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Majid N. Al-Amri types of pre-sequences such as the pre-announcement, pre-invitation, pre-request, pre-closing statement and pre-narrative (Miler &Eimas, 1995). Closings, like openings, do not just take place, but must be made to occur through co-ordinated activities. The simplest solution is also to use adjacency pairs. Closings are usually preceded by preclosings, such as well, okay, so-oo, alright (with a downward intonation) (Richards & Schmidt, 1983; Schegloff& Sacks, 1973; Tsui, 1994). Further, there are many sequence types for closings such as arrangements, back-references, topic initial elicitors, inconversation objects, solicitudes, reasons-for-calls and appreciations. In my reading classes, adult ESL students are usually introduced to different interesting social and cultural fables and stories. In one of the classes, I recorded the students while they were being introduced to a story. The story was about a man from New York City. He was called The Man with the Gloves because he used to give gloves to poor people in New York in winter. The following is one excerpt of a conversation between me as the course teacher and one of the students with whom I had a conversation about the story: T: Is it an interesting story S: [silent] T: Is it an interesting a story Do you think so S: Yah. T: Do you like the story S: Yah. T: What is the title of the story S: The Man with the Gloves T: Is it an appropriate title for the story S: ah . . . T: Is it a good title for the story S: Yah. T: Is the man with the gloves a good man S: Yah. T: Why S: He helps poor people. T: Would you do the same if you were the man S: um . . . The above excerpt shows that the conversation is guided by the teacher who expected the student to answer his questions in a particular way. In the excerpt, the parts of the adjacency pairs are either linguistic (words) or non-linguistic (pause or sounds like ah), and any absence of a second part is a “noticeable absence” where the speaker of the first part may infer a reason for that absence. For example, when the teacher noticed an absence of an answer for his question, namely “Is it an interesting story”, 144
Getting Beyond Conversation Analysis: Critical and Pedagogical Implications for TESOL/Bilingual Curriculum for Diverse Learners in the Age of Globalization he repeated the question. This shows that the second parts of adjacency pairs are monitored by the first speaker and related to the first parts as expected follow-ups. They are performed without features of markedness, immediately, and without delay, but they are sometimes accompanied by the characteristics of markedness (e.g., ah). Beyond Adjacency Pairs for Bilingual/TESOL Education The nature of conversation analysis (CA) focusing on talk-in-interaction in various contexts has recently made more research investigations possible for researchers in different social and educational fields of research, focusing on the notion of the learners’ interactional competence (Markee, 2000; Young & Miller, 2004), which “has the advantage of emphasising the domain and socially distributed nature of the capacities in question” (Kasper, 2006, p. 86). This is different from what has been proposed as learners’ sociolinguistic competencies, for example (Hutchby & Wooffitt, 1998, p. 14), which reduce “‘competenc(i)es’ to a ‘single competence’ [that] is perhaps less apposite, as it takes away the sense of non-finiteness and diversity in type and organisation of the capacities that participants bring to bear on social interaction” (Kasper, 2006, p. 86). In the field of second language learning and bilingualism, CA has recently been implemented, focusing on “the development of interactional skills and resources and conceptualizing language learning as a social process” (Seedhouse, 2005, p. 175). Thus, core CA concepts (e.g., adjacency pairs) have been adopted as a method to investigate the discourse of second-language learning and bilingualism, considering learning a second language a phenomenon which is socially and culturally constructed by learners in an active and interactional manner (Gardner & Wagner, 2004; Lazaraton, 2003; Markee, 2000, 2004; Richards &Seedhouse, 2005; Seedhouse, 2004). Hence, “knowledge is located in communities of practice” and “learning not only takes place in the social world, it also constitutes that world” (Brouwer& Wagner, 2004, p. 33). Studies conducted within a socio-cultural and interactional language perspective in the field of second language acquisition and bilingualism have demonstrated that CA constitutes an important framework for pedagogical practices inside the bilingual/ESL classroom. Cromadal (2001), for example, studied a group of bilingual children aged 6–8 years as they attempted to access peer activities. He reported that participating in peer play is a “shared activity” in which children negotiate rules and dispersed knowledge to achieve a “joint accomplishment”. During interactions, children manipulated CA concepts (e.g., adjacency pairs), called upon interactional competence rather than social competencies, and became members in a community of practice, apprenticing themselves to a group of people who share a certain set of practices through joint action (Gee, 2004). Another study which showed learners’ alignment in interactions, moving from peripheral to fuller participation is Young and Miller’s (2004) longitudinal study of an ESL learner engaging in a specific activity (revision talks of writing conferences) 145
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Editorial Per-Olof Erixon, Editor E
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THEMATIC SECTION HISTORY TEXTBOOK R
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