Southeast Europe

Hungarians in Romania), not only represents the Hungarians in Romania at all political
levels, but also leads a so-called “Hungarian state”. This statement is based on the fact
that all resources of the Hungarian community (society) in Romania are managed by
DAHR. This provides certain coherence in the life of the community.
Hungarians are acknowledged by the Romanian state as a national minority and their
inclusion in the ruling coalition between 1996 and 2000 is a clear indication of how
integrated the minority is in Romanian public life (see 2.1).
2.2 Historical development of an ethnic or a national identity
Magyar nationalism was born according to Verdery (1983) and Breuilly (1994), as a
response to the new simultaneous processes that changed the situation of the Hapsburg
Empire in the 18 th century. State centralisation and the economic changes of the empire
led to some controversial attitudes among those who saw that their privileges were
threatened and also realised that there was a new opportunity to influence the economic
policy of the state. These two processes determined the “emergence of ‘nations’, or,
better, aspirant nation-state, out of old classes inadequately transformed” (Verdery,
1983:115). Hence, Hungarian nationalism was based on the defence of a considerable
political autonomy and on socio-economic privileges, enjoyed by the Magyars,
especially by the nobles (Breuilly, 1994:131). This defensive polity tended to polarise
into conservative and radical movements, in terms of a historic territorial concept of the
nation. This point of view had repercussions on the legal and political status of the
different ethnic groups (Magyar nobles, Saxons, and Szeklers as the privileged nations,
and Romanians as unprivileged subjects), and also excluded some ethnic groups
(Romanians) from the polity (Verdery, 1983:116).
Hungarian historians agree that the modern Hungarian nation was forged in the
revolution and liberation war of 1848-49. The defeat of the liberation war led to the reincorporation
of Hungary and Transylvania to the Hapsburg Empire. The defeat of the
Hapsburgs by the Prussians at the battle of Königratz, weakened the position of the
Hapsburgs and forced them to make the compromise with the Hungarians in 1867.
Transylvania became a part of the Hungarian Kingdom within the Austro-Hungarian
Monarchy. The process of Hungarian nation-building became more powerful in this
period, and can be characterised by the administrative incorporation of Transylvania,
Hungarianisation policy, and the denial of rights of the other nationalities of the
Hungarian Kingdom. A common Hungarian national identity was strengthened.
Even before Hungary achieved self-government and the control of Transylvania, the
general feeling in the region was that non-Hungarians were culturally inferior and
should merge with the superior Hungarian nation (Gallagher, 1995:15). At this point,
therefore, there was already a strong sense of a national identity among the Hungarians.
Therefore, after 1867, when Transylvania came under Hungarian administration, it was
natural that a policy of Hungarianisation be pursued in the region. This was carried out
despite the fact that Romanians were actually the numerical majority there. They were
denied autonomy since the Hungarians believed that it was their duty to help the
backward peoples by assimilating them (Gallagher, 1995:15). This attitude was shown
in education in particular. Four laws were passed (1879, 1883, 1891, and 1907) with the
aim of Hungarianising teaching staff and expanding schooling in Hungarian while
simultaneously restricting education in other minority languages. State schools became
models of “unrestrained Hungarianisation.” This policy was not entirely successful,
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