 29 6 809
Alr; paints!. 36 12 30 707 8 6 792 477 44 032
Hone( :13!c:t1H:u1) -i . , . 5 1 3 640 24 965 ..._ 3 935
Fle..acrutlecizttçt npombice.n
- y 10fflort Amepinur . . 96 81 103 — 42 5 327
•
(J H 1. () r ct . . . 4 998 7 862 43 304 7 818 100 957 1 837 166 776
Zs?
.34
Ile.nartelecHiti; rip•pmutce.1 B
IO•intioil Flaumpauc . . — -- — — -- 1 008 1 008
IleoarittlecKnil np.)mbice..1 .
ceBepHee 40 io.. in. . . — — — 3 17 917 3 17 923
-3i H T 0 r 0 10101.: Hoeytuapne
( 06.3 i4pultu) . . 4 993 7 862 43 304 7 821 118 874 2 848 185 707
*3g- H .r o r o I'...)»;!: ,-." uoayinapee
(623 AnTapx.r1:11) . 18 218 40 271 182 030 1 24 510 108 400 18 595 i 352 120
t
33 *13e: 19GS ii DOD rr.
J.** Be 3 1969
APPErDIX 10. Take of Whales by Coastal Stations and 'Pelagic
Fleets in the Waters of the Southern Hemisphere (excluding the Antarctic)
during the Seasons 1909-10 to 1966-69.
Key u 1) Whaling region. 2) Whale species 3) Blue. 4) Fin.
5) Hump-back. 6) Sei. 7) Sperm. 8) Other. 9) Total. 10) Africa and
Iqadagascar. 11) Cape Province. 12) latal. 13) Angola. 14) E. African
coast. 15) Walvis Bay. 16) •Dongo coast. 17) .:adagascar. 18; 8aldanha
Bay. 19) Guinea coast. 20) Langklip. 21) Gabon. 22) Rest' of Southern
Hemisphere. 23) Chile coast*. 24) Peru coast. 25)'Brazil**. 26) Australia.
27) rew Zealand. 28) Pelagic whaling off S. America. 29; Pelagic
whaling in S. Pacific. 30) Pelagic whaling north of 40 ° S. 51) Total
Southern i:emisphere (ex Africa). 52; Total Southern iemisbhere (ex Antarctica).
35)*Excluding 1968 and 1969. 34) l'xcluding 1969,
Translator's . .ote. (11) is literally "Cape Colony", a naine
long obsolete. Both Saldanha Bay (18) and Hangklip 20) are in Cape
Frovince. Some duplication is therefore possible.

ilpi:^io>,:eltlte 11
AnGvI ia l;srron rla crpµ,?anc it paiicHx.: B re3011 1970 is 19(i9/7i1 rr.
____^__.----•---
•i'.
IluA harc.n
-.- i
'% I(OJIi:YCCTi+o
r
C'fp)¢a, paiton
q w y
_-_ -- •-- ^ Ÿ K â c. ï; . sl ^ s
t.) Û
-• --- ----. ~ ^ ^ ^
13
Cc'BeOHaR1:4tcTN``:^;T.9aHT);^Iecxoro oxeat;a H rlpH:ie:xau{lix
Bo;{i,CeBepxGrJ .iI e,tor.HTOrü oI{eai/8 (Gepel•onoii
Ilpo'Ntrace 7), 1970 r.
51
95
1 2
44
6i
377
4
1
2 14* 423
2 3.
170 93 25
289
1 2
261
413
J 3
205
44
I1v13oi;ae;'f*i . . . 44
i•5 A r.7a?l,-.sit•I . . . 272
!ü l'.allal,à :
tY I;^:cl^)a;^Il^.:ellii 406
z.-aCucepr^.a
205
44
uac ^ t. i if xoro üICeûxa, 1970 r.
___... .-^-- --- _.-^--- -----------
U,ô
• ^;
..... 404
442 782 i 66 8585 1 -^ 9345
11
Jiû
3235 2700
64-83 3
77 48A. 3`i84
4118
G
4
CY.
73
-..._:.... ...._.^.-...... . ^..._ . -_ . • . .
C'7lIealarii q ecKitfi ri p0.ltr.tCeJi B BOg ax
B ce3oii 1969/70 r.
A H'faplCT}I1CI!
30
27
12
3
3o CCrp .... 1177 2310 ^ 3066 1 6585 3 ^- 46
3i sino:ifix .. 1821 3495 ^- 18 I- I 5334 3 I-! 38
,32 ?()stHOe rro^}'wapHe (c.^eperoBOfl ii po4tbtcen) 1969/70 V.
33 tIHAI? . . . .
3^.1-lerY . , .,
37
,..
4ï
1n3,^ __ I -
414
26
_- ^ 1436
b 1 182•i
-^
, - I 799
^^ Y ro;lÛOThF^ I(f[TLI•
39 fe ÀCÜ5:R8 3a n.epcc;1 c utctxC.pn 1968 no ntaü 1970 r
102 --
1
^
ARI;a':DIX 11. Take of Whales by Countries and Iiegions in the 273
Season 1970 and 1969-70.
Key: 1) Country or region. 2) i;rhale species. ) t'in. 4) Sei.
5) l,ryde's. 6} Sperm. 7; Other. 8) l'otal. 9} i'lumber of .,. 10) Flotillas.
11 i Coasta.l stations. 12) t!'.ialin^; ships. 13) i:orth Atlantic
and adjacent waters of Arctic Ocean (coas-i,al 1•rhaling), 1970. 14j I:orway.
15> _Cceland.. 16) Canada. 17) I^e^•rîoundla.nd. 18} i;ova Scotia. 19) Spain.
20,1 Portu^.;al. 21) Azores. 22) Madeira. .23} N: Pacific, 1970. 24) üSSïi,
pelapic. 25i Japan. 26) Delagic. 27) coastal. 28} U.S.A., coastal..
29) 1'ela,,ic whaling in ^ntarctic, 1969-70. 30) ïTSS'r:. 31 ^ J2.pa.n. 52)
Southern 'rei:lis-)hea°e i'coasta.l ieihalin;" , 1069--70. 33) Chile. 34) 1=eru.
5j ) ^,razil. >û, S.
African tteaublic c ;-^ atal" . 37' Australia. 58} ^,lium.aback
whales. 39) `%' !Pake from October 1969 to May 1970.

405
fl piut o eiiue 12
11pomuce1 memEnx NIrroo6pa3nbtx n pa3..rattnitax pram% Alnponoro maim
B Ce7•30111.1 • 1953/51-1/69 rr•
Panou, maim
II
Bal wa .ros
'e
.3 Gy'r.;.r.i- I -rpm - 1 6 KO- 1 6e.iy -
:4liel^e talliocs1 ALI 1 carKii XII
1 !
8
1.1a -
FIDIM
Cenepnan ATMaHTIIKa tr-npnaeralolit,ne Boeu
Cenepnoro aen,onnToro or.eana
‘ine
(0
Beer°
12. Beperonoft npombicel
Flopnernr 24 752
finpel-nteno Mope. o
Meeewiet, o. lilnitn,-
62preit 18 409
/4- IlIe-r:ianae.Kme
o. 51H-
Marten
(DepepcKue.. oc-rpona . •
It rpcmaiunm
ty . .
111m.lar.,r,un n
upmm...uollute 13.170.1,
ry,ronon 3a.wa . .
7 171
94
435
462
36
664 4391 670
1406
2412
5
1
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1 922 547
166'10 - 2
582 1
43 809 1
87 70 3
963
9 994
2749 5375
6266
26525
20 893
12 052
16 974
9 442
44 273
6 462
/0li ToIo. • •
51 359
4575 63 462 1344
9987
5899
136 626
CeBefIlli151 qaCTI, THX0r0 oKeana
CCCP 48
rfluouna 5336
,z3KaHa;11 1
2794
247
1116
3
1803
80 — 375
2865 3113 1525-1
6—
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lOwtIeté
2794 1396 103 2970 3113 17 461
0 y ap
tepy
Bpit311:1115"
21? 10A°
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1409 :—
224 —
1873 8
416
T-
1
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1
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224
2 297
/0 HT0r0 • • . 35061 9 I — 417 -- --
3931
APPENDIX 12. Whaling for Small Cetaceans in Various Parts of
the World's Oceans during the Seasons 1953-54 to 1968-69.
Key: 1) Country or.region. 2) Whale SD'eCi0S. 3) Lesser rorqual.
4) Bottle-nosed whales. 5) Common blackfish. 6) Killer whale. 7) White
whale. 8) Great bottle-nosed whales. .9) Other. 10) Total. 11)silorth
Atlantic and adjacent waters of the Arctic Ocean. 12) Norway (coastal).
13) Barents Sea, 1,,edvezhii Island, and Spitzbergen. 14) Shetland Islands,
Iceland, and Jan Mayen Island. 15) Faeroe Islands. 16) Greenland.
17) Newfoundland. 18) Nova Scotia and adjacent waters, and dudson Bay. .
19) jerth Pacific. 20) USSR, 21) Jaan. 22) U.S.A. 25;, Canada.
24 Sout.crn _Lemis .:Jhere. 2 5) reru. Lr .azil. 27) South African
Uepublic. 28) Antarctic.

..:.. 4.06
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C9IIEj)!IUi: ^SaC;t4 ^1^SIXO;'Q
II P!t ! o;l, r I! !! c 1;3
r:iCa!i1
;C.
L313µ li9TOü
i^â^
193---
19:36
1937
1938
1939
19-]0
1941
1942
1943
1944
1 ?,15
19-15
1947
1948
1949
:!950
1951
2
9
2
1
2
3
:3
7
16
?.^
5 :3^
'--
i 75 26 :3 2
150 51 1 Î 54
206 143
210 68 - 102
142 c5 1 11
10^i: 4:3 - 54
238 43 - 29
16i 33 -- 47
254 7 1 i 57
203 12 - 101
132 29 - 99
140 -.- 21 -
Mi 1 - 30
,17 9
129 10 - 1
255 13 39
117 7 Al
198 22 56
246 9 i i$
3
1
1
2 3
1
8
4
9
1-3
-- - 14
57^4
6 - 74 --
- - - 137
113 3
198
- - f4 -
154 12
213
2
5
î --
1
2
11
12
8
3
3
28
194
215
216
50
206
1316
470
964
1760
2058
29 2 !
4
11
22
22
203
339
487
501
418
285
476
460
548
5;i i
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214
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253;3
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5
5
5
A-IPPL'J•!ï)TX 13. Take of Whales by Soviet Pelagic 2lotillas and. 275
Coastal Stations in the ^lorth Pacific.
;1"ey^ 1) Year, 2) 1'1hale sT)ecies. 3) Blue. 4) Fin. 5) Hump-back.
6) Sei. 7) Grey. 8) Rig•ht. )) i,esser rorqual. 10) Bottle-nosed.
11) Killer. 12) Sperm. 13) Other. 14.) l'otal 15) Ivtiunber of ...
16) Coastal stations. 17) ï''actory--shi^ns. 18) Whaling ships.

Ilro;>or^tcett^te rR1tT.o;t{, 13
1 4 iill° N I?IITCa - - ^-
'? :(O:If1S"CTP.p
.
ro, I .i +6N ti I `^!^ , I ^ o a 1 1, ^ lI 1Z ^- /•3 1 1^^
i
195> 24 1 475 26 201 I - - ) I 8 - 2372 - f 3111 5 1 ^ 17
1953 21 394
17 1 112 1 - - 8 11 - 2 335 -- 2879 5 1 18
1954 35
504
29 1-181 - - 10 11 - 2008 - 2 745 5 1 18
19::5 31 298 3 15G - 10 9
._.. " tc' ,
r
^
6^
^
1 5 ll
^
' 18
19 156 ;^^., 306 4 1 187 - - I1 i0 , - ^ .o.. ^n,
.
3 ^nq 4 1 21
1957 5 3 254 "r i+ . 4 ) NA! '! ^ - - 6 9 if
2^,1- ^J,i - 3 513 4 1 21
1958 14 36ï 1^ t 355 - -- 4 7 - 3G14 - 4375) 4 1 29
1959 41 35 5 79 224 - .-- 1 8 36 3438 - 4 182 3 1 28
1960 14 393 30 199 -- 4 18 53 ^ 7l;'i - 4413 ^ 3 1 22
19G1 17 235 333 1061 - --- 1 3 4 3 2ô9 - 3 911.8 3 1 30
1962 30 515 1215 3821 - - 1 2 7 3'302 - 5 4n4 9 2 .38
1963 348 1150 22 t7 530i - - 1) ^n G ^ ^787 - lU U.4',," 2 4 51
1964 77 2576 242 6301 - - 1 1 3 5 S34 - 9 41•f 2 4 I 57
1065 72 140:t 243 695 - - - - - S 1.^ Cr ^ -- 1Ç ^ 6193 ( 1
4 '19
Î 9 4 76 4
^ 311 S
43
1_907 ^9^ - - ^ - ^ 9,1^0 •
; _
1. 615
4 35
11968 - 1054 - 1 105 - - - - -. 9542. -- 11 7 i 1 - 3 32
1963 - 59;3 - 1091 -- - - ^. - 8 211 - 9 395 - 3 31
1070 - 4412 - 848 - ..- - - 8585 - 9845
3 30
Iµ
^
• I
(
!
1-1 T o r o 887 !7 121 220 I 10 939 587 15 89 154 15J [-1
06 954 [ 194 1 142 239
Ait'LIvDIX 13 (concluded) . Take of Whales by Soviet Pelagic 276
Flotillas and Coastal Stations in the I:orth Pacific.
Key: 1} Year. 2) Whale species. 3) Blue. 4) Fin. 5) Hiunp-back,
6) Sei, 7) Grey. 8} Ri8,ht. g} Lesser rorqual. 10) Bottle-nosed.
11^ Killer. 12) Sperm. 15} Other, 1tH') Total. 15) Runbe-r of ...
16; Coastal stations.- 17) Factory-ships. 18) Whaling ships.

40 8
• ‘..)
.3ou
iduriju
RO.V.X
Bi;ii•a11011
•
3 11‘ (boil- 1 3. rop- l''' req. 1 tuaniac.•'"i'e
ba.ribt ci ■ot oanm .no-rbi
'llpit.nowefine 14 . '• •
ce3okibt 1646/47-1970/71 rr.
Dcero
Ko.moieureo
t•• • If.'
() P e-- • ko-rorotodx
.
mouvill
I
gpibiBlx
cyrtoB
• • .
19.16/47
1047/43
1948/49
1949/50
1950/51
1951/52
1959 ,153
1953/54
1954;&5
1955/56
1956/57
1957 ./58
195859
1959/60
1960/61
1961/52
1962/63
1903/64
1964/65
1965/66
1966/67
19W/68
1938;69
1969/70
1970/71
i-2-fl eiarn q e c .11m
226 1
592
719
1 217 36
949
1 951 175
2 366 142
2 525 150
2 837 115
7 159
2 158
2 533 60
2 194 420
3 554 729
4 373 392
48M 270
4 197 263
9 7`M
-
1 826
-
973
-
1 662
1 182
-
-
1 199
-
1 177
-
1 283
154
185
215
263
381
191
133
136
37
164
63
221
315
526
301
402
196
74
.••■■•••
rpaoTom CCCP
386
824
1108
1 574
1 691
2 438
2 726
3 083
3 290
2 732
2554
3 544
3 585
6 828
7020
8 944
9 107
97W
8 478
7 20(3
7 111
6 138
6 162
6 583
5 865
5'
47
1 • 173
1 57
279 82
12 139
80
78 194
100 201
138 228
204 124
219 481
126 536
1 188 840
1 070 971
2 138 1 283
2 498 1 953
3 390 3 522
931 270i
2 611 3 622
1 441 4 008
2 566 2 390
2 281 26:32
2 340 3 966
2 016 2 566
1••■•■■11
1
1
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ht.›Beperoïimm
1943/47 9192 14 547 29
194748 6908 2114! 26
1948/49 7625 19 123 31
1949/50 6182 20 060 2113
1950/51 7048 19 456 1638
1951/52 5130 22 527 1556
1952/53 38 1.0 22 867 933
195154 2697 27 359 605
, 1954/55 21 1 6 2$52- 495
1955/56 1314 27 958 1 432
1956/57 1512 27 757 679
1957/58 139a 27 473 396
1958/59 1192 27 1 28 2394
1959/60 1239 27 576 1338
1960/61 1744 28 761 718
1961/62 1118 27 099 309
1932;63 947 18 668 270
1963/61 112 i1429 9
. • 19134/65 20 7 811 —
1965/66 1 2 536 1
31 450 2704 28 628 t 948 118 717
-
ne.larntlecKilm npomblcoom
m 1431
621 2 .622
m 4078
1 284 2727
886 49M
530 5485
621 2332
1029 2 879
EW 5790
560 6974
1 692 442.0
• 65:1
2421 5652
4309 4297
5 102 4800
5 156 4829
5503 4771
1 6711 8U95
203M 4352
1i88-5,4:305
• 1966,167 4 2 893 ' 12 368
1057/68 — 2 155 — 10337 1
1968/69 — 3 020 — 5 776
1960/70 — 3 002 — 1
5 837
1970/71 --2 — 6 153
1;5 " tihnmns 0;g1to umr)5olln‘De. cyAmo-1
9558
2632
3090
2745
13 CC: X
25 592
31 318 3
31 435 3
;32 396 3
:33 996 3
35 223 3
:30653 3
34 869 3
37 654 3
38 538 :3
.36069 :3
39 403 2
38 787 3
;33 683 3
41 125 3
38 551 1
50 159 --
29 942 2
32 363 2
24 680 :1
20 225
15 080
11 478
11 9-19
11_788 _
APPENDIX 14. Take of Whales in Antarctic W
Seasons 1946-47 to 1970-71.
1›.ey: 1) Season. 2) Whale s ,Decies. 3) Blue
back. 6'; Soi. 7) S-)erm. S) Total. 5) •i:Ulaber of
fions. 11 ■ ractory-ships. 12) Whaling ships. 13)
14) •:jy coastal and polacic whaling by all countries
combined whalin ship and factory-ship.
cuall
. .
15 ;47
17 183
18 212
18 237
10 960
20 289
16 251
17 227
19 254
19 278 i
20 246 !
20 237
20 256
29
21
71
941
268
269
17 201
16 194
15 177
10 128
9 120
8. 97
6 84
6 65 1"
6 86
aters during the
• 4) Fin, 5) Hump- •
• 1()) Coastal sta-
By USSR relagic faeets.
. 15) *Including one

110 9
11 p o e :t é 15
IbtpaGOIlia :t.c.iipit pa3.1:mtbix pariotiax niponoro cxeaifa, T
„ 3 B TOM ‘uicae • (9 CCU,
Cenrr
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Oo
p.a
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.1 AirrapictstKa
r•
UFJ
5
12
P.F!
o
L.
7.
cetlei:I35.1 uCTI.
xoro oneana
1960/61
1951/62
1962/63
1903/64
1934/65
1955/66
1966/67
1067/68
1968/69
1969/70
497 375
475 659
411 540
378 959
339 145
262 973
253 070
212 747.
209 406
203 678*
379 590
348 802
254 282
227 929
55 884
67 490
96 909
91 409
56 544
65 543
53 128
36454
180 781 103 097 29 490
109 525 104 769 19 333
102 113 114 099 205-10
65 590 99 698 18 722
66 898 95 872 . 18 363
7 421 63 965
10 302 75 815
16 031 69 159
28 512
32 385
25 025
31 056
15 411
19 340
21 104
64 966
61 875
41 363
51 596
35 950
38 062
39 467
30i 17 627
8 425 16 102
20 473 31 178
18 899 29 153
11 654 45 186
0 607 46 896
8 483 54 129
8 846 46 896
5 431 49 383
3 392 48 056
20 (358
24 607
51 651
48 352
56 840
56 503
69 612
53 742
54 814
51 448
•
lc * lipeNaapineeibitwe
APPENDIX 15.
Oceans (tons).
Oil Production in Various Parts of the World's
Key: 1) Season. 2) World production of whale-oil products.
5) including: 4) Antarctic. 5) "North Pacific. 6) USSR. 7) Edible oil.
8) Technical oil. 9) Total. 10) *Preliminary data.

.
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,.... 412
]3IpLI0G11A111IY
Pinnii)ed.ia
'
1. Apufriev, I. P. i-_arine mammal and. fishing industries in the 281
Russian Forth in ancient times. Tzvestiya Arkhangel'skogo Obshchestva
ï-zucher_iya x^assko;•o Severa, No. 3-4, 1918.
2. Apufriev, I.P. Protection of the ti•rild mammal industry in
the White Sea. Severnoe lihozyaistvo, I,,o. 4, 1926.
3. Arsen'ev, V. A. Observations on Antarctic seals. ^yu.11.
I`'ï01P, Vol. 62, No. 5, 1957,
4. Arsen' ev, V. A. Intermingling of fur seal populations.
Izv. `i'I.i,:RO, Vol. 54. -- Tr. VNIRO, Vol,,. 51, 1964.
5. Arsen' ev, V. A. Method of deciding on the economic exploitation
of fur seals. Ti. VNIRO, Vol. 68 --- Izv. 'l'llvlt0, Vol. 62, 1968.
6. Arsen'ev, V. A. International CO-Ordination of fur seal
investigations. In: Marine ;•iammals, "îlauka" Press, 1969.
7.
A-rsen'ev, V. A. and Zemskii, V. A. In the country of whales
and. nenguins. Izd. T:GU (Moscow State University Press), 1954.
8. Ladamshin, B. I. Some data on island seal rookeries ,in the
I:orth Cas;Aan Sea. 2'r. kaspilIi^O, Vol. 11, 1950.
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Press, 1965.
10. 73adamshin, B. I. Stocks o;-• Caspian seals and methods of
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Iyilekopitayushchikh (Tr. of Conf. on Narine .lJammal Ecology and Inn.ustry),
Ko. 12, Izd. Akad. Kauk SSSR, 1961.
11.. Radamshin, B. I. ;;iological and economic principles for
}^utting the Caspian seal industry on a rational basis. Abstr. of Proc.
of 111hird All-..Union Conf. on Study of Narine l::anrnial.s, 111aul^a" -.7^ress,
I•io scow-7 eni ngrad, 1966.
12. Barabash-l.ià::iforov, I. I., Eiaralcov, S. V., and I•:ikolaev,
A. N. The Sea Otter, "I:auka" Press, 1968.
13. Delk-in, A. K . A new seal species from the I

413
15. Belkin, A. N. Summer distribution, stocks, economic prospects,
and some features of the biology of the Steller's sea lions in
the Kurile Islands. Izv. TIER°, Vol. 58, 1966.
16. Belkin, A. N. Present numbers and status of the sea otter
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of fur seal hides . in the Pribylof Islands (U.S.A.). Sborhik DTI ITNIRO
(Coll. Sci. and Tech. Bulletins of VNIRO), No. 9, 1965.
Mo. 2, 1965,
21. Bychkov, V. A. The autumn moult of seals. 13yull. MOU?,
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. 23. Vinogradov, M. P. Marine Mammals of the Arctic. Glavsevmorput'
Press, 1949.
24. Vylegzhanin, A. F. Diplococcal disease . in Caspian seals.
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-

6,6.4 414
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.1928.
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Ibid., Vol. II, Ko. 4, 1928 L
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The grey seal on the Murman coast. Tr. PIPRO, la). 21, 1967 ,
36. Kirpichnikov, A. A. Antarctic seals and their biological
characteristics. Byull. MOIP, Vol. 54, 1949.
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1939.
58. Kleinenberg, S. E., Berkovich,.V. M., and Yablokov, A. V.
Range and btatus of the walrus populations in the Soviet Arctic. In:
P;rinipcdes
Determination of the Age of Economic
Species and Rational
A
Utilization of Marine Mammals. "Eauka" Press, 1964.
39. Kleinenberg, S. E., Yablokov, A. V., Klevezar, G. A., et
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cetaceans. In: Marine Mammals, "Kauka" Press, 1965.
40. Klevezal', G. A. Determination of the growth rates of pin-
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Pinnipo.desd
ation of the Age of'Economic
Species and Rational Utilization
A
of Marine Mammals. "Nauka" Press, 1965.
41. Klumov, S. K. Shore rookeries of fur seals and habitats of
sea otters in the Kurile Islands, and approximate estimates of their
numbers. Dokl. Akad. Kauk SSSR, Vol. 117, Ko. 1, 1957.
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•
• 422
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•
226. Mlumov, S. K. Plankton and the diet of baleen whales.
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•

3
255. Fervushin,.: A; S. Observations on the behaviour and diet
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L ^. [
Beptt n^ o:.si,t ,.. t.^a, ^.IC^ :i, J\' ;.
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5. AD C c` Ii â 0 B B. A. tti'ICTO..^.IIK•rl 0[ILII'^IC•,^eH{'!l P.70ti/^lrar,nnr0 ^ir;[C::S30^.^.II1rP.
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TJEAUBIITO:,i 07:(":1:`e. t.116, 11:)05.
19. F bi 8 I: 0 B B. A. l'1p0.llb:Ce;T 1f07('KifX KOTnüOH n-' O. TioAellbe m. 11IopClil;e KO-
1111:1i -qa.9b11Cro I:oCTOfiLI. 1M., 113 ,-DU Crlrfl!.lefla^n 11p O',Ibf1IIA.°fIHOCTh'..•, M4,
20.- L) b! kI K 0 B B. A. Jlr_17aii4;al9 OJD1i1c711Q,'r, 2, 'iblli. 4, 111`.{8.
34-
3 e 71 K o r! is q B. A. :>ea :IrBnililalS as 0.)Sert'Ci by lita rruild the \VOrI(I e'-pidiiioli
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Kflpnonift( 1P. II., I^o.c^itoil B. ZT., T:ra7pnift•:oLra Ii. IL Cepbiït
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x C• It H I) It it tI H If!-. 0 B A. A. Tlo.^elln F:;iTap!(TIIiCH it ilY 6HO;[Orit`i°CK!ie OCOJ°li-
JO FIOCTIL 5t0a;ie'.6'1ib MOT, 111. T. Jÿ, 1949.
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. 426
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[1.0 ^
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. -I
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51. M o e n a .1 e u H o B. K. Heinta rIC.,10pCi(Or0 Mopn H ee npomr.ice.-1. ebri5uan
npommumeintocTu CCCPT,, eô. 1, 19 , 15.
52 . H a 3 H p C Hl< 0 TO. IL MaTerrna.--,b1 n 113rrerrino pir3miro;-neurr5t noahlurror'r Hep-
. nbt Iletuenori r‘. -61,1. C6. e.Moperçue r.t3e1:011111ai011.H12». I13;1-B0 «Hayna ...>, 1965.
53. 11 a 3 a Ir e :r; n o 10. 11. Hirrairrie rw.rrbriaToii rrepnbt EnponelicKore Cenepa.
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154.
1-1u1; O:1 a e n Â. M. CocToartne noro:ronbn eyormbercrix Ka:larron n KormnB n
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eHrtyna», 19(:5.
:55- FluKy,:luu II F. COBpeMe11110C.: COCTOBH11e 11 Ile.p.:TieKTIIBLI poca nonynsuorn
Kom3u..a,openri:r rroTpnee. Tpy.-1.1.1 131111P0, T. 68 - --1,12.pecTir7, THHPO, T. Ei?, .1.968.
56. o r ri e B C. H. 3neprr CCCP ri non:tex:au:11x mari, T. 3. M.-.9., 113A-.BO
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57. H a e T y x o n B. fi. 06 oceurrem ri parrneirimuem pe.enpe,xeaerrurt rupin,' na
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- 58 . 1-1 a e T y x 0 n B. .U. K mero, -urKe noarirrecineurtoro vtiera 6ailiza:tbenoro TIO-
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FI a c T y A 0 ri li. .9. Xo3yrirci‘Bennoe matreurre 6rrana:1beNoro Tronerot 11 panno-
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60.
H a c T y re. o n B. ,a. lionbre ,uarirtme o paymnom ,:ernrir 6aiinaabemorr nepnbr.
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61 • 1-1 a et y x o n B. .U. 0 iieKOTODIAX nonalaTesiax cocTosuinsi eTaila ri o npo-
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1960.
62 . 11e p :r 0 :3 A. C. Pacnpe,u.lentre ii 1111C.leI1110CP, eurryqefi ria nex-r6rnitax Ky-
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1959. 3\:;? 7.
64 . H o ir o Ir .1. A. ,U2r.11,1n rf urrio.rr »Z;(311;1 -.,:w....-,arra prifieria Bor.uoquoil Fpen-
Jrarrann. Hii1)opmanirourtun Gro.1,ieTeub BIIMPO, 1959, .N. 1-r 7.
65. n 0 n o a .9. A. Marc:pl:a. -lm 1( o6ruen mopriro.lorrui xox.rittna rperman.aeKorO

.... 427
is
,topsi. Tpy;>bi Cor..eutain!n n0 9fE0! Ali-L[ai!E}Il'7i0I'O C'(A.`-i3 rj)Ciliail^-
69.
Cxoro 1'lasc!ia. I'ilt(hopairtllllt!uniait Cfmp!IIiI: kli-11IPO, \_ 8.
17 01,013 J1, A Ha :it,-:Iiut: c rl(>.^:!:,;:,lu. «I:pnpw-,a», 1966, N's 9.
70. 110 !1 0 B.Il. A. (^pi:?,eSicnilbl}t ';8_pG!ïJa!'b?Ïl I1pCJ1btCC,1 p. ^tOp>1S CCBCj}li(?Îf :1T-
71 ..
7anT!:fiu• aIIpG%J.1Ca!I,! G'I`^(•)aT, B!,!ft, 1 i, 1,06. 1 .•
IT o n o n dT. A. c,Topoc-3^>. .:Ilplipo?ta», 19C-R, N9 8.
72 , 17 O n o B jI. A., r :1 1i o III e it Ii 0 10. r^. l kro:opmi,. •aai!ub!e 0 l'pCfi.1a111C1;01f
îli/,!ICf[C Ni!!i^111'lI:L1C1!i,CKOrO CTa,ï, C6. i sa!IaCbl ablc}'`_ta it iiCllOr,f ..toj,a. A'i}•p-
I,IaBCti, 19.5.>.
87-
T a p a c e Bit tt Al. H. K F>no.iortn! atopcKOro sa;nta. Tpÿay? I'I(7AH,
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88.
T H ht 0;J t: 11 !( 0 10. F". X BUnpOCN 1) ra!T:llil!II rpelL13ü;1ci:UCO 7!Oi!ellSf. C6UI7-
IinK AFIt'^11Ii)-ltt'C7Cj.t0i;?TCabt)I•:1!1 02(>OT 1961 "• Ap::,l:il'C.1LCK, 19,53.
T ii i,t o ti! 2 if 1: 0 1C). K. HlCiiOTC»L.IC peîVaLTBTb'. .'iCC:ïi3t^Santlü 6110JI01'iai 'f
sq.
fip0\th:C7N3 TK)•1Cilil. Î pV.!;A 11111 i.'L7, itblil. 21, 1' ),,")7.
90, T li 91 o in C IT F; U IC). K. I13OnpOE'bl paitü;^ll8._LNilrO kÇn•.?.1'u>0liaHtt>T Ci3nIIC06
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^. 1 G X O`.i irp 0 Ii :). A. `ti p7_•^i;lfi:'!iC'itirü CE'.^ic^1?C•rl!FI I)Il')C!û(IC CC'eptioF! t1ilC':'1i
91. 1
Oünani?. ^^OO:Inrü`iECn1SÎf iP}'p!i3a T. •}J, nom. 2 , 1966.
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„ . 428
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e ..rt o c r: r. où .?,t6pitoita.iblioNt, flocTw.plionanhuom pocr. H no,no.
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•
"I) e c r, F. A. I1ononoe conpenallue Temnie pasmiloweinin oxoTra:011
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(1-) C 13 F. A. Iiirranne no.ibriaToi.! 11C1)11h1. I 13necT1151 1-1 PO, T. 59,
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1)81.07.008 r. A. Coannurenfflian s.apanTeplicTuna
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10•
7 . ancK 1: K. K. HUII11 .4 ana:11 1 1AX Conerinmii Apnorlinn. Tpybi .a
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1 08
1-1 ncu 1i N. K. . M:ICK.011 CCCP, T. 2. 133,fi. CCCP,
•
*-1 a it c n 0K. 1 .‘", n. nacryfulyīine 80:10130f1 3pc:locTu y ramc.F. Kacunit-
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1a n C K 11 k. K. Conpemennoe cocTonune 11 .3a.:tatin nozcTano ,31enii5' peeypcon
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1 16
111%, cTon A. 11. Oni.tr no.ultiecrnennoro pieTa ṇonencri n tecepo-3ariaanoil
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Sound, Antarctica, Jour. Wildlife Manag. 29, 19t . 5.
1 65 E. A. S ni i t h and R. W. B it r t o n. Weddell se - ls of Siany Island Antarctic
Ecology, vol. I, London --New York, 1970.
186. Stirling J. Distribution and abundance of the Weddali seal in the Wes-
. ter ! Ro; sea. Antarctica. New Zeland Journal of Marine end Freshwater rese-
. arch vol. 3, No 2, 1969.
1 87 S tut z, Sherwood S. Pelage patterns and population distribution in th a
Pacific harbour seal, hum. Fish. Res. Board Canada, 24, 1207.
188. Vaughan R. W. The status of the 'Weddell seal (1..epionyehotes weddei-
. .1i) ai South Georgia. Bull. Br. Antarct. Surv., 15, 1968.
Kul-u.ii5pasiam ( e tac ea)
109 Apcenbell E. A. Paametuenne wirron B kl.,1311T1IlleCKOM CCKTOpC. AHTBpK-
'mni. ir, C), T. 33, 1958.
1 90. Apce u b c 13 B. A. Piicupe.aeàeitile nopmoablx nn -ren ii eKorraeindi ycaibtx
1iLTOB B A11113PKTIINe, Tp,ir.t BUMP°, T. 33, 1953.
1 91 . Apcenben B. A. Pcupe.eieuii KHTOt n Bapenuenom \lope ri inyitmo;k-
HOCTU pasnaran niiro6oilaoro npomucaa. Tir.,7,abt coneraanum no s.:-.:coormi u npomicmy
mopcieux wrexoun-ratoimix. 1 ,13,1-no Ali CCCP, 1961.
192. Apeen boo B. A. 0 uwisix no.localiTKM: (1.31110‘1719P ■ CY:1 o.catorostra(o)
Tpy,:uu roBeinauga
npowic.-iy .mopennx. 11.-m:orill-ratoinux, Fisa-no
Al-1 CCCP, 1961.
1 93 . 13 apa6ara- n n tjt opon It. H. (Papa nurco6pa31n.ix '-Iüphoro m0p51-
D6poilt-i-K, 1133.. BUY,
194. Beab K;reûrrenóepr C. E, 51 5 .% oKon A. 13. 3 al' aïwa
oiceana. 113.a-ne.

' 28 9
011
^17.
?18.
219
P-20.
221.
222.
223•
224
225.
226.
227.
228,
229.
230-
231.
232.
r o 7 o ii.1 e t1 H. (l). TexH}uCa T;F}r0f)t)itHOl'o npo>ib}c.1a. IKa7Fr}niirrpa;[, Ka:nr-
IIi1Ii1'parl.C}:OC F:}1;I:x1}cL' }1311:11i:,1bCTtsO, 1:}60.
1• a Ji y E, 0 L c}: li fi i0. 11. IlpCirup4:Hlt Te.ha cci:?,r.7os paftona ocTpoBO,l ,a:iheil}i
it An}'aOüTlaie.. 3001Urii':ECKItÎ} üi^'pHa1, T. 4^), Bbli}. 5. 1966.
i]; C:7 A 1t y 17 e C. 1I. I c:(b:as:t:TO(i^8^'iti} !f-UCF;}}C .,l:iC4.C,}}ilTaiUllü[1 B CI3eTl fix
srü7or}t}t it P}I!::er^}.}r}. 113:t-vo AH CC4P, 1955.
'L 0 1) 01:l`e H K U H. B. (.) 1.`&Cr:,9e ;e:tC}tlttl Ff 1}}lrpali}if}x rop6arbls ri}(TOU, a,
ceBepo-BOCro'1140!! IIGCr}} T}!xor0 O}^Ca4}a, iîen}tnra}so:,i H Llyttorct;o>4 %tepf}s. Cb.
r;Lt07CRIiP .it.ltü,.n!tTahl}l.ll!'J:>. 11.3:1-itJ

••••• 433
•
233. Mp o ti R 0.0 K. A. Co‘yilioutelitte neca L' acre Tynnt ycaTutx KIITOB AuTaptc-
-mar. ‘P1,16it0e x0:35..iicT1se», 19086, S9. i.
234. Mpo4 ios K. A., P aucKan P. M.,' A a eKceena M. A . Katieci-B0
anin.enbtx Ktirounlx ipon, HCillyv.C11111:1X Tpy,nbt P.1111P0,
'T. 63, 1967.
235 , He p ii y nt a H A. C. lia6,:tioe.enttu sa noneDeattem it 1111T3IIIICM yeaTbtx nuTon
B paholie ocTponou Kpose. (.0uenturtoritup, T. 8. -2\72 1, 1968.
236. P :«aaCI ■ a.51 (1 ) . M. .XapakTepticratca cocrana zutpon nauta.loToa, aPbI6ioe
_xe:tuficruo», 19 7 ), :îl'e 12.
237. p i a B e s a si D. M., .M pogxon K. A. XapaziepacTitKa IMBU:1E1X nirronbix.
pa3.7atuttinx anaoa cbipt.u. BIII1PO, T. 63, 1967.
238. P o nana A. A. Paeriper..eaeune xoynin..tx EaToc6pa3nux B rpotuateeKort
- T11 Taxai 0 oxeana. Co. ,;Mo 1nr,a1e. mr:e;.:onitrzuelatte».. 113,a-ao «I-byu.a», 1969.
239. Ponnun A. A. iloyam.noeTh KH1OBI,IX cTaa a cenepuoil ItacTit Taxoro OKe.-
.ana. 1-lernepToe Bcecoto3itoe c.metn,atine no it3p-teniao M09CKIIX. maeaonwratountx
•Te3PCIDI J !,OF 15,1,0!). 113,1,-110

..... 434
260. An ti r^v, s R. C. Mouo;;ra; l+s of the Pacific Cetacea. 11. The soi whale (Balaeno;,tera
t'crealis L.). ^1cn1. ^lm.
^
MUS. ^'at. 110,t. vol. 1, l^?iG, pp. 29l--3F,,8. ,8.
2,1--) 1 :1 s 1; C. P The bociy -;; eiôht of ml:ales. I-Jorsh: I Iva!fan Jst -- tidende, n. ',
pp. 3ti4--374, 19:2
2 62. B a it n i s t e r,1. L. & G a m b e II R. The succession and abu4ance of fin, s?F
and other nrhales of Durb:n.n. Norsh Hvalfangst -- tidende, vol. 54, No. 3, 19GZ.
4G--•60.
^63. 13 a r n a r d K. H. :: ruir,c book to South ^frican whales and dc)phins. Guide-
' >tto 4, South African ^auseunl. Cape town, 1954, pp. 33.
2 64, B e d il a r d F. E. a bool, of whales. London, 1900.
265 , L' e s t P. B. Distribution and feedin+T habits of Balcen %vhales off the Cape.-
Province. Division of Sea Fisheries ir,r-,stiaational Report, No 57, Cape tov; f:,
1sG^.
'266. B e s t P. B. Fariher information on 23rydés whale ( Balaenoptcra edeni
dersol:) from Saiclanha Bay, South Africa. 1\:orsk I-ivalfangst-tidende, No G,.
1960. pp. 20 1--210.
:267. 13 e s t P. B. The sperm •a-hale ( Phy-setcr c-s'.onon) off the wcst coast South .1f-•
rica. 2. Reproc'.uciion in the F=en;aie. 3. Reproduction in the :Niale. 4. Distribution
and htovemcn;. lnvestigatio»al Report, Division of S--,a Fisheries, S. Africa, u. 66,
196,P); n. 72, 1:69; n. 78, 19,39.
268. B r a it d l K. Whale Oil an econonlic ilnalisis. Fat and Oil studies n. 7. Food
Research Ins.., California, 1940.
;269. B r ow +; S. G. Disparsal in blue and fin tkhales. Disccvery Reports,.
vol. .`i t>V], 19IJ4, pp. 35S--35=1.
270. J; r o Nv it S. G. 111e meve ment of fin and blue whah>.s t'.ithin. the .-intarctic.
zone. lJiscovery Reports, vo!. 33, 1962, pp. 1-5-1.
.271 , F, u d k e r P. Whales aJ+d vrhaling, New York, 1959.
272. C ii i t t 1 e bo r o u g h Ti. G. The brec•dinr, eycle of the fr:m.lle hurnplac:k wha-
1 le, A!et,a'tera iîodPsa (13c;; . ;. Australian journal of Marine and Freshwatcr Re--
. earcll, Vol. 9, No 1, 1958, p. 1-13.
273 .. C h t t I e b o r o il (; G. Dynamics of two poi''^!a"IiGüS :;f t h e lI?ilnllitlaCr:.
whale, Mefyaptcta novaear,!liae (Bor.), Ibid. vol. 16. N 1, 19C5, 33-128.
27t1. C I a r iycrl ^y- wF:alc, Caperea n:arginata
Gray. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, vol. 129, part 4, 1957, pi). 5M••--U3.
279. D ax%b in W. 11. The migration of hwnpback whales with pass the Now
Zealand coast_ Trans. lZov,+l. 5(c. New ï:e.l nd, vol. 84, \o 1, 19-G, 1.47-19ü.
280 . F u j i n o K. Fin whale subpopulatlons in the Antarclic tvlla!irl1gr areas If,.
III and 1V. The Scientific Reports of xcitales Research Insiiit;te, Vol. iS. 196•+„
pp. 1-28.
281 CI it in b e 11 R. Seasonal ;Movernents of Sperm whales. In «Aspects of Ma--
riue 7c,olo«v>,, 1967, pp. 237-254.
282- t:t a it,. 1) r 1 I R. Seasonrtl cycles and reprci]uclion in sei whales of the southe.rn
I•{e+nis pf,erc. Dis:ovcry- Zeporls, vo!. XXXV, F968, pp. 3i•--134.
2,93- G it in b e 1 i R. Wci(g!it c)f a spertn wha;e, whole and in parts. Suid Afri-.
kaan4e I ;: cl_.la•if. vir 1\-etensl::ip. Jnlie 197f', p a. 225-227.
28L . G a s k i n D. E. Tllc! New Zealand (leiaees. Fisherie; lZesëarch. Buil.lin,
No 4 (New Series), 1:7t33.
285. G a s k i n U. E . , G a w ;. l; o r nIM. W. Diet and feedinr habits of the spcrm
\1'halt: ( ii'1`:SI'.iAr cAtoda)I) in the Cook Strait renior' of IV`l'R Zealand. NC`.v Teü-
L•mri Jwirnàl of dtarine a+ ul l'r%esi\vater Research, vol. 1, No 2, 1961', pp. J56- 179.
291

435
f
286. G u n t h e r E. R.•The habits of finwhales. Discovery Reports, vol. 25, 1919,
epp. 11 3-142.
2:37 • H a r r i s o n R. J., K i n g J. Marine matnnia Is. London, 1965.
288 . 11 e e z e !I H. C. Whale entangled in deep sea cables. Deep Sea Research,
.vo!. 4, n. 2, 1957, no. 105--115.
289 . H e r s h k o v i t 1 P. Catalog of Living Whales. Stnithsonian institution, -Lint-
-led States National ;:ln›..e.urri, Bull. 246, W. D. C., 1966.
290« I c h i h a r a '1'. 113:ne. whales in the. waters around I■ergùelen Island. Norsk
.livaliangst-tidende, n. 1, 1961, pp. 1-20. .
291. I c h i h a r a T. Identification of the Pygmy Blue uhale in the Antarctic.
Norsk HvalHrgst-tidende, n. 5, 1963, F.D. 128-13(1.
292. I c h i h a r a T.. D o i T. S:uck A.ssessment or Pigmy Blue. whales in the
_Antarctic. Norsk 1-!valiangst.:1dende, n. 6, 1964, pp. 145--167.
293. 1 n t e r n a t i o n a 1 whaling statistics, nn. 1--6ti.
294.'
I v e r s e a B. Whalinr.,s activity in Iceland. Norsk Hvalvangst-tidende, n.10,
1955, pp. 59--•6C.:3.
295. I v a s h i n M. V., R o v n i n A. A. Sonie Results of the Soviet Whale marling
in the waters of the North Pacifie. Ibid., No 6, 1967, pp. 123-135.
296 . • J o n s g a r (I A. The Stocks of Blue whales tBalaenaptera musculus), in
:the Norlhern Atlantic Ocean and Adjacent arctic waters. Ibid.. vol. 44, No 9,
1955, pp. 505-519. ._ ...
297. J o n s g a r d A. Studies on the little Piked whale or Minke whale (Balaenopte.ra
acutorostrata L.). Ibid., vol. 40, No 5, 1956. pp. 209-232. . .
2 98 . • J o n s g a r d .A. Biology of the North Atlantic fin w.hale, Balaenoptera phy-
.:salus. Hvalradets Skrifter, No 49. 196.
299 . ' K e 1 I o g R. What is known of the Migrations of some of the whalebone
•whales. The Smithsonian Report for 1928, pp. 4;37--494 (Ruh], No 2997), 1999.
300. K e I I o g R. Whales, Git, nts of the Sea. National Geographic. .Magazine,
val. 67, lq40, pp. f-&--90
301 . L a w s R. M. The foetal growth rates of whales with special reference to
4he fin whales, Bah-ienoptera physalus Linn. Discovery Reports, v. 29, '959,
.pp. 281-308.
302 . L a w s R. M. Reproduction growth and ag,e of southern fin whales. ibid.,
-v. 31, 1961, pp. 327.-486.
303 . 1037. pp. 7-92.
M a t t h e w s L. H. The humpback whale, .legaptera nodosa. Ibid., v. 17,
304 . M a t t h e w s L. Il. The Sperm whale, Physeter catodon. Ibid., vol. 17,
•1938, pp. 93-168.
305- M a t t h e w s L. II. Notes on the Southern right whale, Eubalaena australis. -
•Ibid., vol. 17, 1938, pp. 10-182.
306. M a t i h e w s L. II. The sel whale, Balaenoptera borealis. Ibid., vol. 17, 1938,
'pp. 1.83-290.
307. M a t t h e w s L. H. (Ed.). The \vhale. London, 1968.
308. M a c k i n t o s h N. A. The Southern stocks of whalebone whales. Discovery
• 'Reports, voi. XXII, 1942, pp. 197-300.
309. M a c k i n t o s h N. A. The Stocks of whales. London, 1965.
51 0 . M a c k i n t o s h N. A., W h ce I e r J. F. G. Southern blue and fin whale.s.
.Discovery Reports, vol. 1, 1929, N. 257--540.
311. :V. cd c o f J. C. Partial Survey and Critique of Cevlon's 'ravine fisheries,
-53. Bull. Fill , Res. Stn., Ceylon, vol. 16, n. 2, 196.3. pp. 29-1 U.4.
312. Iv' i t c h ell H. D. North Atlantic whale Research. Fisheries Council of Caqnsda,
Annual :Review, 1956. pp. 47-4d.
313. Mi z u e R. Grey ,,vhalcs in the East Sea afea oi prea. k The Scientific Reports
of the Wiialz:s i

456
Da ll's Porpoise in I3ering Sea and North Pacific Ocean. Ibid., n. 21, 1966,
pp. 1-21.
•
316 . M o o r e J. C. Relationships anion" the living Genera of bt.saked whales
i -with classifications, diagnoses and keys. Fieldiana: Zoology. vol. 53, rt. 4,
i 196S, pp. 269--298. .
317 . N a s u K. Oceanography and whaling ground in the subarctic region of the
Pacific Ocean. The Scintific Repo:ts of 1,‘ hales Research institute, vol. 17,
' 1963, pp. 105--155.
3 18. N a s n K. Fishery r•ceanographic study on the baleen whaling e.round. Ibid.
vol. 20, 1966, pp. 157---210.
.- 19 .- N a s u K. and M a s a k i Y. So nie biological paraimiers for stock ass.es-
. srnent of the Antarctic ser whale. The Scienlic Report of the whale research In-
Mitute., n. 24, 1970, pp. 63-74. .
3 2O N e m ,7.. t o T. Foods of batten s'hales in the northern Pacific. Ibid., vol. 12,
, 1957, pp, 33 - -89.
521. N e in o T. Food of baleen whales with reference to whale movements,
Ibid, vol. It, 1959, pp. l49--2O.
22. Nemo 1. o T. C. School of the baleen whales in the. feeding. areas. Ibid. ;
n. 18, 1964, pp. 89-110.
«'?/23. Ni s h i w a hi M. On the body_ .weight of whales. Ibid., n. 4, 1950,•
.pp. 184-20 9 .
324. N i s h i w a k i M. Whales and Pinnipeds. University of Tokyo Press, 4965.
525. N i s h i w a k i M. Distribution and migration of marine mamnials in the
i North Pacific area Bulletin of Ocean Research instiiute university of Tokyo,
i No 1, 1967, pp. 2-64.
326. N i s h i w a k i M., H i b i y a T. ec K i tri u r a S. On the Sexual Maturity of
; the Soi whales of the Bondi waters. The Scientific Reports of whales R.esearch
- institute, vol. 9, 1954. pp. 165-177.
327. N i s h i w a it i M.. H i b i y a T., & K i m u r a S. On the Sexual Maturity
. of the Speun whale (Physeter catodon) found in the North Pacifie. Ibid.,
: vol. 11, 1056, pp. 39-46.
528. Nor m a II .1. R., 1' rase r. F. C. Giant Fishes, Whales and Dolphins.
London, 1937.
32° j . N or ris K. S. P.a.) 'Whales, Dolphins, and Pcn-poises. Barkley and Los
Arigeles, 1965. .
330 . Noi r i s K. E & P r e s Co t t J. H. Observation of Pacific ce.i.: .ceans o! Ca-
- lifornia and Mexican waters. University of California Pubiications in Zoology,
vol. 63 No 4, 1961, pp. 291--402.
'.331. 0 fisumi S. Reproduction of the .sperm whale in the Northwest Pacific. The
. Scientific Reports of the ‘...ha les Research institute, vol. 19, 1965, pp. l--35.
332. 0 hsumi S. Sexual s:Izreg,ation of the sperm whale in the North Pacific.
• The Scienti;ie I ■ poris of Whales 1-■ .seare1i Institute, No 20, 1966. pp. 1-15.
.333. ohsu
m i S., M a s a k i Y. and K a w a in u r a A. Stock of the Antarctic
mine. whale. The Scientic Report of the whale Research Institute, n. 22, 1970,
'
-pp. 75-126.
334. 0 h s n m i S. A0,.e determination of cetacea. Bull. Japanese Society Scientific
Fisheries, vol. 33, No b, 1967, 788--798.
335 . 0 rn tir a H. \Vhales in the Adjacent waters of Japan. 'the Scientific Reports
of Whales Research institute, v. 4, 1950, pp. 27-113.
3 36 0 in u r a H. North Pacjic right whale. ;bid, v. 13, 1958 pp. 1-52.
537. 0 m u t a H. Eryde.'s whales from the coast of Japan. Ibid., vol. 14, 1950,
-pp. 1--33.
3 3 8 . 0in u r a H. Bryde's vliales news on the Coast of 13rasil. Ibid., vol. 16,
1 9 62, pp. 1 -.'-.5. .
359.0 m u r a H. Further infermation of Bryde's -whales from the coast of Japan.
. ibid., vol. 16, 1962, pp. 7--i 8 .
' 340. 0 m u r a H., 0 h s u in i S., N c m 01. o T., N a s u K., and 1,', a s u y a. T.
Black Right ',hales in thc. North Paciflc. Ibid., n. 21, 1909, pp. 1-78.
293

4-57
the U.ue whale. F^^dru^^en tot de Dierkunde, vol. 33, 1965, pp. {--°û.
jô0 . U t r c c It t- C o c{c C. \., van. aÿe determi;tation and Reproduction of ife
male fin whales, Falanopier

SÜi JII^C•.;
TI!U};i:C
..... 438
295
a
(The numbers given below refer to pages of the translation.
For deto.iled bio].o ;i_cal date., etc ., see under the names of the various
species in the list of Contejats. )
Aer.ial. censusing of seals, 27-29, 314-317
Akiba (= ringed seal), 66
J,mborgris, 232, 271, 306-307
Annual take of t:Thales (tabulated.), 400-408
do. seals ( do. ), 376-382
Antur (- island seal), 15, 82
Azovka. ( = harbour porpoise), 239
^3ell i(^^rhitecoats), 16, 17, i^i 1
Iilue whale units, 281, 303, 402
Bureau of International Whaling Statistics,
4,
217, 247, 283
Conservation measures: dolphins and porpoises, 238, 240
sea lions, 134-136, 380-381
sea otters, 160-161
seals, 29-30, 36, 47, 52, 71, 75, 80, 88, 98-99, 109, 115,
118, 121, 129-132, 139, 151, 153, 312t 320,.376-382
walruses, 65, 92, 380
whales, 217, 219, 220, 222-223, 226, 230, 246, 249, 255,
257, 262, 264, 270, 281-283, 288, 293
Craksa (definition), 362
(processing), 365, 368-370, 372
Harpoon-gun, 216, 333-334, 344
Industrial -products from whales, 371-372
Internal or&ans of pinnipedes, weights, 383- - 393
of whales, woi,crhts, 394
Iiho'_,-hlusnka ( sta;,;e of seal growth) , 17
,`horovi na (czefir,.ition;, 344
(„rocessinE;, etc,-), 344-346, 353-354, 356-358
Killer whales' sounds recorded to scare sharks, 310
Lar^a harbour seal..; , 53, 75
Length of pinni-pedes (tabulated), 383-393
of whales (tabulated.) , 394
.i•ic-!@.t-me

... 439
Subject Index (continued)
^^i?.=ïra.tion of whales, maps, ^! 10-^i-11
Netting white whales, 3-',,9-•343
F.u: ibers of pinnil?ede species (tabulated) , 376-362
I'olovinlçi (type of nets), 339
Quo-Las of whales (tabulated), 402. See also under Conservation,
Seal flesh and oil, 558->59
Se-rki (bluesides) , 16, 17
Ships, co.nbined f.actory- and whaling, 338
factory-, 280, 326-329
sailing, used in v.rha:l.inq, 186, 245
sealing, 313
whaling, 330-336
Siamese twins, 287, 299
Ski-nla.nes for sea.l--hunting, 319-320
lupi',•: ( instrument for ?^rocessi nr seal hides), 355
`l'y-nlenl; i (seal boats), 313
Vitamins, etc., as whale products, 371-372, 374
''-I-' rr^• YriCe`^s Zi1^-j17
0 sx.^^ (1^="'^:,,.^ . ^-ve clr^ _, ïi,^ de ^; ,.
^'ei.t),,hts of ninni-pedes, body (ta.bula:t.ed), 384.-393
of pinnipudes, internal orti;a.ns (tabulated), 383-393
of whales, body and internal or,-,:,,,ans ^tabulated), 394
Whale bon0s, chemical composition of, 361
nea.t, 367-368, 370, 401
meat, che:nica.l composition of, 360-361
oil, annual production of, 2, 409
^
oil, chemical composition of, 359-360, 366
%^elen Lsv (greencoats) , 16

POSTSCRIPT
..... q.^.0
Since the ?;la.nuscri-ç,t was sent to xlress some new information
298
has colne to hand,
D. Gaskin re-,aorts that solitary male sperm whales, pairs of males,
schools of unma,ted males, mi: ed. schools of selually-im:nature animals of
both sexes, schools of sucklings, and harems have been observed ar.long
herds of sper^1 i.rha.les in the region extending f rom the coasts of New
Zealand to 1500
]"ale sperm whales attain sexual Illatur].ty at a body
length of about 12.6 metres (v. Gaskin. Com-rosition of schools of s,)ernl
whales :Physeter catodon Linn. east of i

441
CONTENTS
Pelee
299
7dreword 1
Introduction 2
PART 1.
BIOLOGY OF PINNIFEDIA AND CETACEA
rIK:IPEDIA AND SA OTTERS
CHAP. 1. General Characteri3tic5 of the Order Pinnipedia 5
Eared Seals (Sea Lions and Fur Seals) -- Otariidae 7
-Walruses -- Odobaenidae 9
True or Earless Seals -- Phocidae 10
Subfamily of True Seals -- Phocinae 11
Seals with Six incisors -- Subfamily Cystophorinae 13
Seals with Eight incisors -- Subfamily Monachinae 13
CHAP. 2. Pinnipedia of the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans 15
Harp Seal (Pagophilus groenlandicus Erxl., 1777) 16
Hooded Seal (Cystophora cristata Erxl., 1777) 30
Ringed'Seal (Fusa hispida Shr., 1775) 37
Bearded Seal (Erignathus barbatus Erxl., 1777) 42
Grey Seal (Halichoerus ga„-ypus - abr., 1791)
Harbour Seal (Phoca vitulina L. 1758)
Walrus (Odobaenus rosmarus L., 1758) 5 8
CHAP. 3. Finnipedia of the Northern Part of the Pacific Ocean 66
Ringed Seal or "Akiban (Fusa hismida Shr., 1775) 66
Ribbon Seal (Histriophoca fasciata L., 1785) 71
Harbour Seal (Phoca vitulina L., 1758) 75
Island Seal or Antur (Phoca insUlaris) 82
Bearded Seal (Erignathus barbatus Erxl., 1777) 84
Walrus (Odobaenus rosmarus L., 1758) 88
Northern Fur Seal (Callorhinus =sinus L., 1758) 92
Northern Sea Lion (Eumetopias jubatus Shr., 1776) 100
Californian Sea Lion.(Zalophus californianus Lesson, 1828) 104
Northern Elephant Seal (Mirounga angustirostris Gill., 1866) 107
CHAP. 4. Seals in Inland Waters 109
Caspian Seal (l'usa caspica Gm., 1788) 110
Baikal Seal (rusa sibirica Gm., 1788) 115
I:iini;ed Seal (usa nispida Shr:, 1775). 119

••••• 442
COId2'ENTS conti?.,ued
l'a.;e
CHAP. .5.
Seals of the Southern hemisphere
South American Fur Seal (Aretoce7)l'ialus a.ustra.lis Zimm., 1783) 122
South African Fur. 5ea.l (_ A. -i^us^.llus Sila.., 1776j 124
Kerguelen Fur Seal (A. tropi calis Gray, 1872)127
Guada.lu-De Fur Seal. (A. ?)hilinii Fete:cs, 1886) 129
;ustrali.a,n z'u:: Seal (.8^_ doriferus Wood Jones, 1)25) 130
Tasmanian Fur Seal (:a^. tasmanicus Scott and Lord, 1926) 130
New Zeala.nd Fur Seal (A. zorsteri Lesson, 1828) 131
Southein Sea Lion (Otaria byronia Blainville, 1820) 132
Al1STTc•liall 5ea Li.on. (ITeonhoca cinerea Peron, 1816) 134
New Zealand Sea Lion (11._'hookeri Gray, 1884) 135
Sot? thern rle?nhar_t Seal (l'_irOlll^;a leonina L., 1758) 136
Wedd.ell's Seal
(Le'aton;ychotes ^,*eddelli Lesson, 1826) 140
Crab-eater Seal (Lobodon caa°cinophaE't?.s Ho.mbron and
Jacquinot, 1842) 143
121
;^ L` 0
Leopard Seal ` -^rOYllri;'2, le ptoni x ïlainville, 1820) 146
Ross' s Seal (_-_Om,??atol?hora rossi Gray, 1844) 148
;;ecl.iterranea.n 1":1onk Seal (ïioiia.chus rionachus ^ ermann, 1779 ' 150
0
';;est Indies and Ca.ribbean Monk Seal (ï+'^. troaicali s Gray, 1850) 151
iïa.^,,aii an Seal (Iï^ schauinslandi !'^a.tshie, 1905) 152
CHAP. 6. The Sea Oti,er 153
The Sea. Otter (Lrih^C11 ^ lutris L. , 1756) 153
CLIPACi;A
CITAIT'. 1, General L"haracteristic5 of the Order 162
Suborder :v,ystacoceti (`ra,leen or Tflootnless t'Iha.lGs) 164
Family 5a.laenidae (Eight ?rihales) 165
Subfamily Da.laeninae (True ;.zig^ht Whales) 165
Genus :ralaena. L., 1758 (Dow-•head 1,4ha.le ) 166
Bow-head z^rll^.le ^i7.laC'.na i:lvs1:1.ce ï ^1.5 L. , 1758)
1b6
Gem.ts t ti?.b^ la.en_a. G3_--p-y, 136A, ('_,'o-rtn Atlantic, Xiorth
1'a.cili üouti^c?_n ï.ight :iha.les j 167
North Atlantic Right '.;`hale Eiacialis la.cialis
'_:ü11er, 1776) 168
Forth -a.ci:Cic -.i_c,ht ':'hale i^.. ^ ^ia^^or_i_ca Lacepéde,
i` 1
::out;iern :..i^;^^t liale a.ti?strs.li.s L;E SIi1QlllinS, 1822) 169

COY'i`!'EI

.. ,
. . 444
COI,`TEF:`Ta continued
.. a; e
Bering Sea Lea.ked ti!h

• •• •• ^t45
L^^! ^.!^.i`.1.'^.^^^ cC^ntJ_L'lUt?C ^:^a^;e
C:.,i,?. 2, G^t

CONTEETS continued
446
P'“re
Goose-beaked Whale (Ziphius cavirostris) 271
:orth -2acific Giant :1ottle-nosed Whale (Berardius bairdi) 271
White Whale (Dolphinapterus leucas) 2 73
Common Dolphin (Delchinus delphis) 274
Pacific Bottle-nosed Dolphin (Tursiops gilli) 274
Harbour Porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) 275
Common Blackfish (Globicechala melaena sieboldi) 275
Killer Whale (Orcinus orca) 275
Dall's Porpoise (Phocoenoides dalli) 277
Eorth Pacific White-sided Dolphin (Lagenorhynchus obliquidens)
278
False Killer Whale (Pseudorca crassidens) 278
Striped Dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalbus) 279
CHAP. 4. Cetacea of the Southern Hemisphere 279
Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena glacialis australis) 283
Pygmy Right Whale (Caperea marginata) 283
Hump-ba,ck Whale (Megaptera nodosa) 284
Blue Whale (Balaenoptera musculus) 288
Pygmy Blue Whale .(3, m, brevicauda) 292
Fin Whale (B. uhysalus) 293
Sei Whale (B_._ borealis) 297
Bryde's Whale (B._ edeni) 300
Lesser Rorqual (B. acutorostrata) • 302
Sperm Whale (Physeter catodon) 303
Pygmy Sperm Whale (Koea breviceps) 3 0 7
Southern Bottle-nosed Whale (Hyperoodon .planifrons) 308
Common Dolphin (Delphinus delphis) • 308
-Siottle-nosed Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus aduncus) 3 0 9
Common Blackfish (Globicephala melaena melaena) 3 0 9
Killer Whale (Orcinus orca) 509
. .
False Killer Whale -Iseudorca crassidens) 310
PART 2.
BRIEF REPORT 01 THE HUNTING ArD PROCESSING
OF rinuirEDIA AND CETACEA
III 0
cur, 1. Sealing ana Uhaling, ana _untini.; White 7 7hales.' Sealing: ,
.Aistory of the r,evelocment of SealinG in i -,ussia 311

CONTENTS continued
447
Page
•
Aerial Surveying of Seal Rookeries 314
Tactics and Technique of Coastal Sealing • 316
Tactics of Ship-based Sealing 321
Whalinip llistory of the Development of Whaling in ïâlssia 324
B ief Description of Factory-ships 327
Ships Used for Hunting Whales 330 303
Equipment of a Whaling Ship 331
Whaling Work 336
White Whale Hunting: History of the Development of the
Industry 339
Technique of White Whale Netting 339
Other Mehot,i,e 1Vha.lee 34.2,
CHAP. 2 , Dressing Carcasses of Pinnipedes and Cetaceans 344
Dressing Pinnipede Carcasses 344
Dressing Whale Carcasses 346
Dressing Baleen Whale Carcasses 347
Dressing Sperm Whale Carcasses 351
Dressing White Whale Carcasses 352
CHAP. 3. Processing of Products of Pinnipedes and Cetaceans 353
Processing of Pinnipede Products 353
Processing and Use of Whale Products 359
Methods of Obtaining Whale Oil 362
Preparation of Meat-meal for Animal Food 367
Utilization of Whale Products 371
Processing of White Whales 373
APPEEDIX 1. Eames of Pinnipedes 375
APIEUDIX 2. NUmbers of Pinnipedes, Annual Kill, and Conservation
Measures 376
APrEED1X 3. Body Lengths and Weights of Internal qrgans of
Pinnipedes (Body Weights also, pp. 364 - 393)
383
APPENDIX 4. Body Lengths.and Weights of Whales and Weights of
their Internal Organs .394
APPENDIX 5. Eames of Whales and Dolphins 395
APPENDIX 6. Take of Whales in the North Atlantic and Adjacent
Waters of the Arctic Ocean, 1910-69. 400
Ar:wmIx 7. Take of Whales in the rorth Pacific, 1910-69 401
A 2 L;LJ)U. 3, :reduction of :roductb by the USSR 401
APEnDIX 9, Shibs Operati.c.g in t, Antarctic, Cuotas, Actual
71 402
Ja.ke '2er 19/,-47 to 1 70 -
•

..... 448
,ft COi:`j'-.'i,P!.IS
concluded i>a.pCe
AJ I^^:.r