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SIGNING BILLS OF LADING – PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS<br />
Chris Adams<br />
Steamship Insurance Management Services Limited<br />
A Typical Problem<br />
The m.v. “Problematic” is chartered to “Unscrupulos Maritime” under an NYPE form to<br />
load a full cargo <strong>of</strong> bulk grain at a loadport in China for discharge in Rotterdam. Loading is<br />
by means <strong>of</strong> bags that are lifted aboard the ship and then opened on a grating that is<br />
placed over the hatch square. The grating is intended to catch foreign matter as the grain<br />
is bled from the bags into the holds. However, the Master continually interrupts the loading<br />
because he says that the cargo being loaded shows traces <strong>of</strong> fungus, and is infested with<br />
insects. He also tells the shippers that he will not be able to issue clean mate’s receipts.<br />
The charterparty authorises the charterers to issue <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> on the Master’s behalf,<br />
always provided that they are in conformity with the mate’s receipts.<br />
The shippers protest against the Master’s intention to issue claused mate’s receipts, and<br />
say that there is nothing wrong with the cargo which fully complies with the specification in<br />
the sale contract. A letter <strong>of</strong> indemnity is <strong>of</strong>fered, either by the shippers, charterers, or<br />
both, in consideration <strong>of</strong> the Master issuing unclaused mate’s receipts. The Master<br />
contacts his owner for advice, by which time loading is completed and the surface <strong>of</strong> the<br />
cargo in all <strong>of</strong> the holds reveals no apparent problem with the cargo. What is to be done<br />
to protect the owner’s interests?<br />
The Issuance <strong>of</strong> Bills <strong>of</strong> Lading – General Principles<br />
The Functions <strong>of</strong> the Bill <strong>of</strong> Lading<br />
The bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> is an extremely important document that has a number <strong>of</strong> functions:-<br />
i. It serves as a receipt for the cargo and describes the apparent order and condition <strong>of</strong><br />
the goods on shipment. The bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> also makes reference to the quantity and<br />
weight <strong>of</strong> the goods.<br />
ii. It is evidence <strong>of</strong> the contract <strong>of</strong> carriage.
iii. Except when stated to be non-negotiable, the bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> is a negotiable document<br />
<strong>of</strong> title.<br />
In its function as a document <strong>of</strong> title, the bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> represents the goods and makes it<br />
possible for the buyer to deal with those goods at sea. The holder <strong>of</strong> the bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> is<br />
entitled to demand delivery <strong>of</strong> the goods from the carrier when the vessel arrives at the<br />
port <strong>of</strong> discharge.<br />
This paper will be examining issues that are related to functions (i) and (iii) above.<br />
The Information Contained Within the Bill <strong>of</strong> Lading<br />
After the carrier has received the goods, Article III, rule (3) <strong>of</strong> the Hague and the Hague-<br />
Visby Rules requires that on the demand <strong>of</strong> the shipper, the carrier must issue a bill <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>lading</strong> showing:-<br />
(a) The leading marks, as furnished in writing by the shipper, that are necessary for the<br />
identification <strong>of</strong> the goods.<br />
(b) Either the number <strong>of</strong> packages or pieces, or the quantity, or weight as furnished in<br />
writing by the shipper<br />
(c) The “apparent order and condition” <strong>of</strong> the goods<br />
However, there is no obligation on either the carrier, his agent, or the master, to show in<br />
the bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> any marks, number, quantity or weight if they have reasonable grounds<br />
for suspecting that such details do not accurately represent the goods actually received,<br />
or if they have had no reasonable means <strong>of</strong> checking such particulars.<br />
Most <strong>of</strong> the problems arising out <strong>of</strong> the issuance <strong>of</strong> <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> concern points (b) and<br />
(c) above.<br />
Mate’s Receipts<br />
When cargo is received on board, a mate’s receipt will be issued to acknowledge receipt<br />
<strong>of</strong> the goods. The description <strong>of</strong> the cargo contained within the mate’s receipt will in due<br />
course be transferred into the bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong>. Any deficiencies in the condition <strong>of</strong> the cargo<br />
should therefore be recorded in the mate’s receipt. This is particularly important when the<br />
vessel is on time charter when the charterparty may authorise the charterers to issue <strong>bills</strong><br />
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<strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> on the Master’s behalf, but always in conformity with the mate’s receipts. If the<br />
owner is to ensure that the <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> accurately reflect the condition <strong>of</strong> the cargo when<br />
loaded, assuming <strong>of</strong> course no breach by the charterers <strong>of</strong> their obligations under the<br />
charterparty concerning the issuance <strong>of</strong> the <strong>bills</strong>, it is imperative that the mate’s receipts<br />
accurately record the description and the apparent order and condition <strong>of</strong> the cargo.<br />
Apparent Order and Condition<br />
Statements in <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> as to the apparent order and condition <strong>of</strong> the goods that they<br />
represent are vitally important in relation to the sale <strong>of</strong> those goods, and claims for loss or<br />
damage that may be evident at the time <strong>of</strong> discharge or delivery. When goods are sold by<br />
documentary credit transactions, the bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> assumes an extremely important role in<br />
representing the condition <strong>of</strong> those goods. It is therefore imperative that it does so<br />
accurately. Article III rule (4) <strong>of</strong> the Hague-Visby Rules provides that that the carrier is<br />
estopped from denying the accuracy <strong>of</strong> the information contained in the bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> when<br />
it has been transferred to a third party acting in good faith. This therefore emphasises the<br />
need to ensure that the representations about the cargo that are contained in the bill <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>lading</strong> are as accurate as possible.<br />
Most forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> contain words acknowledging that the cargo has been<br />
received on board the vessel in “apparent good order and condition”. This is not an<br />
acknowledgement by the carrier that the cargo was in good order and condition on<br />
shipment, only that it appeared so. What is apparent about the condition <strong>of</strong> the goods is<br />
something that has to be determined only by reasonable inspection by either the carrier or<br />
his Master. Furthermore, the apparent condition refers to what is visible, and not the<br />
internal condition <strong>of</strong> the goods, and condition is not synonymous with quality. The Master<br />
must make up his own mind whether the cargo that is shipped satisfies the description <strong>of</strong><br />
its order and condition in the mate’s receipts or <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> that have been presented for<br />
signature. The law does not require him to be an expert on the particular cargo. Neither<br />
does it require him to have any greater knowledge or experience <strong>of</strong> the cargo than any<br />
other reasonably prudent Master.<br />
It follows that if the goods are not in apparent good order and condition, this statement<br />
should be deleted, or qualified by clausing the mates’ receipt or bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> to describe<br />
the actual order and condition <strong>of</strong> the goods as is apparent to the carrier or the vessel’s<br />
Master.<br />
3
Quantity or Weight<br />
It has already been mentioned that under Article III rule (3b) <strong>of</strong> the Hague/Hague-Visby<br />
Rules, the carrier has to issue on the demand <strong>of</strong> the shipper, a bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> that shows<br />
either the number <strong>of</strong> packages or pieces, or the quantity or weight, as the case may be, as<br />
furnished in writing by the shippers. With regard to the quantity statement it appears that<br />
the carrier is only required to state either the number <strong>of</strong> packages, or the quantity, or the<br />
weight. Therefore, whilst a statement as to one <strong>of</strong> these measures is obligatory, it follows<br />
that the others may be qualified. Most forms <strong>of</strong> bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> contain a printed clause to the<br />
effect that:-<br />
“Weight, measure, quality, quantity, condition, contents and value unknown”<br />
Is the carrier allowed to incorporate such standard reservation clauses, or would such a<br />
clause amount to a derogation <strong>of</strong> liability as envisaged under Article III rule (8) <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Hague/Hague-Visby rules, and therefore be null and void?<br />
Descriptions such as:-<br />
50,000 bags <strong>of</strong> sugar in 50kg bags, said to weigh 2,500 MT<br />
are commonly encountered. The English courts have given full effect to clauses such as<br />
“weight unknown” or “quantity unknown” or “said to be/weigh”. It has been held that when<br />
such clauses are included in the bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> it is not even prima facie evidence <strong>of</strong> such<br />
weight or quantity. In order to sustain a claim for shortage, it is necessary for the claimant<br />
to produce other evidence to prove that the stated quantity/weight <strong>of</strong> cargo was shipped<br />
on board.<br />
Sale <strong>of</strong> Goods by Documentary Credit<br />
The function <strong>of</strong> a bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> as a document <strong>of</strong> title, enables it to facilitate the<br />
international sale <strong>of</strong> goods by documentary credit. The financing <strong>of</strong> these transactions is<br />
by letter <strong>of</strong> credit. In the same way that any individual who is making a face to face<br />
purchase would wish to satisfy himself about the condition <strong>of</strong> the goods he is buying<br />
before parting with his money, so similar precautions are applied to sales under<br />
documentary credit. Through the mechanism <strong>of</strong> the letter <strong>of</strong> credit that the purchaser<br />
establishes through his bank, a “check” is made on the condition <strong>of</strong> the cargo before the<br />
4
purchase price is remitted to the seller. This is not a check made by physical examination<br />
<strong>of</strong> the goods, but a documentary check. The purchaser stipulates to his bank that before<br />
parting with any money, the bank must satisfy itself that the bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> that is presented<br />
by the shipper to support his claim for payment, must show that the goods were loaded to<br />
the vessel in apparent good order and condition. In common parlance, the letter <strong>of</strong> credit<br />
stipulates that the bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> is issued “clean” or “clean on board”.<br />
A “clean” transport document is defined under the Uniform Customs and Practices for<br />
Documentary Credits (UCP 500, Art 32) as one which bears no clausing or notation that<br />
expressly declares a defective condition <strong>of</strong> the goods and/or the packaging. Consequently<br />
it is immediately apparent that statements in the bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> concerning the apparent<br />
order and condition <strong>of</strong> the goods represented by that document are <strong>of</strong> fundamental<br />
importance in the contract <strong>of</strong> sale. If the bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> is not “clean”, the purchaser’s bank<br />
will refuse to make payment under the letter <strong>of</strong> credit, the shipper will not then be paid,<br />
and considerable commercial inconvenience to the shipper may well result. Of course<br />
such inconvenience will be entirely self inflicted if the condition <strong>of</strong> the goods on shipment<br />
was such that the Master was entitled to clause the bill to reflect those shortcomings. No<br />
one can have sympathy with any trader who seeks to pass <strong>of</strong>f damaged goods for sound<br />
and thereby take a commercial advantage <strong>of</strong> an innocent purchaser. Equally, if it is<br />
apparent that the cargo when loaded is not in apparent good order and condition, the<br />
issuing <strong>of</strong> a “clean” bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> will have the effect <strong>of</strong> causing the purchasers to pay for<br />
the goods on the basis <strong>of</strong> a document that seriously misrepresents their condition. The<br />
issuance <strong>of</strong> claused <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> that should have been clean, and clean <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong><br />
that should have been claused will have serious consequences which will be discussed in<br />
more detail later in this paper.<br />
The requirement for a “clean on board” bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> in the terms <strong>of</strong> a letter <strong>of</strong> credit can<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten create unnecessary problems. The banks that handle these documentary credit<br />
transactions, are not on the whole well known for their flexibility. If the letter <strong>of</strong> credit<br />
stipulates that the bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> must be issued “clean on board” the clerk handling the<br />
transaction may be reluctant to accept that this requirement is satisfied by a bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong><br />
that simply bears no clausing to qualify the apparent good order and condition <strong>of</strong> the<br />
goods. There is <strong>of</strong>ten a need on the part <strong>of</strong> the bank to see the words “clean on board”<br />
written on the bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong>. There seems to be a lack <strong>of</strong> understanding that this<br />
requirement for “clean on board” <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> arises from two separate UCP<br />
requirements for “clean” and “on board” <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong>. In other words, the goods must be<br />
in apparent good order and condition, and they must actually be on board the carrying<br />
5
ship in order to trigger payment under the letter <strong>of</strong> credit. The shipped onboard<br />
endorsement generally arises in those cases where the goods are received by the carrier<br />
at the terminal “for shipment” – for example containerised cargo. A “received for shipment”<br />
bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> would be issued to act as a receipt, and then endorsed “shipped on board”<br />
after the goods were actually loaded. There is a very respectable view that a “clean on<br />
board” endorsement is totally unnecessary, and adds nothing to the statement made in<br />
the bill as to the apparent order and condition <strong>of</strong> the cargo. However, there is possibly a<br />
need for some caution. If a bill describes goods as being in apparent good order and<br />
condition but they are not, and this could not be detected on reasonable inspection by the<br />
Master, is there a danger in some less sophisticated jurisdictions that the “clean on board<br />
“ endorsement might be taken as qualifying the statement as to the apparent order and<br />
condition, and taken as meaning that the goods were in fact in good order and condition<br />
on loading. In view <strong>of</strong> the potential for this sort <strong>of</strong> interpretation to expose carriers to<br />
unjustified liability, they should be slow to endorse <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> “clean on board” simply in<br />
order to satisfy the bureaucratic requirements <strong>of</strong> the intermediary banks.<br />
Issuance <strong>of</strong> Bills <strong>of</strong> Lading – the Problems<br />
Clean and Claused Bills <strong>of</strong> Lading<br />
It goes without saying that <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> should only be issued “clean” if in fact the cargo<br />
on shipment was in apparent good order and condition. If it is not, the Master should<br />
ensure that the <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> are claused to reflect the apparent order and condition <strong>of</strong> the<br />
goods. If <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> are not claused when they ought to be, the carrier will be exposed<br />
to liability for the loss and damage to the cargo that is represented by the remarks omitted<br />
from the bill. The carrier is thus incurring liability for loss and damage that has occurred<br />
before the goods came into his custody.<br />
If it should be apparent to the Master during the course <strong>of</strong> loading the cargo that it is not in<br />
apparent good order and condition, he should clause the <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> to reflect his<br />
observations. For the Master to clause the <strong>bills</strong> it is sufficient that he should be <strong>of</strong> the<br />
honest belief that the cargo is not in apparent good order and condition, and that that view<br />
could properly be held by a reasonably observant Master, even if all Masters would not<br />
necessarily agree. The terms in which the <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> should be claused, are also a<br />
matter for the judgement <strong>of</strong> the Master. He should use terms that reflect the actual<br />
condition that is apparent, and care should be taken to ensure that the reservations are<br />
not overstated.<br />
6
This solution <strong>of</strong> course works well when the vessel is trading for the owner’s account, and<br />
the Master or the owner’s agent is responsible for issuing the <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong>. In this<br />
situation, there is a high degree <strong>of</strong> control over the issuance <strong>of</strong> documents. However,<br />
when the vessel is on charter, it is <strong>of</strong>ten a term <strong>of</strong> the charterparty that the charterers or<br />
their agents are to be authorised to issue <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong>, provided that they are in<br />
conformity with the mate’s receipts. In this situation, the Master or Chief Officer must<br />
record any remarks as to the apparent order and condition <strong>of</strong> the cargo on the mate’s<br />
receipts, and hope that the charterers will comply with their obligation under the<br />
charterparty to transfer those same reservations to the <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong>.<br />
This loss <strong>of</strong> control over the process for issuing the <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> can result in serious<br />
consequences for the shipowner. Often, for commercial reasons, the charterer may<br />
decide to ignore the reservations in the mate’s receipts, and issue the <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> clean.<br />
It is frequently the case that although the charterer’s form <strong>of</strong> bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> has been issued,<br />
the shipowner is nonetheless the carrier, and it is the shipowner who is then exposed to<br />
the liabilities that result from the failure to clause the <strong>bills</strong>. Whilst a remedy will exist<br />
against the charterers for the consequences <strong>of</strong> their breach, enforcing that remedy may<br />
be extremely difficult, particularly if the charterer has limited means. Even if it should be a<br />
term <strong>of</strong> the charterparty that the charterer has insurance to cover his liabilities, the<br />
benefits <strong>of</strong> that will be illusory in the event <strong>of</strong> a failure to transfer remarks from the mate’s<br />
receipts. The conduct <strong>of</strong> the charterers that is associated with this breach, will generally<br />
be sufficient to prejudice any insurance cover that they may have arranged.<br />
When it is the owner who is issuing the documents, failing to issue <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> that<br />
correctly reflect the apparent order and condition <strong>of</strong> the cargo on loading can have very<br />
serious consequences. Quite apart from the inevitable exposure to liability for damage<br />
that should have been described in the <strong>bills</strong>, there can also be the added complication <strong>of</strong> a<br />
loss <strong>of</strong> insurance protection for the liabilities thereby arising.<br />
The P&I Clubs cover their Members for liabilities costs and expenses as defined in the<br />
Club’s Rules and the vessel’s Certificate <strong>of</strong> Entry. In connection with liability for cargo loss<br />
and damage, the Steamship Mutual’s Rules, in common with those <strong>of</strong> all other<br />
International Group Clubs, provide as follows:-<br />
7
“Unless the Directors shall in their absolute discretion otherwise determine, there<br />
shall be no recovery ……. in respect <strong>of</strong> the Member’s liability or expenses arising<br />
out <strong>of</strong>:<br />
(iv) a Bill <strong>of</strong> Lading, Way Bill or other document containing or evidencing a contract<br />
<strong>of</strong> carriage issued with the knowledge <strong>of</strong> the Member or his Master with incorrect<br />
description <strong>of</strong> the cargo or the condition or quantity there<strong>of</strong>.”<br />
Consequently, where the Member or his Master knowingly issues a bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> that does<br />
not accurately record the apparent order and condition, or quantity <strong>of</strong> the cargo, Club<br />
cover for the resulting liabilities will only be available at the discretion <strong>of</strong> the Club’s Board<br />
<strong>of</strong> Directors. The shipowner could then be exposed to a substantial uncovered liability,<br />
and the difficulty and expense <strong>of</strong> arranging a guarantee to release his vessel if it should<br />
be arrested by the claimants in order to obtain security for their claim.<br />
Where <strong>of</strong>fending <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> are issued by charterers without the knowledge <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Member <strong>of</strong> the vessel’s Master, these adverse consequences will not necessarily apply.<br />
Club cover should be available for the resulting cargo liabilities, and to support the cost <strong>of</strong><br />
seeking a recovery from the charterers. However, this will not be the case if the Member,<br />
or the Maser knew that the charterers had not properly claused the <strong>bills</strong>.<br />
Sometimes there may be a bona fide difference <strong>of</strong> opinion between the shipper and the<br />
carrier concerning the condition <strong>of</strong> the cargo. In such situations it is probably sufficient as<br />
a matter <strong>of</strong> English law for the Master to endorse the bill with general words <strong>of</strong><br />
reservation, although it is preferable that the <strong>bills</strong> are claused specifically to reflect his<br />
assessment <strong>of</strong> the cargo’s condition.<br />
Clean Bills <strong>of</strong> Lading and Letters <strong>of</strong> Indemnity<br />
The most frequent problem experienced by owners is where the cargo that has been<br />
loaded is not in apparent good order and condition, but in order to avoid the documents<br />
being rejected under the terms <strong>of</strong> the letter <strong>of</strong> credit, the shipper or charterer demands a<br />
clean bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong>. In many such cases, the owner will be <strong>of</strong>fered a letter <strong>of</strong> indemnity in<br />
exchange for the Master agreeing to issue a clean bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong>. In most jurisdictions such<br />
letters <strong>of</strong> indemnity may be unenforceable because the act <strong>of</strong> issuing a clean bill in such a<br />
situation amounts to a fraudulent misrepresentation <strong>of</strong> the condition <strong>of</strong> the cargo to the<br />
ultimate purchasers.<br />
8
The case <strong>of</strong> Brown Jenkinson v. Percy Dalton – 1957 2 QB 621 concerned a shipment <strong>of</strong><br />
barrels <strong>of</strong> orange juice. The barrels were old, frail and leaking, and the shipper was told<br />
that the carrier intended to clause the bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong>. A letter <strong>of</strong> idemnity was <strong>of</strong>fered,<br />
accepted, and a clean bill was issued. The receiver successfully claimed against the<br />
carrier on the basis <strong>of</strong> the clean bill, and the carrier then sought to claim under the letter <strong>of</strong><br />
indemnity but was denied a remedy. The court was anxious to eliminate the lax practice <strong>of</strong><br />
resorting to letters <strong>of</strong> indemnity when goods were known to be damaged. The carrier<br />
argued that he had not intended to defraud the receiver because he knew that he could be<br />
sued because <strong>of</strong> the clean <strong>bills</strong>. The court however ruled that this did not matter. The<br />
lessons to be learned from this decision are that if there is a bona fide difference <strong>of</strong><br />
opinion about whether the cargo is damaged or not, or if the defect is minor, a letter <strong>of</strong><br />
indemnity should be enforceable. However, if it is obvious that the goods are in fact<br />
damaged, an indemnity becomes <strong>of</strong> limited value.<br />
Even where the shipper or charterers may be content to honour the indemnity, problems<br />
may nonetheless be encountered because <strong>of</strong> arguments that the damage found on<br />
discharge was not the same, or was more extensive than that noted at the time <strong>of</strong> loading.<br />
In addition, the carrier will always have the problem in such situations <strong>of</strong> a lack <strong>of</strong> Club<br />
cover for the liabilities to which he is exposed.<br />
In circumstances where the <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> are to be issued by the charterer, the<br />
acceptance <strong>of</strong> a letter <strong>of</strong> indemnity is likely to prejudice the remedy that would otherwise<br />
exist under the charterparty for the charters failure to issue claused <strong>bills</strong>. If the letter <strong>of</strong><br />
indemnity is also unenforceable, the owner will potentially be left in a much worse position<br />
than if he had simply relied upon his remedy under the charter.<br />
Unnecessary or Excessive Clausing <strong>of</strong> the Bills <strong>of</strong> Lading<br />
Whilst it is most usually the case that claims arise because <strong>of</strong> allegations that the Master<br />
issued clean <strong>bills</strong>, when the condition <strong>of</strong> the cargo justified clausing, problems can equally<br />
well occur in circumstances where the <strong>bills</strong> are claused when there is no basis for doing<br />
so. This was highlighted in a recent decision <strong>of</strong> the English Admiralty Court concerning a<br />
vessel called the “David Agmashenbeli”. During the loading <strong>of</strong> a cargo <strong>of</strong> urea, the Master<br />
observed that it contained contaminants and was <strong>of</strong> a dirty colour. The mate’s receipt was<br />
claused with the wording “Cargo discoloured also foreign materials e.g. plastic, rust,<br />
rubber, stone, black particles found in cargo”. The Master refused to sign <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong><br />
9
without the same clausing, whilst the shippers insisted on receiving clean <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> to<br />
satisfy the letter <strong>of</strong> credit requirements, because their surveyor disputed that the cargo<br />
was not in apparent good order and condition. Impasse resulted. The vessel proceeded<br />
on her voyage without <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> being issued. Consequently the shippers could not<br />
obtain payment under the letter <strong>of</strong> credit. Freight under the sub charter was not paid, and<br />
charter hire was withheld under the time charter. Eventually the shippers agreed to accept<br />
claused <strong>bills</strong> under protest, but when these were presented to the bank they were not<br />
accepted because they were not clean. This gave the receivers the opportunity to<br />
negotiate to receive the cargo at a reduced price, because <strong>of</strong> both the clausing, and the<br />
fact that the market value <strong>of</strong> urea had fallen since the cargo was loaded. The shippers<br />
sought to claim their losses from the owners.<br />
The shippers argued that the statement in the bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> as to the apparent order and<br />
condition <strong>of</strong> the cargo had to be objectively accurate. They said that it was not sufficient<br />
for the Master to simply state what he honestly believed to be the apparent order and<br />
condition. The court rejected the shippers’ arguments, and held that a Master is entitled to<br />
clause the bill if he honestly takes the view that the cargo is not in apparent good order<br />
and condition.<br />
The terms in which the Master chooses to clause the documents are also a matter for his<br />
own judgement, but the terms used should reflect reasonably closely the actual apparent<br />
order and condition <strong>of</strong> the cargo and the extent <strong>of</strong> any defects that are exhibited.<br />
Factual and expert evidence in the “David Agmashenbeli” led to the judge concluding that<br />
there had been some contamination <strong>of</strong> the cargo, but the extent <strong>of</strong> this was so slight that<br />
no reasonably observant Master would have seen fit to refer to it in the mate’s receipt. It<br />
was also found that there had been some discolouration <strong>of</strong> the cargo. The shippers had<br />
described the cargo as “white”. This fact and the extent <strong>of</strong> the discolouration evident on<br />
loading led the court to conclude that a reasonable Master ought to refer to such<br />
discolouration in the documents. However, it was also held that the Master’s description <strong>of</strong><br />
the cargo as “discoloured” was misleading because there was no indication that he was<br />
only referring to about 1% <strong>of</strong> the cargo. A reasonable Master would have qualified the<br />
statement to avoid creating a misleading impression. Consequently it was held that the<br />
carriers were in breach <strong>of</strong> their duty under Article III, rule (3) <strong>of</strong> the Hague-Visby Rules to<br />
issue a bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> stating the apparent order and condition <strong>of</strong> the cargo.<br />
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One might feel that having found in favour <strong>of</strong> the shippers, a judgment in their favour was<br />
likely to follow. Notwithstanding this breach <strong>of</strong> duty, the court then had to consider if the<br />
shippers had suffered a loss as a result <strong>of</strong> this breach. The court concluded that the<br />
Master would have been acting reasonably if he had claused the <strong>bills</strong> in such a way that<br />
made the extent <strong>of</strong> the discolouration clear. In such circumstances, the shippers would still<br />
not have received a clean bill to present to the bank, and since the market price had<br />
already fallen they would have been compelled to reach a settlement with the receivers<br />
similar to that which eventually resulted. Consequently on the particular facts <strong>of</strong> this case,<br />
the shippers failed to show that the Master’s actions had caused them any loss. However<br />
it is perfectly conceivable that over zealous action on the part <strong>of</strong> a Master in different<br />
factual circumstances could well expose the carrier to liability.<br />
Cargo Damaged after Loading<br />
It is not uncommon for cargo to become damaged, or to suffer a casualty during or after<br />
loading on the vessel, but before the bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> is issued. Should the bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> be<br />
issued clean or claused?<br />
If the goods were in apparent good order and condition after being received into the<br />
charge <strong>of</strong> the carrier, the Master or his agent (Article III, rule 3), a clean bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong><br />
should be issued.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> “”The Galatia” – 1979 2 LLR 450 a cargo <strong>of</strong> bagged sugar suffered damage<br />
by fire and extinguishing water at the port <strong>of</strong> loading. The damaged goods were<br />
discharged. A separate bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> that was issued for the damaged goods<br />
acknowledged that they had been shipped in apparent good order and condition, but the<br />
bill was claused as follows:<br />
“Cargo covered by this bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> has been discharged Kandla view damaged by<br />
fire and/or water used to extinguish for which general average declared.”<br />
The Court <strong>of</strong> Appeal held that the bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> was clean. The clausing did not render it<br />
unclean because it related to damage after shipment. Predictably, the bill had been<br />
rejected by the banks involved in the sale transaction because <strong>of</strong> the clausing.<br />
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Ante-dated <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong><br />
Letters <strong>of</strong> credit under which cargoes are purchased are opened for a specific period <strong>of</strong><br />
validity. In order for the bank to make payment, it must be satisfied that the goods were<br />
shipped onboard the vessel within the period <strong>of</strong> validity <strong>of</strong> the letter <strong>of</strong> credit. The date <strong>of</strong><br />
the bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> is a representation that the goods were on board the vessel on that<br />
particular date.<br />
There may be delays in the vessel’s approach voyage to the load port, or delays on the<br />
part <strong>of</strong> the shippers in delivering their cargo to the port. If the result <strong>of</strong> these delays is that<br />
the cargo will not be loaded on the vessel before the date <strong>of</strong> expiry <strong>of</strong> the letter <strong>of</strong> credit,<br />
the shipper will encounter a number <strong>of</strong> difficulties. He will not be able to obtain payment<br />
without an extension <strong>of</strong> the letter <strong>of</strong> credit being agreed. That may or may not be possible.<br />
Even if an extension is possible, the buyer might wish to exploit this difficulty to negotiate<br />
a better price for the goods, particularly if the market for the commodity has fallen in the<br />
intervening period.<br />
Rather than face these problems, a shipper might instead ask the carrier to back date the<br />
<strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> to indicate that the goods had been loaded some time earlier than was<br />
actually the case. There are no justifiable grounds for ante-dating <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> no matter<br />
what might be said by the shipper, and any such request should be declined. Letters <strong>of</strong><br />
indemnity also <strong>of</strong>fer no solution, for the same reasons as apply in relation to clean <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>lading</strong> that should have been claused. A carrier who issues an ante-dated bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> is<br />
acting to deceive the ultimate purchasers <strong>of</strong> that cargo, and is exposed to very serious<br />
consequences. There should be no temptation to give in to the blandishments <strong>of</strong> shippers<br />
where the period <strong>of</strong> ante-dating is only a day or so. The degree <strong>of</strong> ante-dating is irrelevant,<br />
and the consequences no different whether the <strong>bills</strong> are ante-dated by one day or one<br />
month.<br />
Quite apart from being exposed to liability towards the purchasers <strong>of</strong> the cargo because <strong>of</strong><br />
the ante-dating, the carrier will also find that he has no insurance coverage for that<br />
liability.<br />
The Steamship Mutual’s Rules, in common with those <strong>of</strong> all other International Group<br />
Clubs, provide as follows:<br />
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“Unless the Directors shall in their absolute discretion otherwise determine, there<br />
shall be no recovery ……. In respect <strong>of</strong> the Member’s liability or expenses arising<br />
out <strong>of</strong>:<br />
(iii) the issue <strong>of</strong> an ante dated or post dated Bill <strong>of</strong> Lading, Way Bill or other<br />
document containing or evidencing the contract <strong>of</strong> carriage.”<br />
Ante-dating is therefore something that is to be completely avoided.<br />
Steel cargoes<br />
A great number <strong>of</strong> the requests for guidance and assistance that a P&I Club receives in<br />
relation to issuing <strong>of</strong> <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> concern steel cargoes. It is usually extremely difficult<br />
for Masters to accurately describe the condition <strong>of</strong> various types <strong>of</strong> steel product on<br />
shipment. For this reason many Club Certificates <strong>of</strong> Entry contain clauses requiring the<br />
Member to have a pre-loading survey in the event the vessel carries steel. In this way the<br />
Member and his Master can have the reassurance that the cargo is being inspected prior<br />
to loading by a surveyor who is an expert in the commodity and who will know precisely<br />
how to describe the conditions it exhibits. A steel pre-loading survey will <strong>of</strong>ten contain<br />
extensive remarks on individual items <strong>of</strong> the cargo, and the surveyor’s list <strong>of</strong> exceptions<br />
should be referred to in, and appended to, the mate’s receipts and the <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong>.<br />
Sometimes a carrier might be asked to desist from incorporating the surveyor’s remarks in<br />
the <strong>bills</strong>, and to use a so-called “Retla” clause instead. This clause derives its name from<br />
the case Tokio Marine & Fire Insurance Company Limited v. Retla Steamship Company –<br />
1970 2 LLR 91 .<br />
Steel pipes were carried from Japan to the United States. At the time <strong>of</strong> loading the cargo<br />
showed visible signs <strong>of</strong> rusting and wetness, and remarks such as “heavy rust”, “white<br />
rust”, and “rusty” appeared on the tally documents and the mate’s receipts. The bill <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>lading</strong> showed that the cargo had been received in “apparent good order and condition,<br />
unless otherwise mentioned in this bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong>”. The detailed remarks were not shown.<br />
Instead next to the signature box was a “rust” clause. These clauses typically read as<br />
follows:<br />
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“IRON OR STEEL<br />
The terms “apparent good order and condition” when used on this Bill <strong>of</strong> Lading<br />
with reference to iron, steel, or metal products does not mean that the Goods,<br />
when received, were free <strong>of</strong> visible rust or moisture. If the Merchant so requests a<br />
substitute Bill <strong>of</strong> Lading will be issued omitting the above definition and setting<br />
forth any notations as to rust or moisture which may appear on the mate’s or tally<br />
clerk’s receipts.”<br />
A replacement bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> was not requested. Had it been, the evidence was that the bill<br />
would have been issued incorporating all the remarks in the mate’s receipts. On<br />
completion <strong>of</strong> the voyage a claim was made for the damages that were evident on<br />
shipment. The court found that the bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> was qualified by the clause, and paid<br />
particular attention to the location <strong>of</strong> the clause – immediately below the apparent good<br />
order and condition statement. It was also found that the fact the shipper did not demand<br />
a replacement bill was evidence that a demand had not been made <strong>of</strong> the carrier to issue<br />
a bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> showing apparent order and condition as per Article II rule (3) <strong>of</strong> the Hague<br />
/Hague-Visby Rules.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> a Retla clause to avoid more conventional clausing <strong>of</strong> the <strong>bills</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> should<br />
be approached with considerable caution. The option to substitute the bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> for one<br />
containing more detailed reservations is strongly suggestive <strong>of</strong> collusion between the<br />
shipper and the carrier to the detriment <strong>of</strong> the eventual purchaser <strong>of</strong> the cargo. For<br />
obvious reasons, the shipper wants to have a bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> that is as clean as possible.<br />
The purchaser might assume, with some justification, that the fact that a substitute bill was<br />
not issued meant that there were no significant remarks. The preferred course from the<br />
Club’s perspective would be to insist upon conventional clausing.<br />
Liquid Cargoes<br />
Liquid cargoes present their own particular problems associated both with the description<br />
that is to be given to the cargo, and the quantity that is loaded to the vessel. It is<br />
impossible for the Master to see the cargo in the conventional sense, other than through<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> samples, and the measurement <strong>of</strong> the quantity loaded to the vessel is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
fraught with difficulty and ship’s figures rarely agree with those <strong>of</strong> the terminal. The subject<br />
<strong>of</strong> liquid measurement and shortage claims is a topic in its own right that goes beyond the<br />
scope <strong>of</strong> this paper.<br />
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Most problems at the port <strong>of</strong> loading arise because the Master disputes the shore figures<br />
that the shipper wishes to be inserted into the bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong>. It should always be<br />
remembered that under Article III <strong>of</strong> the Hague/Hague-Visby Rules, no carrier or Master is<br />
bound to show in the bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong> any quantity or weight which he has reasonable<br />
grounds for suspecting not accurately to represent the goods actually received, or which<br />
he has no reasonable means <strong>of</strong> checking.<br />
In the “Boukadora” – 1989 1LLR 393 the Master had been presented with a bill <strong>of</strong> <strong>lading</strong><br />
for signature that stated “a cargo said to be and described as [fuel oil]”. The shore loading<br />
figures were then shown. The Master wanted to insert a reference to the ship’s figures<br />
which were different, and delay resulted. The charterers argued that there was no need<br />
for the Master to include the ship’s figures since there was no representation in the bill as<br />
to quantity because <strong>of</strong> the “said to be” qualification. The court commented:<br />
“There is an appreciable risk that merely identifying the figure as a shore<br />
measurement would not necessarily be sufficient to prevent a representation from<br />
arising, and the position in other jurisdictions may be even less favourable for the<br />
shipowner or the Master”.<br />
The Solution to the Typical Problem<br />
Hopefully the contents <strong>of</strong> this paper will be <strong>of</strong> some assistance in appreciating the<br />
difficulties and the pitfalls that need to be avoided. As always, the owner is strongly<br />
recommended to contact his P&I Club for advice.<br />
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