An acoustic Doppler velocimeter (ADV) for the ... - LTHE
An acoustic Doppler velocimeter (ADV) for the ... - LTHE
An acoustic Doppler velocimeter (ADV) for the ... - LTHE
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Continental Shelf Research 20 (2000) 1551}1567<br />
<strong>An</strong> <strong>acoustic</strong> <strong>Doppler</strong> <strong>velocimeter</strong> (<strong>ADV</strong>)<br />
<strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> characterisation of turbulence<br />
in concentrated #uid mud<br />
Nicolas Gratiot*, Mathieu Mory, Daniel Auchère<br />
Laboratoire des Ecoulements Ge& ophysiques et Industriels (Lab. de l'UJF, de l'INPG et du CNRS),<br />
Domaine Universitaire, BP 53, 38041 Grenoble Ce& dex 9, France<br />
Received 12 May 1999; received in revised <strong>for</strong>m 22 December 1999; accepted 5 January 2000<br />
Abstract<br />
The paper describes a <strong>velocimeter</strong>, based on <strong>the</strong> back-scattering of ultrasonic waves by<br />
particles, designed <strong>for</strong> measuring instantaneous turbulent velocities in a concentrated #uid mud<br />
mixture. The <strong>acoustic</strong> <strong>Doppler</strong> <strong>velocimeter</strong> (<strong>ADV</strong>) needs no calibration and is <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e a<br />
potentially useful tool <strong>for</strong> measuring velocities in <strong>the</strong> laboratory or in <strong>the</strong> "eld. We investigate<br />
its reliability <strong>for</strong> measurements in concentrated cohesive sediment suspensions, where <strong>the</strong><br />
particle size is usually unknown due to <strong>the</strong> occurrence of #occulation, and where <strong>the</strong>re is<br />
considerable <strong>acoustic</strong> wave absorption. Measurements in a resonant standing wave demonstrate<br />
<strong>the</strong> ability of <strong>the</strong> apparatus to measure unsteady velocities. The data validation rate<br />
ranges between 20 and 80 Hz <strong>for</strong> a cohesive sediment concentration in <strong>the</strong> range 20}140 g l.<br />
Experiments were per<strong>for</strong>med with two di!erent natural mud mixtures. It is observed that using<br />
an <strong>ADV</strong> does not require prior determination of particle and #oc properties. It is fur<strong>the</strong>rmore<br />
demonstrated that <strong>the</strong> amplitude of <strong>the</strong> back-scattered signal received by <strong>the</strong> transceiver results<br />
mainly from a single re#ection on particles, whereas echoes experiencing multiple re#ections are<br />
strongly damped. The use of an <strong>ADV</strong> <strong>for</strong> measuring turbulence properties is "nally assessed<br />
<strong>for</strong> low Reynolds turbulence, which occurs in Concentrated Benthic Suspension layers.<br />
2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.<br />
Keywords: Acoustic; Velocimeter; Fluid mud; Turbulence<br />
* Corresponding author. Tel.: #33-47-68-25-068; fax: #33-47-68-25-001.<br />
Present address: Ecole Nationale en GeH nie des Technologies Industrielles, UniversiteH de Pau et des Pays<br />
de l'Adour, rue Jules Ferry, 64000 PAU, France.<br />
E-mail address: gratiot@hmg.inpg.fr (N. Gratiot).<br />
0278-4343/00/$ - see front matter 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.<br />
PII: S 0 2 7 8 - 4 3 4 3 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 3 7 - 6
1552 N. Gratiot et al. / Continental Shelf Research 20 (2000) 1551}1567<br />
1. Introduction<br />
During <strong>the</strong> few last decades, investigations in estuarine and coastal areas have<br />
shown <strong>the</strong> occurrence of near-bed layers in which concentrations of up to 200 g l<br />
can be measured. These #uid mud layers, also called concentrated benthic suspensions<br />
(CBS), are separated by a sharp interface (lutocline) from <strong>the</strong> upper water layer where<br />
<strong>the</strong> sediment suspension is dilute (Mehta, 1989). Several studies (Odd et al., 1993) have<br />
pointed out <strong>the</strong> importance of CBS <strong>for</strong> cohesive sediment transport. However, only<br />
a few surveys provide "eld observations of <strong>the</strong> CBS layer including suspended<br />
sediment concentration and velocity measurements (Trowbridge and Kineke, 1994).<br />
The di$culty in obtaining velocity measurements within <strong>the</strong> CBS layer stems from its<br />
thickness, which usually does not exceed a few centimetres, and <strong>the</strong> high concentration<br />
(20}200 g l).<br />
Various methods have been considered <strong>for</strong> measuring #ow velocity in natural<br />
sediment suspensions. Using a hot "lm probe led to failure resulting from particle<br />
impingement on <strong>the</strong> sensor (Fukuda and Lick, 1980). Laser <strong>Doppler</strong> anemometry<br />
does not operate in #uid mud because <strong>the</strong> incident laser beams are rapidly attenuated<br />
and <strong>the</strong> light di!used by <strong>the</strong> particles is spread when <strong>the</strong> sediment concentration<br />
exceeds a few hundred milligrams per litre (Baker and Lavelle, 1984). Micropropeller<br />
current meters are often used in "eld surveys, but <strong>the</strong>y only provide an estimate of <strong>the</strong><br />
mean current. Turbulent velocity measurements have been made using radioactive<br />
tracers (Berlamont, 1989), dyed material (Sakakiyama and Bijker, 1989), and electromagnetic<br />
current meters (Sternberg et al., 1991; de Witt and Kranenburg, 1996). The<br />
electromagnetic current meter has proved to be a useful tool in shallow water<br />
environments and in "eld deployments, but one of its limitations is due to its spatial<br />
resolution (van der Ham, 1999; Soulsby, 1980).<br />
Ultrasonic probes are an attractive technology <strong>for</strong> measuring unsteady velocities as<br />
<strong>the</strong>y are non-intrusive remote sensing systems. Various systems have been developed,<br />
some of which allow <strong>the</strong> three velocity components to be measured simultaneously at<br />
a single point while o<strong>the</strong>rs provide instantaneous measurements of velocity pro"les.<br />
Their application in assessing sediment #uxes in marine environments is di$cult<br />
because ultrasonic waves are absorbed in sediment-laden #ows. Instantaneous sediment<br />
#ux pro"les were never<strong>the</strong>less successfully measured in <strong>the</strong> laboratory with<br />
quartz-like particles having concentrations as high as 28 g l (Shen and Lemmin,<br />
1997). In <strong>the</strong> "eld, despite <strong>the</strong> heterogeneity of <strong>the</strong> natural material, <strong>acoustic</strong> backscattering<br />
has been used to measure <strong>the</strong> mean velocity in a tidal #ow (Lhermitte, 1983)<br />
and in an estuarine environment (Thorne et al., 1998).<br />
Most systems have been used up to now in sand-like sediment-laden #ows. This<br />
article considers <strong>the</strong> case of natural cohesive sediments having high concentration<br />
values (in <strong>the</strong> range 20}160 g l). This investigation was conducted in <strong>the</strong> course of a<br />
laboratory study of <strong>the</strong> occurrence and properties of CBS layers, <strong>for</strong> which it was<br />
desirable to measure turbulent unsteady velocities. The aim of <strong>the</strong> study presented in<br />
this paper was to examine <strong>the</strong> ability of an <strong>ADV</strong> system to measure instantaneous<br />
velocities in concentrated #uid mud. A standard <strong>ADV</strong> system was used, <strong>the</strong> principle<br />
of operation of which is based on analysis of <strong>the</strong> back-scattered phase change
N. Gratiot et al. / Continental Shelf Research 20 (2000) 1551}1567 1553<br />
observed from pulse to pulse. Because this apparatus was built in our laboratory, <strong>the</strong><br />
settings could be conveniently modi"ed. Several di$culties have to be considered<br />
when applying ultrasonic methods in #uid mud. First of all, <strong>acoustic</strong> waves are subject<br />
to absorption and multiple scattering. Secondly, particle sizes may change as a result<br />
of #occulation in cohesive sediment suspensions. They are usually not known precisely.<br />
<strong>An</strong> attempt was made to determine whe<strong>the</strong>r an <strong>ADV</strong> can operate without prior<br />
determination of #oc size and whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> quality of operation depends on <strong>the</strong><br />
composition of <strong>the</strong> mud. Because <strong>the</strong> apparatus is not new in itself, <strong>the</strong> operating<br />
principle is only brie#y described in Section 2. The focus in Section 3 is <strong>the</strong>n on <strong>the</strong><br />
reliability of this apparatus <strong>for</strong> measurements in cohesive sediment suspensions.<br />
Unsteady velocity measurements were per<strong>for</strong>med in a standing wave #ow. They are<br />
presented in Section 4. The precision of measurement, rate of data acquisition, and<br />
quality of measurement as a function of sediment concentration were determined.<br />
Measurements in turbulent #ows were "nally carried out. The statistical properties of<br />
<strong>the</strong> turbulence measurements are presented in Section 5.<br />
2. Principle of operation of <strong>the</strong> <strong>ADV</strong><br />
The <strong>ADV</strong> system is based on a <strong>Doppler</strong> Sonar concept described previously by<br />
Lhermitte (1983). The latter showed that such an apparatus is appropriate <strong>for</strong><br />
measuring mean vertical pro"les of <strong>the</strong> longitudinal velocity in a tidal channel. Our<br />
application case is very di!erent as <strong>the</strong> aim here is to measure velocities in highly<br />
concentrated #uid mud, with su$cient spatial and temporal resolutions to measure<br />
turbulence.<br />
The <strong>ADV</strong> operating principle di!ers from more classical <strong>ADV</strong> systems which<br />
deduce <strong>the</strong> velocity from measurements of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Doppler</strong> frequency shift 2ω <br />
v/c of <strong>the</strong><br />
re#ected signal, ω <br />
being <strong>the</strong> pulsation of <strong>the</strong> emitted pulse. Even if a long transmitter<br />
pulse is analysed, this method is not applicable <strong>for</strong> low velocities because determining<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Doppler</strong> frequency using Fourier analysis is not very accurate. <strong>An</strong>alysing <strong>the</strong><br />
back-scattered echoes in terms of changes in <strong>the</strong> time shift ¹ (<br />
"2vt/c of pulse-topulse<br />
back-scattered signals, as done by our apparatus and described by Lhermitte<br />
(1983), provides a much better resolution of velocity. As <strong>the</strong> volume of measurement is<br />
not in"nitely small, <strong>the</strong> received signal is a combination of echoes back-scattered by a<br />
randomly distributed set of particles. The pulse-to-pulse <strong>Doppler</strong> system requires<br />
several successive echoes to remain coherent. This condition is satis"ed if <strong>the</strong> volume<br />
of measurement and <strong>the</strong> period of repetition ¹ <br />
between two successive pulses are<br />
su$ciently small to consider that <strong>the</strong> motion is approximately of solid body type<br />
inside <strong>the</strong> measurement volume. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore <strong>the</strong> velocity must be constant over a<br />
period that covers a su$cient number of successive echoes.<br />
The speci"cations of <strong>the</strong> <strong>ADV</strong>, as shown in Fig. 1, were determined with regard to<br />
<strong>the</strong> previous conditions. In order to reduce <strong>the</strong> volume of measurement, <strong>the</strong> beam is<br />
convergent, focusing <strong>the</strong> sound wave in a focal zone F <br />
where <strong>the</strong> beam cross-section<br />
is almost constant. Its value is of <strong>the</strong> order of 1.5 mm, corresponding to <strong>the</strong> transverse<br />
distance where <strong>the</strong> wave energy is !6 dB <strong>the</strong> value of <strong>the</strong> wave energy on <strong>the</strong> axis of
1554 N. Gratiot et al. / Continental Shelf Research 20 (2000) 1551}1567<br />
Fig. 1. Transducer speci"cations: (a) Multigate pro"ling system; (b) Shape of <strong>the</strong> emitted pulse; (c) Size of<br />
measurement volume.<br />
<strong>the</strong> beam. Measurements are made in this section of length F <br />
"8.8 cm in front of <strong>the</strong><br />
beam probe. The depth of <strong>the</strong> volume of measurement is dependent on <strong>the</strong> frequency<br />
f <br />
and <strong>the</strong> number of periods n <br />
of <strong>the</strong> emitted pulse. The value is presently of <strong>the</strong><br />
order of 0.5 mm as f <br />
"5 MHz and n <br />
+3. This speci"cation gives a volume of<br />
measurement of nearly 1 mm. It may be noticed that <strong>the</strong> volume of measurement is<br />
smaller than those of classical electromagnetic current meters (a few cm) usually used<br />
to measure velocity in estuaries. <strong>An</strong> option of our system, by gating <strong>the</strong> back-scattered<br />
signal in "ve successive time windows, enables <strong>the</strong> velocities to be determined at "ve<br />
distances along <strong>the</strong> beam.<br />
The minimum value <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> periodicity ¹ <br />
of wave packet emissions is determined<br />
by considering <strong>the</strong> position of measurement, because a back-scattered echo has to be<br />
received be<strong>for</strong>e sending <strong>the</strong> next pulse. During this study, pulse emission periods of<br />
¹ <br />
"0.128 ms and ¹ <br />
"0.256 ms were used. The corresponding maximum distances<br />
of measurement from <strong>the</strong> probe are c¹ <br />
/2+10 cm and c¹ <br />
/2+20 cm. There is also<br />
a maximum distance of measurement from <strong>the</strong> probe on account of <strong>the</strong> ultrasonic<br />
wave absorption properties of <strong>the</strong> sediment mixture (see Section 3).<br />
The time shift increase between two successive back-scattered echoes of two wave<br />
packets emitted at a time interval ¹ <br />
is<br />
¹ (<br />
(i#1)!¹ (<br />
(i)" 2v<br />
c ¹ . (1)<br />
Time shift values are digitised <strong>for</strong> successive wave packets and stored in a "le. As an<br />
example, a 29 ms record of <strong>the</strong> changes in time shift of <strong>the</strong> back-scattered echoes <strong>for</strong><br />
226 successive wave packets is shown in Fig. 2. It displays a saw tooth behaviour as
N. Gratiot et al. / Continental Shelf Research 20 (2000) 1551}1567 1555<br />
Fig. 2. Typical record of changes in time shift versus time. The software validates <strong>the</strong> calculated velocity if<br />
<strong>the</strong> correlation between a minimum of n"10 data and a "tted straight line is su$cient.<br />
<strong>the</strong> phase of <strong>the</strong> back-scattered echo is between 0 and T . While <strong>the</strong> velocity can be<br />
<br />
deduced from Eq. (1), <strong>the</strong> velocity averaged over a time interval of duration N¹ is <br />
instead determined numerically by "tting a straight line to a minimum of n successive<br />
time shift data (N"50 and n"10 <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> example in Fig. 2), in order to reduce <strong>the</strong><br />
variability in measurements. Fitting a straight line to at least n successive time shift<br />
data requires that ¹ (i#n)!¹ (i) should be less than T . This condition "xes <strong>the</strong><br />
( ( <br />
upper bound of <strong>the</strong> measurement velocity range,<br />
v((¹ /n¹ )(c/2)+12 cm s, (2)<br />
<br />
as derived from Eq. (1) <strong>for</strong> n"10 and T "0.128 ms. The estimated velocity is<br />
<br />
validated as being in su$ciently good correlation, as obtained <strong>for</strong> instance <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> data<br />
contained in <strong>the</strong> "rst two saw teeth in Fig. 3. The third saw tooth displays more<br />
scatter; <strong>the</strong> estimated data cannot be validated when N¹ is too large as compared to<br />
<br />
<strong>the</strong> typical time scale of variation of <strong>the</strong> velocity. If we consider <strong>the</strong> vertical deviation<br />
ε of datas to <strong>the</strong> straight line, <strong>the</strong> velocity is validated as long as <strong>the</strong> standard deviation<br />
σ is lower than 0.06T (see Fig. 3).<br />
<br />
3. Limitations <strong>for</strong> using an <strong>ADV</strong> in concentrated 6uid mud mixtures<br />
Speci"c questions arise in relation to <strong>the</strong> use of an <strong>ADV</strong> in cohesive sediment<br />
mixtures. In <strong>the</strong> "eld, <strong>the</strong> size of cohesive sediment #ocs can change drastically within<br />
<strong>the</strong> #uid mud because of <strong>the</strong> steep velocity gradients and because of <strong>the</strong> changes in<br />
concentration. Acoustic systems have already been used in cohesive sediment suspensions<br />
(Land et al., 1997). The e$ciency of back-scattering is linked to <strong>the</strong> nature of <strong>the</strong><br />
sediments. The intensity and propagation of an <strong>acoustic</strong> wave packet is a!ected by
1556 N. Gratiot et al. / Continental Shelf Research 20 (2000) 1551}1567<br />
Fig. 3. Output voltage of <strong>the</strong> back-scattered echo received at time t after emission of a wave packet.<br />
d <br />
"ct/2 is <strong>the</strong> position of <strong>the</strong> back-scattering if only a single re#ection occurs. Grey line: no sediment in <strong>the</strong><br />
domain 0(d <br />
(5 cm. Dark line: #uid mud mixture in <strong>the</strong> domain 0(d <br />
(5 cm; 4a) C"70 g l, 4b)<br />
C"194 g l.The zero-mean voltage has been o!set to improve readability.<br />
absorption, scattering by suspended particles, or by <strong>the</strong> presence of gas bubbles.<br />
Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, it can change drastically, depending on <strong>the</strong> size and shape of <strong>the</strong><br />
particles (Richards et al., 1996). For <strong>the</strong> purpose of experimental studies with natural<br />
mud mixtures, where <strong>the</strong> #oc properties are not known, we checked whe<strong>the</strong>r accurate<br />
velocity measurements required prior knowledge of #oc properties.<br />
Absorption and multiple re#ections of <strong>acoustic</strong> waves are two processes that have<br />
to be considered <strong>for</strong> using ultrasonic methods within #uid mud mixtures. On <strong>the</strong> one<br />
hand, <strong>the</strong> increase in ultrasonic wave absorption with increasing mud concentration<br />
implies a reduction in <strong>the</strong> magnitude of <strong>the</strong> back-scattered signals. This process sets<br />
a bound to <strong>the</strong> maximum distance of velocity measurement but it does not appear by<br />
itself to preclude using an <strong>ADV</strong> in a concentrated #uid mud mixture. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r
N. Gratiot et al. / Continental Shelf Research 20 (2000) 1551}1567 1557<br />
hand, it is very important to quantify <strong>the</strong> contribution of <strong>the</strong> echoes received after<br />
multiple re#ections in <strong>the</strong> magnitude of <strong>the</strong> back-scattered signal, since <strong>the</strong> <strong>ADV</strong><br />
operating principle assumes a single re#ection <strong>for</strong> each echo analysed.<br />
Experiments were conducted in a small tank to assess <strong>the</strong> occurrence of single or<br />
multiple re#ections and to quantify absorption. The tank contained two chambers (A<br />
and B, respectively) separated by a thin "lm of plastic. Chamber A was "lled with #uid<br />
mud mixture while chamber B contained clear water. The probe was plunged into<br />
A and emitted a single pulse in <strong>the</strong> direction of B. Back-scattered <strong>acoustic</strong> echoes were<br />
recorded versus time. Fig. 3 presents <strong>the</strong> variation versus time in <strong>the</strong> magnitude of<br />
echoes produced in #uid mud mixtures at two di!erent concentrations (70 and<br />
194 g l). To interpret <strong>the</strong> diagrams, d <br />
"ct/2 is used instead of time; it is <strong>the</strong> distance<br />
from <strong>the</strong> probe where <strong>the</strong> echo received at time t was back-scattered if a single<br />
re#ection occurred. The <strong>acoustic</strong> propagation celerity is assumed to be constant and<br />
uni<strong>for</strong>m in A and B (c"1500 m s). We will show later that this condition is<br />
validated. As <strong>the</strong> probe is acting both as emitter and receiver, <strong>the</strong> emission of <strong>acoustic</strong><br />
wave packets considerably disturbs <strong>the</strong> piezoelectric sensor; measurements are not<br />
available <strong>for</strong> a short time after emission, which corresponds to a distance of approximately<br />
5 mm. When <strong>the</strong> two chambers contain clear water, back-scattering is insigni"cant<br />
in <strong>the</strong> domains 5 mm(x(48 mm and x'52 mm (parts A and B of <strong>the</strong> tank,<br />
respectively), as <strong>the</strong> absence of scatterers hinders re#ection. <strong>An</strong> echo of small amplitude<br />
is, however, observed at a distance of 50 mm. This is <strong>the</strong> re#ection of <strong>the</strong> <strong>acoustic</strong><br />
pulse on <strong>the</strong> thin plastic "lm separating <strong>the</strong> two chambers. When sediments are<br />
contained in section A, we can quantify <strong>the</strong> relative importance of multiple re#ection<br />
echoes in <strong>the</strong> amplitude of <strong>the</strong> received signal by comparing <strong>the</strong> magnitude of echoes<br />
<strong>for</strong> x'50 mm and x(50 mm (dark plots) in Fig. 3. If a signi"cant proportion of <strong>the</strong><br />
echoes is related to multiple re#ection events, <strong>the</strong> magnitude of <strong>the</strong> signal should be<br />
comparable on both sides of x"50 mm. Actually, <strong>the</strong> magnitude of echoes <strong>for</strong><br />
x'50 mm is as low as it is when measured in clear water (gray lines in Fig. 3), where<br />
no sediment is present. The graphs in Fig. 3 do not indicate that multiple re#ections<br />
are not occurring, but that <strong>the</strong>re is considerable absorption of <strong>acoustic</strong> waves when<br />
multiple re#ections do occur. The magnitude of echoes resulting from multiple<br />
re#ections is as low as <strong>the</strong> magnitude of echoes in clear water, and <strong>the</strong> magnitude of<br />
echoes resulting from a single re#ection predominates in <strong>the</strong> back-scattered signal.<br />
For a low sediment concentration (Fig. 3(a)), <strong>the</strong> received output voltage of echoes is<br />
high and has an almost constant amplitude <strong>for</strong> x(50 mm. In that case, <strong>the</strong> absorption<br />
is small and <strong>the</strong> magnitude of <strong>the</strong> <strong>acoustic</strong> pulse is not a!ected by sediment loading.<br />
The distance <strong>for</strong> which <strong>the</strong> amplitude of <strong>the</strong> signal drops corresponds to <strong>the</strong> distance<br />
of <strong>the</strong> plastic "lm. It is exactly <strong>the</strong> distance of <strong>the</strong> echo when <strong>the</strong> two chambers contain<br />
clear water. This indicates that <strong>the</strong> <strong>acoustic</strong> propagation celerity is constant. For<br />
a higher sediment concentration (Fig. 3(b)) <strong>the</strong> magnitude of <strong>the</strong> echoes decreases<br />
rapidly in front of <strong>the</strong> probe. For <strong>the</strong> highest concentration considered (194 g l),<br />
echoes are no longer detected at more than 35 mm from <strong>the</strong> probe.<br />
To identify <strong>the</strong> e!ects of mud properties on <strong>ADV</strong> measurements, experiments were<br />
per<strong>for</strong>med using two di!erent natural muds, extracted from <strong>the</strong> Gironde estuary<br />
(France) and from <strong>the</strong> Tamar estuary (UK). The mineralogical compositions of
1558 N. Gratiot et al. / Continental Shelf Research 20 (2000) 1551}1567<br />
Table 1<br />
Mineral composition of mud in <strong>the</strong> Tamar and Gironde<br />
Gironde Tamar<br />
D in μm <br />
12 15.0<br />
Grain size distribution sand (63}100 μm) 3 7.8<br />
(% by weight) mud ((63 μm) 97 92.2<br />
Gironde mud and Tamar mud were determined by de Croutte et al. (1996) and Feates<br />
et al. (1999), respectively. They are given in Table 1. Gironde mud contains about 30%<br />
of quartz. As quartz is known to be a good ultrasonic re#ecting surface, <strong>the</strong> presence<br />
of a signi"cant quantity of quartz suggests <strong>the</strong>re should be a good <strong>ADV</strong> response.<br />
While Gironde mud was chemically treated with potassium permanganate and passed<br />
through a 100 μm sieve, Tamar mud was nei<strong>the</strong>r treated nor sieved. The <strong>ADV</strong> system<br />
was used in di!erent mixtures with sediment concentrations in <strong>the</strong> range 20}160 g l.<br />
The mud properties (in particular <strong>for</strong> Tamar mud) in <strong>the</strong> tank were representative of<br />
those occurring in <strong>the</strong> "eld. For <strong>the</strong> high concentrations considered, it is to be<br />
expected that "ne sediments and #ocs are both present in <strong>the</strong> measurement volume.<br />
4. Unsteady velocity measurements in a concentrated 6uid-mud mixture<br />
The accuracy of measurements was determined <strong>for</strong> 10 di!erent mixtures with<br />
sediment concentrations of up to 160 g l. Velocity measurements were carried out<br />
in a resonant standing wave within a tank of "nite length (Fig. 4). Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, in this<br />
unsteady #ow, it is possible to quantify <strong>the</strong> ability of <strong>the</strong> <strong>ADV</strong> to make unsteady #ow<br />
measurements, by determining <strong>the</strong> data measurement rate. In <strong>the</strong> linear regime,<br />
a simple <strong>the</strong>ory relates free surface motions to <strong>the</strong> velocity "eld in <strong>the</strong> water layer. The<br />
accuracy of <strong>the</strong> <strong>ADV</strong> was estimated by comparing velocity measurements to <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>oretical estimates of velocity variations deduced from measurements of free surface<br />
motions, as no o<strong>the</strong>r technique was available <strong>for</strong> comparing velocity measurements<br />
among <strong>the</strong>mselves.<br />
Fig. 4 shows a sketch of <strong>the</strong> experimental set-up, consisting of a small #ume of<br />
length ¸"25.0 cm and width 9.0 cm. The water depth was set to h"5.0 cm. Gravity<br />
waves were generated mechanically by oscillating a vertical plate located in <strong>the</strong> middle<br />
of <strong>the</strong> #ume with <strong>the</strong> period of oscillation of resonant standing waves<br />
¹"2 π¸<br />
g tanh(πh/¸) , (3)<br />
where g denotes <strong>the</strong> acceleration due to gravity. The plate was removed when surface<br />
waves were established and <strong>the</strong>ir amplitude appeared to be qualitatively constant.<br />
After approximately 10 s, secondary modes were dissipated and <strong>the</strong> resonant wave<br />
mode was <strong>the</strong>n predominant. The oscillation amplitude decreased slowly due to
N. Gratiot et al. / Continental Shelf Research 20 (2000) 1551}1567 1559<br />
Fig. 4. Resonant gravity wave facility. Free surface oscillations are measured using an ultrasonic wave<br />
gauge. The <strong>ADV</strong> is immersed in a separate chamber.<br />
Fig. 5. Time-dependent changes in free surface displacements <strong>for</strong> a resonant standing wave: () experimental<br />
data, (*) model function given by Eq. (4).<br />
bottom and side-wall friction. The time record of <strong>the</strong> free surface displacements<br />
measured using an ultrasonic wave gauge at a "xed location in <strong>the</strong> #ume is shown in<br />
Fig. 5. The time-dependent changes in free surface motions were in good agreement<br />
with a function of <strong>the</strong> <strong>for</strong>m<br />
η(x, t)"a e cos(πx/¸) cos(ωt) (4)<br />
<br />
(ω"2π/¹), which is superimposed on <strong>the</strong> data. This indicates that <strong>the</strong> wave energy is<br />
entirely contained in <strong>the</strong> resonant standing wave mode. Exponential decay accounts<br />
<strong>for</strong> viscous dissipation. While <strong>the</strong> wave frequency was determined <strong>the</strong>oretically, <strong>the</strong><br />
initial amplitude a and <strong>the</strong> wave decay rate α were estimated from <strong>the</strong> free surface<br />
<br />
displacement record <strong>for</strong> each condition investigated.<br />
The transducer was placed in a section of <strong>the</strong> tank separated by a Plexiglas wall<br />
from <strong>the</strong> part of <strong>the</strong> tank where <strong>the</strong> gravity wave #ow was generated (see Fig. 4). The
1560 N. Gratiot et al. / Continental Shelf Research 20 (2000) 1551}1567<br />
section where <strong>the</strong> transducer was located was "lled with tap water, to ensure <strong>the</strong><br />
propagation of <strong>acoustic</strong> waves through <strong>the</strong> Plexiglas wall between <strong>the</strong> probe and <strong>the</strong><br />
position of measurement. <strong>An</strong>y #ow disturbance due to <strong>the</strong> <strong>ADV</strong> probe was <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e<br />
eliminated. Just be<strong>for</strong>e generating <strong>the</strong> gravity wave, <strong>the</strong> #uid mud mixture was fully<br />
mixed by hand. Obviously, <strong>the</strong> sediment settles slowly when mechanical mixing is<br />
stopped. The interface separating #uid mud and clear water was clearly visible in our<br />
experiments. The slow downward displacement of <strong>the</strong> interface provided an estimate<br />
of <strong>the</strong> settling velocity w <br />
. The latter quantity was found to be less than 1 mm s<br />
(generally 0.3 mm s). We <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e estimate that <strong>the</strong> concentration at <strong>the</strong> position of<br />
velocity measurement did not drop below <strong>the</strong> mean concentration be<strong>for</strong>e<br />
t'h <br />
/w <br />
+40s (h <br />
is <strong>the</strong> water depth above <strong>the</strong> measurement volume; <strong>the</strong> position of<br />
measurement was located 1 cm above <strong>the</strong> bottom). The velocity was measured during<br />
<strong>the</strong> time interval 20 s(t(30 s after <strong>the</strong> gravity wave was generated. The wave height<br />
remained of su$cient magnitude during this time interval. The variation in mud<br />
concentration with time, if it occurred, must have increased as a consequence of<br />
settling. The averaged mud concentration was measured from bottle samples taken<br />
from <strong>the</strong> initial #uid mud mixture.<br />
For <strong>the</strong> free surface displacements given by Eq. (4) <strong>the</strong> variation in <strong>the</strong> horizontal<br />
velocity component predicted by <strong>the</strong> linear potential <strong>the</strong>ory is<br />
u(x, z, t)"! a gk<br />
ω<br />
cosh k(z#h)<br />
e sin(kx) sin(ωt), (5)<br />
cosh kh<br />
where h is <strong>the</strong> mean depth of <strong>the</strong> water layer inside <strong>the</strong> tank, z is <strong>the</strong> vertical<br />
co-ordinate (here at <strong>the</strong> position of measurement) and z"!h is on <strong>the</strong> bottom.<br />
Solution (5) veri"es u(0, t)"u(¸, t)"0 on <strong>the</strong> boundaries of <strong>the</strong> tank.<br />
Free surface and velocity measurements were not actually per<strong>for</strong>med simultaneously<br />
in order to avoid any disturbance of <strong>the</strong> #ow by <strong>the</strong> wave gauges immersed in<br />
<strong>the</strong> tank. Considering Eq. (5), a function of <strong>the</strong> <strong>for</strong>m<br />
u (x, z, t)"u <br />
e sin(ωt#θ), (6)<br />
was superimposed on <strong>the</strong> experimental data after adjusting <strong>the</strong> initial amplitude<br />
u <br />
and phase θ, while <strong>the</strong> wave height decay rate α was determined from <strong>the</strong> wave<br />
gauge records.<br />
Fig. 6 shows <strong>the</strong> time records of <strong>the</strong> velocity measured <strong>for</strong> three sediment concentrations<br />
(43, 50 and 100 g l) of Gironde or Tamar mud. The best agreement between<br />
<strong>the</strong> experimental data and Eq. (6) is observed <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> lowest concentrations, i.e. C"43<br />
and C"50 g l. For <strong>the</strong> higher concentration C"100 g l, a few signi"cant errors<br />
arise when <strong>the</strong> velocity is maximum, but wave motion and wave decay are satisfactorily<br />
accounted <strong>for</strong> in <strong>the</strong> experimental data records. We believe that <strong>the</strong> variations at<br />
maximum velocity are measurement errors ra<strong>the</strong>r than turbulence production, because<br />
<strong>the</strong>y are mainly observed <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> higher concentration. Turbulence resulting<br />
from internal wave breaking is less likely to occur <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> higher concentration. Each<br />
record displays short time intervals containing no data; <strong>the</strong>se correspond to periods<br />
during which <strong>the</strong> software did not validate <strong>the</strong> velocity measurements. The data
N. Gratiot et al. / Continental Shelf Research 20 (2000) 1551}1567 1561<br />
Fig. 6. Horizontal velocity measurement in a resonant standing wave #ow. Gironde mud is used <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
plots in (a) and (b). Tamar mud is used <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> plot in (c). (a) C"100 g l, (b) C"50 g l, (c) C"43 g l.<br />
(, , ): <strong>ADV</strong> measurements, (*) model.
1562 N. Gratiot et al. / Continental Shelf Research 20 (2000) 1551}1567<br />
Fig. 7. Isoline of <strong>the</strong> rate of validation of velocity measurements (data per second) versus suspended<br />
sediment concentration C and versus distance of measurement from <strong>the</strong> sensor d <br />
.<br />
records display slight asymmetries, which are not understood. The wave model used<br />
<strong>for</strong> comparison is linear and does not include secondary-mode oscillations. Although<br />
<strong>the</strong> observed asymmetry is not signi"cant, it is surprising that <strong>the</strong> asymmetry in Figs.<br />
6(a) and (b) is opposite in direction to that in (c). No di!erence was observed in <strong>the</strong><br />
accuracy of <strong>the</strong> measurements and in <strong>the</strong> rate of measurement between <strong>the</strong> Gironde<br />
and Tamar mud mixtures. Fig. 7 quanti"es <strong>the</strong> variations in measurement validation<br />
rate. The isoline plots were interpolated from a set of 60 cases <strong>for</strong> di!erent distances of<br />
measurement d <br />
from <strong>the</strong> probe and <strong>for</strong> di!erent concentrations of Tamar #uid mud<br />
mixtures. The maximum validation data rate is 78.1 Hz as ¹ <br />
"0.256 ms (N"50). As<br />
expected, <strong>the</strong> rate of data validation increases <strong>for</strong> decreasing concentration and<br />
decreasing distance of measurement from <strong>the</strong> probe. It is <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e established that <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>ADV</strong> system can measure unsteady velocities in #uid mud mixtures with concentrations<br />
of up to 140 g l with a data validation rate better than 20 data s.<br />
5. Measurements of turbulent velocity in a concentrated 6uid mud mixture<br />
The determination of turbulent velocities in #uid mud layers is a necessary step <strong>for</strong><br />
assessing <strong>the</strong> vertical transfer of sediments between <strong>the</strong> muddy bed and <strong>the</strong> dilute<br />
suspension in estuarine environments. The investigations described in Section 4 demonstrated<br />
<strong>the</strong> ability of an <strong>ADV</strong> to make accurate measurements of unsteady velocities<br />
in concentrated #uid mud mixtures. The rate of validation, in <strong>the</strong> range 20}75<br />
data s, is not high, but it may be su$cient <strong>for</strong> turbulence measurements in<br />
concentrated Benthic suspensions in <strong>the</strong> "eld, where <strong>the</strong> velocity is quite low. A limitation<br />
on using an <strong>ADV</strong> <strong>for</strong> turbulence measurements in concentrated #uid mud
N. Gratiot et al. / Continental Shelf Research 20 (2000) 1551}1567 1563<br />
mixtures is <strong>the</strong> size of <strong>the</strong> measurement volume. For our system, this is typically<br />
0.5 mm in <strong>the</strong> direction of propagation of ultrasonic waves and 1.5 mm in <strong>the</strong><br />
perpendicular direction (see Section 2). The <strong>ADV</strong> operates on <strong>the</strong> principle that<br />
solid-body motion is achieved inside <strong>the</strong> measurement volume. The size of <strong>the</strong><br />
measurement volume must <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e be smaller than <strong>the</strong> smallest scale of turbulence.<br />
In order to investigate <strong>the</strong> ability of <strong>the</strong> <strong>ADV</strong> to measure turbulence properties,<br />
turbulence velocity variations were recorded in a simple sediment mixing experiment<br />
and some of <strong>the</strong> statistical properties of <strong>the</strong> turbulence were determined.<br />
The sediment was mixed in a square tank, 0.3 m wide and 0.2 m deep, by a rapidly<br />
rotating propeller. The propeller was set to a su$ciently rapid speed to maintain all<br />
<strong>the</strong> sediment in suspension. Velocity measurements were made in #uid mud mixtures<br />
of various concentrations (20, 50, 80 and 100 g l). Be<strong>for</strong>e <strong>the</strong> velocity was measured,<br />
<strong>the</strong> water and sediment were mixed <strong>for</strong> about 10 min and visual observations were<br />
made through <strong>the</strong> transparent bottom of <strong>the</strong> tank to ensure that no sediment<br />
remained deposited <strong>the</strong>re.<br />
Fig. 8. presents a time history record measured by <strong>the</strong> <strong>ADV</strong>, covering a period of<br />
128 s. Each velocity datum was determined from <strong>the</strong> changes in phase shift averaged<br />
over a set of N"50 successive wave packets. For this experiment, <strong>the</strong> period of wave<br />
packet emission was decreased to T <br />
"0.128 ms, allowing a rate of measurement of<br />
156.2 Hz if all velocity data were validated. Actually, about 30% of <strong>the</strong> data were<br />
rejected and <strong>the</strong> record contains about 14,000 validated velocity data. For fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
Fig. 8. Velocity record measured by <strong>ADV</strong> in a mixing tank containing #uid mud of concentration<br />
C"50 g l.
1564 N. Gratiot et al. / Continental Shelf Research 20 (2000) 1551}1567<br />
Fig. 9. Distribution of a velocity record (plotted in Fig. 8) measured in a mixing tank containing #uid mud.<br />
A Gaussian distribution (*) is superimposed.<br />
analysis, <strong>the</strong> missing values in <strong>the</strong> record were replaced with <strong>the</strong> last preceding<br />
validated velocity datum. The propeller generated both a mean rotating #ow and<br />
turbulence. For this record, <strong>the</strong> mean velocity in <strong>the</strong> direction of propagation of<br />
ultrasonic waves is ;M "1.25 cm s and <strong>the</strong> rms turbulent velocity is u"2.15<br />
cm s. The histogram of velocity variations <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> record considered in Fig. 8. is<br />
shown in Fig. 9. The distribution is Gaussian, as shown by <strong>the</strong> Gaussian curve<br />
superimposed on <strong>the</strong> data. This is a "rst indication that <strong>the</strong> statistical properties of <strong>the</strong><br />
turbulence are captured in <strong>the</strong> velocity records measured by <strong>the</strong> <strong>ADV</strong>. As random<br />
white noise also displays a Gaussian distribution of events, a time frequency spectral<br />
analysis of velocity records was made in order to estimate <strong>the</strong> proportion of <strong>the</strong> signal<br />
corresponding to turbulent #ow and that associated with noise. The power spectrum<br />
of turbulent #uctuations is presented in Fig. 10. Energy density decays as frequency<br />
increases. The threshold level reached at frequencies higher than 70 Hz indicates <strong>the</strong><br />
level of noise contained in <strong>the</strong> record. In hydrodynamic turbulent #ows, <strong>the</strong> energy<br />
density decays <strong>for</strong> increasing frequency, a phenomenon that is associated with a transfer<br />
of energy from low frequencies (large eddies) to high frequencies (small eddies). In<br />
Fig. 10, <strong>the</strong> energy spectrum decay versus frequency follows approximately a power<br />
law of <strong>the</strong> <strong>for</strong>m E( f )+f , which is <strong>the</strong> decay law predicted by Kolmogorov's<br />
<strong>the</strong>ory <strong>for</strong> a homogeneous isotropic turbulent #ow. Although <strong>the</strong>se observations do<br />
not prove that <strong>the</strong> turbulence measurements are quantitatively accurate, <strong>the</strong>y provide<br />
consistent indications that <strong>ADV</strong> measurements capture <strong>the</strong> hydrodynamic properties<br />
of turbulence and, in particular, that aliasing due to an insu$cient rate of data<br />
validation is unlikely to occur.
N. Gratiot et al. / Continental Shelf Research 20 (2000) 1551}1567 1565<br />
Fig. 10. Power spectrum of turbulent #ow velocity measured by <strong>the</strong> <strong>ADV</strong> in a mixing tank containing #uid<br />
mud. Suspended sediment concentration is C"100 g l.<br />
The integral length scale l of turbulence was not measured, and, <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e, only<br />
a range of variations of <strong>the</strong> Taylor microscale λ <br />
"l(ul/ν) can be inferred. The<br />
Taylor microscale varies in <strong>the</strong> range 0.7}7 mm <strong>for</strong> a rms turbulence velocity in <strong>the</strong><br />
range 1}10 cm s and an integral length scale in <strong>the</strong> range 1}10 cm (ν"<br />
510 cm s <strong>for</strong> this estimate). The Taylor scale of turbulence is seen to be larger<br />
or, in some cases, may be of <strong>the</strong> order of <strong>the</strong> size of <strong>the</strong> measurement volume. The<br />
measurement volume of <strong>the</strong> <strong>ADV</strong> appears to be su$ciently small <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> turbulence<br />
measurements carried out during <strong>the</strong> present investigation.<br />
6. Conclusions<br />
The present paper does not intend to present a new <strong>acoustic</strong> back-scatter system,<br />
but ra<strong>the</strong>r to investigate whe<strong>the</strong>r such a system can measure unsteady and turbulent<br />
velocities in concentrated #uid mud mixtures, and to determine <strong>the</strong> appropriate<br />
settings of <strong>the</strong> apparatus. For <strong>the</strong> purpose of making measurements in <strong>the</strong> laboratory,<br />
but also potentially in <strong>the</strong> "eld, di!erent natural muds were employed. <strong>An</strong> <strong>ADV</strong> does<br />
not require calibration and is a non-intrusive measurement device. It is <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e an<br />
attractive technology <strong>for</strong> measuring velocities in <strong>the</strong> laboratory and in <strong>the</strong> "eld.<br />
Speci"c questions arise concerning <strong>the</strong> use of an <strong>ADV</strong> in <strong>the</strong> presence of cohesive<br />
sediments. Acoustic wave absorption is enhanced in concentrated mud suspensions,<br />
but it does not hinder <strong>the</strong> reception of back-scattered echoes, even <strong>for</strong> concentrations<br />
as high as 100 g l, and when <strong>the</strong> distance of measurement from <strong>the</strong> probe is as far as<br />
50 mm. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, <strong>the</strong> considerable absorption of <strong>acoustic</strong> waves in <strong>the</strong>ir
1566 N. Gratiot et al. / Continental Shelf Research 20 (2000) 1551}1567<br />
interactions with particles appears to eliminate echoes resulting from multiple scattering<br />
in <strong>the</strong> back-scattered signal received by <strong>the</strong> transducer. A simple experiment was<br />
carried out, that shows that echoes resulting from multiple scattering make a negligible<br />
contribution to <strong>the</strong> signal received by <strong>the</strong> transducer in <strong>the</strong> time window<br />
considered <strong>for</strong> signal analysis.<br />
The accuracy of velocity measurements by an <strong>ADV</strong> has been demonstrated,<br />
without prior determination of particle and #oc sizes, in an unsteady laminar #ow, <strong>for</strong><br />
sediment concentrations in <strong>the</strong> range 20}160 g l. Data rate validations were found<br />
to be in <strong>the</strong> range 20}75 <strong>for</strong> a rate of measurement of 78.1 Hz. While this is not a high<br />
rate of data acquisition, it is su$cient <strong>for</strong> many applications, especially in concentrated<br />
Benthic suspensions where velocities are not high. Turbulence measurements<br />
were carried out in a mixing tank containing a #uid mud mixture. By setting <strong>the</strong><br />
period of pulse repetition to ¹ <br />
"0.128 ms we improved <strong>the</strong> rate of data acquisition<br />
up to 110 data s. The <strong>ADV</strong> measurement volume (0.5}1.5 mm) was smaller than <strong>the</strong><br />
Taylor microscale of turbulence and <strong>the</strong> usual statistical behaviour of hydrodynamic<br />
turbulence was recovered by <strong>the</strong> <strong>ADV</strong> measurements made in <strong>the</strong> mixing tank. <strong>ADV</strong><br />
appears to be an appropriate tool <strong>for</strong> measuring low Reynolds turbulence.<br />
Although this was not tested in <strong>the</strong> course of this study, using an <strong>ADV</strong> system <strong>for</strong><br />
measuring velocities in #uid mud mixtures in <strong>the</strong> "eld is not a priori subject to any<br />
particular restriction, as far as <strong>the</strong> principle of operation is concerned. The principle of<br />
operation of our system is a standard one. Commercial pulse to pulse <strong>ADV</strong> systems<br />
should work as well, and sometimes may provide measurements of several velocity<br />
components. Using <strong>ADV</strong> is especially attractive because <strong>the</strong> measurement volume is<br />
small and it does not require calibration. For <strong>the</strong> present settings of our <strong>ADV</strong> system,<br />
<strong>the</strong> maximum velocity that can be measured is 12 cm s. It is certainly desirable to<br />
increase <strong>the</strong> range of measurements in order to use our <strong>ADV</strong> system in <strong>the</strong> "eld. Eq. (2)<br />
indicates <strong>the</strong> signi"cant settings of <strong>the</strong> apparatus. The period of pulse emission<br />
¹ <br />
cannot be reduced much as it "xes <strong>the</strong> location of measurement, which has to be<br />
su$ciently far from <strong>the</strong> probe. To increase <strong>the</strong> velocity range it would be necessary to<br />
increase <strong>the</strong> <strong>acoustic</strong> frequency f <br />
or to decrease <strong>the</strong> number n of echoes analysed <strong>for</strong><br />
determining a velocity datum. The settings of <strong>the</strong> apparatus were f <br />
"5 MHz and<br />
n"10 in our study. The velocity range can presumably be increased, but checks<br />
should be made to determine how far <strong>the</strong> accuracy of measurements is reduced if <strong>the</strong><br />
number n of data used <strong>for</strong> velocity determination is decreased. The ability of <strong>ADV</strong> <strong>for</strong><br />
measurements in <strong>the</strong> "eld has to be evaluated.<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
This work was carried out as part of <strong>the</strong> COSINUS Program, which is funded<br />
by <strong>the</strong> European Commission (contract MAS3-CT97-0082). SogreH ah IngeH nierie is<br />
thanked <strong>for</strong> providing natural mud samples from <strong>the</strong> Gironde estuary. K. Dyer and<br />
A. Manning are thanked <strong>for</strong> providing natural mud samples from <strong>the</strong> Tamar estuary.<br />
K. Dyer is "nally thanked <strong>for</strong> having drawn our attention to <strong>the</strong> paper by Lhermitte<br />
(1983).
N. Gratiot et al. / Continental Shelf Research 20 (2000) 1551}1567 1567<br />
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