Essays On Gender And Governance - United Nations Development ...

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The Impact of Gender Inequality on Governance Conventional Notions of Citizenship and Gendered Implications Citizenship, in its most basic understanding, connotes the relationship between citizen and their state. The state is expected to respect, safeguard and promote the rights of its citizen, while the latter discharge their responsibilities to a state that, they hope, represents them equally without favouring any select group. However, it appears that unequal gendered notions of citizenship are central to discourses of the state, regardless of assertions of equality. Historically, women’s entitlement to citizenship has been determined by their relationships to men and subordinated to masculinity, class, caste and other community locations, giving women therefore an “auxiliary” status vis-à-vis the state. 22 Besides enacting unequal citizenship status premised on gender, rather than disavow sectarian or ethno-nationalist policies South Asian states (as much as ethno-religious communities) have also selectively mobilised ethnic or religious identities for political and economic ends, thereby further complicating the relationship between gender and citizenship. 23 Women rights activists have responded to the state’s failure to promote gender equality in two ways: they have either held the state accountable for abuses of power regarding gender 24 and have pressured it to meet its commitments to women’s welfare, or they have eschewed reliance on the state. As much as other movements for social transformation, women’s movements at various levels have pressured the state, through non-party political mobilisation and advocacy, to re-define the state’s responsibilities towards them. To press for good governance reforms, such as anti-liquor laws and state initiatives to safeguard the environment, it has used the 22 As articulated by Shirkat Gah (2002:180). 23 See Patricia Jeffery and Amrita Basu eds. (1999) for examples from Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. 24 An example of the state’s abuse of power regarding gender is on the matter of population control. While women proposed the need to be able to control their reproductive lives, policies articulated as population control have had the capacity to become coercive in the state’s hands. 25 Examples from India include the Chipko movement (Ekatra, 2002), and many anti-liquor initiatives country-wide (Ekatra, 2002, and Asmita, 2002). 80
The Impact of Gender Inequality on Governance discourse of basic needs and fundamental rights. 25 Significantly, women citizens may also seek to establish what their responsibilities are, along with their rights, in re-articulating their relationship with the state. This is perhaps because women have overwhelmingly had the demand to act responsibly thrust upon them by family, community and state, compared with their male counterparts. Women in various formations have, through their activism, also contested the conventional definitions of citizenship and consequent relationship with the state, seeking to re-negotiate the meanings of citizenship through encounters with the state and its officers. For instance, while continuing to regard the state as the source of laws that protect them, women are sometimes compelled to confront the state’s officers as compromisers of that same law. Encounters with the police and issues of custodial rape are an illustrative instance that is applicable across the region. Mediated Perceptions of the State Women’s perceptions and experiences of the state and therefore their definitions of a state’s responsibilities are, in large measure, mediated by an array of social, economic and ethno-religious factors. For women who have minimal exposure to the public realm, politics and processes of the state may be equated almost exclusively with electoral politics and voting. Others who have greater mobility and cause to challenge the state and its policies, whether by accident or design, including politically active students and workers, may see politics as an expression of the competitive tendency and contests for power that permeate all levels of government (Ain O Salish Kendra, 2002). Proportionately few women are likely to define politics as a matrix of power processes informing the assertion of fundamental rights and negotiation of various entitlements from the state, and therefore value women’s direct representation in democratic process in a particular way. Women from depressed castes or classes, and from ethnic minorities that are under siege from the state, may see political engagement as a means to retain or regain their identity and self-dignity simultaneously as women and as members of a minority or 81
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Gender and Governance India
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Martha Nussbaum Amrita Basu Yasmin
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Foreword The present volume is an o
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Contributors Martha Nussbaum is the
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Gender and Governance: An Introduct
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