Personality theories of successful aging - University of Florida ...

Personalittl Theories o,f Successful Aging 101
ily work-oriented goals
t-being than those who
underscore the importive
regulatory mecharport
a positive associatnd
indicators of global
ting the adaptive use of
see also M. M. Baltes &
development and aging
I studies addressed the
, and compensation are
elopmental perspective
:r approach goals (i.e.,
pensation or avoidance
rs) should change with
cver the life span, goals
mization, approach) in
or loss avoidance (i.e.,
& Baltes, 2000; Freund
ch an age-related shif t
he changing balance of
dopting goals that aim
rom working on goals
lvailable means. Using
rple sensorimotor task
lnce or (b) compensat-
'ential motiva tiona I efyounger
adults, older
tpensate for a loss and
lrformance.
propose that goals can
:d the maintenance of
)ss. In a multimethod
as different life conrnd
age-group differgoal
orientation and
Llts by Freund (2006a),
growth, whereas goal
ne more rmportant in
:d to perceived availely
related to general
in old age, orienting
:ed with general subrer
et al. suggest that
toward maintenance
es one mechanism of
A study by Riediger, Freund, and Baltes (2005) addressed the nature of intergoal
relations as possible characteristics differentiating between more and less
adaptive aspects of goal selection. Specifically, Riediger et a1. examined the question
whether the relationship among multiple personal goals affects goal pursuit
in everyday life and subl'ective well-being. The first notable finding of their study
was that older adults reported more facilitation between their goals and less conflict
than younger adults. This finding can be interpreted as indicating that the
competence to select personal goals so that they form a coherent, congruent, and
nonconflicting goal system increases across adulthood. Moreover, the authors
found that intergoal conf lict was negatively related to indicators of psychological
well-being in everyday life over time. Intergoal facilitation, in contrast, was associated
with higher involvement in goal pursuit and an increased likelihood of
goal attainment ol.er time. This study underscores the importance of taking multiple
goals into account when studying the complex way goals affect behavior and
subjective well-bei ng.
Several studies demonstrate the relevance of SOC as adaptive life-management
strategies on the behavioral level. For instance, Wiese and Schmitz (2002) provided
evidence for the relationship between self-reported SOC and behavioral
outcomes in the context of study success. In a sample of college students, Wiese
and Schmitz found that students high in self-reported SOC behaviors spent more
time studying than students low in self-reported SOC behaviors. Additionally,
students low in self-reported selection and optimization were more likely to skip
their exams.
Several experimental studies identified SOC processes and demonstrated agerelated
differences in these processes in the context of dual-task paradigms
(Kemper, Herman, & Lian, 2003; Krampe, Rapp, Bondar, & Baltes, 2003; Li et al.,
2001; Lindenberger, Marsiske, & Baltes,2000; Rapp, Krampe, & Baltes, 2006). Different
from self-selected goals, as assessed in most studies reported earlier, that
allow individuals to pursue one goal af ter the other, a dual-task situation is characterized
by the necessity to mana€le two tasks (provided for by the experimenter)
at the same time. Li et al., for example, conducted work on the role of
SOC in coordinating cogritive and sensorimotor behavior (i.e., simultaneous performance
of memorizing and walking). Older adults showed greater costs when
performing both tasks concurrently. As expected on the basis that the body is the
primary domain where aging losses occur and serious risks exist, older adults selected
walking over memorizing, as the primary target of resource allocation.
Moreover, older adults showed more compensatory strategies (i.e., using a
handrail) to keep their balance and to maintain higher levels of performance,
whereas younger adults showed more compensatory strategies in the domain of
thinking (i.e., slowing down the speed of presentation for words to be remembered).
These age-associated effects of differential use of SOC in favor of motor
over cognitive tasks were stronger when the behavioral system was tested at its
limits by increasing task diff iculty.
Taken together, these findings supplement the relevance of SOC on the behavioral
level. Older adults engage in selection (i.e., prioritizing walking over thinking)
and compensation (i.e., use of a handrail) to preserve their walking
performance when at risk. This preference of older adults to allocate their resources
primarily to motor behavior (such as keeping one's balance) rather than
to solving a memory problem is an example of highly automatized and largely