western-queensland-gardening-guide.pdf - South West NRM

Information Series QI96050 

Gardening Guide 

compiled by 

Staff of DPI and DNR West Region and Men Lyman 

nt of kimary Industries, Queensland 

nt of Natural Resources, Queensland

ISSN 0727-6273 

Agdex 280/20 

Funded by the 

Forest Extension Group 

First published 1993 

Ke~sed e&~on 1996 

0 The State of Queensland 

Department of Primary Industries 

GPO Box 46 

Brisbane Q 4001 

Department of Natural Resources 

GPO Box 2454 

Brisbane Q 4001 

Printed by Westprint Charleville 

from artwork supplied by DPI

Acknowledgments 

This booklet is made up of a collection of notes provided by staff of DPI and DNR. 

Past and present contributors of particular notes include: 

Flora Smith, Peter Bowly, Julie Frousheger, Ellie King, Peter Johnston, Chris Evenson, 

John Reynolds, Ernie Rider, Peter Voller. 

Mew Lyman, who has retired from his job as ABC radio 4QL's Outback Gardener, 

klndly added notes of his experiences and Tom Wyatt of the Rockhampton Botanical 

Gardens provided organic pest control tips. 

iii

Chapter 5. Propagation of trees and shrubs from seed 

Obtaining seed 

Pre-germination treatment of seed 

Growing media 

Sowing and germination 

Labelling and records 

Pricking out and dibbling 

Growing 

Hardening off 

Re-potting 

Chapter 6. Common pests and diseases of horticulhlral crops in 

western Queensland 48 

Good gardening practices reduce pest problems 48 

Follow safety warnings 49 

Citrus and other fruits 50 

Vegetables 53 

Roses and other flowers 57 

Chapter 7. Insects affecting farm trees 

Stem injections of insecticides to control pests in trees 

ich pesticide to use 

Pesticide safetv 

J 

Torn Wyatt's organic recipes for pest control 

List of Tables 

Table i. Recommended pH range 7 

Table 2. Australian native plants for growing in salt contaminated soil or with salt contaminated 

water 9 

Table 3. Plants for alkaline andlor salty soils 10 

Table 4. Australian native plants suitable for hot dry areas 12 

Table 5. Species lists for heavylclay soils 13 

Table 6. Species lists for sandylloamy soils 14 

Table 7. Types of fertiliser 39 

Table 8. Design ideas for tree guards 41 

Table 9. Common pre-germination treatments 43 

Table 10. Germination details 45 

Table 11. Possible treatments for insect problems on trees and shrubs (prepared by Dr Judy King) 60 

Table12 The easy guide to chemicals 65

Chapter 1. Gardening with bore water 

The first thing to remember when using bore water is that it may change the structure 

of the soil. This is because bore water is generally high in salts and extremely alkaline. 

Soil types 

The main soil types found in gardens in western Queensland are the sandy soils, 

sandy loams and clays. 

Sandy soils are usually well drained and of a light, free texture. They are very easy to 

manage when using bore water because, the salts in the bore water are so readily 

leached out. The only physical problem encountered is the low water-holding 

capacity. This can be easily rectified by the addition of organic matter like leaf mould, 

flood debris, hay or compost. 

Sandy soils are generally acidic but, like all soils, the pH is governed by the type of 

water being used. In this soil it is relatively easy to control any excess alkalinity by the 

addition of sulphur. 

In the Charleville, Eulo and Bollon areas, mulga soil is very common. This sandy loam 

is naturally very acidic and infertile but with good quality dam or river water, 

appropriate fertilisers, and organic matter it can become quite a useful horticultural 

soil. 

Bore water can make sandy loams become alkaline and the surface can set as hard as 

concrete and become impervious to water. This is caused by a chemical reaction 

between the salts in the bore water and the salts in the soil. The combination of mulga 

soil and bore water therefore needs special cultural practices and careful selection of 

plant species. 

Clays are common soil types in the Longreach, Winton, Richmond, Camooweal, 

Isisford, Blackall, Cunnamulla and Augathella areas. They are fairly fertile and usually 

alkaline and when bore water is added to these soils they quickly become very 

alkaline. Like the mulga soils, clays set very hard which impedes the infiltration of 

n rain falls, the drainage is seldom good enough to allow leaching of the 

salts present in the soil and concentrated by the use of bore water. Therefore clay soils 

are possibly the most difficult soils to manage. 

The application of bore water is a very critical point of gardening. Probably the best 

advice is to use as little as possible. ere practical, use those plants with a low water 

requirement or which are adaptable to salty or alkaline conditions. Where other 

species are required reduce the amount of water needed as much as possible by the 

use of mulches to reduce the ount of evaporation loss, which in the western 

Queensland climate can be enormous.

If large amounts of water are required, it is best supplied at less frequent intervals as it 

helps to wash the salts down away from the feeder roots. Sprinkling for only a few 

minutes every day only helps to concentrate the salts in the root zone. A good flood 

once a week is better than a little each day. Where a drip system is already in use, it is 

usually better to increase the rate of flow, let the plants have a good water, then turn it 

off and repeat it in a week's time. 

Salty water is best applied to the ground rather than the foliage. Where spray 

application is necessary -such as lawns -it is better to water at night to minimise the 

salt burn on the leaves due to evaporation. In sandy soils, the occasional very heavy 

watering to leach out salts is beneficial. 

The pH of the soil is a measure of its acidity or alkalinity. The pH is divided into 14 

points, with 7 being the neutral point. Below 7 the soil becomes increasingly acidic 

(sour) and above 7 increasingly alkaline (sweet). The relative acidity or alkalinity 

increases tenfold with each point; for example, pH of 8 is ten times more alkaline than 

a pH of 7 and a pH of 9 is one hundred times more alkaline than a pH of 7. 

The pH is a good indicator of soil nutrient availability. The best range is between 6.5 

and 7.5. Further up or down the scale from pH 7 certain nutrients become unavaiIable 

(see Figure 1) 

4 

Alkaline 

NITROGEN 

Figure 1. Soil pH range and the effects on plant nutrient availability (a thicker line indicates greater 

availability of the nutrient)

At the neutral pH level, that is 7, all nutrients are available. As the soil increases in 

alkalinity nutrients including nitrogen, iron and copper become unavailable; at the 

other end of the scale, the acid end, the availability of nutrients tapers off. Therefore, 

the closer the soil is to neutral, the wider the range of nutrients available and the better 

your plants will grow. 

Plants respond differently to pH. The majority of species grow well between 6.5 and 

7.5, that is, in the neutral range. Some are quite adaptable and will tolerate a pH from 

6 to 8. Bulbs like daffodils and jonquils are in this category. However, some plants 

have very special requirements and a narrow range; for example, azaleas require a pH 

of 4.5 to 5.5, that is very acid, making them quite unsuitable for the alkaline conditions 

produced by bore water. When the pH is greater than 8.5, which is common when 

bore water is used, the range of species able to be grown is very restricted. 

The salts in bore water cause a build-up of salts in the soil which causes changes in the 

soil structure. This leads to hard setting of the soil and impermeability to water as 

mentioned earlier. When the concentration of salts in the soil is too high the plants can 

actually perish for want of water, even if the soil is moist. This happens because the 

membranes which convey water from the soil through to the plant are adapted to a 

certain solution strength of salts. n there is too much salt, the water cannot pass 

through the membrane resulting in the plant's death. 

Some plants are better adapted than others to salty conditions. These are mentioned in 

the list of salt-tolerant plants at the end of this chapter. Plants which are included in 

both salt-tolerant and alkaline-tolerant lists are the most valuable plants to use when 

gardening with bore water. 

With problem water it is easier to use species which tolerate salt and alkalinity rather 

than struggling with less suitable species and having to use expensive chemical 

methods or time-consuming mechanical measures. There are also a number of species, 

particularly native shrubs and trees, which after the establishment phase require little 

water (see Table 4). Some of these are quite attractive and are certainly worth 

consideration. It is best to choose plants which are adaptable to their surroundings 

rather than trying to drastically change the environment. 

Steps for growing less well-adapted plants 

In small, special purpose areas, there are some steps which can be taken to grow less 

well-adapted plants. 

A necessary addition to most gardens is vegetables. Where there is a real problem 

with clay soils and bore water, it is often beneficial to form raised beds of well-drained 

sandy soils on top of the heavy clay soil. This improves the drainage and keeps the 

salt content to a minimum. Do not mix the sandy soil into the clay. A bed 20 to 30 cm 

high is adequate for annual vegetables and flowers and some ornamental trees and

shrubs. Some fruit trees such as stonefruit (peaches, nectarines, apricots and plums) 

require 30 to 40 cm of sartdy soil while others such as citrus and grapes require 50 cm 

or more. 

The sandy soil should be kept in place with logs, rocks etc. Beds should be large 

enough to accommodate the root system of the plant being grown; for example, 4 m 

wide for a mature citrus tree. Trees should be planted in rows for ease of formation of 

beds. These beds dry out quickly. The soil structure can be improved by the addition 

of organic matter and the soil pH acidified by the use of sulphur and nitrogen in the 

form of sulphate of ammonia. 

Beds for annual flowers may be treated in the same way as the raised bed for 

vegetables, and of course there are some annuals which are more suitable than others. 

These are included in the lists at the end of this chapter. 

Lawns can be maintained in reasonable condition, with the use of gypsum to improve 

the soil structure, and sulphate of ammonia as the nitrogen fertiliser. 

is of very poor quality and the soil heavy, it is often best to restrict the area of lawn to 

special purpose areas, such as near a barbeque or in a narrow strip close to your 

vegetable patch. It's surprising how attractive a garden can be with only a small lawn 

area and large areas of shrubs and trees, which can be kept tidy with heavy mulches of 

leaves and manures. Lawns are dealt with in more detail in Chapter 2. 

As a general rule, it is best to concentrate on the trees and shrubs which are suited to 

the environment by being adapted to alkaline and salty soils or by having an annual 

water requirement which is similar to the average rainfall. If you wish to have fruitbearing 

trees in your garden it is a good idea to have at least a couple of citrus trees 

(perhaps a lemon and an orange), or grapes. Raised beds are again the answer in clay 

soils, because of the drainage aspect which is an important factor when considering 

citrus. Some chemical manipulation can be carried out to advantage. Some other 

fruits such as dates are well suited to salty conditions in the lighter soils and some nut 

trees like almonds (south of Charleville) are fairly tolerant of alkaline conditions. 

Chemical heatmmt of soil 

If desired plants are not suited to local soil conditions, chemical treatment of the soil 

may be necessary. This treatment is rather expensive for large scale use and if not 

used correctly can be dangerous. 

In sandy soils chemicals such as sulphur and sulphate of onia can be used very 

effectively to reduce the pH to an acceptable level. Water moves freely $through this 

type of soil and even bore water helps to keep the salts moving. With care and 

common sense a sandy soil can remain productive almost indefinitely. 

Clay soils are rather a different proposition. The addition of calcium sulphate in the 

form of gypsum can be very beneficial. It improves the soil structure and the calcium 

is a necessary plant nutrient.

Sulphur can also be a very useful way to reduce pH. Wettable sulphur (flowers of 

sulphur) is the best form to use because its relative solubility make it more readily 

available to the plants. Sulphur is the cheapest form of acidification available at the 

moment. 

When adding nitrogen fertiliser always use sulphate of ammonia, because it has a 

more acidifying effect than urea. 

A problem with the use of excess chemical fertilisers in clay soils is the lack of drainage 

which will increase salt levels in the soil. The salts from the fertiliser together with 

the bore water salts will reduce the ability of the plant to extract water from the soil. 

Because of this, where there is a high content of salt in the soil, it sometimes does more 

harm than good to add a lot of chemicals. en trying chemical treatment, start with, 

a small amount, and be very careful. It may be better to supply nutrients as manure 

under these conditions. 

Organic matter 

Organic matter is a very important component of any soil as it helps hold moisture in 

sandy soil, improves the structure and dr ge of clay soil, helps in chemical 

reactions and makes available plant nutrients. Leaf mould and animal manures are a 

good source of organic matter. These are more suitable for use if they have been 

composted first. 

Figure 2. Three solid bales of hay arranged in a triangle around a tree provide mulch and a windbreak for 

the seedling 

! 

of fresh leaf mould and animal manure can be dangerous because the 

down effect by microscopic bugs can cause nitrogen deficiency. 

5

Also, if the organic matter is composted it will change the nutrients into a form which 

are most suitable and available to the plants. Most gardening books and manuals have 

good sections on the preparation of compost heaps. Do not apply the mulch right up 

to the trunks of the trees and shrubs as this will cause problems like collar rot to 

develop. Always stop the mulch at least 15 cm from the trunk. 

I 

When collecting animal manure avoid areas where chemicals such as sheep or cattle 

dip or jetting fluids have been used. Some of these preparations can be toxic to plants 

and can cause a lot of problems in the garden. 

Growing plants in pots 

Very special purpose plants can be grown in pots and watered with rainwater. Useful 

plants such as strawberries, herbs and egg tomatoes make attractive potted plants. 

A cumquat tree in a large tub will provide a lot of fruit for marmalade. Indoor and 

patio plants are a most attractive addition to any home. 

Tree form suitable for

Table 1. Recommended pH range 

a. Flowers and ornamental shrubs 

Abelia 

Ageratum 

Alyssum 

Amaranthus 

Anemone 

Antirrhinum 

Azalea 

Balsam 

Begonia 

Bottlebrush 

Cactus 

Calendula 

Camellia 

Canna 

Carnation 

Chrysanthemum 

Cineraria 

Coleus 

Cotoneastet- 

Crocus 

Cyclamen 

Daffodil 

Dahlia 

Daisy 

English ivy 

Foxglove 

Freesia 

Gentian 

Gerbera 

Gladiolus 

Grape hyacinth 

Honeysuckle 

Hyacinth 

Lilium 

Lobelia 

Magnolia 

Mignonette 

Morning glory 

Nasturtium 

Oleander 

Palms 

Pansy 

Passion flower 

Petunia 

Phlox 

Poinsettia 

POPPY 

Portulaca 

Primula 

Ranunculus 

Rose 

Salvia 

Stock 

Sweet pea 

Syringa 

Viola 

Wallflower 

Wistaria 

Zinnia 

b. Ornamental trees 

Ash 

Elm 

6.0-7.5 Poplar 6.0-7.5 

6.0-7.5 Weeping willow 5.0-6.0 

c. Agricultural crops 

Clovers 

Lucerne 

Oats 

Rice 

Sunflower 

Wheat

d. Vegetables 

Artichoke 

Asparagus 

Bean 

Beetroot 

Broccoli 

Brussels sprouts 

Cabbage 

Carrot 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Chives 

Cucumber 

Garlic 

Leek 

Lettuce 

Marjoram 

Onion 

Parsley 

Parsnip 

Pea 

Pumpkin 

Radish 

Shallot 

Spinach 

Swede 

Sweet corn 

Tomato 

Turnip 

Almond 

Citrus 

Gooseberry 

Rockmelon 

Passionfruit 

6.0-7.0 Peach 6.0-7.5 

6.0-7.5 Plum 6.5-7.5 

6.5-7.5 Strawberry 6.5-7.5 

6.5-7.5 Walnut 6.0-8.0 

6.0-8.0 Watermelon 6.5-7.5

Table 2. Australian native plants suitable for growing in salt contaminated soil or with salt 

contaminated water 

Botanical Name 

Acacia pendula 

Acacia podalyriifolia 

Atriplex nummularia 

Lysiphyllum carronii 

Brachychiton populneum 

Brachychiton rupestre 

Callistemon citrinus 

Callistemon rigidus 

Senna sturtii 

Casuarina cristata 

Eremophila maculata 

Eremophila polyclada 

Eucalyptus calycogona 

Eucalyptus camaldulensis 

Eucalyptus forrestiana 

Eucalyptus leucoxylon war. rosea 

Eucalyptus macrandra 

Eucalyptus ochrophloia 

Eucalyptus ra weretiana 

Eucalyptus salubris 

Eucalyptus moluccana 

Eucalyptus sideroxylon 

Eucalyptus carnbageana 

Eucalyptus torquata 

Eucalyptus wiridis 

Eucalyptus thozetiana 

Gre willea robusta 

Lagunaria patersonii 

Melaleuca armilla ris 

Melaleuca bracteata 

Melaleuca linariifolia 

Pittosporum phylliraeoides 

Common Name 

My all 

Queensland silver wattle 

Old man saltbush 

Bauhinia 

Kurrajong 

Bottletree 

Scarlet bottlebrush 

Stiff bottlebrush 

Dense cassia 

Belah 

Native fuchsia 

Flowering or false lignum 

Gooseberry mallee 

River red gum 

Fuchsia gum 

Red-flowered yellow gum 

Long-flowered marlock 

Yapunyah 

Black iron box 

Gimlet gum 

Grey box 

Wlugga ironbark 

Dawson gumlBlackbutt 

Coral gum 

Green mallee 

Napunyah 

Silky oak 

Norfolk Island hibiscus 

Bracelet honey myrtle 

Black teatree 

Snow in summer 

Berrigan or Butterbush

Table 3. Plants for alkaline andlor salty soils 

A. Small herbaceous species, both annual and perennials 

Flowers 

Petunia 

Gypsophilia 

Carnations 

Calendula 

Statice 

Hollyhock 

Marigold 

Livingstone daisy 

Straw Flowers 

Gazanias 

Mesembtyanthemum spp. (Pig faces) 

Succulents 

Many bulbs--daffodils, freesias, snowdrips, jonquils 

Lisianthius 

Vegetables 

Beetroot 

Asparagus 

Spinach 

Silver beet 

Cabbage 

Cauliflower 

Broccoli 

Tomato

B. Exotic trees, shrubs and creepers 

Botanical name 

Albizia lebbeck 

Bougainvillea spp. 

Cascabela theuetia 

Duranta repens 

Ficus carica 

Fraxinus oxycarpa 

Jacaranda mimosifolia 

Morus spp. 

Merium oleander 

Olea africana 

Olea europaea 

Olea spp. 

Phoenix dactylifera 

Plumbago capensis 

Punica granatum 

Schinus molle 

Spattium junceum 

Tamarii parvinora 

Tipuana Tipu 

Vitex trifoliata 

Vitis vinifera 

Wsteria spp. 

Yucca spp. 

Common name 

Rain tree1Acacia treelsiris 

Various named varieties 

Golden oleander1 Captain Cook tree 

Sky flower 

Culinary fig 

Desert ash 

Jacaranda 

Mulberry 

Named oleanders 

Golden olive 

Common olive 

Fruiting olive 

Date palm 

Blue plumbago 

Pomegranate 

Pepper tree 

Spanish broom 

Tamarisk 

Race horse tree 

Beach vitex 

Grapes 

Wisteria 

Yucca

Table 4. Australian native plants suitable for hot dry areas 


Acacia acuminata 

Acacia aneura 

Acacia salicina 

Lysip hyllum carrinii 

Lysip h yllum gilvum 

Brachychiton populneum 

Brachychiton mpestre 

Brachychiton australe 

Callistemon viminalis 

Callistemon citrinus 

Callistemon phoeniceus 

Callistemon rigidus 

Senna artemisioides subs p. artemisioides 

Senna artemisioides su bsp. coriacea 

Senna artemisioides subs p. sturtii 

Casuarina cristata 

Dodonaea boroniifolia 

Eremophila la tro bii 

Eremophila maculata 

Eremophila polyclada 

Eucalyptus cambageana 


Eucalyptus leucoxylon var. rosea 

Eucalyptus macrandra 

Eucalyptus ochotphloia 

Eucalyptus tessellaris 

Eucalyptus viridis 

Hakea purpurea 

Hibiscus tiliaceus 

Melalucca bracteata subs p. nesophila 

Pittosporum p hyllira eoedes 

Common name 

Raspberry-jam wattle 

Mulga 

Willow wattle 

Bauhinia 

Bauhin~a 

Kurrajong 

Bottletree 

Bottletree 

Gold-dust bottlebrush 

Scarlet bottlebrush 

Fiery bottlebrush 

Stiff bottlebrush 

Silver cassia 

Desert cassialbutter bush 

Dense cassia1Grey cassia 

Bela h 

Fern-leaf hop-bush 

Crimson turkey bush 

Native fuchsia 

False lignum 

Dawson gum/Blackbutt 

River red gum 

Red-dowered yellow gum 

Long-flowered marlock 

Yapunyah 

Carbeen 

Green mallee 

Purple hakea 

Cottonwood 

Mauve teatree 

Butterbush or Berrigan

Table 5. Species lists for heavylclay soils 

(E. = eucalyptus) 


Common name 

Larger frees 

Eucalyptus cambageana 

E. moluccana 

E. camaldulensis 

E. coolabah 

E. ochrophloia 

E. thozetiana 


Peltophorum pterocarpum 

Hibiscus tiliaceus 

Brachychiton australe 

Medium trees 

Eucalyptus spathulata 

Melaleuca bracteata 

Callisternon viminalis 

Callisternon phoeniceus 

Lysip hyllum carroni 

Blackbutt 

Grey box 

River gum 

Coolabah 

Yapunyah 

Napunyah 

Siris, rain tree, acacia tree 

Yellow jacaranda 

Cotton wood 

Broad-leaf bottletree 

Swamp mallee 

Black tea tree 

Weeping bottlebrush 


Bauhinia 

Southern 

Larger trees 


E. ochrophloia 

E. sideroxylon 

E. moluccana 

E. argophloia 

E. largiflorens 

E. cambageana 

E. pilligaensis 

E, thozetiana 

Medium trees 

E. torquata 

Callistemon virninalis 

Callistemon phoeniceus 

Callistemon. rigidus 

Me1 bracteata 

Me1 linariifolia 

Me1 stypheloides 

River gum 

Yapunyah 

Red ironbark 

Grey box 

Western white gum 

Black box/Swamp box 

Black buttlDawson gum 

Narrow leaf box 

Napunyah 

Coral gum 

Weeping bottlebrush 


Prickly bottlebrush 

Black teatree 

Flax-leaved paperbark 

Prickly-leaved teatree

Table 6. Species lists for sandylloamy soils 


Common name 

Noslthern 

Larger trees 


Eucalyptus citriodora 

Euc thozetiana 

E. tesselaris 

E. dallachyana (papuana) 

E. terminalis 

Medium trees 

E. bakeri 

E. pachyphyllus 

E. leucoxylon 'rosea' 

Pittosporum phylliraeoides 

Melia azedarach 

Azedarachta indica 

Atalaya hemiglauca 

Siris, Acacia tree, Rain tree 

Lemon scented gum 

Napunyah 

Moreton bay ash 

Ghost gum 

Western bloodwood 

Bakers mallee 

Mt Isa mallee 

Red flowering yellow gum 

Butter bush 

White cedar 

Neem tree 

Whitewood 

Southern 

Larger trees 

Melia azedarach 

E. tessellaris 

E. polyclada 

E. terminalis 

E. torelliana 

E. thozetiana 

White cedar 

Moreton Bay ashicarbeen 

Western bloodwood 

Cadaghi 

Yapunyah 

Medium trees 

E. spathulata 

E. torquata 

E. eximia nana 

E. cladocalyx nana 

Swamp mallet 

Coral gum 

Golden gum 

Dwarf sugar gum

Chapter 2. Growing better lawns 

Keeping a lawn lush, green and healthy in western Queensland is not easy but it can 

be done. With careful use of fertilisers, soil amendments and watering, a lot of the 

problems in lawns can be prevented. 

Bore water 

The quality of artesian bore water is one of the major problems in keeping a lawn 

vigorous. Small amounts of sodium bicarbonate and sodium chloride in the water 

accumulate in soils which are watered with the bore water, resulting in two conditions 

which are undesirable for lawn growth: 

The soil becomes hard and water penetration becomes very slow. This accentuates 

the salt problem because the affected areas are watered little and often, with much 

of the water lost by evaporation, and therefore wasted. 

The soil becomes very alkaline. A pH level above 8.5 is commonly found. This 

reduces plant growth and if very high (above 9.0) may cause unthriftiness and plant 

death. 

Soils affected in this way develop a black scale on the surface. The grass is often 

yellow and grows poorly despite frequent watering. 

Watering practices can reduce the build-up of salts at the surface by leaching out the 

excess. The aim should be to minimise evaporation thus reducing waste of water and 

avoiding the concentration of salts. 

Watering in summer should not be done during the heat of the day. More than 

half of the water from sprinklers is either lost to evaporation or used rapidly by 

plants. This leaves only a little to wash through the soil to remove the harmful 

salts from the root zone of the plants. Watering at night is best. 

Watering should be as infrequently as possible with heavy applications at each 

watering. Light watering encourages shallow rooting and excessive evaporation. 

This will wet the soil to a considerable depth, thereby reducing evaporation and 

reducing salt concentration in the root zone. Deep rooting is also encouraged 

making the lawn less susceptible to periods without water; for example, when you 

go on holidays.

Soil conditioners 

Gypsum and sulphur 

Gypsum (calcium sulphate) is a useful soil conditioner to offset the effects of salty bore 

water. It is quite cheap if it can be obtained in 50 kg bags. Gypsum does two things: 

the calcium substitutes for the sodium in the soil and in the plant, and it softens soil 

containing sigruficant amounts of clay. 

Sulphur is a powerful acidifier but has little effect on improving soil hardness. 

Consequently, a combination of the two is useful to overcome the problems of 

watering with bore water which is usually quite alkaline. 

In garden beds the gypsum and sulphur should be dug into the soil for faster results. 

For lawns this is not possible so watering is the only practical way to incorporate them 

into the soil. If a problem has already developed, and the soil is very hard, this 

treatment can be repeated two or three times during a summer season at monthly 

intervals. Gypsum will take a while to soften the soil as it will be incorporated only 

slowly into hard soil. 

Organic matter 

Adding manure or compost to soils will also help to prevent soil becoming hard. It 

improves soil structure and fertility and helps in maintaining a suitable pH. 

The most important nutrient required by lawns is nitrogen. Care should be taken with 

nitrogenous fertiliser to apply the right amount--too much will damage the lawn. 

Sulphate of ammonia is the best nitrogen fertiliser to use but urea and nitram are also 

commonly used with bore water. The acidifying sulphur counteracts the effects of 

bore water and the ammonia supplies the nitrogen. 

Every two years, a mixed fertiliser such as Tropic or Q5 containing nitrogen, phosphate 

and potassium should be used. 

Fertilisers are often quite expensive when bought in small packets. Purchasing 20,40 

or 50 kg bags is a much cheaper way of fertilising the lawn.

Some of the fertilisers will absorb water from the air and set hard. If opened bags are 

being kept from one year to the next, seal them with masking tape and put them in a 

dry place. 

Pests 

Lawn p b s 

Lawn grubs become prevalent in wet summers and are the most serious pests of 

lawns. The lawn grub is the larva of a light grey-brown moth measuring about 2.5 cm 

(1 inch) across the outstretched wings. The fully grown larvae (caterpillars or grubs) 

are about 2.5 cm long and greyish-green with darker spots on each body segment. 

They feed at night and shelter at the base of the turf mat during the day. The 

symptoms of grub infestation are a browning-off of the lawn and a dry, wilted 

appearance. The ground in the affected area is sometimes littered with pieces of leaf as 

well as the pellet-like excreta. Early warning of the lawn grub attack may be obtained 

by placing wet bags overnight on the lawn and examining them early next morning. If 

any grubs are present they will be found under the bag. Alternatively, a water jet from 

a hose will flush grubs to the surface. 

Lawn grubs like well kept lawns. Those which are watered and mowed frequently 

often suffer the worst damage. en the grubs are active, it is best to leave the 

mowing for sometime, add a gypsum and sulphur treatment or manure which will 

deter the moths for a while and let the lawn take its course. 

Control 

If the grubs become too bad then they can be sprayed. Trichlorfon sold as a Dipterex or 

Lawn Grub Killer is the best. Repeat sprayings two weeks apart while the grubs are 

present. Spray when the p bs are first noticed, before damage to the lawn is severe. 

Repeated sprayings are usually needed during summer. Spraying in the late afternoon 

gives good results. This way, most of the p bs are dead before morning and therefore 

not as attractive to birds, the chemical has largely dissipated before children and pets 

are on the lawn again, and damage to the population of the red, parasitic wasp is 

minimised. 

Sheep and cattle dips should not be used to spray lawn because of the health risk to 

humans and pets. 

Figure 3. A grass grub

The felted grass coccid 

The felted grass coccid attacks a wide range of grasses including both green and blue 

couch. Tlus pest is common in the area, but usually does not cause severe damage. It 

is usually found at the edges of lawns, particularly near concrete borders or steps. 

However, it sometimes spreads into the main part of the lawn, causing the grass to 

turn yellow and bare patches to develop. The insect is globular in shape, about 2 rnm 

(1/16 inch) in diameter, with a white felt-like covering. It is found at or near ground 

level on stems or runners. 

Control 

A dimethoate (Rogor) white oil spray should be used. 

Ants 

A few species of ants can be very troublesome in lawns, destroying the turf and 

causing large bare patches, which are then suitable for invasion by weeds. However, 

most species of ants are beneficial. 

Control 

Ants are seldom troublesome where spraying to control lawn grubs is carried out. 

en necessary spray with fenthion (Lebaycid) at the recommended concentration. 

White p b s 

e h bs are the larvae of a scarab beetle which lay eggs in the soil, frequently close 

es or tree stumps. The grubs are fleshy and white with a darker brownish head 

and bluish-grey terminal section of the abdomen. They are 2 cm to 2.5 cm (3/4 inch to 

1 inch) in length and thicker than a pencil and are normally curled into a half-moon 

position. They feed on the roots of grasses and other plants. Affected plants lack 

vigour, brown off, are easily pulled out of the ground and may die. If an affecte 

is dug up, the grubs will be found among the roots which they are destroying. 

grubs can also cause the death of many vegetable and flower seedlings. 

Control 

Treat the soil surface with chlorpyrifos (Lorsban) at the concentration recommended on 

the container. As the grubs range in depth from just under the surface of the oil to a 

depth of 20 cm (8 inches) it is necessary to water the surface well after application to 

ensure that the insecticide is washed into all parts needing treatment. Keep children 

off the lawn for a day or two after spraying. 

Broad-leafed weeds in lawns 

There are many broad-leafed weeds which are pests in lawns, including thistles, 

flatweed, daisies, cudweed and khaki weed. Khaki weed (Altemantheva repens) is very 

common and readily colonises bare patches. It has a thick tap root and a creeping 

habit. Roots form at each stem joint, and a mat-like growth is formed. The leaves are 

dull-green and roundish. The flowers are straw coloured and when gone to seed are 

stiff, with sharp points. They break off and spread easily. If lawns are watered and

fertilised regularly to promote vigorous grass growth, and if insect control is carried 

out when necessary, weeds are less likely to be troublesome. 

Con fro1 

A selective herbicide such as 2, 4-D is effective for the control of most broad-leafed 

weeds. Spraying should be carried out when the weeds are young and could be 

followed about a week later by an application of nitrogen fertiliser, for example 

sulphate of ammonia, to promote lawn growth. There are many products containing 

2 4-D on the market, for example Shini~eed 50 and Amin'de 50. Kikuyu lawns are 

somewhat sensitive to 2,4-D. Local experience has shown that a mixture of dicamba 

and MCPA gives effective control of broad-leafed weeds in kikuyu lawns without 

adversely affecting the grass growth. Commercial preparations which contain 

dicamba and MCPA include Hortico Clover and Bindi Lamn Weeder, Yates Bindi Weed 

Killer and Selleys Weed-B-Gon.

Chapter 3. Observations, opinions and hints on western 

gardening by Men Lyman, 4QL ABC's gardening man 

, 

There are lots of varieties of grass available for lawns, usually it boils down to 

couch, kikuyu and buffalo. Good hints for planting lawn seed are to prepare the area 

well, have water available. Tip a packet of seed into half a bucket of sand, add half a 

cup of household kerosene and mix by hand. The kerosene will deter ants and birds, 

and will not harm the seed. The planted area should be kept moist by light 

sprinkling until the grass is growing strongly. As a general rule, seed should not be 

planted deeper than twice its size. No fertiliser should be added until after you have 

mowed your lawn and then, sparingly. 

Vegetable gardening 

This makes good sense. Apart from the cost savings your vegetables will be fresh. 

Due to weather conditions in western Queensland, the time between March and 

September is the best growing period. It is a good idea to prepare your garden a 

couple of months before planting and incorporate sand, compost and fertilisers. 

Don't use fertilisers too high in nitrogen, as this will make your plants stalky. 

A lot of western people grow vegetables in the warmer weather with the use of 

shade cloth over the roof and a roll up side on the hot wind side. The ideal gauge of 

shade cloth for vegetables is 50%. All plants need sun but not too much sun. 

There is a good range of vegetables that do well in the west: tomatoes (good idea to 

plant them in a different area every year), cabbages, lettuce, broccoli and silverbeet. 

These plants do better with flooding type water as over head sprays can "sweatff the 

plants. Pumpkins and cabbage like a frost to set them. If frost is a problem, cover the 

plants if a frost is coming. If you can hose the plants and wash the ice off before 

sunrise you can often save them. 

Plant cuttings 

Most plants will strike cuttings under the right conditions. Some are harder to strike 

than others, so try the easy ones first. If you can take your cutting when the sap is 

flowing up, or the plant is growing, you will have a better chance. 

The principle of cuttings is to try to have four nodes, with two in. the growing 

medium and two out. Cut below the first node and above the fourth. The bottom cut 

should be made straight and the top on a 45' angle. The next secret is plant these 

cuttings in small pots so that the root system can develop more easily and quickly. 

They must be kept moist but not wet, out of the wind and in part shade. Sometimes 

humidity must be kept up; for example, with mist sprays or by enclosing the plant in 

a plastic tent. Ho one cutting powder can be useful.

Suitable species 

This is a big subject and certainly in the ABC Radio listening area there is a big range 

of soils. In general the pH level is high (which is called alkaline). The soil types vary 

from heavy clay, light clay, sandy clay through to the so-called red country. I would 

consider gardening in the red country to be like living in heaven. All this soil 

variation brings problem of dryness, water problems and hot winds (and sometimes 

cold wind). My opinion of wind is that if you have everything else right (species, 

etc) wind can be of benefit in strengthening your plants. 

The best way to select species that will grow for you is to look around your area at 

what is doing well, whether it be at Roma, Cunnamulla, Longreach, Hughenden, 

Birdsville, the Gulf, Alpha or anywhere in between. 

at size tree or shrub to plant 

I favour so-called tube stock. These are a 2 inch x 4 inch pot which helps develop a 

strong root structure. They suit planting straight into the ground and they are 

cheaper to buy and transport. 

Some people walking into a nursery want a tree yesterday (or the week before) so 

they buy the tallest in a big pot for fifteen times the price of a tube. Particularly with 

natives, these plants can only get so big by being in pots too long. A native naturally 

wants to get its roots down, but in a pot they can only go round and round. With the 

Longreach Council I have planted a tube beside an advanced plant and the tube has 

gone on to be a ten times better plant. 

at size hole to dig 

There is a theory that you need to dig a big hole and fill it with good soil and plant 

your tree. I must admit that in some cases this works. Particularly if the hole is big 

enough and there is reasonable sub-surface drainage; but in reality the filled hole 

acts like a big pot and the plant spends its life in this restricted introduced material. 

1 like, where possible, to rip and cross-rip new planting areas. If a grader cannot be 

used a post hole digger often can, but, as you know, the sides are often compacted 

and made so hard that roots cannot penetrate easily. The solution is to dig several 

holes as close together as possible and push the undug areas in with a crowbar and 

then shovel all the dirt back in the hole. With experience you will find species most 

suited to your hole preparation technique (or lack of it).

My experience shows that planting should be slightly deeper than the soil level in 

the tube pot, the reason being that the soil in the pot is a porous nursery mix and if 

planted at ground level the sun pulls the moisture out of this nursery mix before the 

plant can get its roots down. Also the soil tends to subside somewhat. If you do not 

use a grader or post hole digger but use a crowbar, loosen the soil wider and deeper 

than the pot size and put the same soil back around it. 

Watering 

Water availability and the method of wateringShas to be number one in growing a 

tree or plant. My observations are that generally people water too often and not 

thoroughly or wide enough and that most palms and indoor plants are overwatered. 

The easiest systems of watering are flooding, use of drippers and 

sprinklers. 

Flooding 

Flooding is really only available to people with flowing bores. A fair bit of this is 

being done in the north west. My observations of these projects are that most are 

flooded too often and that those without mulching are more successful. This is 

because over time the mulch resting against the tree trunk causes the trunk to rot 

and the tree to die. 

Drippers 

There are a big range of drippers but I like the adjustable types because if one plant 

is not getting enough you can increase the flow or turn it down. I have also noticed 

that some people run their supply line longer than their volume of water can handle, 

which means the first on the line get plenty and the bottom end gets nothing. 

I 

Generally you can only afford one supply line with the dripper put in near the tree, 

which in many cases means the tree only gets watered on one side. A solution is to 

have a loop around each tree and a dripper on either side, although this costs a little 

more. As trees grow, extra drippers can be added further from the bee. 

Sprinklers 

In my opinion the so-called "knocker" type gives a better penetration, compared to 

upright sprays that have a lot more run-off. 

One problem with sprinklers, especially with bore water where there are natives and 

shrubs in the spray line, is that foliage and bark get burnt off. 

There is an instrument called a moisture meter that can be pushed into the soil 

around the root zone to show the moisture in that area. A lot of people see the top 

soil dry and water, while the root area is well over-wet. These moisture meters cost 

around $20 but save hundreds.

A lot of people water pot plants by squirting the water straight at an area, and when 

water runs out the bottom they think the plant is watered, but most times this is not 

the case especially with a porous mix. The solution is to water slowly all over the soil 

area. Pots with a base need the stale water tipped out from time to time, as stale 

water can cause root rot. Pots can be soaked in a bucketful of water for a while 

instead of being watered. 

If you have a moisture meter it is a good tip to never dip it in water alone as it will 

throw the balance out and give false readings later on. 

My observations are that most people buy a plant and then never fertilise it again. 

They walk into a nursery and see all the lush healthy plants but do not realise that 

this is achieved by soil mixes, correct pH levels, watering procedures and regular 

fertilising from fertiliser for root systems and foliage. Except for indoor plants and 

nursery growing, I do not like foliage fertiliser. I favour a balanced organic mix like 

chook manure pellets used four times a year, but not in excessive doses. I like the 

fertiliser put on top of the ground not in the root zone at planting. 

Planting for stock shade 

I am often asked what trees to plant for stock shade and this is a great idea. 

However, being in the area with the stock, the big question is how to protect these 

trees until they mature. 

There are a couple of possibilities-one to fence and the other to plant in fluming 

pipes or hollow logs standing upright. This puts the tree above the reach of stock 

more quickly. Logs in a lot of places are free and easy, but 10 years down the track 

when the log rots away the tree will not have enough soil around the root zone 

whereas fluming will last the life of the tree. 

Atlracting birds 

It is always a nice idea to plant trees and shrubs that attract birds but probably the 

first thing is to declare war on wild cats. Some people think that if they plant a group 

of flowering trees or shrubs they will get wild birds, but the poor old birds have to 

get to this area. The birds need a corridor so they can fly to your area with safety. 

Most flowering shrubs and trees in the west do not flower for long periods so it is a 

good idea to try to get species that flower at different times and in the lean times 

supply supplementary feeding. Water is also a big component and can be provided 

by bird baths or shallow drums of water.

Chapter 4. Successful tree growing 

There are several fundamental principles to observe before planting a tree. The tree or 

shrub to plant should: 

be well suited to the site 

have good growth and survival rates 

be tolerant of local climatic extremes 

not pose a potential weed problem 

achieve the desired purpose 

be relatively easy to establish. 

Planting trees 

Trees should be planted so they get the best combination of light, water and 

nutrients to suit their growth requirements. How best to do this will vary 

depending on the species being planted, soil type, slope, exposure, climate and 

surrounding plants and animals. The following are a set of basic guidelines for 

planting seedlings from pots. 

Effort spent on preparing a site before planting trees will generally be repaid many 

times over in improved survival and growth rates and easier management after 

planting. 

Weed control 

Weeds, particularly grasses, compete strongly with young trees for moisture and 

nutrients. A weed-free area should be created before planting and maintained 

around each tree for the first few years. This area should be at least 1 m wide at 

planting, and increase to 2 to 3 m wide as the tree grows. Weeds can be controlled by 

cultivation or use of herbicides and/or mulches. (See Figure 4). 

Figure 4. Creating a weed-free zone

Preparing the hole 

Dig a hole about twice as wide and twice as deep as the pot the seedling is in. There 

is usually no need to add manure or other organic matter to the soil. If the soil is dry, 

fill the hole with water and allow to drain. Heavy clay soils take a long time to drain 

so they should be prepared the day before planting (See Figure 5). 

Figure 5. Preparing the hole 

Planting the seedling 

Soak the seedling in a bucket for a few minutes before planting. If the seedling does 

not slide out of the pot easily, place your hand over the top of the pot (with the 

seedling sticking out behveen your fingers), turn it upside down and tap the pot 

against the edge of the bucket to release the plant. Plant the seedling a little deeper 

than it was in the pot (about 1 cm) and press the soil firmly around the root ball. 

Cover the potting mix with a layer of the soil from the hole. This protects the root 

ball from drying out too quickly (See Figure 6). 

Figure 6. Planting the seedling

Water trap 

Make a small water-catching dish around the tree to catch rainwater and concentrate 

irrigation water. Trees should be watered in well at planting and only watered after 

that if really necessary (See Figure 7). 

Figure 7. Trapping the water around the tree 

Mulching the young trees helps retain moisture, control weeds and can contribute 

c matter to the soil. Mulch must be kept away from the stem of the tree to 

avoid coIlar rot 

(See Figure 8). 

Figure 8. Keep mulch away from the stem of the tree

Ferti Iiser 

A small application of a good general mixed fertiliser (between 50 g to 100 g per tree 

depending on soil type and species) can help get the tree started. 

The fertiliser needs to be buried about 10 cm deep and at least 20 cm away from the 

tree. On flat ground, bury it in two small holes either side of the tree. On sloping 

ground bury it in a band uphill of the tree (See Figure 9). 

Figure 9. Keep fertiliser away from the tree 

Protection 

Individual tree guards can help protect the seedlings from grazing animals and 

wind. General protection for the site may involve maintaining a fire break and 

fencing (See Figure 10). 

Figure 10. Tree guards protect the young trees from grazing animals

Planting trees in dry areas or areas with limited water 

Establishing trees for farm or garden use in places with limited or unreliable rainfall 

can be difficult, especially if there are not good supplies of irrigation water available. 

Trees planted in the paddock or stock yards especially need to be able to grow well 

with a minimum of extra work. 

Plant small numbers of trees at a time 

Unless natural soil moisture is good and other conditions for establishment are 

favourable it is advisable to only plant as many trees as can be easily maintained and 

watered. Each tree may require up to 40 litres per watering and time may be needed 

for weeding and animal protection 

Choose drought hardy species 

Some tree species will perform better in drier conditions than others. Generally 

plants which naturally grow in dry areas are likely to be most drought hardy. Local 

native plants will most likely handle local climatic extremes. DPI advisers can help 

in the selection of drought hardy species. 

Prepare planting sites well 

Cultivation and digging a deep planting hole will help to encourage better tree 

rooting. Deep ripping up to 40 cm depth may also be useful to break up any hard 

pans or rock layers which may stop deeper root penetration. It is generally 

ended that several rips be put in about 30 cm apart to break up soil before 

B Ponding bank on sloping site. I I 

-- 

Figure 11. Preparing the planting site

Plant into deep soil moisture 

Good quantities of moisture at 30 to 90 cm depth under planting sites will increase 

tree survival and growth rates considerably. Fallowing land and waiting for natural 

rainfall to soak the soil is one way to achieve this. If there is no rain, pre-soak the 

planting holes with 20 to 40 litres of water. In heavy soil, soakage may take a 

number of hours. 

Build water traps and mounds 

Water traps, which may be small dish-shaped depressions around the tree or larger 

diversion banks to catch run-off water for the tree (see Figure 13), can be very helpful 

in increasing the benefit of rainfall for the trees. They can also help when watering 

because larger volumes of water can be poured on the tree without it running away. 

Mulching will help reduce evaporation 

Evaporation of water from the soil surface can have two undesirable effects on 

planted trees: 

it can be a major cause of water loss from the soil profile, thus reducing the 

amount of water available for the trees 

in situations where poor quality water is used, or where the soil is high in salts 

and minerals, evaporation can actually cause concentration of toxic levels of salts 

in the tree root zone. This can lead to poor growth and possibly death of young 

trees. 

Mulching exposed soil around young trees will help in reducing evaporation and 

help provide maximum benefit to the tree from any rainfall or additional watering. 

Mulching around trees will also help to keep soil temperatures even and provide 

shelter for beneficial soil organisms like worms, fungi and small insects. Organic 

mulches such as straw, leaf mould, bark chips or rotted manure are highly desirable 

both for moisture retention and protection from mineral build up. Rocks, gravel or 

woven plastic matting can also be used as mulch around young trees. 

Plan a watering stratem 

The most desirable outcome of watering is to get trees to a stage where they can 

survive in the natural conditions without help. 

In situations where water is very limited and of poor quality it is advisable to 

concentrate on heavy but infrequent watering which should be encouraged to soak 

in close to the tree and deep into the soil. Planting into pre-soaked holes with follow 

up watering at two week to monthly intervals for the first few months, falling back 

to six weekly to bi-monthly, should be adequate to get drought-hardy trees 

established. Watering should be reasonably heavy, 20 to 40 litres per tree. Provided 

water traps and mulches are used, these should be adequate to allow good tree root 

development. After the first six months trees should only be watered on an "as 

needed" basis unless extra water is available. If larger volumes of water are 

available, watering should be heavier but not more frequent. The process of 

infrequent soil wetting and drying will encourage the young tree to develop a root 

system more tolerant of natural conditions.

Keep weeds away 

Weeds, in particular grasses, are extremely good competitors with young trees for 

moisture and nutrients. They can rapidly dry soil out and slow the growth of the 

tree. Competing plants should be kept at least 1 m away from the tree for the first 

two years. A good covering of mulch can help control weeds. 

Protect from animals 

Grazing or trampling by animals can kill trees or seriously slow tree growth. Young 

trees need to be protected from common grazing animals in the area. Fencing or tree 

guards may be required depending on the local situation. 

Weed control for tree planting 

Weeds are simply any plant that we think shouldn't be there. en we plant bees, 

nature almost always sows a few other plants that we consider to be weeds. These 

weeds not only ruin an area's appearance, they can also cause damage or harbour 

pests. But the most severe problem is the competition they provide for the trees we 

are trying to grow. Weeds growing around a young tree reduce its chances of 

survival, make it unhealthy, and reduce its rate of growth. Effective weed control is 

therefore an essential part of tree planting. 

E'ects of competition 

A plant's growth is controlled by the light, water and nutrients available in its 

growing space. Their supply, however, is limited and can be reduced further by 

drought, soil erosion or other environmental changes. Competition can therefore be 

crucial (See Figure 12). 

Figure 12. Elements that control a plant's growth

The tree's growing space extends around the plant, both above and below the 

ground, and increases as the tree grows bigger. Anything that reduces this space 

reduces the tree's growth. The competition from weeds above the ground is easy to 

see, but it is in competing for water and nutrients below the ground that they are 

most damaging. Eventually the tree reaches a stage where its size, both above and 

below the ground, gives it an advantage over smaller plants-its larger leaf area 

increases the tree's ability to manufacture growth materials, and its larger root 

system explores more ground. 

Although the small plants can now offer the tree little competition, nearby trees of 

equal or greater size may limit the tree's light by shading it, or compete with its 

lower roots for water. These trees in their turn now become weeds. Eventually, 

though, the tree becomes so large that it is in effective control of the site. 

Creating a favourite environment 

To establish trees successfully, a weed-free zone should be created and maintained 

around each tree until the tree is large enough to look after itself. The size of the 

zone varies with both the species and the size of the tree, and must expand with the 

tree as it grows-it is often easier to create this larger zone at the time of planting. 

Weeds must be kept well under control until the tree has become established. 

The point at which a tree is regarded as established varies with the species; generally 

it is when the tree is: 

from 1.5 to 3 m tall 

vigorous, with full foliage and a stout stem 

- 

incapable of being topped by adjacent vegetation. 

This could take from 6 to 12 months for fast-growing species- for example, 

eucalypts - and from 18 to 20 months for slower growing species. 

The general site must also be maintained throughout this period to avoid 

competition for the tree, to provide access and to reduce the risk of fire. 

Steps in weed control 

The following procedure will ensure that your trees become successfully established 

without the threat of weeds. 

I. Examine the site 

Determine whether there are any features of the site that could contribute to a future 

weed problem. The best time to deal with possible future problems is before you 

plant, because afterwards consideration for the well-being of the tree will limit the 

methods you can use.

Look for: 

soil erosion problems that could affect your methods of weed control 

particular weeds that should be removed before planting; for example, twining 

legumes 

tall or rank vegetation that would constitute a fire hazard and make the area 

difficult to work 

Consider also whether your method of preparing the site could itself cause a weed 

problem; for example, by encouraging regrowth from cleared wattle trees. It is 

always a good idea to clean up the site before you plant. Methods include 

cultivating, slashing, burning, and treating with herbicides. 

2. Create a tree zone 

The weed-free tree-planting zone can be either a ring or a band. Each zone should be 

from 1 m to 2 m wide, increasing to 2 m as they grow (See Figure 13). 

terrow 

tree zone 

Figure 13. A model tree zone 

The zone can be created by cultivating the ground, or by applying herbicides. In 

many cases, a combination of both works best. Burning off or mowing are not 

effective, since the weeds must be killed. 

In general, herbicides such as glyphosate are effective, but some weed proble 

might require specific herbicides. (Always seek professional advice and follow the 

directions on the label.) Treat the area as close to planting time as possible, preferably 

when the weeds are short and vigorous. Wait for the zone to be clearly visible before 

planting. 

3. Maintain the zone 

Until the trees have become well established, maintain a consistently high level of 

weed control in the zone. The following methods are effective: 

e Hand weeding: Either pull out the weeds or chip them out, taking care not to 

damage the trees roots. Note, however, that where large areas are involved, this is 

a slow and tedious process.

Mulching: For mulching to be effective, the mulch must be maintained and 

periodically topped up. For large areas, though, it requires much physical effort 

and vast amounts of material (plastic sheeting is not recommended). Remember to 

leave a small space behveen the trunk of the tree and the mulch to avoid collar rot 

or other fungal damage. 

Knockdown herbicides: Knockdown herbicides will kill developed weeds, but 

have to be reapplied as needed. As a general rule, the spray should not fall on any 

part of the tree - effective guards can be made from buckets or drums. Herbicides 

such as glyphosate can be used so long as the tree is protected. (Remember to seek 

advice and follo~u the directions on the label.) 

Residual herbicides: Residual herbicides applied to bare soil prevent weeds from 

developing, and so are suitable for long-term maintenance of the site. But it is 

important to use the right herbicide in the amounts appropriate for each species. 

(Remember to seek specijic advice and follow the directions on the label.) Knockdown 

and residual herbicides, used alone or in combination with one another, provide 

effective fast control over large areas. 

4. Maintain the general area 

There are several ways to maintain the general area: 

Slashing: Slashing is a simple way of maintaining the site and it also contributes 

to fire control. 

Cultivating: The inter-rows can be cultivated provided the tree's roots are not 

damaged, and no soil-wash problems are created. 

Treating with herbicides: Some specific weed problems can be treated with 

herbicides. 

Grazing: Once the trees have reached a height of from 2 m to 3 m, grazing can be 

useful. Remember, though that some animals - particularly cattle - can do serious 

damage to trees by trampling or rubbing against them, or by browsing. 

Mulching 

Mulching is the practice of pu g a layer of material over the soil surrounding a 

tree. The mulch can insulate the soil from temperature extremes, help the soil retain 

moisture and suppress the growth of weeds. If organic material is used, the mulch 

will break down and contribute organic matter to the soil. Effective material for 

mulch is sometimes available from by-products of other farrning activities. The 

labour and material costs of mulching need to be balanced against the benefits. The 

following points should help in making a cost effective choice of whether to mulch 

and if so, what type to use.

Laying the mulch 

Mulch should be spread from the stem to 1 m to 1.5 m all around the seedling. It 

should not directly touch the stem as wet mulch may rot the stem and decomposing 

mulch may burn it. Ideally, mulch should be applied directly after the tree has been 

planted and watered, over weed-free soil. Initial weed control can be achieved 

through cultivation or use of herbicides. Although mulch does reduce competition 

from weeds and grasses, residual herbicides used in conjunction with mulch can 

greatly improve performance. A good covering of mulch should be in place before 

each growing season. Mulch is most important in the first years of growth, and 

organic mulches will benefit a tree throughout its life. 

Potential pro blems with mulch 

The properties desirable for mulch will depend on the soil type and climate. A thick 

layer of mulch will reduce extremes in soil temperature on a daily and yearly basis, 

while a thin mulch might act quite differently. Black plastic will encourage heat 

absorption and increase soil temperature, while white plastic will do the opposite. 

Organic mulches which are largely wood or bark based often draw nitrogen from 

the soil as they decompose. This should not affect fertile soils or "nitrogen fixing" 

plants such as acacias or casuarinas. For less fertile soils, however, a small quantity 

of nitrogen fertiliser should be added to such mulch. This may increase the rate at 

which the mulch decomposes, but should ensure that it does not compete with the 

growing tree for nitrogen. Fertiliser meant for the tree should be incorporated into 

the soil, not the mulch, otherwise it will be used by the mulch in decomposition, 

rather than getting to the tree. 

In frost prone areas, some mulches may actually increase the risk of frost. A thick, 

dry layer of organic mulch does not store much heat during the day. At night, it will 

cool down much more quickly, thus reducing the risk of an induced frost. Mulches 

can harbour a variety of insects. Most of these will be a sign of healthy soil, but if 

they appear to be damaging the tree, push the mulch away from the tree and seek 

advice from your local DPI officer. 

Mulch can also act as a fuel pile (especially straw and hay), concentrating fire around 

the tree, so remember to maintain fire breaks. 

As they decompose, many mulches will require additional nitrogen. Freshly-cut 

vegetation such as grass will produce heat as it decomposes, and produce heat 

which could burn the roots and trunk of the tree. Wait until it has dried before using 

it as mulch.

Particulars for mulch application 

Saline areas: Mulch can be used to good effect, as it reduces evaporation from the 

. soil surface, thus reducing the rise of salts to the surface in capillary water. 

Steep slopes: Mulch can provide protection for soil on steep slopes prone to 

erosion. 

Cracking clays: Any mulch will help reduce seedling loss on cracking clays by 

reducing the severity of the cracks. If sand is used it will fall into cracks that do 

occur and reduce drying out and exposure of the roots at depth. 

Types of mulches 

Bulk mulches: Heavy material such as wood chips, compost plus crushed rock. 

Straw and hay: Light and easy to spread. 

Woodchips, pine bark: Good, durable mulch but may draw nitrogen from the 

soil. 

Sawdust, woodshavings: As for woodchips and pinebark above, except may 

repel water when settled. This is no problem if the soil surface is dished around 

the seeding (See Figure 14). 

shallow dish so that 

water repelled from 

surface of mulch runs 

back towards tree 

Figure 14. A shallow dish to capture water around base of tree 

Leaf litter: Variable performance and durability depending on type. Tends to 

decompose readily which is good for the soil, but means it needs reapplying if the 

other benefits of mulch are to be maintained. 

Compost: Decomposes readily and adds organic matter to the soil. Could be a 

major source of weed seed. Needs to be replaced regularly, so generally not 

feasible for large plantings. 

Shredded paper: A light mulch which should last for a season. May repel water 

when compacted - dish soil surface as per Figure 14.

Sand, gravel, crushed rock: A durable mulch effective for temperature control, 

but not so good for weed control. Contributes no organic matter to the soil, and 

can be expensive. 

Mixed mulches: The above mulches can be mixed to offset the disadvantages of 

mulches that repel water. 

Mat mulches: Although easy to place, they are often inadequately secured, 

leading to their early failure. It is important to at least secure the corners and 

desirable to secure the edges as well. Pegs, rocks or soil are frequently used for 

this purpose. Pegs can be made from short lengths of fencing wire bent into a "L" 

or "U" shape (See Figure 15). There are a number of commercial mulch/weed 

control devices based on paper or other fibre products. 

1 I 

mat mulch held down by pegs 

Figure 15. Mat mulch held down by pegs 

Newspaper, cardboard: Cardboard or 8 to 10 sheets of newspapers makes a good 

mulch which should last a season. The soil surface under the paper should be 

dished to collect water. The edges of paper should overlap and must be weighed 

down to stop it blowing away. This can be done effectively with a layer of bulk 

mulch. If soil is used to weigh it down, the paper will decompose more rapidly. 

Hessian bags: Several layers of bags overlapping at the edges will provide an 

excellent mulch. Must be well secured. 

Old carpet, underlay: Makes a durable and effective mulch. ~ependi'n~ on its 

composition it may or may not contribute organic matter. It can be difficult to 

obtain and cut - try the local tip.

Fertilising native trees 

Most native plants will grow adequately if planted on a suitable site but early 

growth rates can be increased by the addition of an appropriate type and amount of 

fertiliser. The fertiliser enriches the soil and ensures that plants have the necessary 

supply of nutrients. As well as the major nutrients-nitrogen, phosphorus, 

potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulphur - trees also require trace elements such 

as iron, copper and zinc. The type and quantity of fertiliser used depends on soil 

types and conditions, and the species being planted. 

Good results from fertilising will only be obtained when weeds and grass around 

trees are thoroughly controlled. 

Placement of fertiliser 

Seedlings and young trees 

Fertilisers can be spread in a ring around the tree if the area is relatively Eat, but 

should otherwise go in a band on the uphill side of the tree. An alternative method is 

to dig one or two small holes 10 cm to 20 cm deep near the tree, place the fertiliser in 

the hole and refill with soil. Fertiliser should be 20 cm to 50 cm away from the base 

of the tree (See Figure 16). 

Figure A 6. Placement of fertiliser 

Figure 17. Availability of nutrients

Advanced or mafure trees 

Healthy mature trees show little response when general fertilisers are applied, but 

particular elements may be applied to correct deficiencies. Sick or damaged trees 

may also benefit from fertiliser application. Spread the fertiliser evenly or place it in 

holes (ie. made with a crowbar) across the area beneath the canopy. Organic 

fertilisers such as blood and bone and composted poultry manure vary in nutrient 

content but are usually good sources of phosphorus and nitrogen. Other organic 

substances such as old cow manure, hay, sawdust, shredded newspapers, grass 

clippings and bagasse are not fertilisers. In some cases these materials may even 

reduce nutrients available to young trees as they tie up nutrients in the composting 

process, only releasing them to the tree after composting has finished. (See Figure 18). 

Fertilising guide 

Native plants can be broadly categorised according to their natural habitat. The 

following is a general guide to the fertiliser requirements of trees from each 

category. 

Eucalypt forest from poorer soils: These are generally dry sclerophyll forest trees 

with understoreys of sclerophyllous species. Nutrient requirements of mature 

specimens are probably adequately catered for in most soils, but seedlings will 

respond to balanced fertilising with nitrogen and phosphorus at establishment on 

all but the best soils. 

Arid zone species: These come from variable soils, and good drainage takes 

precedence over nutrition in a horticultural situation. Most are generally adapted 

to soils of poor fertility so treat as heath plants or dry sclerophyll plants 

depending on their origin. 

Rates of fertilising will vary widely depending on the species being planted, soil 

types and conditions. Rates of between 50 g and 300 g at planti 

followed by similar amounts after good rain in the spring or early 

follow-up application the following spring may also be beneficial.

Table 7. Types of fertiliser 

Note: N = nitrogen 

P = phosphorus 

K = potassium 

Vpe Elements Fehiliser % by weight 

I I I 

Single fertilisers 

Fertilisers 

Mixtures 

Tree guards 

Protecting young trees from stock, vermin and other pests is essential. Lack of 

adequate protection from animals frequently causes the failure of tree plantings. 

ere large numbers of trees are planted or regenerated in rows or clumps, fencing 

is the most cost-effective method of protection. For small numbers or individual 

trees, tree guards may be more desirable. 

Young trees can be attractive feed to grazing animals, especially if the trees are the 

only greens in a paddock of dry grass. They are also prone to being trampled if 

unprotected. Trees up to 3 m high can be destroyed by cattle or goats in minutes, 

and taller trees can be easily ringbarked, which ultimately kills them. 

Tree protection, although essential, is also the most costly component of a tree 

planting or regeneration program. For this reason, it is necessary to find methods of 

protection which are both economical and effective. 

The range of materials and designs used for tree guard protection is almost endless. 

Virtually any scrap material can be used, but there are several design features which 

must be included for the guard to be successful. 

Most importantly, the pard must protect the tree from all types of grazing 

animals in the area: A guard designed to protect trees from cattle, for example, 

needs to be more robust than one intended to protect trees from sheep or hares.

Half measures in the construction of guards often lead to disappointment. Some 

design suggestions are listed in Table 8. 

Guards must stand the test of time: They need to be effective at least until the 

trees are out of stock reach. (This may be up to five years with some trees). In 

some cases, the expense involved in the construction of strong guards can be 

offset by making them re-useable. 

Guards should use available resources: Examples might be old tanks with the 

ends knocked out, old fence netting or barbed wire, stacks of fence posts, hollow 

logs, fuel drums, pallets, stacks of tyres, fertiliser bags or bottle-top skeletons. 

Even simple electric fencing can be very effective. 

Costs should be considered: The costs involved in buying, making and setting 

up tree guards vary with type and materials. Consider not just material costs, but 

also time involved in construction when working out the most cost-effective tree 

guard for your purposes. A tree guard constructed of heavy mesh may be 

expensive to buy, but the savings in labour inputs and long-term recyclable life 

may offset the cost. 

Guards have other benefits: Certain types of tree guards may have other benefits 

as well as animal protection. The use of plastic tubes or fertiliser bags to protect 

trees from hares also creates a micro-climate around the young tree. This helps 

protect the young tree from wind and frost damage and also raises humidity 

levels and reduces evaporation loss. This can promote early growth of the tree 

and lead to better establishment. It also makes trees visible when undertaking 

follow-up weed control. 

The guard must be firmly secured around the tree: Depending on the 

application, guards may have to face high winds, floods, hungry animals or 

animals just looking for something to rub against. If this type of pressure cannot 

be resisted, then tree damage may result. There is a range of commercially 

available tree guards. Most are designed to protect trees from small animals, or to 

exclude lgrger animals. Information on these is usually available through stock 

and station agents. 

Finding the ideal tree protection system for a particular tree planting requires some 

ingenuity on the part of the tree planter in adapting resources at his or her disposal.

Figure 18. Simple home-made guards to protect against cattle or sheep 

Table 8. Design ideas bos tree guards 

Animal type 

Horses 

Goats, roos and 

cattle 

Sheep, pigs 

calves and 

wallabies 

Hares 

" Generally the t 

Minimum guard Minimum guard Design examples 

heig kt width " 

2m Ilrn I . 15 cm x 10 crn heavy gauge weld 

1.5-1.8 m 

1 m 

0.6 m 

I I mesh cylinder secured with three 

1 rn 

0.6 rn 

0.4-0.6 m 

I 

@ 

I heights 

@ 

steel posts 

Stacks of wooden posts or other 

materials 

Galvanised netting, ring lock or 

light weld mesh (5 cm x 5 cm) 

Cylinder secured with three steel 

posts 

Electrified netting or rings of wire 

at suitable heights 

Plastic sheeting, fertiliser bags or 

shade cloth around three wooden 

stakes 

Light galvanised mesh, bottletop 

skeletons, secured with wooden 

stakes or metal pins 

Electrified wires at suitable 

'ler the guard, the wider it must be so as not to impede the growth of the young plant. 

star picket

Caring for your cihus trees in the west region 

Citrus trees require special care. 

Fertiliser should be applied two times per year: the first application around June/ July 

and the second in November/December. Use a general purpose fertiliser such as 

Tropic which contains all the essential nutrients. The rate of application depends on 

the age of the tree. For each year of age 0.5 kg of fertiliser is applied to each tree. For 

example a two year old tree receives 2 x 0.5 kg = 1 kg of fertiliser. A maximum of 3 kg 

is used for well-grown trees. 

Use a trace element fertiliser designed for citrus once a year. Apply this in 

November/December following the directions on the pack. The fertiliser should be 

spread in a broad band around the tree. With young trees start about 10 cm from the 

base of tree and continue out to about 50 cm past the edge of the canopy. Older trees 

have a longer root system and therefore the band should be wider. 

Bore water on citrus trees causes the leaves to yellow, become dull and curl up. Later 

the margin may die back and turn brown, particularly near the tips. Leaf fall and twig 

die-back may be severe. Fruit tends to fall off and to be smaller than normal. To help 

with this problem- as with the same problem around the whole garden-the use of 

gypsum and sulphur is ideal. Both gypsum and sulphur (in the form of wettable 

sulphur or flowers of sulphur) are available at most hardware shops. These should be 

applied at the rate of three handfuls of gypsum to one of sulphur per square metre. 

Keep all grass away from base of trees and don't pile grass clippings or mulch too 

close to the trunk.

Chapter 5. Propagation of trees and shrubs from seed 

Obtaining seed 

Having chosen a range of species to be propagated, seeds may be obtained from the 

following sources: 

+B commercial seed merchants 

Forestry Seed Store, at Meiers Rd, Indooroopilly 

your own seed collection or from a local collector. 

Make sure the seeds you obtain are actually the species you wish to propagate. A 

slight difference in the name could be a totally different plant. 

Some seeds deteriorate very quickly, so you may have to sow them i 

else store them under certain conditions. Most seed lives longer if stored in a 

refrigerator. 

Pre-germination treahnent of seed 

l'he seeds of many plants have evolved ways to help them survive harsh conditions. 

Hard seed coats may prevent the seed from drying out or protect it from predators. 

They also cause the seed to remain dormant until suitable conditions exist for 

germination. Pre-germination treatments are used to break this dormancy. Some 

ation treatments are described in Tabie 9. Some seeds need 

other treatments, such as damaging the seed coat, or cold moist storage to mimic a 

temperate winter. 

Table 9. Common pre-germination treatments 

I Nil treatment (Treatment A) 

I Cold water soak 

Hot water soak 

Seed can be sown directly 

Pour cold water over seeds in a container and 

soak for: 

2 4 hours (Treatment B) 14 8 hours (Treatment C) I 

Pour just-boiled water over seeds in a container I 

and soak for: 

. 24 hours (Treatment D) 

48 hours (Treatment €1

Growing media 

There is a wide range of soil materials which are used for growing plants. You can 

mix a batch of medium yourself or else purchase one of the commercially prepared 

mixes* 

If flat seed trays are going to be used, a very free draining medium will be necessary. 

The medium must be clean and free of weed seeds. 

Sowing and germination 

Seeds may be sown into individual containers, or on a semi-commercial scale, 

densely into a tray or large container. 

If the viability of the seed to be sown is low or unknown or germination is slow, then 

sowing into a communal tray will allow dibbling out of the successfully germinated 

seedling with little waste of growing medium or space. 

However, if the seed is known to have good viability and is likely to result in a quick 

and high germination rate (>85%), then sowing into individual containers will save 

on dibbling but pricking out may be necessary. 

Use the following steps: 

Fill the container to about 10 mrn from the top with moist medium, allowing room 

for the seed and a covering of medium. ~evel the medium by shaking or knocking 

the container. 

Press large seed (greater than 10 mm) halfway into the media. 

Sprinkle small seed lightly over the surface. Very fine seed can be mixed with dry 

sand and shaken out of a pepper pot to obtain even spread of seed. 

Cover small and very fine seed with a thin layer of sand to about the thickness of 

the seed size. 

Figure 19. Cover the seeds with fine sand

Gently water in the seed and keep it moist but not wet. The container could be 

covered by plastic or kept moist with a sprinkler/mister system. 

Most seeds germinate quicker during warm conditions. Early spring to early 

summer is generally the best season for germinating seed. Protect the germinating 

seed from frosts. If propagating in cool weather, gentle continuous warming of 

the germination containers will speed up germination but this is not essential. 

Place the containers of sown seeds in a shaded area (at least 50% shade). 

Germination periods (the time until the seed sprouts) can vary greatly. 

Labelling and records 

It is easy to forget what seeds you have sown in which container. Label each 

container with: 

the species 

the date of sowing 

o the source or batch of seeds 

and the sower. 

If you are growing a lot of plants, you will need to keep records to know which 

species germinate well and how long they take. Table 10 suggests some information 

you may want to record. 

Table 10. Germination details 

Species 

Batch 

Qty I weight of seed 

Numberlwpe of containers 

Pre-germination treatment 

Date sown 

Swing method 

Time from sowing to germination 

Number or percent of seed that geminate 

Comments

Pricking out and dibbling 

Seedlings sown close together soon compete for water, nutrients and light. When 

seeds have been sown into individual containers, sometimes more than one seed 

germinates. When the seedlings are at the two to four leaves stage, select the most 

vigorous seedling and pull out the poorer seedlings. These are usually discarded. 

This process is called "pricking out", and is easily done by hand. 

Where a communal sowing has been carried out, it is necessary to transplant the best 

of the seedlings into individual containers so that they can grow on. This process is 

known as "dibbling". It is also carried out at the two to four leaf stage. 

The medium should be gently loosened. 

Select only the most vigorous seedlings. Holding onto a leaf, each seedling 

should be carefully pulled out of the medium and re-potted. 

The way you re-pot the dibbled seedling can determine the eventual success of 

the final tree or shrub. Kinked or curled roots created at this stage often cause the 

premature death or stunted growth of plants. Care must be taken to make a large 

deep hole in the potting medium in the new container into which the seedling is 

to be placed and avoid kinking or tangling the roots. 

Carefully press the medium around the roots and gently water in. 

Figure 20. "Dibbling" the seedlings 

Growing 

The growing period varies from 3 to 12 months, depending on the species. Growth 

can be assisted by several factors: 

Shading: 50% shade is adequate for most natives. 

Root pruning: Roots should not be allowed to grow out of the pot into the 

ground. This can be prevented by regularly lifting the pots or, preferably, having 

the pots suspended to allow air pruning.

Fertilising: It is necessary to supplement the essential elements needed by the 

plants that are not provided by the potting medium. Fortnightly applications of 

complete soluble fertilisers will suffice. 

Watering: Regular watering for 4 to 5 minutes, twice daily, will be generally 

adequate. Missing even a single watering could result in the death of many 

seedlings. The number of waterings may need to be increased during adversely 

hot and dry conditions. 

Weeding: Weeds will compete strongly with the small trees, so weed removal is 

essential. 

Hardening Off 

Hardening off is the practice of preparing plants for the shock of transplanting by 

reducing the application of water and fertiliser and exposing them to more sun. This 

should be done gradually over a few weeks before planting. Growth will slow down 

and the plants will be sturdier and better prepared for being planted out. Most 

plants establish and grow better when planted out as sun-hardened seedlings. 

If you can't plant when the seedlings are ready, then re-potting may be necessary. 

This should be done before the plants become pot-bound. 

Select a pot which is wider and deeper then the existing pot. 

Remove the seedling from the pot with the potting medium intact, and set it into 

the new, larger pot, taking care not to tangle or kink the roots. 

Fill the space between the root ball and the side of the new container with new 

potting medium, press it in firmly and then water (See Fipre 21). 

Figure 21. Re-potting

Chapter 6. Common pests and diseases of horticul 

in western Queensland 

There are many diseases and pests whch attack horticultural crops. Adequate control 

may be obtained by carrying out correct cultural practices and by a few established 

pest and disease control procedures. 

Good gardening practices reduce pest problems 

It is no accident that pest and disease problems are usually less severe in neat nurseries 

or gardens than in unkept ones. The chances of pests and disease attacking 

horticultural plants are reduced when the surrounding area is clean and in good order. 

Weeds not only compete with the crop for moisture and nutrients, but provide cover 

for pests and diseases. Diseased plants should not be dug into the soil or left to lie in 

the area, but should be burnt to destroy the disease causing organisms. 

Chemicals are no remedy for poor cultural practices, and growers cannot hope to reap 

the full benefits from applied insecticides, fungicides or herbicides unless they practise 

correct cultural procedures. 

Lack of vigour because of low soil fertility is often associated with a disease outbreak. 

Attention should constantly be given to the provision of better soil fertility and 

improved soil structure for healthy plant growth. Practices which should be 

considered to help alleviate poor growth are: 

the addition of artificial fertiliser at planting time and in the spring 

the addition of animal manure or compost 

the building up of beds to give greater topsoil depth and better drainage. 

Other factors which may be the cause of lack of vigour include trace element 

deficiency, too much or too little moisture and nematode (eelworm) infestation. 

Crop rotation, that is, the planting of a succession of different types of crops, is a 

cultural practice which tends to prevent any undue increase in the pest and disease 

population associated with one particular crop. A two-year rotation will greatly assist 

in suppressing soil-borne disorders.

Follow safety warnings 

Most materials which are used for insect and disease control are also poisonous to 

humans. Therefore anyone using these materials should carefully follow the directions 

shown on the container, and observe all warning and precautions. en using some 

preparations, a mask should be worn to prevent inhalation of the vapour and 

protective clothing should be worn to prevent the spray from contacting the skin. 

When the operation is completed, clothin uld be changed and any exposed areas 

of the skin should be washed thoroughly. spraying edible crops a period of two 

weeks (or as otherwise directed) should be allowed between the last pesticide 

application and harvest. All treated fruits and vegetables should be thiroughly 

washed before use. 

Ody those pests and diseases which are co n in this area and about which 

frequent enquiries are received, will be discussed in this review. 

es of chemicals (in italics) mentioned are intended to serve only as 

and should not be regarded as reco ndations for particular co 

preparations. 

Most chemicals can be bought at hardware stores or stock and station agents. If the 

required chemical is not in stock, most shops will order what is needed. The 

application rates and concentrations which are stated on the container should be 

followed carefully.

Cihaas and sther fruits 

Queensland fruitfly 

The Queensland fruit fly (Batrocera tryoni) is a major pest in citrus, stonefruit and home 

gardens. It also attacks the fruits of many native trees and shrubs. 

The adult fruit fly has a wasp-like appearance, the body being reddish-brown with 

lemon-yellow patches on the middle portion of the body. It is somewhat longer than a 

house fly. The insects may be easily seen in trees on sunny days when conditions are 

suitable for egg laying. The elongated oval eggs are laid in batches of six or seven, 

under the skin of the fruit, usually shortly before ripening occurs. The larvae which 

emerge from the eggs feed on the flesh of the fruit and rots develop. The fruit quickly 

becomes unfit for consumption. 

Control 

Spray when flies are observed, with dimethoate, (e.g. Xogor) or with fenthion, (Lebaycid 

or Baytex). Dimethoate should not be used on Meyer lemons, Seville oranges or 

cumquats because it causes the tree to shed flowers, fruit and leaves. Both chemicals 

are toxic to bees, so avoid spraying when bees are active. 

An alternative and much less disruptive spray is a bait of yeast autolysate and 

maldison or chlorpyrifos applied at 50 mL per tree to a one square metre patch low 

down on the tree at weekly intervals. Also apply to nearby shrubs throughout the 

garden to increase the area treated. 

To make the spray add 20 mL of yeast and 5 mL or maldison or 2 mL of chlorpyrifos 

ingredients to one litre of water. 

The use of a trap such as Dakpot containing maldison to indicate the presence of flies is 

recommended but it should be realised that this traps only the male fruit flies. 

Sca les 

Redscale 

The main scale pest of citrus trees in Western Queensland is red scale (Aonidiella 

aurantii). This scale is flattish, reddish and circular with a diameter of about 2 mm. 

The female is wingless but the male is winged. Living young (crawlers) are produced 

by the female and these select their own feeding site and secrete the scale cover. 

Leaves, fruit, twigs, limbs and main branches may be attacked. Only the limbs and 

main branches of open, poorly foliaged trees are infested, as the scale shows a distinct 

preference for exposed, sunny sites. It is not usually found in appreciable nuinbers on 

limbs and main branches, if the tree is carrying a reasonably good amount of foliage. 

Affected trees lack vigour, twigs die back and the fruit must be cleaned before use.

mite wax scale 

White wax scale (Grasmrdia destructor) also occurs and attacks a wide range of plants, 

both cultivated and native. This is a soft scale, the adult being about 5 mm in 

diameter, and is found mainly on mature wood. Living young are produced and these 

settle on the current season's growth. Direct injury by the scale is less important than 

contamination of the fruit by a sooty mould which proliferates on the escudates from 

the scale. 

Control 

Both these scales may be controlled by using an oil spray in mid November and again 

(if necessary) in late December. Do not apply during the heat of the day as the oil will 

cause severe burning and may even kill the plant. A narrow range oil such as Caltex 

Lovis or Ampol Octron may be better than white oil. 

For red scale use 150 mL of oil in 10 L of water. For white wax scale use 90 mL of oil in 

10 L water. Spray leaves, branches and trunks. Use early in the mo 

afternoon. Spraying during the heat of the day when temperature over 320C can 

age the trees. Do not spray when the trees are short of water. It is preferable to 

gate a few days before spraying. An insecticide like carbaryl can be added to 

reduce severe infestations. 

Citrus aphid 

Citrus aphids are soft, black or greenish-black, sap-sucking insects, about 3 

tenth inch) in length, which are found on omg shoots and flowers. They cause 

distortion of the leaves which become c d and scorched in appearance, and 

dieback of the shoots occurs. Growth is retarded and hit set affected. A 

characteristic feature of an aphid colony is a sticky fluid which is produced. This is 

partly sap from darn plant tissues and partly a fluid secreted by the insects. The 

fluid provides a me which is suitable for the growth of dark coloured moulds 

which can cover much of the surface of affected shoots. The fluid also attracts ants 

which are therefore found in association with aphid infections. Aphids should not 

cause too many problems for home gardens. 

Control 

Lady birds will control aphids given half a chance. However, if growth is severely 

infested, Pirimor at 2.5 g in 100 L applied to young growth is a biologically-safe control 

method. 

Citrus gall wasp 

This is a very small, black wasp which lays its eggs in young twigs during the spring 

, causing conspicuous swellings or galls to develop on the 

merge from the eggs and feed within the gall tissue of the 

in spring. Each cavity in 

ae pupate for a brief period 

ce of the gall. The wasps 

appear in September and October an 

after emergence, usually

on the tree on whch they lived. Spread to other trees is slow because of this tendency 

to remain on the same tree. 

Control 

None of the chemical methods so far tested have proved successful in commercially 

controlling this pest. One preventative action available is to prune infected parts 

during autumn and winter, when the insects are present only as larvae within the 

galls, before the emergence of the wasps in spring. Pruned twigs should be burnt. 

Another preventative step is to introduce parasites of the gall wasp to your garden. 

These are available from Mr Dan Papacek 'Bugs for Bugs', 28 Orton Street, 

Mundubbera 4626, phone (071) 654 986. 

Spined citrus bug 

The spined citrus bug is green with a prominent thorn or spine on each of the front 

corners of the body just near the head. It is about 20 mm long and green in colour. 

This makes it difficult to see amongst green foliage. The nymphs are yellow and black 

and become greener as they develop into adults. 

Both the adults and nymphs suck sap from the young shoots and fruits of lemon, 

orange and mandarin trees. Fruit drop results and even just a few bugs on each tree 

can cause severe damage. 

Control 

Spray in the late afternoon with maldison (Malathion) (2 mL/lL of water) and for each 

litre of water add 10 mL of white oil. Alternatively, bugs can be hand-picked from the 

tree. However, care should be taken to avoid the caustic fluid these bugs eject.

Vegetables 

Insect pests of curctrrbits (Pumpkin and melon family) 

Pumpkin beetles 

The banded pumpkin beetle is orange-yellow, with two large black spots on each wing 

cover. It is about 6 mm (1/4 inch) long and 3 mm (1/8 inch) broad. 

The plain pumpkin beetle is slightly larger and more slender, and is uniform 

yellowish-brown colour. 

Pumpkin beetles are particularly destructive to the seedlings, flowers and small fruit 

of curcurbit crops, and the growth of established plants may be checked by the beetles 

feeding on the leaves, flowers and newly formed fruit. They show a distinct preference 

for the young leaves and tendrils and often cluster together when feeding. Leaves 

may be eaten so that only the main veins remain. n the beetles feed on flowers, 

hit set is affected and when a young fruit is attacked it will wither and fall. 

The small, oval, yellow eggs are laid on dead leaves or small clods of earth under the 

food plants. After about 10 days, the long, narrow, cream-coloured larvae hatch and 

attack the main roots system and subsidiary roots, and the greater part of the body 

remains outside and may be easily seen when infested roots are ex d. The roots 

become swollen, discoloured and mis-shapen and plant growth is retarded. The 

larvae also penetrate the lower surface of fruit which are touching the ground, and 

produce blemishes through which fungi can enter the tissues, causing rots to develop 

as the fruit ripens. n fully grown (12 the larvae pupate in the soil and the 

beetle later emerges. 

Control 

Spray with carbaryl (Bugrnaster)at the dilution rate of 0.1 % (1mL per litre) 

Leaf-eating ladybirds in curcurbits 

This beetle is oval in shape, about 6 (1/4 inch) long and yellowish-brown in colour. 

The wing covers are marked with from 24 to 28 conspicuous black spots which 

distinguish it from the harmless or beneficial ladybirds which are found on other 

plants. These have fewer or no spots. 

The leaf-eating ladybird's movements are sluggish and it does not fly readily. The 

oval, yellowish eggs are laid in clusters on the under surface of foliage or developing 

fruit. The yellowish 1 ae emerge and feed on nearby leaves. n fully grown these 

larvae are about 1 cm (1/3 inch) long and the body is profusely covered with dark, 

many-branched spines, giving a hairy appearance. Pupation occurs on the host plant 

or in adjacent trash. All stages of this pest may be present on the food plant, mainly 

the foliage, although flowers and developing fruit may be injured. The beetles feed 

mainly on the upper surface of the leaves. The larvae are confined to underneath the 

leaves, destroying the green tissues and leaving veins linked in a grid-like, almost

colourless film. Injury lowers the yield and exposes the maturing fruit to the sun, 

causing scald. The larvae also damage the rind of the fruit. 

Con erol 

Spray with carbaryl (Bugmaster) at a dilution rate of 0.1 %. 

Fzmgal diseases of curcurbits 

These usually only occur in ths area in exceptionally wet seasons. 

Powdery mildew of cucumber and rockmelon 

This appears as a white fungus growth on sterns, leaf stalks and leaves. 

Control 

Spray with oxythioquinox (Morestan) when noticed and thereafter at 7 to 10 days 

intervals, as necessary. Other suitable fungicides are Triadimefon (Bayleton Garden 

Fungicide) and Chlorothalonil and Fenarimol (Zero Fungicide). It is good to alternate 

the use of fungicides to d mise the risk of resistance to fungicides developing. 

Powdey mildew of marrow and pumpkin 

This appears as white patches on older leaves and stems, causing loss of foliage. 

Control 

Dust with dusting sulphur when the disease appears and weekly thereafter as 

required. Oxythioquinox (Morestan) or triadimefon (Bayleton Garden Fungicide) are also 

suitable. - 

Downy mildm of cucumber and rockmelon 

This mildew appears as yellow or brown, angular spots, starting on older leaves and 

causing defoliation. 

Control 

Spray with chlorothalonil and fenarimol (Zero Fungicide), mancozeb (Dithane M-45) or 

zineb (Zineb 80) fungicide spray, when noticed and thereafter at 7 to 10 days intervals, 

as necessary. This disease is more likely to occur in warm, moist weather. 

Aphids on vegetables 

Aphids are small, soft insects, usually green or greenish black, clustered under leaves, 

or on shoots or flower stalks and buds. 

Control 

Spray with dimethoate (Rogor).

Caterpillars or grubs on vegetables 

There are many different types of caterpillars or grubs whch occur from time to time, 

and cause severe damage. 

Control 

Most species of these pests can be controlled by spraying with carbaryl (Bugmaster) or 

diazinon (Diazinon 800). 

White cabbage butterfly or cabbage grub 

The larvae of this butterfly are velvety green grubs, up to 4 cm long, which devour the 

leaves of cabbages and related species. They leave belund obvious black excrement. 

Control 

Dipel Bacterial Spray should be used when grubs or butterflies are seen. 

Nematodes (eelwo 

These pests are not confined to vegetables, but attack flowers, shrubs and trees as well. 

However, as most enquiries are about root knot nematodes in vegetables, they will be 

dealt with in this section. 

Vegetables which are grown in western Queensland and which are affected by root 

knot nematodes include beetroot, cabbage and related crops, carrots, parsnips, lettuce, 

tomatoes and curcurbits such as pumpkins, melons and cucumbers. 

Nematodes are microscopic: the majority of soil nematodes range in length from 

0.5 mm to 2 mm and in width hom 10 to 50 microns. 

The above-ground symptoms of root nematode infestation are, lack of vigour and 

reduced tolerance to drought. With trees, foliage may be small and leaf-drop and 

dieback may occur. 

Below the ground, numerous irregular swellings or galls on the roots are a 

characteristic symptom. ere fleshy tissues are present, extensive tissue destruction 

causes rot to develop. Excessive root branching may occur, causing the development 

of a densely matted root system on plants which are normally strongly taprooted. 

Control - cultural practices 

Crop rotation with resistant crops is effective in reducing the damage caused by many 

nematodes. The incorporation of large amounts of organic matter into the soil and the 

use of an organic surface mulch reduces the severity of injury because these practices 

create conditions which are favourable to the natural enemies of nematodes. Organic 

material should be incorporated into the soil well before planting and crops should not 

be planted until decomposition is complete. The use of a period of bare fallow, with 

the soil kept weed free, especially during hot weather, will reduce the nematode

population. In orchards and vineyards the use of nematode-resistant rootstocks, for 

example, certain varieties of peach and grape, help to overcome the nematode 

problem 

Chemical con fro1 

The nematicide fenamiphos (Nemacur Grantllar NernaticideR) can be applied at or before 

planting to control nematodes in annual vegetables and flowers. The granules are 

spread evenly over the bed, forked into the top 15 cm and watered in. For established 

trees and shrubs, granules are sprinkled on the soil in the root zone and watered in. 

Nemacur Granular NematicideR is poisonous and should be handled with care, as per 

label directions.

Roses and other flowers 

Dieback in roses 

This is a fungal disease which is common in all districts. The stem dies back from a cut 

end, turning dark brown or black. There is usually a purplish band between the live 

and dead material. 

Control ' 

As soon as this disease is noticed, prune well below the affected parts, dipping the 

blades of the secateurs into a fungicide liquid after each cut. Then swab the freshly cut 

ends with a paste of a copper fungicide, for example Bordeaux Pozi~der Fungzcide. 

Vigorous plants are less susceptible to attack by this fungus, therefore correct 

fertilisation and the control of insect pests help to lessen the incidence of dieback. 

Caterpillars and other leaf and bud ea fing pests 

These occur on most flowers from time to time. Some can severely defoliate plants and 

destroy flower buds completely. 

Control 

A trichlorfon (Dipterex) spray is effective against most of these pests. Treat when the 

pests are first noticed, and thereafter week*, or as necessary. 

Powdery mildew 

This is a fungus which can be troublesome on many flowers which grow in this area, 

including roses, nasturtiums, sweet peas, zinnias and verbena. It starts as whitish 

spots and develops into grey or white floury patches on leaves, stems and flower buds. 

Distortion of the affected parts may occur and patches may die. 

Control 

Dust with dusting sulphur, or apply triforine or chlorothalonil and fenarimol (Zero 

Fungicide), when noticed and weekly thereafter as required. When treating roses, 

particular attention should be given to the underside of the leaves. 

Two-spotted mites 

Two-spotted mites live in colonies beneath the leaves of roses. They are very small 

(0.5 mrn long) and can be seen with a hand lens. When the population is very high 

their webs become visible and the leaves yellow. The life cycle is very short and in 

summer populations of mites can double in about a week- this is the reason for mite 

outbreaks in early spring. 

Control 

Mites on completely unsprayed roses are often controlled by natural enemies and are 

not always a problem. If they do become a problem dicofol (Kelthane) can be used or 

predatory mites may be introduced. The latter is available from Bio Protection Pty 

Ltd, PO Box 35, Warwick 4370; telephone (076) 661592, facsimile (076) 661639.

Chapter 7. Insects affecting farm trees 

Farm trees are under threat from a variety of insects which can result in the 

premature death and rapid deterioration of young regrowth and mature trees. 

Insects attack all stages of growth. Trees seldom, if ever, die following a single bout 

of insect damage. Repeated defoliation over a number of seasons or years is more 

likely to kill trees. Few native trees escape insect attack, but not all insects found on 

trees cause damage. The insects directly affecting trees are divided into four 

categories, depending on their mode of feeding: 

leaf-eating 

sap-sucking 

wood or bark feeders 

gall formers 

White cedar moth (or hairy grub) 

This pest is very common in western Queensland and the larvae may completely 

defoliate trees, usually during the period from January to March. 

The moth lays its eggs on the bark and foliage. The brown, hairy larvae are 2.5 cm 

(1 inch) to 4 cm (1% inches) long, and feed during the night sheltering near the base of 

the tree during the day. Jn the evening they may be seen, in large numbers, moving up 

the trunk of the tree. en fully grown they find a sheltered place under bark or in 

crevices of posts or buildings and construct their pupal cocoons. 

completely defoliated, the 1 will leave it and can often be seen moving in 

procession to another tree. e cedar appears to be the only host of this pest. 

Contact with the hairs on the grubs causes skin irritation to some people. 

Control 

The larvae may be trapped in a folded bag, placed around the tru'nk of the tree, and 

then destroyed. Alternatively a maldison (Malathion) foliage spray may be used, or the 

grubs may be sprayed where they shelter on the ground during the day, or when they 

are moving up the trunk in the evening. 

Wood borers 

There are a number of different species of borers, but the damage caused by each is 

similar and is treated in the same way. The injury to the tree usually occurs near a 

branch fork, or where the bark is cracked or has been broken. The hole made by the 

borer in the tree is usually surrounded by wood dust and sap from the tree and weblike 

fibres left by the borers. 

Control 

Prevent infestation by maintaining the good health of the tree. Prune and burn 

infested twigs and small branches. Where the borer holes occur in large branches or in 

the trunk, trim around the damaged area to properly expose the hole, but do not 

extend the damaged area during the trimming. Then, brush the area clean and insert 

flexible copper wire into the hole twisting it to kill any larvae which are present. Using

an eye dropper or an oil can, inject methylated sprits, or maldison at the recommended 

concentration into the hole. By the time most holes are seen the adults have emerged 

and flown away. Seal pruned twigs and injured areas with bitumastic paint, heavy 

greases, grafting mastic or creosote. 

mite scale insects 

These are similar to the white scale found on citrus trees and may be controlled using 

the same .white oil spray. 

Powdery mildm 

This fungus occurs on many s 

shrubs other than the crepe myrtle (Lagerstroemia). It occurs as grey, floury patches on 

leaves and twigs, and the leaves are often grossly distorted. 

Control 

Dust with sulphur when first noticed and as necessary after that. 

Grasshoppers and lonrsts 

Several species occur in western Queensland from 

destructive to most horticultural crops if they are pres 

last few years they have caused severe defoliation of 

gardens. The main species are the Australian plague locust and the spur-throated 

locust. 

Control 

Control is difficult unless it is carried out before the grasshoppers reach the flying 

n flying, grasshoppers invade the garden in large numbers. Some control 

can be obtained by using an insecticide spray such as maldison (Malathion), 

fenitrothion (Folithion 1000 Insecticide Spray), or diazinon (Diazinon 800). 

ites (white ants) 

These usually eat only dead wood and bark but sometimes infest trees near buildings 

and so pose a threat of invasion. 

Con fro1 

Remove all buried timber near the building since this acts as an energy source to fuel 

invasion. Seek out and attack the nest directly with chlorpyrifos (e.g. Deter, Dursban). 

The amount to apply varies with the size of the colony and it is often a difficult matter 

to judge the right amount. Areas around the nest, especially where trails are seen, 

should also be treated.

Table 11. Possible treatments for insect problems on trees and shrubs 

(prepared by DP Judy King) 

I Insect group I Damage I Insects responsible I Chemical control I Non-chemical 

Bud and 

terminal 

shoot 

feeders 

Flower 

feeders 

Leaf eaters 

Leaf chewers 

Leaf miners 

Leaf 

skeltonisers 

Sap suckers 

Distortion and 

multi-leading of 

stem; usually do 

not kill tree 

Feed on flower 

parts and seeds 

May cause severe 

defoliation; eat 

leaves 

Feed and tunnel 

between leaf 

surfaces; cause 

blistering, splitting 

and cracking 

leaves 

Eat tissue 

between leaf veins 

Withered new 

shoots, distorted 

leaves and small 

branches; brown 

control 

Larvae of small moths; Usually not needed; a Remove insect 

larval and adult spray with Rogor gives and destroy 

weevils, control and protection damaged tissue 

Larvae of moths and 

butterflies, larval and 

adult beetles 

Larvae of defoliating 

sawfly, cup moth, case 

moths and other moths 

and butterflies; adult 

Christmas beetles; 

adult and larval leaf 

beetles; grasshoppers, 

crickets, stick insects 

Larvae of some moths, 

leaf blister sawfly, flies 

forests 

Carbaryl, maldison, 

Rogor sprays; 

stem injection of older 

trees with Rogor--only 

in extreme cases 

Systemic insecticides: 

Rogor by spray while 

crown can be 

reached; stem 

injection as last 

resort-repeated 

injection causes 

severe tissue damage 

Mechanical 

removal of stick 

insects, 

grasshoppers; 

larvae of 

processionary 

caterpillars can 

be trapped under 

damp sacks; 

Dipel 

(suspension of a 

bacterial 

pathogen for 

some caterpillars 

Remove and 

burn affected 

leaves 

Young larvae of leaf As for leaf chewers As for leaf 

chewers; larvae of 

chewers and 

gum skeletoniser 

miners 

I I puncture marks on 1 I I large bugs 

leaves from 

injected salivary 

moth; larvae of some 

sawflies 

Mobile: leaf hoppers, Carbaryl, Rogor spray Large bugs can 

aphids, mealy bugs, or stem injection be knocked into 

cicadas, large bugs 

a can of soapy 

water; many 

secrete toxins 

and should not 

1 toxins; excretion of Sedentary (often Carbaryl and white oil be handled 

I "honeydew" which I covered with scale): spray, Rogor spray or I On small trees, 

I I attracts ants and I nymphal psyllids I stem injection I hose.or scrape 

provides substrate 

for sooty mould 

growth; leaf curling 

with associated 

(lerps), scale insects 

Leaf curlers: thrips 

Rogor spray or stem 

injection 

off with small 

brush, or douse 

with soapy (pure 

soap) water; 

destroy affected 

I tissue 

I 1 small, dark spots I I 1 remove and

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aAowaJ '6unoA JO ueqsJol W!M puno~6 

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plnoqs payaea~ 

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yaua~p--lln=>~!a 'sqdwAu epq3 uo pcq Ajlensn s~apaaj 1,008 

saloq j!xa-auo~ ylow poo~ 

lue!B 

saa~1 Aqleaq 40 

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juwg a~luaa dn lauunl 

punoJ6Japun 

JO syunq 

saa~~ GunoA yae~e 

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ll!w sapads awos 

a~e qa!y~ slsau aq~ps u~a yaas Isaa~l 

laa~) uo slsau 

alrnolo1 Un=>N!P 6unoA pe~~e 

Aay~ 

leuJayage Alp@q 

J! Pu@ ylleaul 

aaJ3 a~o~dw! 

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lalle~ed JO '~ap~od 

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as~eoa ~o/pue (saa~l 

01 ldwane JO pa6ewep uaaq .sJaJoq aloq 104s pue saloq Aq palwpu! pauayeam 

Isaqaue~q seq anss!l an!l9npuoa aloqu!d qnpe :sa~aaq aauasa~d uo seas 

peap anolua~ se an!pagau! ~a6ne leiuel pue ynpe 'swals JO ul6noJql 

'saloq JaJoq s! uopaju! wals Isaloq :sqjow poow 'sa~aaq saqaueJq ?J~C~~U!J uayo hjua) 

o~u! aJ!M ayod snoyqo olu! (heq~e3 $sod lapod 'sl!~aa~ hew fy~e qleauaq s~apaa~ 

'anss!) pa6ewep 

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Ae~e ade~as ynbs :lln3~~!p ha^ u~oa!Buol~o aeiuel u! paaj pue MOJJ~~ 

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wo!paju! 1e.uapeq pue 

1e6wnj Aq pa3npo~d 

ale s11eb auros :ajoM 

y~!w aaua~agaqu! 

'sapads qsad 40 

ags!~ape~eqs uauo 

suo!JeulJojleU 

a=>npo~d 04 uo!s!~!p 

llaa queld aje(nw!qs 

anss!l papage 

40 uo!lm~qsap 

lnq 'juawlea~l lueJJenn 

04 y6noua a~a~as 

s6nq 'sa!y 'sdse~ 

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suo!ga~aas 

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pue ~e~owau wopjas s! a6euea 

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lo~juoa 

dnos6 

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(Bu!~/Ipny Ja Aq pa~eda~d) sqnJy s pule saalj uo suralqord Iaesu! dog squawjealj alq!ssod 

:(panu!auoa) L iL alwl

Stem injections of insecticides to control pests in trees 

Insect pests in large trees are often hard to control using normal methods such as 

spraying. An alternative technique is to "inject" the tree with insecticides which are 

systemic. 

These insecticides go through the sap flow to poison any pests which eat parts of the 

tree. 

The technique is reasonably simple, but provides only short- term control and does 

cause some damage to the tree. It should only be done to control heavy infestations 

which seriously threaten the health of the tree. 

It is also recommended that trees be given water and fertiliser and/or lime, dolomite 

or gypsum as required, to promote uptake of chemicals and recovery and continuing 

good health of the tree. 

Trees which are badly affected and in serious decline may not benefit. 

Method of stem injection 

Holes should be drilled only as far as the sapwood of the tree and not further into 

the heartwood (see Figure 22). Holes are drilled with an 8 (3/8 inch) drill bit 

(or similar size) at a downward angle of up to 4 5 O into the trunk of the tree at a 

convenient height. Holes are drilled around the tree at a rate of 1 hole per 7.5 cm 

diameter of trunk, (that is a tree with a trunk 30 crn wide requires four holes). 

The holes should then be filled with Rogor 400 (dimethoate) insecticide using an 

eye-dropper or squirt-bottle to achieve 2 mL of chemical in each hole. If the hole 

cannot take 2mL allow half an hour for some of the chemical to soak in, then add 

the remaining chemical. It is important to inject the insecticide i 

holes are drilled to ensure continuous sap flow. 

The holes should be left for a several hours to allow for chemical absorption and 

then plugged with either wooden dowels or putty. The holes cannot be reused. 

tree 

Figure 22. Injecting insecticides into a tree

Chapter 8: 

ich pesticide to use 

(Adapted with permission from the Queenslnnd Agricultural lournal, July-August 1988) 

Using pesticides alone to protect plants against pests is not the most effective strategy. 

Management of pests, rather than eradication, is more efficient. Removing dead and 

rotting plant material and keeping the garden free of weeds that may harbour pests 

helps prevent them multiplying. It may even be possible to remove some insects from 

the plants by hand or with a hose. en pests are visible in damaging numbers and a 

pesticide application is needed, choose the pesticide carefully. 

With so many garden pesticides available, the home gardener can sometimes be 

uncertain which best suits the pest. A given pest can often be controlled by a variety 

of chemicals. Some pesticides are selective, being effective against only a few pests. 

Choosing such chemicals may lead to a cupboard full of products, each used 

occasionally and eventually deteriorating with lengthy storage. 

A better plan is to choose chemicals that have a broad range of activity against a 

number of pests, such as Rogor, diazinon, carbaryl, or pyrethrin. In this way, 

pesticides in store are fewer and the gardener gets best value for money. 

lation of pesticides must also be considered when choosing. Dusts or sprays 

can be used to control pests. Dusts do not need ing and are easy to apply. 

However, it is some s difficult to get good cover of some plants with a dust, 

and it is easily washed off by rain or overhead watering. Spraying gives a better and 

more even coverage of the plant, and therefore more efficient control. Recently, readyto-use 

spray fo lations which require no ing or dilution have become available 

in aerosol and atomiser packs and may be useful in certain situations. 

Biological pesticides are also available to the home gardener and may be an alternative 

choice in some situations. Such pesticides enable the gardener to conduct germ 

warfare against certain pests by spraying them with disease organisms specific to these 

pests. For example, Dipelm (a bacterium) may be used to control leaf-eating 

caterpillars. 

The choice chemical pesticides includes carbaryl, dimethoate, sulphur, pyrethrins, 

dicofol, white oil, fenthion, trichlorfon and fenamiphos. Metaldehyde and methiocarb 

are used specifically for slugs and snails. All these chemicals appear on the labels of 

popular pesticides, and all are of comparatively low human toxicity if used correctly. 

Carbaryl, a broad-spectrum insecticide with a short residual life, can be used close to 

hamest. It is effective against some caterpillars and leaf-eating beetles and ladybirds, 

but does not control caterpillars attacking plants of the cabbage family. Dimethoate is 

also a broad spectrum insecticide and miticide. It is effective against fruit fly, aphids, 

thrips, jassids and mites. Fenthion also controls fruit fly. Though lacking as wide a 

range of activity as dimethoate, it does not injure Meyer lemons and cumquats as does 

dimethoate.

Sulphur controls mites on many garden plants. It should not be used in hot weather as 

it tends to burn tender plant tissue. Pyrethrin is a useful contact insecticide as it can be 

applied to witlun one day of harvest. It is relatively less toxic to humans, but not as 

effective as some other formulations. 

Dicofo1 controls mites on many garden plants. te oil is an important component in 

sprays for citrus scale control. Trichlorfon may be used to control caterpillar pests (for 

example bean pod borer, cutworms, lawn grubs and macadamia flower caterpillar) 

and fruit spotting bugs. Fenamiphos is a nematicide effective against pests such as 

root knot nematode. Its granular formulation is considered the safest form to use. 

However, it should always be handled with great care, including the use of protective 

clothing. 

The home gardener can deal with most pest infestations with these chemicals. There is 

duplication of activity against some pests, and some of these materials could be 

omitted without seriously interfering with the overall range of protection. 

For all chemicals the same rules apply: keep all safely locked up and secure from 

children, and always be careful when handling or ing pesticides. One reason for 

their inclusion on this list is that all chemicals are fairly safe to use. But all insecticides 

are poisonous to humans to some degree. Treat them with respect. 

Pesticide sdety 

Use of any chemicals in the home garden must be treated with extreme caution, and in 

accordance with the directions on the product container. Insecticides, in particular, 

can have serious side effects if used improperly. 

Accurate measuring of chemicals and use of rubber gloves, overalls, respirators and 

proper spray equipment are all essential to avoid poisoning. 

Many chemicals are made with an odour additive to warn people of the danger of 

using it: generally the worse something smells, the more care is needed.

Table 12. The easy guide to chemicals (This list is only a guide---other chemicals may be available) 

Always read the directions on the label and follow them! 

Zero multi-p urpose Fungicide 

Bayleton Garden Fungicide 

Chlorothalonil and fenarimol

Tom Wyatt's collection of organic recipes for pest control in the 

garden 

Fruitfly 

Flies are attracted to moisture, sugars and proteins and these form the base of any 

bait preparation. The time to place bait is approximately two months before fruit 

begins to ripen. 

Ingredients 

1 litre of water 

2 cups of urine 

3 teaspoons vanilla essence 

1 teaspoon of vegemite .! 

1 cup of sugar 

Preparation and application 

Fill 1/3 of small jars and suspend four to five jars per tree. 

Renew every 10 days. 

Garlic spray 

Garlic is well-known for its medicinal value and is also useful for the control of 

insect pests such as aphids and some caterpillars. 

lngredien ts 

1 full bulb of garlic 

2 tablespoons of paraffin (available from the chemist) 

% cake Sunlight soap or 2 cups of Lux flakes 

1 litre of water 


Finely chop the garlic or put through a blender. 

Add paraffin and soak for two to three days. 

Dissolve soap in 1 litre of water, add to garlic and paraffin, stir and soak for 

another one to two davs. 

J 

Strain residue through pantihose or mosquito net. 

Dilute with % cup to 4 litres of water. 

Apply two applications, 10 days apart.

Nicotine spray 

This spray has been de-registered for commercial use as it is a very potent poison. 

Home-made sprays should be prepared with extreme care. 

Ingredien ts 

1 x 2 oz packet of tobacco or 2 packets of cigarettes 

5 litres of water 


er the tobacco in 5 litres of water for 30 to 60 minutes. 

I 

Strain the liquid to remove shreds of tobacco. 

Mix one part nicotine spray to four parts of water. For greater effectiveness add 

white oil at the rate of 60 millilitres to 5 litres of spray. 

Do not spray tomato, capsicum or potato plants 

Food crops require at least three days withholding period before eating. 

L 

Condy's c ystal (potassium permawnate) 

This is a very good insecticide and fungicide. Use it to control aphids and slugs as 

well as powdery mildew. 

Ingredients 

Condy 's crystals 


30 millilitres white oil 


Miu all ingredients together and spray plants once every .I0 days when pests are 

active. Do not mix with soap. 

Borax 

This can be used to control ants and cockroaches. 

Ingredients 

Borax 

Sugar or honey 


Mix equal parts of borax and sugar or borax and honey. 

Place in lids at bottom of cupboards. 

Borax acts as a stomach poison so keep clear from household pets and children.

Tomato leaf juice 

This is useful in controlling aphids and caterpillars on many plants. 

lngredien ts 

500 grams tomato leaves 


30 grams of soap 


Boil the tomato leaves in 5 litres of water. 

Strain mixture and dissolve 30 grams of soap in the mix. 

The mixture can be made to suit your desired strength. Recommended dosage is 

one part tomato spray to four parts of water. 

Do not spray tomato, capsicum or potato plants. 

This is useful in protecting plants from grasshoppers and locusts. These insects do 

not like sticky surfaces. 

Ingredients 

2 cups of syrup or treacle 



Mix syrup or treacle with 4 litres of water. Spray on plants to be protected when 

pests are in season. 

Fish fertiliser 

Use this as a deterrent to insects. 

Supreme 800 

Use this as a deterrent to insects 

Ingredients 

30 millilitres to 4.5 litres of water 

30 rnillilitres of white oil 


Apply this spray every seven days. It is a also beneficial foliage fertiliser.

&e%tuce 

This deters most insects. 

Ingredients, preparation and application 

1 head of lettuce boiled for 20 minutes. Use one part of this mixture to four parts of 

water. 

Cabbage 

This deters most insects. 

Ingredients, preparation and application 

1 head of cabbage boiled for 20 minutes. Use one part of this mixture to four parts of 

water. 

Sugar 

This repels nematodes. 

Application 

Apply to the surface of the soil at the rate of two handfuls per square yard.

Notes

Index 

Aphids 54 

Ants 18 

Australian native plants, 

how to fertilise 37 

suitable for hot, dry areas 12 

suitable for salty conditions 9 

Birds, ' 

how to attract 23 

Borax 67 

Bore water, 

effect on soils I 

effect on vegetables 3 

gardening with 1 

how much to use 1 

lawns and 1 5 

Cabbage spray 69 

Caterpillars 55, 57 

Chemicals, 

and safety 49 

guide for 65 

Citrus, 

fruits 50 

pests of 50 

trees 42 

Citrus aphid 51 

Citrus gall wasp 51 

Clay soils, 1 

how to improve 4 

species for 13 

Compost 35 

Condy's crystals 67 

Curcurbits, 

fungal diseases of 54 

pests of 53 

Dibbling 46 

Dieback, 

in roses 57 

Drippers 22 

Felted grass coccid 18 

Fertiliser, 16,27 

rates of 38 

types of 39 

Fertilising 23,47 

Flowers, 

recommended pH range for 7 

Frost, 

and mulch 34 

Fruit, 


Fruit fly 50,66 

Garlic spray 66 

Germination of seeds 44 

Grasshoppers 59 

Grazing 33 

Gypsum, 

and soil improvement 16 

Hardening off 47 

Herbicides 33 

Hessian bags, 

as mulch 36 

Insects, 

treatment for 60 

Lawns, 

bore water and 15 

grubs in 17 

how to improve health of 4 

Leaf-eating ladybird 53 

Locusts 59 

Mildew 54, 57, 59 

Mulch, 

how to position 5, 26, 34 

potential problems of 34 

to reduce evaporation 29 

types of 35 

Nematodes 55 

Newspaper, 

as mulch 36 

Nicotine spray 67 

Organic matter, 16 

importance of 5 

Organic pest control 66 

Pesticides, 63 

safety and 64 

Pests, 17,48 

organic recipes to control 66 

PHI 

recommended range 7 

sulphur and 5 

soil nutrients and 2 

Plant cuttings 20 

Pots, 

growing plants in 6 

re-potting 47 

Pumpkin beetle 53 

Red scale 50 

Root pruning 46 

Roses 57 

Sandy soils, 1 

how to improve 4 

species for 14 

Seed, 

how to obtain 43 

germination of 43 

Seedlings, 

planting of 25 

Soil, 

chemical treatment of 4 

plants for alkaline 10 

types of in western Queensland I 

Spined citrus bug 52

Sprinklers 22 

Stem injections 62 

Stock shade 23 

Sulphur, 

and soil improvement 16 

Sugar 69 

Syrup, 

and pests 68 

Termites 59 

Tomato leaf juice spray 68 

Trees, 

guards for 39 

how to plant 24 

in dry areas 28 

protection of 27 

size to plant 21 

zone 32 

Tube stock 21 

Two-spotted mites 57 

Vegetables, 

aphids on 54 

effect of bore water on 3 

pests of 53 


Water trap 26 

Watering, 

using drippers 22 

flooding 22 

frequency of 15 

strategy for 29 

using sprinklers 22 

Weeds, 

competition from 30 

control of 24, 31 

in lawns 18 

White cabbage butterfly 55 

White cedar moth 58 

White grubs 18 

White scale insects 58 

White wax scale 51 

Wood borers 58 

Woodchips 35

western-queensland-gardening-guide.pdf - South West NRM

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