bronze age environment and economy in the troad - Universität ...

chapter 1: environment and archaeology
extending from the Black Sea through the Sea of Marmara
towards the Aegean. A part of this depression developed as a
fluvial-erosional basin of the Palaeo-Karamenderes valley
(Skamander) 50 to 80 km south of Troy. The first invasion of
the waters of the Mediterranean occurred from c. 70000 BP,
and the final capture of the Pre-Dardanelles drainage by rivers,
during the last Würm glacial regression of the sea. The Skamander
developed as a part of the northeast directed, Pre-Dardanelles
drainage system (Kraft, Kayan and Erol 1982). The
Skamander leaves the high plateau at Pinarbaşi, emerges onto
its alluvial plain and flows northwards to the Dardanelles. The
Simois (Dümrek) river, coming from the East, joins the
Skamander near its delta.
1.1.2.2 Hydrology and hydrography
The Mediterranean river regime differs from other types of
river regimes in its drainage curve, which extends parallel to
the curve of precipitation in very short distance. Therefore
heavy precipitation and floods in winter and spring, and low
waters in dry summers are typical (Güldalı 1979). An early,
general investigation of the history of Mediterranean valleys as
witnesses of accumulation and deposition was conducted by
Vita-Finzi (1969). He recognised two characteristic deposits
within a time span of about 125000 years. The lithologically
diverse and badly stratified ‛older fills’, which derive from a
unique depositional phase dating to the last interglacial are
often thought to be of climatic or catastrophic nature. Vita-
Finzi (1969) tends towards the explanation of changing surface
vegetation including the erosion of soils. The well sorted
‛younger fills’ are dated to a much younger period, i.e.
between Roman and Middle Ages, with erosion on slopes and
accumulation in the valleys. Anthropogenic influence is
thought to have been considerable. Vita-Finzi’s ‛younger fill’
could not be recognised by Kraft, Kayan and Erol (1982) in the
Skamander stratigraphy. For this deviation one has to consider
that local factors might have strongly influenced the picture of
the Mediterranean valleys. The history of the Skamander
valley can be roughly described as follows.
The last lowering of the world sea level occurred during the
Würm glaciation (at about 16000 BP) and reached a maximum
of about 100 m below present sea level. From that time onward
world sea level rose rapidly (Kraft, Kayan and Erol 1982). The
major geomorphic change in the Skamander plain over the past
7000 years was the progradation of the delta towards the
Dardanelles. Because of this progradation, the coastline shifted
in direction to the sea, although the sea level rose (Kraft,
Kayan and Erol 1982, Kayan 1996). In many Mediterranean
valleys the signs of sea-level changes are overlapping with
alluviation by the rivers, which are often assumed to be erosional
processes forced anthropogenically (Vita-Finzi 1969). The
accumulation of sediment in the Skamander delta was caused
by an unknown degree of human activity on the low plateau
and resulting soil erosion (Pustovoytov in prep.).
Human influence on soil erosion is documented since antiquity
(e.g. Plato in the 4th century) and is mainly interpreted as due
to excessive clearing and browsing. The rate of delta progression
is often an indicator of inland erosion. In the case of the
Skamander delta, erosive processes can be acertained since the
Early Bronze Age. The question of anthropogenic influence is
addressed by Pustovoytov (see 1.1.2.3).
The prehistoric coastlines determined by the accumulation of
sediment in the delta of Skamander are well-known from
Kayan’s investigations (Kraft, Kayan and Erol 1982, Kayan
1996). The ruin of Troy is six kilometres from the delta coast
today, while historical sources from the 12th century AD
document the coastline as about two kilometres distance from
the “town Truva”. Troy was a coastal settlement at least during
the Early Bronze Age periods Troy I and Troy II, and was not
much more than 1 km from the sea until Late Roman I. The
same situation is valid for Kumtepe (Map 1).
Today the southeastern part of the river valley is about 10 m
above sea level. The river regulations in the 20th century
changed the delta region of Skamander from flooded plains
during winters to a well drained river system. Since this time
the accumulation of sediment is negligible.
1.1.2.3 Soils
The reconstruction of the prehistoric environment is one of the
central aims within the recent archaeological investigation at
Troy. Soil science is integrated into Troy project, to investigate
the importance of the hinterland of Troy, i.e. the high and particularly
the low plateau, on which Troy is situated on the most
western edge. Soil represents the only autochthonous, palaeogeographic
indicator which can give information on prehistoric
activity within this locality. Although large regions of the
Mediterranean landscape are eroded, there are still areas, where
the original, prehistoric soil is preserved. Since 1995
Pustovoytov (1995) has investigated the soils in the vicinity of
Troy.
Pustovoytov (in prep.) conducted a prospection of the modern
soil-cover in the hinterland, which resulted in a soil map of the
region. Radiocarbon dating of humus and carbonates has given
information on the minimum ages of the soils. Dating buried
soils provided information on the beginning of the superposition,
i.e. accumulation of eroded sediment. Palaeobotanical
contents of soil profiles, such as pollen, phytoliths and carbonised
macroremains are still under investigation, but are
expected to bring information on the former vegetation in the
region.
The following summary gives some preliminary results on the
development of the soil-cover in the Troad.
The development of the soils on the high and the low plateaux
started in early Holocene at the latest. Since then, the soilcover
on the high plateau remained almost undisturbed until
now, while the low plateau was already partially eroded in prehistoric
times. The soil profiles from areas on the low plateau
that do not show signs of erosion, retain valuable information
for the reconstruction of the landscape. Other objects that
preserve characteristics of the ancient landscape are buried
soils, i.e. soils covered with sediment. These overlying sediments
consist of eroded and mixed material from old soil horizons.
Buried soils were found in ravines on the low plateau.
One of those buried soils could be determined as a former
ploughing horizon, which correlated with arable farming in the
Byzantine period (around 1100 AD).
Previous research demonstrated the coexistence of different
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