Southeast Europe

As the Ottoman Empire got weaker, Christians re-conquered Hungary. Even though
Mihaly Apafi, the last prince, had attempted to save the autonomy of his principality, it
was included in the Hapsburg Empire, and the Emperor also held the title of Prince of
Transylvania. The Diploma Leopoldinum (1691) enforced the rights and autonomy of
the country, and implicitly enforced the four official religions and the three-nationsystem.
As a result of the Peace Treaty of Karlowitz (1699), Partium was added to
Hungary. This resulted in differences among the status of people in that area and those
living in Transylvania. The Ottomans had ruled Banat for a long time. After it was reconquered,
a separate administration was established and the Court of Vienna
modernised it (Várkonyi, 1984: 176-212).
Because autonomy was gradually reduced while responsibilities were enhanced, the
majority of the Hungarian and the Szekler nobility supported the mutiny against the
Hapsburgs led by Ferencz Rákóczi II, who was also proclaimed Prince of Transylvania.
Before the Peace Treaty of Szatmar (Satu Mare) (1711) the Hapsburg army succeeded
in conquering Transylvania again (Várkonyi, 1984: 213-268).
In order to modernise Transylvania, different norms were introduced in the 18 th century.
The reforms of Maria Theresa and Josef II aimed at improving many areas, especially
the condition of their subjects. The State interfered in the master-serf relationship,
attempting to regulate the serfs’ obligations and ease their situation. The nobility
objected to these stipulations. As a result, a major conflict arose between the Hungarian
nobility and the Romanian serfs. By the end of the century the conflict had also acquired
ethnic connotations that were first expressed after the peasant revolt led by Horea,
Cloşca and Crişan (1784). At the same time, regiments were stationed along the borders.
They had multiple responsibilities such as to defend the country, quarantine, increase
the central power to the detriment of the local autonomy, etc. While the Romanian
population was happy with the presence of these regiments, the Szeklers regarded them
less optimistically, because that entailed more responsibilities and less freedom. They
rose in arms at Siculeni, but the so-called “Siculicidium” ended in slaughter in 1763.
That was the time when part of the Szeklers moved to Moldavia. Many of them settled
in Bucovina, where they lived until WW II. Some of them joined the Chango
population. The Changos’ origin is unclear; there are controversial opinions among
Romanian and Hungarian historians. According to some historical data, there were
groups of Hungarian Catholics who lived in medieval Moldavia. Szekler refugees joined
them for different reasons, especially during times of uncertainty. Links between
Hungarians and Changos were broken soon after the Hungarians adhered to the
religious reform. The Changos were left out of the nation-building process. Some of
them still use an archaic dialect of the Hungarian language, but most of them have been
romanianised. The only specific element they still keep is their Roman-Catholic religion
(Tánczos, 1998).
Josef II also gave other decrees concerning religious tolerance and held a census (the
first general census made in Hungary and in Transylvania – 1785 and 1786); he
suppressed the comities (considered “reactionary nests” of the nobility) and organised
new administrative units that did not consider the privileges of the former “three
nations” and replaced the German language with Hungarian in education and
administration. Except for the stipulation concerning tolerance, they rejected the other
decrees saying that their centuries-old privileges were endangered. Those decrees also
contributed to the nation-building process. The trend of the medieval “political nations”
was to turn into modern nations. Before this they had to remove the feudal relations as
well. If there had been an agreement between Hungarians and Szeklers against the
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