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SAFETY SERIES No. 4 1 

Objectives and Design 

of Environmental 

Monitoring Programmes 

for Radioactive Contaminants 

Sponsored by the 

IAEA and W H O 

AGENCY, VIENNA, 1975


Please see http://www.ns-iaea.org/standards/







OBJECTIVES AND DESIGN 

OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING PROGRAMMES 

FOR RADIOACTIVE CONTAMINANTS



The follow ing States are M em bers of the In ternational A tom ic Energy A gency: 

AFGHANISTAN GREECE PAKISTAN 

ALBANIA GUATEMALA PANAMA 

ALGERIA HAITI PARAGUAY 

ARGENTINA HOLY SEE PERU 

AUSTRALIA HUNGARY PHILIPPINES 

AUSTRIA ICELAND POLAND 

BANGLADESH INDIA PORTUGAL 

BELGIUM INDONESIA ROMANIA 

BOLIVIA IRAN SAUDI ARABIA 

BRAZIL 

IRAQ 

SENEGAL 

BULGARIA IRELAND SIERRA LEONE 

BURMA ISRAEL SINGAPORE 

BYELORUSSIAN SOVIET ITA LY SOUTH AFRICA 

SO CIALIST REPUBLIC IVORY COAST SPAIN 

CAMEROON JAMAICA SRI LANKA 

CANADA JAPAN SUDAN 

CHILE JORDAN SWEDEN 

COLOMBIA KENYA SWITZERLAND 

COSTA RICA KHMER REPUBLIC SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC 

CUBA 

KOREA, REPUBLIC OF 

THAILAND 

CYPRUS ’ KUWAIT TUNISIA 

CZECHOSLOVAK SOCIALIST LEBANON TURKEY 

REPUBLIC LIBERIA UGANDA 

DEMOCRATIC PEOPLE'S 

LIBYAN ARAB REPUBLIC UKRAINIAN SO VIET SO CIA LIST 

REPUBLIC OF KOREA 

LIECHTENSTEIN 

REPUBLIC 

DENMARK LUXEMBOURG UNION OF SO V IET SO CIALIST 

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC MADAGASCAR REPUBLICS 

ECUADOR MALAYSIA UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT 

EG Y PT, ARAB REPUBLIC OF MALI BRITAIN AND NORTHERN 

EL SALVADOR MEXICO IRELAND 

ETHIOPIA MONACO UNITED STA T ES OF AMERICA 

FINLAND MONGOLIA URUGUAY 

FRANCE MOROCCO VENEZUELA 

GABON NETHERLANDS VIET-NAM 

GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC NEW ZEALAND YUGOSLAVIA 

GERMANY, FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF NIGER ZAIRE, REPUBLIC OF 

GHANA NIGERIA ZAMBIA 

NORWAY 

The A g en cy 's Statu te was approved on 23 O ctober 1956 by the C onference on the Statu te o f the IAEA 

held at United Nations Headquarters, New Y ork; it entered into force on 29 July 1 9 5 7 . T h e H eadquarters of 

the A gency are situated in V ien na. Its principal o b je c tiv e is "to a ccele r a te and enlarge the contribu tion of 

ato m ic energy to p e a c e , h ealth and prosperity throughout the w orld". 

© IAEA, 1975 

Perm ission to reproduce or translate the in form ation contained in this p ublication m ay be obtained by 

w riting to the In ternational A tom ic Energy A gen cy , Karntner Ring 1 1 , P .O . Box 5 9 0 , A -1011 V ien na. Austria. 

Printed by the IAEA in Austria 

January 1975



SAFETY SERIES No.41 

OBJECTIVES AND DESIGN 

OF ENVIRONMENTAL 

MONITORING PROGRAMMES 

FOR RADIOACTIVE CONTAMINANTS 

SPONSORED B Y THE 

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY 

AND THE 

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION 

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY 

VIENNA, 1975



THIS SAFETY SERIES W ILL ALSO BE PUBLISHED IN FRENCH 

OBJECTIVES AND DESIGN OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING 

PROGRAMMES FOR RADIOACTIVE CONTAMINANTS 

IA EA , VIENNA, 1975 

S T I/P U B /385 

ISBN 92-0-1 23075-3



FOREWORD 

Environm ental m onitoring is a very im portant com ponent of 

the verifica tion system for dem onstrating that the con trols on the 

re le a ses of radioactive substances to the environm ent under norm al 

w orking conditions are functioning as intended. It is a lso used to 

provide tim ely inform ation fo r d ecision s on any action that can be 

taken to p rotect the public in the event of a la rg e r, acciden tal 

rele a se. 

T here has been uncertainty in the past on the type and scope of 

the m onitoring program m es required fo r different types o f work 

involving the use of radioactive m aterials. This often stem s from 

the lack of a cle a r understanding of the ob jectiv es of an effective 

m onitoring progra m m e. It can lead either to an inadequate system , 

w h ich fa ilsto give the n ecessa ry a ssu ran ce, o r to an overelaborate 

system , which is wasteful of re sou rce s in m anpower and equipment. 

F o r this reason the International A tom ic E nergy A gency and 

the W orld Health Organization convened a panel of experts which 

produced this manual of guidance fo r th eir M em ber States on the 

ob jectiv es and design of environm ental m onitoring p rogram m es for 

radioactive contam inants. 

In preparing the manual, attention was given to the recom m en d a 

tions of the International C om m ission on R adiological P rotection , 

in p articu lar to those connected with environm ental m onitoring, and 

to e a rlie r publications o f the IAEA and WHO on related top ics. 

E xam ples of environm ental m onitoring program m es and of the 

m ethods and techniques used have been provided by m em bers of the 

panel fo r inclusion in the annexes to the manual.





CONTENTS 

I. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 1 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

ASSESSMENT OF THE NEED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL 

MONITORING AND DEFINITION OF ITS 

OBJECTIVES ................................................................................. 3 

O bjectives of environm ental surveys fo r 

norm al situations .................................................................... 3 

O bjectives of em ergen cy surveys .......................................... 4 

RESPONSIBILITIES FOR THE DESIGN AND 

IMPLEMENTATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL 

MONITORING PROGRAMMES ................................................. 5 

The op erator ................................................................................. 5 

The com petent authorities ....................................................... 6 

THE DESIGN OF ADEQUATE MONITORING 

PROGRAMMES ............................................................................. 8 

B asic fa ctors ................................................................................. 8 

E ssential features of adequate program m es .................... 11 

M onitoring of effluents on ly .................................................... 11 

L im ited m onitoring progra m m es ......................................... 12 

M onitoring p rogram m es fo r planned relea ses ................ 12 

Surveys for use with unplanned re le a se s fro m an 

installation ................................................................................. 14 

V. CHARACTERISTICS OF MONITORING 

PROCEDURES ................................................................................ 17 

A. Planned re le a se s ................................................................. 17 

B. Unplanned re le a se s ............................................................ 21 

VI. 

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS OF 

MONITORING PROCEDURES ................................................ 23 

D eterm ination o f d oses to individual m em bers of the 

public fro m planned re le a ses ............................................. 23 

D eterm ination of dose to the whole population within 

a selected region fro m planned re le a se s ...................... 23



D eterm ination of d oses to individual m em bers of 

the public fro m unplanned re le a se s .................................. 24 

Other u ses of m onitoring data .............................................. 24 

R ecord keeping .............................................................................. 24 

Sample preservation ................................................................... 25 

A ssessm ent of the significance of m onitoring 

resu lts ......................................................................................... 25 

VII. 

MONITORING SYSTEMS A T LO C AL, NATIONAL, 

REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL LEVELS ................. 26 

B asic elem ents that ch a ra cterize lo ca l m onitoring 

organizations ........................................................................... 26 

B asic elem ents that ch a ra cterize national, region al 

and international m onitoring program m es ................... 28 

VIII. GLOSSARY ...................................................................................... 29 

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS ..................................................................... 35 

ANNEX I. 

SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS AND REPORTING 

PROCEDURES .................................................................... 39 

Introduction .................................................................................... 39 

A ir sam pling ................................................................................... 39 

W ater sam pling ............................................................................. 40 

Sediment sam pling ....................................................................... 41 

Food .................................................................................................. 41 

A nalytical quality con trol ......................................................... 41 

Reporting p roced u res .................................................................. 42 

ANNEX II. CRITICAL NUCLIDES, PATHWAYS AND 

POPULATION GROUPS, AND OTHER 

HAZARD ASSESSMENT APPROACHES ................... 47 

India: Identification of critica l n u clid es, pathways 

and population groups in the neighbourhood 

of the T arapur re a cto rs ............................................. 47 

United Kingdom: A nalysis of alternative hazard 

assessm en t approaches ......................... 48



ANNEX III. DOSE ESTIMATES ....................................................... 56 

Introduction ..................................................................................... 56 

E xam ples of reported dose estim ates 

India ............................................................................................... 57 

United Kingdom ........................................................................ 59 

United States o f A m erica .................................................... 68 

ANNEX IV. EXAM PLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL 

MONITORING PROGRAMMES ............................... 71 

A rgentina ......................................................................................... 71 

C om m ission of the European C om m unities ...................... 78 

C zechoslovakia .............................................................................. 89 

F ed era l Republic of G erm any 

Environm ental m onitoring at the Julich Nuclear 

R esearch Establishm ent ................................................. 92 

Environm ental m onitoring program m e of 

the K arlsruhe Nuclear R esearch Centre .................... 100 

Japan .................................................................................................. 103 

United Kingdom 

M onitoring p rogram m es conducted by selected 

establishm ents ..................................................................... 103 

M onitoring program m es conducted by the 

F ish e rie s R a diobiological Laboratory, 

M inistry of A gricu ltu re, F ish eries and Food ............ I l l 

United States o f A m erica ...................................................... 123 

REFERENCES 130





SECTION I. INTRODUCTION 

101. This manual is intended to provide guidance on the ob jectives 

of environm ental m onitoring p rogra m m es related to the use of 

radiation sou rces and radioactive m aterials and the operation 

o f nuclear fa cilitie s , on the developm ent of adequate program m es 

and p roced u res fo r the types of installations and the populations 

and environm ents con cern ed, and on the interpretation of 

the resu lts of the m onitoring p roced u res in term s of the a s s e s s 

ment of the p ossible radiation dose to man. 

102. The guidance provided is intended p rim a rily fo r those whose 

function it is to design and operate environm ental m onitoring 

p rogram m es fo r use under norm al operating conditions and in 

foreseea b le types of em ergen cy situations. 

103. C onsideration is given to the resp on sib ilities and functions 

of op erators of nuclear fa cilities and of com petent authorities, 

including G overnm ent D epartm ents, public health and other 

public authorities who have resp on sib ilities [1] fo r protecting 

the public against any detrim ental effects to health, and the 

environm ent against the effects o f radiation and radioactive 

m a teria ls. The resp on sib ilities of the op era tors and the 

com petent authorities in this resp ect must be very cle a rly 

defined. 

104. The guidance provided is of a gen eral nature and is intended 

to cla rify the b asic p rin cip les involved in such a way that they 

can be applied effectiv ely in particu lar circu m sta n ces. 

105. Some inform ation on the identification of critica l pathways 

and population grou ps, the ch a ra cte ristics, standardization 

and in tercalibration of instrum entation, and the evaluation 

o f radiation dose is included in the Annexes, together with 

exam ples of m onitoring progra m m es designed fo r sp e cific 

installations. 

106. While it is hoped that this guidance w ill be of use to M em ber 

States at all stages of developm ent in the use o f ionizing 

radiation, p articu lar attention is given to the sp ecia l needs 

of developing countries and those with little experien ce in 

these m atters. 

1



2 

107. 

108. 

SECTION I 

The requirem ents fo r environm ental m onitoring have been 

dealt with in outline in IAEA Safety S eries N o.l - The Safe 

Handling of R adionuclides. The topic has also been dealt with 

in m ore detail in IAEA Safety S eries No. 16 - Manual of 

E nvironm ental M onitoring in N orm al O perations; IAEA 

Safety S eries N o .l8 - Environm ental M onitoring in E m ergen cy 

Situations; and WHO Publications - The E nvironm ental 

Radiation S urveillance L aboratory, and Routine Surveillance 

fo r R adionuclides in A ir and W ater. These publications may 

be con sidered as com plem en tary docum ents to this manual. 

The present manual unifies and brings up to date the prin cip les 

and ob jectiv es o f environm ental m onitoring fo r n orm al situations 

and em ergen cy situations enunciated in these e a rlie r 

publications. Useful referen ce can still be made to the 

tech n ical m aterial contained in the WHO publications and in 

the annexes to IAEA Safety S eries Nos 16 and 18.



SECTION II. ASSESSMENT OF THE NEED FOR 

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND 

DEFINITION OF ITS OBJECTIVES 

201. E nvironm ental su rveillan ce system s vary in size and c o m 

plexity and should be related to the expected potential hazard. 

A com petent authority w ill requ ire a routine environm ental 

m onitoring p rogram m e when a potential release of activity 

o r the expected radiation levels w ill result in one of the 

follow ing: 

(a) A significant fraction of the dose lim its to c r itica l groups 

o r the whole population recom m ended by the International 

C om m ission on R adiological P rotection [2] 

(b) A significant fraction of that perm itted by lo ca l regu lations, 

where appropriate. 

The n u m erical values for these fraction s should be fixed in 

the light o f lo ca l conditions. Effluent m onitoring, which is 

m andatory in any ca se, should provide sufficient inform ation 

fo r the a ssessm en t o f environm ental levels where en v iron 

m ental m onitoring is not requ ired. 

OBJECTIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL SURVEYS FOR NORMAL 

SITUATIONS 

202. The p rim a ry ob jectiv es o f environm ental surveys fo r norm al 

situations are: 

(a) A ssessm en t o f the adequacy of con trols on the reletase of 

radioactive m aterials to the environm ent 

(b) A ssessm en t of the actual o r potential exposure o f man to 

radiation o r to radioactive m aterials present in his 

environm ent o r , as a m inim um , the estim ation o f the 

probable upper lim its of such exposure 

(c) D em onstration of com pliance with the applicable regu lations, 

environm ental standards, and other operational 

lim its 

(d) The possible detection of any lon g-term changes o r trends 

in the environm ent resulting from the operation o f the 

installations. 

203. A dditional benefits received from such environm ental surveys 

m ay include: 

(a) An in crease in knowledge con cern in g the correla tion of 

levels o f d isch arge and the environm ental effe ct, thus 

3



4 SECTION II 

im proving the basis fo r future prediction s and for the 

estim ation o f m axim um o r other levels that might arise 

in an em ergen cy 

(b) The p rovision o f data that may be used to provide the 

public with adequate inform ation on environm ental 

su rveillan ce 

(c) The maintenance of a capability that w ill go at least som e 

way to providing a means for dealing with a foreseea b le 

em ergen cy situation 

(d) The p rovision of data related to the behaviour of elem ents 

in the'environm ent including the e colo g ica l, h y d rolog ica l, 

geoch em ica l and m eteorologica l aspects of such behaviour. 

OBJECTIVES OF EM ERGENCY SURVEYS 

204. The p rim ary ob jectives of em ergen cy surveys are: 

(a) The rapid com pilation of inform ation, on a tim ely b a sis, 

on the magnitude and location of the p ossible hazards to 

the public fo r the purpose of defining the type and extent 

of any n ecessa ry cou nterm easu res o r other em ergen cy 

p roced u res 

(b) The assessm en t of any hazard from inhalation o r external 

radiation to serve as a basis fo r the planning of im m ediate 

cou nterm easu res 

(c) The rapid determ ination of the possible contam ination of 

foodstu ffs, including m ilk and drinking w ater, as a basis 

for d ecision s on rejection o r continued use 

(d) The p rovision of data n ecessa ry to a ssess the radiation 

doses actually received by m em bers of the public, taking 

into account any cou nterm easu res that have been applied 

(e) To provide inform ation fo r the public regarding the 

em ergen cy situation. 

Another benefit to be obtained from such em ergen cy surveys 

is: 

(f) 

The collection of scien tific inform ation on the resu lts of 

the em ergen cy and on the behaviour of the relea sed ra d ioactive 

m a teria l in the environm ent. Such inform ation 

m ay be useful in checking the adequacy of the m onitoring 

and accident m itigation system s and to determ ine whether 

any changes are required in the routine m onitoring 

p rog ra m m es.



SECTION III. RESPONSIBILITIES FOR THE DESIGN AND 

IM PLEM ENTATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL 

MONITORING PROGRAMMES 

301. The delegation of resp on sib ilities fo r the m onitoring of 

radioactive sou rces and m aterials varies a ccord in g to the 

adm inistrative p ra ctices adopted by the country. H ow ever, 

in gen eral, the resp on sibility fo r m onitoring is shared by 

both the op erator of the installation and the com petent 

au th orities. 

302. There is no intention of defining in the follow ing paragraphs 

the concept of legal resp on sibility, but only of outlining the 

functions that could be assum ed by both the op erator and 

the com petent authorities. E ffective im plem entation of these 

functions depends heavily on clo se co-op era tion between the 

two p a rties. The op era tor who is resp on sible fo r the fa cility 

should be duly authorized by the com petent authority; the 

individual resp on sib ilities of both the operator and the 

com petent authorities should, how ever, be cle a rly defined 

by the national authorities [ 1 ]. 

THE OPERATOR 

303. The functions of the operator usually are: 

(a) To prevent any unacceptable radiation o r contam ination 

hazard to the health of the public o r damage to the en viron 

ment resulting from the w ork perform ed within the in stallation 

a n d /or waste releases into the environm ent 

(b) To com ply with the applicable regulations 

(c) To provide the means fo r dealing with the con sequ en ces, 

outside the installation, of radiation accidents that may 

o ccu r within the installation, in agreem ent with the 

com petent authorities. 

304. To ca rry out p rop erly these functions the op erator w ill n o r 

m ally have to: 

(a) P erform all n ecessa ry p re-op era tion a l investigations to 

serve as a basis fo r effectiv e environm ental m onitoring 

program m es 

(b) D esign, and provide means for p erform in g, adequate o ffsite 

environm ental m onitoring program m es fo r use during 

n orm al operation that w ill give assurance to the public 

5



6 SECTION III 

authorities that the dose to m em bers of the public rem ains 

below the allow able lim it, and thus dem onstrate to the 

com petent authorities and to the public that no u nacceptable 

hazard is created 

(c) Design, and provide means for p erform in g, em ergen cy 

surveys outside the installation in accordan ce with the 

agreem ents established with the .com petent authorities 

(d) Notify the com petent authority, in accordan ce with agreed 

p roced u res, on such topics as the occu rren ce of incidents 

and accidents involving radiation o r release of ra d io 

active m aterials to the environm ent, and the resu lts of 

m onitoring. 

THE COM PETENT AUTHORITIES 

305. The designated com petent authorities usually have the 

follow ing functions: 

(a) To ensure that the m em bers o f the public and the en viron 

ment are adequately p rotected, by, inter alia, establishing 

and im plem enting appropriate regulations and m onitoring 

program m es 

(b) To dem onstrate to the public that judgem ents regarding 

the safety of the public are based on valid inform ation. 

306. To ca rry out these functions the com petent authorities should 

n orm ally: 

(a) Identify those m an-m ade sou rces in the environm ent that 

may significantly contribute to the exposure of the public 

(b) Design, and provide means for perform in g, adequate 

routine environm ental m onitoring program m es in ord er to: 

- check the m onitoring perform ed by the op erators 

- extend the o p era tors' program m es to include in som e 

cases the investigation of other selected pathways in 

o rd er to determ ine whether the situation is adequately 

con trolled 

- con firm and sa tisfy public opinion that there are no 

unauthorized relea ses of radioactive wastes 

- check the effects o f relea se o f wastes from the w id e 

spread use (for exam ple, in m ed icin e, agriculture 

and industry) in p rem ises that cannot be con sidered 

nuclear fa cilities of com paratively sm all amounts of 

radioactive substances.



SECTION III 7 

(c) D esign and provide means fo r p erform in g em ergen cy 

su rveys in o rd e r to: 

- supplem ent, in accord a n ce with established agreem en ts, 

the em ergen cy su rveys perform ed by the op era tors of 

the affected installations 

- provide a basis for effective cou nterm easu res in the 

case of acciden ts (for exam ple, transport acciden ts) 

that do not gen erally com e under the resp on sib ility of 

an op era tor. 

Some of these tasks m ay be p erform ed by the op era tor o r 

u ser under the guidance o f the com petent authority.



BASIC FACTORS 

SECTION IV. THE DESIGN OF 

ADEQUATE MONITORING PROGRAMMES 

401. M onitoring p rogram m es may be oriented either to effluent 

m onitoring, to environm ental m onitoring o r to both. Effluent 

m onitoring is sou rce orien ted. It perm its the determ ination 

o f relea ses of activity from particular plants o r operations 

either singly o r in com bination, and is effective fo r the early 

detection and determ ination of accidental re le a ses. The 

effluent m onitoring data m ay also be used with additional 

inform ation on appropriate pathways to estim ate environm ental 

levels o f contam ination. 

E nvironm ental m onitoring enables the d irect m ea su rement 

of environm ental levels of contam ination, so excluding 

the uncertainties of assum ptions involved in the estim ations 

from effluent m onitoring. H ow ever, in many ca s e s , the 

environm ental m onitoring p rogram m e can only con firm that 

environm ental levels resulting from em ission s are below som e 

level determ ined by the m inim um detectable level of the 

m easurem ents. 

402. 'Where it has been d ecided, on the basis of the crite ria 

d escrib ed in the first paragraph of Section II, that en viron 

m ental m onitoring is requ ired, the m onitoring program m e 

conducted in the im m ediate vicin ity of an installation should 

be designed to determ ine whether o r not the relea se o f ra d ioactive 

m aterials from the installations is being held within 

the lim its p re scrib e d by the applicable environm ental 

standards, regulations and other operating lim its. The 

p rogram m e should also be designed to achieve in the best 

p ossib le manner the other ob jectiv es that have been defined 

in Section II. 

403. In designing such p rogra m m es, consideration should first be 

given to m onitoring the sp ecia l n uclides, m edia and location 

that provide: 

(a) A cle a r indication of the degree of com pliance with 

applicable standards and regulations 

(b) Valid data fo r use in estim ating potential exposure of 

the public 

(c) E arly indication of any significant unplanned releases 

that m ay have occu rre d .



SECTION IV 9 

The environm ental and effluent m onitoring data would, in 

turn, contribute inform ation which w ill be useful in the 

p eriod ic review ing of the referen ce lev els, such as derived 

w orking lim its re fe rre d to in 'p a ra .406 of this section. 

404. The identification o f critica l groups and c r itica l pathways 

perm its the developm ent of the m ost effective and econ om ica l 

environm ental m onitoring p rogram m es. The p re-op era tion a l 

investigation m ay not, how ever, o ffe r sufficient data for 

p rop er identification of the c r itica l group, and assum ptions 

must th erefore be made on the basis of general knowledge 

and the exp erien ce gained in other p rog ra m m es. The tentative 

nature of the identifications made at this stage and the 

p ossib ility o f other population groups and environm ental 

pathways being critic a l should be kept in mind. The results 

o f environm ental m onitoring follow ing the start of operation 

shall be used to con firm o r amend the con clu sion s drawn on 

the basis o f p re-op era tion a l data. Am ong oth ers, any co n 

clusions regarding the p ossible m ovem ent through the 

environm ent of radioactive elem ents and tran sfer rates from 

the. medium to different m a trices should be v erified by 

m easurem ent of the radioactive elem ents after the start of 

op eration s. P eriod ic review of the resu lts of m onitoring 

p rogram m es is a lso highly d esira b le. 

405. P re-op era tion a l investigations n ecessa ry for estim ating the 

dose from planned relea ses a:nd for the establishm ent of 

lim its and conditions of radioactive relea ses from an in sta llation 

to the environm ent include the study of the follow ing: 

(a) The types and activities of nuclides that w ill be relea sed , 

their p h ysical and ch em ical fo rm s, the method and route 

o f such relea se and the rates of relea ses (m inim um , 

average, and maximum) 

(b) The m ovem ent o f the relevant elem ents through en viron 

m ental pathways together with their dilution o r re c o n 

centration, and seasonal variations of such m ovem ents 

(c) Natural and a rtificia l features of the environm ent that 

affect the m ovem ent of the elem ents such as g eolog ica l, 

h yd rologica l, m eteorolog ica l conditions, vegetation and 

the p resen ce of w ater re s e r v o ir s and harbours 

(d) The utilization of the environm ent fo r agricu ltu re, water 

and food su pplies, industry and recreation 

(e) The distribution of the population a ccord in g to age and sex, 

and dietary, occupational; d om estic and recrea tion a l habits



10 SECTION IV 

(f) The existing levels of natural and m an-m ade radioactivity 

and their season al variations 

(g) The identification of b iolog ica l and other indicator 

m a trices of radioactive contaminant concentrations 

(h) The existing ch em ica l pollutants, which may in terfere 

with the radionuclides in their d isp ersion and pathways 

(i) The assessm en t of expected mean doses to representative 

individual m em bers of the public follow ing the studies 

ca rried out under all the above points 

(j) The tentative determ ination of groups of individual m em bers 

of the public who appear to be hom ogeneous with resp ect 

to p ossible radiation doses from the relea ses. 

406. On the basis of the assessm en t of mean doses to groups of 

individual m em bers o f the public, who appear to be h om o 

geneous with resp ect to p ossib le radiation dose from en viron 

m ental re le a se s , under n orm al conditions, the particular 

group lik ely to be the m ost exposed is chosen as the c r itica l 

group of the population. The environm ental pathways leading 

to the exposure of this c r itica l group of the population r e p r e 

sent the c r itica l pathways of exp osu re, and d eserve prim ary 

con sideration in the environm ental m onitoring program m e. 

407. When the relations between radiation levels and radionuclide 

concentrations in various com ponents of the environm ent and 

the estim ates of dose to the critica l group have been m ade, 

derived quantities such as the concentrations and the time 

integrals of concentration in food stu ffs, a ir, w ater, etc. 

correspon din g to acceptable d oses can be adopted as derived 

working levels fo r the m onitoring p rogram m es. 

408. F o r the evaluation of the consequences of unplanned relea ses 

there should be, in addition, an assessm en t of the likelihoods 

of various foreseea b le types o f accid en ts, the types and 

activities of nuclides that might be relea sed , and the en viron 

m ental pathways follow ed by them. A ppropriate action levels 

based on the m onitoring program m e should be sp ecified . 

409. With resp ect to investigations of the relative contributions 

of relea ses from an installation to the total environm ental 

radiation levels and con cen tration s, ICRP P ublication N o.7, 

1965, states: "The inclusion of m easurem ents o f ra d io 

activity in the p rogram m e of p reoperation al investigations 

has a num ber of advantages, but w ill seldom provide the best 

way of distinguishing between activity from the installation 

and that from other so u rce s. The natural activity of m ost



SECTION IV 11 

environm ental sam ples w ill vary season ally and, to a le s s e r 

extent, from y ea r to year; p reop eration al resu lts can be 

extrapolated to later years only approxim ately. It is th erefo 

re better, w h erever p ossib le, to distinguish between the 

activity from the installation and the natural activity by 

sp e cific analytical techniques ..." 

ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF ADEQUATE PROGRAMMES 

410. The p re-op era tion a l investigations should provide quantitative 

data fo r the derivation of w orking lim its and action 

levels fo r routine and em ergen cy environm ental m onitoring. 

T his m onitoring is ca rried out by the m easurem ent a n d /or 

analysis of m aterials in the critic a l pathways; when 

appropriate, other m aterials servin g as suitable indicator 

m atrices can be ch osen . In this connection, the con siderations 

of para.403 must be borne in mind. 

411. The planned m onitoring p rogram m es should be appropriate 

to the n eeds, that is to the type o f the installations, the type 

o f the environm ent in the vicinity of the installations, the 

nature and extent o f human utilization of the environm ent 

and the types and quantities of radionuclides that are expected 

to be released so that u nnecessary collection of sam ples and 

making o f m easurem ents w ill be avoided. 

412. The planning and execution of any environm ental program m e 

are a m u lti-d iscip lin a ry effo rt. T h erefore the m onitoring 

team s should be com posed of p erson s trained in the different 

appropriate d iscip lin es. It is also often advantageous to 

have person nel individually trained in m ore than one sp eciality. 

MONITORING OF EFFLUENTS ONLY 

413. The detailed review of installation plans and the p r e 

operational investigations m ay indicate that the expected 

releases o f radionuclides would be o f such quantity and lev el 

that concentrations in the environm ent and the doses to man 

w ill be insignificant (see p a ra .201). In such a case it may 

not be n ecessa ry to provide fo r an extensive routine 

environm ental program m e.



12 SECTION IV 

414. H ow ever, it is still n ecessa ry to provide sufficient m onitoring 

of effluents near the points of relea se to ensure that they do 

not significantly exceed the predicted amounts. In som e cases 

even this lim ited m onitoring m ay not be requ ired. This should 

be determ ined and con trolled by the com petent authority. 

LIMITED MONITORING PROGRAMMES 

415. As the num ber o f sm a ll-sca le u sers of radioactive m aterials 

in cre a se s, there is a p ossib ility that the com bined effect 

could, in som e a rea s, lead to significant lev els of ra d io 

active m aterials in the environm ent. In that case a lim ited 

m onitoring program m e should be initiated by the com petent 

authorities.. 

416. A rrangem ents m ay also have to be made by the com petent 

authorities fo r any em ergen cy su rveys required fo r transport 

accidents involving consignm ents of radioactive m aterials. 

MONITORING PROGRAMMES FOR PLANNED RELEASES 

417. An im portant aim of such program m es is the assessm en t 

o f the actual o r potential doses to the critica l group o r the 

estim ation of the probable upper lim its of such d oses. This 

can be done by making m easu rem en ts, using analytical 

m ethods that determ ine the type and activity levels of the 

n uclides, at any point along the c r itica l pathway and in terpreting 

these m easurem ents in term s of the dose receiv ed . 

The uncertainties in the interpretation can be reduced by 

choosing m easurem ent points in the pathway as near as 

p ossible to the c r itic a l population group, o r even by m ea su rements 

such as w h ole- o r p a rtial-bod y m onitoring, p erform ed 

on the individual m em bers o f the group. The frequ en cy of 

the m easurem ents should be related to the h a lf-liv es of the 

n uclides, their activities in the environm ent and the probable 

rate o f change of their a ctivities. 

418. Another aim of such su rveys is to v erify that a significant 

radiation dose is not being received by the c r itica l population 

grou ps, o r other population grou ps, through other than 

c r itica l pathways. Such other pathways must be designated 

with care and the frequ en cy of sam pling and m easurem ent 

need not be as great as fo r the c r itica l pathways.



SECTION IV 13 

419. R esults obtained from the m onitoring program m e can also 

be used as feedback fo r p ossible m odification of the m on i 

toring program m e itself. It m ay becom e evident from 

evaluation of these results that the num ber, frequ en cy and 

types of sam ples collected and analysed should be in crea sed , 

o r reduced, o r that the sam pling can be stopped com p letely. 

In addition, when any changes are introduced in the m anner 

of operation of the installation and nature and extent of waste 

re le a se s from it, an evaluation should be made to determ ine 

whether any consequent changes are called fo r in the 

m onitoring p rogra m m es. 

420. F o r releases to the atm osphere, m easurem ents o f the co n 

centrations o f identified nuclides in a ir, in rainw ater, o r on 

the ground su rface allow fo r the estim ation of the levels that 

m ay accum ulate in foodstu ffs. It is also im portant to take 

into con sideration inhalation and external irradiation d oses 

to humans from releases to the atm osph ere. This is p a rticu 

la rly true clo se to the installation o r where m eteorolog ica l 

fa ctors cause the relea ses from the stack to be trapped near 

the ground su rfa ce. A ir con cen tration s can fluctuate rapidly 

and m easurem ents m ay need to be made frequently o r p r e 

fera b ly continuously, for exam ple in the case o f n uclear 

pow er plants. In addition, integrating d osim eters o r other 

sim ila r d evices m ay be used with advantage. The collection 

of representative food crop s, other native vegetation, and 

su rface s o il should be undertaken p eriod ica lly fo r the analysis 

of sh ort- and lon g -liv ed nuclides released to the en v iron 

m ent. In som e ca ses it m ay be advisable to ca rry out 

m easurem ents first on bulk sam ples in ord e r to determ ine 

whether there is. a need fo r m ore extensive analysis. 

421. Through evaluation o f m onitoring resu lts, supplem ented 

by any n e ce ssa ry studies, one should be able to derive 

m ore p re cis e ly the tran sfer fa ctors fo r m ovem ent o f 

nuclides through the environm ental m edia. 

4 22. When adequate studies have been done to dem onstrate that 

the transport p ro ce s s e s are u nderstood, analyses of 'in d ica tor 

org a n ism s' m ay adequately define radionuclide levels in the 

environm ent. The 'in d ica tor organ ism ' concept o f en viron 

m ental sam pling involves the p ra ctice of exam ining food 

chains o r other environm ental pathways for selected 

organ ism s o r m aterials that provide a sensitive and reliable 

m easure o f the quantities o f each radionuclide cyclin g through



14 SECTION IV 

each food -ch ain pathway. F or exam ple, in the case where 

the p la n t-cow -m ilk -m a n food chain is determ ined to De a 

critica l pathway, it m ay not be n ecessa ry to extensively 

sam ple and m easure grazing plants to keep track of io d in e -131 

cyclin g in the food chain, since sam pling and m easuring the 

m ilk produced by dairy cow s in surrounding areas m ay be 

adequate. Where use o f a single indicator medium is 

im p ra ctica l, sam ples of sev era l m edia from each pathway 

should be collected and analysed. 

423. F or relea ses to fresh and coastal waters the routes of 

exposure are gen erally through drinking w ater, irrigated 

food stu ffs, fish and other edible organ ism s and through 

contam ination of beaches and s o ils . In areas where sola r 

evaporated salt is consum ed d irectly , such salt should be 

m onitored fo r p ossib le contam ination. 

In gen eral, nuclides o f v ery short h a lf-life are not of 

prim e con cern for planned re leases and very often m ea su rements 

do not need to be made fo r such n uclides. H ow ever, 

con sideration should be given to p ossible lon g -liv ed daughter 

products. 

424. In those ca ses where coolin g or waste ponds are located at an 

installation, nearby ground w ater w ells and su rface water 

should be m onitored for p ossible tran sfer of radioactive 

contam ination through seepage from the ponds. To prevent 

such seepage, som e designs provide for the sealing of 

bottom s and sides of ponds. If this is done, m onitoring may 

not be requ ired , though m onitoring o f the ground w ater may 

be one of the n e ce ssa ry checks fo r detecting significant leaks 

in the system . In situations where radioactive w astes are 

bu ried, m onitoring should be ca rried out to detect any 

contam ination of the ground o r su rface w aters from such 

burial p ra ctice s. 

SURVEYS FOR USE WITH UNPLANNED RELEASES FROM 

AN INSTALLATION [3] 

425. The basic fa ctors fo r planning em ergen cy surveys w ill be 

established by the p re-op era tion a l investigations and m odified 

as n e cessa ry through evaluation o f operational su rvey resu lts. 

In particu lar, an assessm en t must be made of the consequences 

o f sev era l d egrees o f accidents leading to activity relea se of



SECTION IV 15 

differen t ord e rs of magnitude. Some degree of im provisation 

should be provided for in extending the m onitoring program m e 

to co v e r a w ider area than cov ered in routine su rveys o r 

p reviou sly designed em ergen cy plans. 

426. The need fo r rapid resu lts during em ergen cy situations may 

n ecessitate the use of sim p ler screen in g p roced u res and 

m easurem ent techniques, but w here p ossib le rapid m ethods 

o f identification of nuclides should be used. In som e cases 

use is made of m obile m onitoring labora tories fo r field 

m easurem ents and an alyses. R adionuclide and radiation 

m easurem ents made during routine m onitoring p rogram m es 

m ay be useful in interpreting the resu lts. It is n ecessa ry 

to have a p rovision a l m athem atical m odel o f d isp ersion 

including the m e te o ro lo g ica l fa ctors applicable at the site. 

427. In m ost ca ses it is m ore sa tisfa ctory to detect an unplanned 

relea se by m easurem ents made near the point of re le a se . 

Continuously operating sam pling and m easuring instrum ents 

located at w e ll-ch o se n points in the environm ent may also 

be used to detect an unplanned re le a se . 

428. E m ergen cy su rveys are usually p erform ed by p reselected 

team s who make m easurem ents and co lle ct sam ples in the 

im pact area and along p re-a rra n g ed routes in the en v iron 

m ent. The sam ples should be analysed near the point of 

collection if p o ssib le . F o r this purpose m obile la b ora tories 

m ay be used. H ow ever, the sam ples can also be transported 

to cen trally located analytical labora tories if appropriate. 

It should also be pointed out that instrum ents to be used in 

em ergen cy situations should be p rop erly calibrated and in 

good working condition when needed, in ord e r that the 

em ergen cy m onitoring not be delayed. 

429. Significant resu lts o f em ergen cy su rveys should be c o m 

municated as ea rly as p ossib le to the em ergen cy operation 

authorities fo r appropriate evaluation and action s. The 

su rvey data should relate to those requ ired for: 

(1) making d ecision s on im m ediate counter m easu res such as 

con trol o f m ovem ent in the public domain 

(2) follow -u p actions such as re strictio n on distribution of 

contam inated food , re strictio n on drin kin g-w ater supply, 

re strictio n on grazing in contam inated pastu res, distri~ 

bution o f farm products and m ed ica l investigation of som e 

exposed p erson s.



1 6 SECTION IV 

430. Urgent m easurem ent must involve the im m ediate collection of 

relevant data on m e teorolog ica l conditions (principally wind 

speed and d irection as w ell as p recipitation if occu rrin g ), 

riv e r o r tidal flow conditions, radiation fields from contam inated 

containment stru ctu res etc. The m onitoring team should also 

make rapid assessm en t of the quantity o f radioactive relea ses 

involved and the prin cipal route of entry into the environm ent. 

431. Evaluation of the em ergen cy su rvey data in conjunction with 

m onitoring inform ation on planned relea ses w ill also be 

useful fo r lon g -term follow -u p actions, fo r exam ple those that 

m ay be needed to con trol subsequent releases from the offending 

installation o r con trol o f public activities in the environm ent 

after the acute phase of the em ergen cy situation has ended.



SECTION V. CHARACTERISTICS OF 

MONITORING PROCEDURES 

501. This section includes con siderations relating to sam pling 

p roced u res and the m ethods of laboratory analysis and field 

m easurem ents with referen ce to both planned and unplanned 

rele a ses. The b a sic concept is that the p roced u res, methods 

and instrum ents should be the sim p lest and m ost econ om ica l 

required to achieve adequately the d esired ob jective. 

A. PLANNED RELEASES 

502. Planned releases n orm ally allow sufficient tim e fo r carefu l 

p re -op era tion a l planning and training. W herever p ossib le, 

the m onitoring p roced u res should be put into effect w ell 

before re le a se s are planned in o rd e r to allow opportunity 

fo r testing the m ethods in actual p ra ctice. 

F ield m easurem ents 

503. Many instrum ents are available fo r the d irect m easurem ent 

o f the alpha, beta, o r gamma radiation levels in the en viron 

ment. P a rticu la rly useful and econ om ica l are those that 

con sist of a sim ple solid -sta te d osim eter that can integrate 

exposu res ov e r long period with no attention. 

504. Instruments that continuously m onitor and record levels in 

sam ples o f air o r water are useful in sp ecia l ca ses. H ow ever, 

levels o f contam ination in the environm ent are often so low 

that such d irect m easurem ents are not fea sib le. It is th erefore 

alm ost always n ecessa ry to co lle ct sam ples for subsequent 

la boratory analysis. 

Sampling 

505. S election of sam ples must be in con form ity with the ob jectiv es 

as defined in Section II. 

506. F o r m onitoring p rim a rily d irected toward a ssessm en ts of 

population dose care should be taken to obtain representative 

sam ples through com positin g of sam ples from a num ber of 

so u rces. In som e cases advantage can be taken of certain 

sam ple collection program m es already existing in governm ent 

agen cies. 

17



18 

507. 

508. 

509. 

510. 

511. 

SECTION V 

The m aterials that may have to be sam pled are a ir, rain 

w ater, su rface and underground w ater, drinking w ater, 

sedim ent, s o il, food stu ffs, vegetation, etc. In m ost cases 

a representative sam ple of the m aterials is collected and 

the activity of the sam ple is m easured either at the point of 

collection o r later in the laboratory. 

Great care must be taken to ensure that all pertinent in form a 

tion such as orig in , location , tim e and other data are 

record ed on suitable ch e ck -list form s at the time of c o lle c 

tion. Methods of identification, tran sport and handling o f the 

sam ples should ensure that this valuable inform ation is 

p reserved fo r as long as required. 

F or air m onitoring, the sam pling station may be fixed or 

m obile. Fixed stations located close to installations serve 

m ore to indicate that the installation is operating within the 

authorized relea se lim its than fo r assessm en t of d o se s. The 

air sam pler may be operated continuously o r interm ittently, 

and continuous sam pling m ay be com bined with continuous 

in situ m easurem ent. 

A variety o f collection d ev ices is available, depending upon 

the physical and ch em ical form of the radionuclide to be 

collected . F ilters are the m ost com m only used m edia for 

particulate fo rm s. C harcoal im pregnated filte rs o r ch arcoa l 

ca rtrid g es, som etim es coated with KI, are n orm ally used for 

collectin g iodine. Other types of sam plers som etim es used 

in sp ecia l ca ses include electrosta tic p recip ita tors, evacuated 

ch am bers, liquid scru b b ers, and d ry and wet deposition 

c o lle c to r s . 

Sampling of w ater is p articu larly im portant when the water 

is used fo r drinking p u rp oses. Some care is n e ce ssa ry to 

ensure that the sam ple is representative of the water actually 

consum ed. W ater from which aquatic food is harvested or 

which is used fo r irrigation should also be sam pled since 

the radionuclides contained in the water may eventually 

reach man. 

In som e cases sedim ent sam ples can be collected and analysed 

to provide an indication of lon g-term accum ulation o f ra d ionuclides 

from the w ater. T hese sedim ents may also reveal 

the p resen ce o f contam ination not detected by m onitoring the 

w ater. In certain instances riv e r bank deposits are used 

fo r agricu ltural p u rp oses. In such cases sam ples of the i 

deposits should be collected fo r analysis.



SECTION V 19 

513. F re sh -w a te r and m arine organ ism s can concentrate ra d io 

nuclides from the surrounding w ater. Aquatic foods harvested 

from contam inated w aters and sola r evaporated salt from 

coa sta l w aters th erefore constitute im portant m aterials for 

sam pling. Sam ples of these m aterials m ay represen t food 

actually consum ed by people o r m ay serve as sensitive 

in dicators of environm ental contam ination. Coastal w aters 

when used fo r production of salt, as in trop ica l a rea s, should 

a lso be sam pled. 

514. T e rre s tria l foodstuffs m ay becom e contaminated through 

d irect a eria l deposition , through uptake from contaminated 

so il o r the use o f contam inated irrigation water in the case 

of vegetable produ cts, and through consum ption of contaminated 

herbage in the case o f anim al products. Such foodstuffs might 

include fruits and vegetables, grain, meat and p articu la rly 

m ilk. Sam ples should be collected d irectly at the farm s 

where they are produced. If, how ever, they are purchased 

co m m e rcia lly , the sou rce of the foodstuff should be identified, 

if p ossib le. 

A nalysis 

515. A ra d ioch em ica l laboratory for environm ental sam ples is 

required to p erform analyses fo r sp e cific radion u clides, 

which m ay be present at low level in the sam ples. It is 

essen tial that the laboratory be under the d irection of a 

p erson who is experien ced in the application of the detailed 

analytical p roced u res required fo r p rop er p erform an ce of 

such a laboratory. Detailed con sid eration s involved in the 

planning and operation of a laboratory designed fo r ra d io 

ch em ica l analysis have previou sly been published [4 ,5 ]. 

516. Three lev els of com plexity can be envisioned in the operation 

o f a ra d ioch em ical laboratory. 

517. F ir s t, m easurem ents of g ro ss radioactivity may be acceptable 

when the com p osition of the environm ental contam ination does 

not change rapidly with tim e and when the resu lts can be 

correla ted with radioan alysis data from a selected num ber of 

sim ila r sam ples. They can also be used fo r p relim in ary 

screen in g of a large num ber of sam ples to select those that 

m ay requ ire detailed isotop ic analysis. One should, how ever, 

exam ine ca refu lly whether g ross analysis w ill be su fficien t 

fo r the p articu lar circu m sta n ces.



20 SECTION V 

518. Second, d irect qualitative a n d /or quantitative analysis for 

sp e cific radionuclides can very often be econ om ica lly a ccom p 

lished without the need fo r p rio r ch em ica l p rocessin g through 

the use of g am m a -ray sp ectrom eters. F requently sev era l 

radionuclides can be m easured sim ultaneously by this means [6]. 

519. Third, detailed ra d ioch em ical p roced u res may have to be 

conducted on the sam ple to isolate sp e cific radionuclides p rio r 

to m easurem ent of their radioactivity. R adiochem ical analytical 

m ethods have also been d iscu ssed in the literature [7 -1 0 ]. 

It is recom m ended that recogn ized p roced u res such as these 

should be adopted whenever fea sib le. 

A nalytical quality con trol 

520. C onclusions reached on the basis of environm ental m onitoring 

p rogram m es may have im portant operational .and econ om ic 

con sequ ences. The data can be used for this purpose with 

confidence only if the degree of their reliability is known 

and docum ented. To ensure the quality of the data they 

p rovid e, m onitoring la b oratories should continuously evaluate 

the p recision and the a ccu ra cy of their analytical w ork. 

P re cisio n can be tested fa irly ea sily by duplication o f analy 

s is . Evaluation of a ccu ra cy is much m ore difficu lt and 

ca lls fo r analysis by different la b ora tories, different analysts 

and different m ethods. In p ra ctice, a ccu ra cy m ay be 

evaluated by the analysis of standard referen ce m aterials 

containing certified concentrations of the expected ra d io 

n u clides, o r by participation in analytical in tercom parison 

organized on a national or an international b a sis. 

521. The International A tom ic E nergy A gency distributes a co n 

siderable num ber of standard referen ce m aterials such as 

air filte rs, water sam p les, sam ples of b io lo g ica l m aterial, 

seaw ater, sedim ents and soil containing radionuclides at 

environm ental or m onitoring con cen tration s. It also organ izes 

in tercom p arison s of radionuclide determ inations in such 

m aterials under its LOWRA program m e [11], often in c o 

operation with region al organ izations. 

522. The W orld Health O rganization has established in 1969 an 

International R eferen ce Centre fo r E nvironm ental R adioactivity, 

in F rance. It has been ca rryin g out a program m e of in tercom 

p arison of som e radionuclides in environm ental sam ples 

with the assistan ce o f ten selected institutions throughout



SECTION V 21 

the w orld. A ssistan ce has been given to som e of the la b ora 

tories that did not initially provide reliable resu lts. It is 

planned to continue this p rogram m e, which operates with 

appropriate national m onitoring system s and aim s to ensure 

p rop er collection , m easurem ent and analysis of data relating 

to environm ental radioactivity. P rio rity is given to 

strengthening national institutions so that they can participate. 

B. UNPLANNED RELEASES 

523. The design of lo ca l fa cilities and p roced u res fo r m onitoring 

planned releases should provide a su fficien t m argin for 

dealing with any sm all unplanned re le a se s that m ay be , 

detected in the cou rse of op eration s. Studies should be 

made of a serie s o f foreseea b le referen ce accidents in ord er 

to evaluate their p ossible effects and to provide a basis for 

appropriate em ergen cy planning. F or large unplanned 

re le a se s of an em ergen cy nature suitable advance a rra n g e 

ments should be made fo r obtaining the co-op era tion of other 

labora tories and organizations, to aid in the assessm en t of 

the environm ental im pacts. 

F ield m ea su rem en ts1 

524. F ield m easurem ents o f g ross radioactivity at fixed stations 

m ay provide the first inform ation on an unplanned relea se. 

F o r this pu rpose, instrum ents that m easure and record 

dose rate are m ore useful than integrating d osim eters. In 

som e ca ses it is useful to install such continuously operating 

instrum ents near lik ely points of disch arge and to couple 

these to chart re c o rd e rs and alarm system s that com m unicate 

to an appropriate con trol point. 

525. F ollow in g the detection of an unplanned re le a se , initial efforts 

w ill be directed toward determ ining the nature and extent of 

the contam ination. F ield m easurem ents are v ery im portant 

in this phase of resp on se. In the event of gaseous o r air 

relea ses lo ca l data obtained through a sm all m eteorologica l 

station should be available in o rd e r to provide inform ation 

on lo ca l conditions as a guide to the probable d isp ersa l 

1 See also Ref. [3].



22 SECTION V 

routes and m ost suitable sam pling points. Rem ote c o m 

munication of such data is also helpful. Usually an ov era ll 

view of the general dim ensions of the incident is obtained by 

a sp ecia l team of field su rveyors equipped with m obile o r 

portable m easuring d evices. The rapid tran sm ission of in fo r 

mation and instructions is of great im portance, requ iring the 

use of radiocom m unication sets, such as 'w alk ie-talkie' type 

battery-operated sets. 

5 26. Survey instrum ents fo r use in the field are intended to m easure 

d irect radiation from an installation o r the radiation em itted 

from airborn e o r air-d ep osited contam ination. They can be: 

- p ortable, battery-op erated type ca rried by person nel 

- m obile type, mounted in veh icle, a ircra ft or h elicopter. 

527. A ll instrum ents used in em ergen cy surveys should be robust, 

reliable and sim ple to operate. They should be p eriod ica lly 

inspected and should be kept in good working ord e r at all 

tim es. Additional instrum ents of the sam e type should be 

held in readiness as there m ay be lo sses during use from 

physical damage o r from contam ination. 

528. F o r certain types o f unplanned re le a se s , such as transport 

accid en ts, it m ay not be p ossible to plan a m onitoring p r o 

gram m e in advance. In such cases it m ay be n e ce ssa ry to rely 

on obtaining the serv ice s of a field su rvey team provided by 

an appropriate agency. 

Sampling 

529. Follow ing the initial determ ination of the extent o f the 

contam inated area involved, sam ples should be taken fo r 

analysis to allow a m ore accurate evaluation of the situation. 

Such sam ples should be taken with p rop er precautions 

re fe rre d to under planned re le a ses. This is p a rticu larly 

difficult under em ergen cy situations and calls fo r sp ecia l 

attention, esp ecia lly fo r those related to sam ple identification. 

A nalysis 

530. Special rapid m ethods of ch em ical analysis have been 

developed [3 ,6 , 12] that provide a means for obtaining 

separations that w ill provide resu lts of sufficient p re cisio n 

fo r the purposes of an em ergen cy survey. Care should be 

taken to prevent cross-con ta m in a tion of la b ora tories, 

equipment and sam ples.



SECTION VI. IN TERPRETATION OF RESULTS 

OF MONITORING PROCEDURES 

601. The resu lts o f an adequate environm ental m onitoring p r o 

gram m e can be interpreted in term s of the radiation dose 

receiv ed by individual m em bers of the public, the integrated 

dose receiv ed by the whole population within a selected 

region , and the dose receiv ed by other organ ism s in the 

environm ent, o r in term s of its effect on the environm ent 

itse lf. In interpreting the resu lts, due con sideration should 

be giv6n to the relia b ility of the data, taking into account the 

p re cisio n and a ccu ra cy of all the m onitoring p roced u res 

em ployed and the variability of the environm ent. 

DETERMINATION OF DOSES TO INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS OF 

THE PUBLIC FROM PLANNED RELEASES 

602. The average radiation dose receiv ed by m em bers of the 

critic a l population group can be determ ined from the results 

of the su rvey m easurem ents in the c r itica l pathways using 

the relationships determ ined in the p reoperation al in vestigatio 

n s .2 

603. It is appropriate to evaluate the exposure of individuals due 

to planned re le a se s from n orm al operations in term s of dose 

com m itm ent p er year of operation. H ow ever, in the case of 

continuous releases the annual dose received by individuals 

is a sa tisfa ctory m easure of the exposure situation. 

DETERMINATION OF DOSE TO THE WHOLE POPULATION 

WITHIN A SELECTED REGION FROM PLANNED RELEASES 

604. If the num ber of individuals that m ay receiv e a significant 

dose is la rg e, it m ay be n ecessa ry to have an assessm en t 

of the total risk incurred by that large group. This m ay be 

done by a ssessin g the correspon din g collectiv e dose expressed 

in term s of the man •rads o r man •rem s [ 13]. 

605. The p ra ctica l a ssessm en t of the collectiv e dose is com p a ra 

tively sim ple fo r the c r itica l group o f the population. When 

2 S ectio n IV , p ara. 4 0 4 . 

23



24 SECTION VI 

the assessm en t is extended to la rg e r groups, a low er lim it 

might be sp ecified below which the integration w ill not be 

continued. At this time there is no general agreem ent on 

such a low er lim it. 

DETERMINATION OF DOSES TO INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS OF 

THE PUBLIC FROM UNPLANNED RELEASES 

606. In the case of unplanned relea ses at w idely spaced intervals 

o r as single events it is appropriate to make assessm en ts 

of the acute dose and the dose com m itm ent. F o r single 

rele a ses, it m ay be n ecessa ry to make a sp ecia l assessm ent 

to allow fo r the conditions actually existing at the time of 

relea se and at the tim e the su rveys w ere p erform ed . The 

dose com m itm ents are then estim ated on the basis of these 

sp ecia l conditions. 

OTHER USES OF MONITORING DATA 

607. The environm ental m onitoring program m e can be used as 

a means of p erform in g an independent check on the operation 

of the installation by determ ining whether relea ses are kept 

within regu latory lim its. The data can also be used to v erify 

the adequacy of the operational con trol lim its. 

RECORD KEEPING 

608. Care should be taken in the design o f a record -k eep in g system 

to ensure that the re co rd s may be useful fo r rea ssessm en t of 

dose and, where n ecessa ry , for international com p a rison s of 

data. It may be p ossib le in som e cases to correla te in form a 

tion on the actual relea ses of identified nuclides into the 

environm ent with the results of m onitoring different en viron 

m ental m ateria ls. The m onitoring results can then provide 

useful inform ation on the d isp ersa l of these nuclides and on 

their passage through the m onitoring pathways. Some of the 

item s that should be record ed are re fe rre d to in Annex I.



SECTION VI 25 

SAMPLE PRESERVATION 

609. In som e cases it m ay be n ecessa ry to check analytical resu lts 

o f environm ental sam ples o r to ca rry out further scien tific 

studies. T h erefore lon g -term storage of p rop erly identified 

sam ples may be useful. 

ASSESSMENT OF THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MONITORING RESULTS 

610. When the d oses to the individual m em bers of the c r itica l 

group of the population do not exceed the regu latory o r 

internationally recog n ized lim its fo r individual m em bers 

o f the public, it can be assum ed that the environm ental 

contam ination w ill not be lik ely to produce any exposure that 

entails an unacceptable risk . 

611. H ow ever, it is im portant to recogn ize that the m ere keeping 

of the contam ination levels below values correspon din g to 

these regu latory lim its is not in itse lf a su fficien t a ch iev e 

m ent. The contam ination lev els should be kept to the m in i 

mum values that are readily achievable. Any exposure m ay 

involve som e d egree of risk and this im portant con sideration 

should not be overlook ed . Even if the degree of risk to man 

is con sid ered to be acceptable, the corresp on d in g level of 

en vironm en tal contam ination m ay be u n d esirable fro m other 

points of view . It m ay fo r instance re strict m a n 's use and 

enjoym ent of environm ental r e s o u r ces. 

612. In addition to checking the o p era tors' program m es and 

assessm en ts, the com petent authorities must con sid er the 

dose to the whole com m unity in term s of the num ber of 

person s exposed as a resu lt of the re leases from a single 

installation and as a resu lt of the com bined effects o f different 

in stallation s.



SECTION VII. MONITORING SYSTEMS AT LOCAL, 

NATIONAL, REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL LEVELS 

BASIC ELEMENTS THAT CHARACTERIZE LOCAL MONITORING 

ORGANIZATIONS 

Staff 

701. The m ore routine functions fo r which staff w ill have to be 

provided are outlined below [14]. In addition, the staff 

should be able to design the su rveys, interpret the results 

and suggest alterations to an existing program m e in the 

light of changing events. In many ca ses the recom m ended 

functions are p erform ed in conjunction with outside bod ies, 

which may be able to provide much relevant data such as 

m eteorologica l and h yd rologica l data, dietary habits, etc. 

702. In the event of an em ergen cy, it m ay be d esirable that staff 

not n orm ally working in this particular sphere should be made 

available to a ssist in the sim p ler operations such as sam ple 

collection . These w ill cle a rly need som e basic training in 

their anticipated role s before they are called upon. 

C ollection of sam ples 

703. C ollection o f sam ples m ay involve collaboration with other 

organizations fo r the receip t of dated, identifiable sam ples 

from known location s. F or exam ple a cen tralized org a n iza 

tion may issue p re cise instructions and equipment fo r the 

collection of sam ples. If the m onitoring organization also 

p erform s the sam ple collection , additional transport w ill 

be requ ired. The p rovision of storage space fo r sam ples 

should not be overlook ed . 

P reparation and analysis of sam p les, including calibration [5] 

704. One can distinguish three situations of in creasing com plexity. 

In the first and sim p lest case m easurem ents m ay be made 

d irectly on untreated sam p les, fo r exam ple, the estim ation 

of 137Cs in m ilk by gam m a -sp ectrom etry. In the second 

situation som e fa cilities for p rocessin g the sam ples into a 

form suitable fo r counting w ill be requ ired , fo r exam ple, 

ashing. In the third situation it w ill be n ecessa ry to undertake 

radioch em ical separations p rio r to nuclide estim ation, 

26



SECTION VII 27 

e sp e cia lly in the case of alpha and pure beta em itters and 

w here a v ery sm all low er lim it of detection is requ ired. 

705. The ability to cater for em erg en cy situations w ill also affect 

the equipment required as in these situations em phasis must 

be given to a g reater speed o f analysis at higher levels of 

activity than those n orm ally encountered. 

706. As it is n ecessa ry to p erform lo w -le v e l counting in these 

fa cilitie s , it is im portant that they be located at som e distance 

from a n uclear fa cility in which an em ergen cy situation might 

a rise . 

A dditional item s 

707. A dditional basic elem ents to be talen into account in the 

organization of lo ca l m onitoring include: The validation of 

data, the analysis of data fo r sign ifica n ce, the dissem ination 

o f data, and the storage of data fo r later retrieval. 

R ecordin g and evaluation of results 

708. The requirem ents may vary from a sim ple form o f 'b o o k 

keeping' to a com puter program m e in the case of a la rg e, 

varied environm ental p rogram m e involving frequent sam pling. 

An essen tial fa ctor in evaluating the results is the a ccu ra cy 

of the m easurem ents and to this end suitable checks w ill be 

n e ce ssa ry [7]. Some of the item s which should be record ed 

are indicated in Annex I. 

These include: 

(1) Checks on the instrum ent perform an ce 

- frequent checks on its respon se and efficie n cy by the 

use of standard sou rces (severa l tim es in 24 hours) 

- repeated counting o v e r sh orter p eriod s rather than 

single counting over a long period 

(2) Checks on the analytical techniques 

- regu lar m easurem ent of blank sam ples 

- m easurem ent o f split sa m p les, at least over 10% of 

the total 

- com p arison of resu lts obtained by different methods 

- m easurem ent o f referen ce sam ples 

- in tercom p arison s with other la b ora tories. 

709. It is recom m ended that the review , evaluation and appropriate 

m odification of program m e design, organization and im plem en -



28 SECTION VII 

tation should be an alm ost continual p ro ce ss to ensure that 

the exp erien ce gained in each of the basic elem ents is utilized 

in im proving the quality of the m onitoring p rogram m e. 

BASIC ELEMENTS THAT CH ARACTERIZE NATIONAL, 

REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL MONITORING PROGRAMMES 

710. The prim ary function of national, region al and international 

authorities is to organize and im plem ent program m es that 

include the follow ing elem ents: 

(a) National and region al 

(1) A ssistan ce p a rticu larly in em ergen cy cases 

(2) Calibration fa cilities 

(3) Training of person nel 

(4) Determ ination of com pliance with national standards 

and requirem ent 

(5) P roviding exp ertise, as needed, to assist lo ca l 

p ro g ra m m e s. 

(b) International 

(1) In tercom parison program m es 

(2) P rovid e fo r the colle ctio n , exchange, evaluation and 

d isse m in a tio n of inform ation 

(3) P rovide guidelines on m onitoring program m es and 

referen ce m ethods based on experien ce at the different 

levels (governm ents and region s). 

711. T here should be a high degree o f com patibility and c o 

operation between lo ca l and national p rogram m es, p a rticu 

larly with resp ect to their aim s and m ethods, so that the 

m ost effective m onitoring p rogram m es fo r protection of 

the environm ent can be developed and continually a ssessed . 

In addition, the lo ca l and national authorities should ensure 

that there is a m axim um amount of interaction and co-op era tion 

at all stages with the program m es o f the op era tors. This is 

p articu larly im portant at the p re-op era tion a l, start-u p and 

initial operating stages of installations. It is also highly 

im portant that the public be included in this p ro ce ss and 

that loca l and national authorities should arrange for an 

accurate and unconfusing presentation of inform ation to the 

public regarding their program m es and the resu lts o f m on i 

toring. R egional program m es are essen tially extensions of 

national p rogram m es and should be designed p rim a rily to 

a sse ss environm ental im pacts beyond national boundaries.



SECTION VIII. GLOSSARY 

ACTION LEVEL 

801. The action lev el con sists o f the dose o r range o f doses 

expected to be receiv ed by the population, o r lev els of 

concentration o r tim e integrals of concentration in the 

com ponents o f the environm ent, o r radiation levels in the 

environm ent, derived from the d o se s, that ju stify the 

perform an ce of rem ed ial m easu res leading to a substantial 

reduction of the d o ses, and below which it is unlikely that such 

m easu res w ill be ju stified unless they have an exceedin gly 

low im pact on the com m unity. 

COM PETENT AUTHORITY 

802. A com petent authority is a governm ental o r international 

authority having ju risd iction with resp ect to the activities 

under con sideration. 

CRITICAL POPULATION GROUPS 

803. The com pliance with the dose lim itation for m em bers of the 

public is checked not by m onitoring individuals but by a s s e s s 

ments through sam pling p roced u res in the environm ent. 

The actual d oses receiv ed by individuals w ill vary depending 

on sev era l individual fa ctors and it is im p ossible to d e te r 

mine the m axim um dose that might be received individually. 

In p ra ctice , it is p ossible to take account of these sou rces of 

variability by the selection o f appropriate 'c r itic a l grou ps' 

within the population, provided the c r itica l group is sm all 

enough to be hom ogeneous with resp ect to the param eters 

that affect the dose receiv ed . Such a group should be 

represen tative o f those individuals in the population expected 

to receiv e the highest d ose, and the ICRP states that it is 

reasonable to apply the appropriate dose lim its to the mean 

dose of this group. 

29



30 SECTION VIII 

CRITICAL NUCLIDES AND PATHWAYS OF EXPOSURE 

804. E xperience has shown that, when radioactive m aterials are 

introduced in the environm ent, a few nuclides and certain 

exposure pathways w ill be much m ore im portant than others 

and w ill be resp on sible fo r m ost of the dose received by 

m em bers of the public. These nuclides and pathways are 

designated 'c r it ic a l' . 

DERIVED WORKING LIMIT 

805. Many of the m easurem ents made in a m onitoring program m e 

cannot be expressed d irectly in term s of d ose-equ ivalent 

fo r com p arison with the lim its recom m ended by ICRP. In 

these circu m stances the use o f stylized exposure m odels 

can provide quantitative links between the quantities m easured 

and the dose o r intake lim its recom m ended by ICRP. The 

values of the quantities that corresp on d in the exposure m odel 

to the recom m ended lim its are called D erived W orking Lim its 

(DWL). Due to con servatism in selectin g the exposure m od els, 

the adherence to a DWL p rovid es virtual certainty of c o m 

pliance with the ICRP recom m ended Dose L im its. 

DOSE, ABSORBED 

806. The absorbed dose due to any d irectly o r in d irectly ionizing 

radiation is the en ergy im parted by ionizing p a rticles to a 

unit m ass of irradiated m aterial. The sp ecia l unit is the 

rad, which is equal to 0.01 joule per kilogram . 

DOSE COMMITMENT 

807. The dose com m itm ent is the infinite tim e integral of the 

average dose rate caused by a given operation o r unit 

p ractice exposing a sp ecified population: 

o



SECTION VIII 31 

The dim ension o f the dose com m itm ent is absorbed dose o r 

d ose -equivalent, depending upon whether it is the dose rate 

D(t) o r the dose equivalent rate H(t) that is integrated o v e r 

tim e. 

The population ov e r which the dose rate is averaged may 

be any population o f in terest; e.g . the whole w orld population 

o r the critic a l group with regard to the given sou rce of 

exp osu re. An extrem e case is the integration o f the dose 

rate fo r a single individual, in which case the dose c o m 

m itm ent is sim ply his expected total future d ose, e .g . per 

unit intake of a sp ecified radionuclide. When the dose 

com m itm ent is calcu lated, the tissue o r organ fo r which the 

dose rate is integrated must be indicated. 

If the sou rce is constant in tim e, the equilibrium dose 

p er any sp ecified unit of tim e is n u m erically equal to the 

dose com m itm ent p er unit tim e of the p ractice causing the 

exposu re. F or exam ple, the annual dose in equilibrium is 

equal to the dose com m itm ent of one year of the operation 

causing the exposu res. 

DOSE-EQUIVALENT 

808. The d ose-equ ivalen t fo r a given type of radiation and at a 

given location in the body is n u m erically equal to the p r o 

duct of the absorbed dose in rads fo r that radiation at that 

p osition , and appropriate m odifying fa ctors such as the 

quality fa cto r, which accounts fo r the d ifferen ce in the 

lin ear en ergy tra n sfer of different d irectly ionizing ra d ia 

tions at the location of in terest. The sp ecia l unit is the rem . 

EM ERGENCY SURVEY 

809. An em ergen cy su rvey is a su rvey related to an accident 

involving loss o f con trol o v e r radiation sou rces o r ra d io 

active m aterial which could give rise to external radiation 

exposure levels o r intakes o f radioactive m aterials in ex cess 

o f those perm itted in the applicable regulations fo r n orm al 

operation.



32 SECTION VIII 

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING 

810. E nvironm ental m onitoring is that m onitoring perform ed 

outside fa cilities handling radiation sou rces o r radioactive 

m aterials, and related to their operation. 

INDICATOR MATRICES 

811. Indicator m a trices are sp e cific com ponents of the en viron 

ment chosen as suitable referen ce m aterials fo r the en viron 

m ental m onitoring program m e. These com ponents are 

chosen on the basis of a con sistent, constant and w e llestablished 

relationship of their radion u clide-stable elem ent 

content, o r tim e-in teg ra l concentration, to the sam e ra d ionuclides 

present in the ambient m edium . 

INVESTIGATION LEVEL 

812. The investigation level is a value fo r a particular type of 

m easurem ent above which the resu lt is deem ed to be su fficiently 

im portant to ju stify further investigation. Investigation 

levels are applied to single m easurem ents o r to sh ortterm 

a verages, and it is usually legitim ate to operate for 

prolonged p eriod s in e x ce ss o f an established investigation 

level. 

MONITORING 

813. M onitoring is the m easurem ent of radiation o r radioactive 

contam ination lev els for purposes related to the assessm en t 

o r con trol of exposure of man and his environm ent. 

O PERATOR 

814. The opera tor is the p erson o r authority in charge of a fa cility 

where radiation sou rces o r radioactive m aterials are present.



SECTION VIII 33 

OPERATIONAL WORKING LIMIT 

815. The operational w orking lim it is a stipulated lim it upon the 

quantities m easured fo r con trol pu rp oses. It is often low er 

than the D erived W orking L im it, which would be the 

m axim um p erm issib le value of the operational working 

lim it. O perational working lim its take into account additional 

fa cto rs such as the need fo r the p ra ctice and the p resen ce 

o f other sou rces o f exposu re. 

OUTSIDE A FAC ILITY 

816. 'Outside a fa cility 1 denotes an area beyond the boundaries 

o f a fa cility , but in the region in which the fa cility m ay 

sign ifican tly contribute to the radiation dose to m em bers of 

the public o r to radiation levels in the environm ent itself. 

This region can include areas geographically rem ote from 

the fa cility. 

P R E -O PE R A T IO N A L SURVEY 

817. A p re-op era tion a l su rvey is a su rvey p erform ed before a 

fa cility is put into operation o r before a m a jor extension 

of its operation. 

STANDARD PERSON 

818. The 'standard p erson ' is the individual p erson represen tative 

of the lo ca l population groups. This p erson could be the 

standard man as defined in ICRP P ublication N o.2 (1959) 

if such is accep table. 

SURVEY 

819. A 'su rv ey' is a system atic investigation and m easurem ent 

o f radiation levels and radioactive contam ination le v e ls. 

The resu lts o f a su rvey are used p rim a rily fo r follow ing the 

distribution o f radionuclides in the environm ent.





LIST OF PANEL PARTICIPANTS 

Chairm an 

D. Beninson C om isifin N a cio n a l de Energfa A t6 m ica , 

Buenos A ires, A rgentina 

Panel m em bers 

CZECHOSLOVAKIA 

E. Kunz In stitute o f H ygiene and E p id em io lo g y , 

Prague 

E G Y P T , ARAB REPUBLIC OF 

K . M oloukhia A to m ic Energy E stablish m en t, 

C airo 

FRANCE 

R. C oulon C en tre d'Studes n uclSaires de F o n ten ay-au x-R o ses 

GERM ANY, FED ERAL REPUBLIC OF 

J. M ehl Fed eral M inistry for Education and S c ie n c e , 

Bonn 

assisted by 

L. A . K onig N u clear Research C en tre, 

Karlsruhe 

and 

K .G . Vogt N u clear Research C e n tre , 

Ju lic h 

INDIA 

A .K . G anguly 

Bhabha A to m ic Research C en tre, 

T ro m b ay , Bom bay 

35



36 LIST OF PANEL PARTICIPANTS 

JAPAN 

T . K ik u ch i 

S c ie n c e and T ech n o lo g y A gen cy , 

Tokyo 

POLAND 

Z . Jaworowski 

C e n tra l Laboratory o f R ad io lo g ical P ro tectio n , 

Warsaw 

UNITED KINGDOM 

I. A . Carr M inistry o f A g ricu ltu re, Fisheries and Food, 

London 

UNITED STATES OF AM ERICA 

A . Sch oen 

assisted by 

S . D. Shearer 

and 

J .K . Sold at 

A to m ic Energy C om m ission, 

W ashington D. C . 

Environm en tal P ro tectio n A gen cy, 

North C aro lin a 

B a tte lle M em o rial In stitu te, 

R ichland , W ash. 

WHO CONSULTANT 

M r. Booth 

D ep artm ent o f N atio n al H ealth and W e lfa re, 

O ttaw a, C anada 

R epresentatives of International Organizations 

CEC 

M . Berlin 

C om m ission o f the European C o m m u n ities, 

Brussels 

FAO 

H, M archart 

Jo in t FAO /IA EA D ivision o f A to m ic Energy in Food 

and A g ricu ltu re, 

V ien n a



LIST OF PANEL PARTICIPANTS 37 

ICRP 

D. Beninson C om isifin N a cio n a l de Energfa A tt5m ica, 

NEA 

Buenos A ires, A rgentina 

E. W allau sch ek D ivision o f H ealth ; S a fe ty and W aste M an agem en t, 

O ECD /N EA , 

Paris 

S cien tific S ecretaries 

SECRETARIAT 

G .E . Sw in dell D ivision o f N u clear S a fe ty and Environm en tal P ro tectio n , 

In tern atio n al A to m ic Energy A g en cy 

E. Shalm on E n vironm ental P o llu tio n , 

E ditor 

W orld H ealth O rgan ization 

C .N . W elsh D ivision o f P u b licatio n s, 

In tern atio n al A to m ic Energy A gency





ANNEX I 

SAMPLING, ANALYSIS AND REPORTING PROCEDURES [15] 

INTRODUCTION 

The selection of sam pling equipm ent, the method o f sam ple 

preparation, and the m easuring instrum ents depends on the nature 

and activity o f the radioactive m ateria l that may be relea sed to the 

environm ent. In an econ om ica l p rogram m e the m ethods and 

instrum ents used should be adequate to m eet the o b je ctiv e s, but they 

should, in gen eral, be the sim plest that w ill enable this to be done. 

The m aterials that may have to be m onitored include a ir, w ater, 

foodstu ffs, vegetation, s o il, fishing gear. In m ost ca ses a r e p r e 

sentative sam ple of the m aterial is collected and its activity is 

m easured either at the point of collection or later in the laboratory. 

Instrumentation m ust be provided for sam pling and for activity 

determ inations. 

AIR SAMPLING 

Sam ples o f airborn e particulates are norm ally collected on a 

filter using an air pump and a flow -m easu rin g d ev ice. A ch arcoa l 

filter can be placed after the main filte r to co lle ct iodine. The 

collected sam ples may be subjected to g ross beta activity m ea su rem 

ents, radionuclide analysis, g a m m a -sp ectrom etric analysis, 

p article size studies o r autoradiography. If gam m a-sp ectrom etry 

is called fo r, the volum e o f air sam pled should be not le s s than 

about 300 m 3, hence sev era l sam ples may be com posited to provide 

sufficient activity. The sam pling system should be mounted in a 

sh elter and the d isch arge point located in such a m anner that 

recircu la tion o f the air is prevented. 

C onsiderable judgem ent m ust be ex ercised in the selection o f the 

air sam pling sites. In gen eral, the sam plers should be placed at 

three sites of m axim um predicted g rou n d -level concentrations 

39



4 0 APPENDIX I 

correspon din g to the height of the stack, if the relea ses are d is 

charged through a stack. A dditional sam p lers should be placed at 

m ore distant points in the prevailin g upwind direction . The location s 

o f the m axim um g rou n d -level concentrations may be determ ined from 

data on the atm ospheric stability conditions and the stack height, used 

in conjunction with data on the prevailing wind d irection s. 

The d irect radiation from airborne radioactive m aterial may 

be determ ined, if requ ired , by placing integrating or continuously 

record in g d ev ices such as film s, th erm olum in escen ce d osim eters 

or ion -ch a m b ers at selected sites, usually in the vicinity o f the a ir - 

sam pling system s. The d osim eters are usually placed at a height 

o f 1 m above the ground. Integrating d osim eters should be read as 

quickly as p ossible after collection and if they have to be transported 

over con sid erable distances before reading, precautions should be 

taken to avoid additional exposure from other sou rces of radiation 

such as packages of radioactive m aterials Dr co sm ic radiation at 

high altitude in a ircra ft. 

W ATER SAMPLING 

In the case of an installation located on a riv e r su rface water 

sam ples should be collected from at least two sites — one upstream 

from the disch arge point, to provide con trol data, and one downstream 

. If the installation is located on a lake, the con trol sam ples 

should be collected at a site far enough from the disch arge point to 

ensure that any effluent has no significant effect on the sam ple. 

F or an installation located on an estuary the con trol sam ples should 

be collected far enough upstream to ensure that no c r o s s -c o n ta m i 

nation is caused by tidal action. If there is a d irect population 

exposure pathway from su rface w ater, continuous sam pling may be 

d esira ble. 

Owing to the effect o f the soil in rem oving m in era ls, routine 

m onitoring o f underground w aters w ill not often be requ ired. W here 

it is requ ired, sp ecia l attention should be given to tritium and 

ruthenium. If there is a likelihood that su rface w aters could ca rry 

contam ination d irect to underground w aters, the appropriate 

additional radionuclides should be checked. 

If drinking water is obtained from a sou rce that may receiv e 

effluents, it should be sam pled intensively. This might requ ire the 

collection of one sam ple per day fo r g ross activity m easurem ent 

and one sam ple per week fo r analysis. In general, a sam ple of 

about 3 litre s in volum e is required fo r gamma isotop ic analysis.



APPENDIX I 41 

SEDIMENT SAMPLING 

Sediment sam ples are used to indicate any build-up o f activity 

sedim entation such as the inner bank of a bend in a riv e r. Additional 

areas should be sam pled occa sion a lly to determ ine whether the 

routine sam pling sites should be relocated . If an installation is 

located a short distance upstream from a fre s h /s a lt w ater in terface, 

sedim ent sam ples should be collected within the in terface. Aquatic 

plants and anim als should also be sam pled p eriod ica lly . 

FOOD 

Milk sam ples should be collected from cattle fed on fodder and 

pasture grown in the neighbourhood of an installation. F or 131I 

weekly or fortnightly in tervals would be appropriate; monthly or 

90 137 

quarterly com posite sam ples would be suitable for Sr, C s, etc. 

One sam ple should be collected at perhaps weekly intervals from 

cattle fed on m aterial grown downwind from the area of m axim um 

predicted concentration. An additional sam ple should be collected 

at about fortnightly intervals from cattle representative o f a m ilk - 

shed for the area. 

Fish and sh ellfish sam ples should include each o f the prin cipal 

edible types found in the neighbourhood. One sam ple should be 

collected at about fortnightly in tervals near the disch arge point; 

an additional sam ple should be collected quarterly or sem i-annually 

from the sam e body o f water at a site not influenced by the d isch arge. 

F ruit and vegetable sam ples should be collected , say, tw ice 

during the growing season near the point of maxim um predicted 

annual ground concentration and from areas that may be contaminated 

by water into which effluents have been disch arged. The sam ples 

should not be washed. 

Sam ples of m eat, poultry and eggs produced in the area should 

be collected at about quarterly in tervals. Meat sam ples may be 

collected at slaughterhouses if the origin of the anim als can be 

identified. Sam ples should be represen tative o f anim als fed on crop s 

grown in the p revailin g downwind d irection and of anim als that 

drink from water dow nstream from the d isch arge points. 

A N ALYTICAL QUALITY CONTROL 

A s the sam ples contain very sm all quantities of radion u clides, 

highly refined m ethods of m easurem ent must be developed and



42 APPENDIX I 

maintained. The la b ora tories should maintain uniform m inim um 

detectable le v e l capabilities and should routinely take part in in te r 

laboratory quality con trol p rogra m m es. A minimum quality con trol 

frequency of 10% o f all nuclide analysis, including in-house blanks, 

standards and splits is recom m ended. 

A nalytical con trol m ethods generally include cro ss-ch e ck in g 

or splitting sam ples with a con trol laboratory. A c r o s s -c h e c k 

involves the analyses o f sam ples provided by the con trol laboratory 

and com parison o f the resu lts with those of the con trol laboratory 

as w ell as with other la b ora tories that receiv ed portions of the sam e 

sam ples. Splitting a sam ple involves obtaining two iden tical sam ples 

from a single collection , one sam ple being, analysed by the m on i 

toring laboratory and the other by the con trol la b oratory, with 

subsequent com p arison of resu lts. When splitting sam ples for 

interlaboratory com p a rison , it is very im portant that both sam ples 

parts are represen tative of the m edia in question. 

Some typical analytical m ethods and the associated detection 

capabilities are illu strated in Tables I and II. 

REPORTING PROCEDURES 

R eporting of data should be done follow ing a clea r and uniform 

form at suitable for autom atic data p rocessin g . ' 

The reported inform ation should generally include the follow ing 

inform ation: 

(1) G eographic location of sam ple site 

(2) Sample type (m edia) 

(3) Sample num ber (optional) 

(4) Identification o r organization o r person collecting the sample 

(5) Identification of organization analysing the sam ple 

(6) Tim e and date sam ple was taken (include duration of sam ple 

period for integrated sam ples) 

(7) Sample preparation as appropriate (e. g. concentration or 

wet versu s dry) 

(8) Type o f analysis p erform ed 

(9) Value and units for each analysis and associated 2-sigm a 

e rro r 

(10) P aram eters needed to calculate decay of sam ple p rio r to 

analysis where sh ort-liv ed radionuclides are involved 

(11) Any known events that may have affected the analytical 

resu lts. 

Much o f the above inform ation, such as sam ple site location and 

organization iden tification , can be coded to reduce the re co rd volum e.



APPENDIX I 43 

T ABLE I. A N A LYTIC A L METHODS FOR ROUTINE 

ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOACTIVITY SURVEILLANCE [15] 

M edium Code A nalytical method 

G am m a-spectrom etry for 131I o f air filters or cartridge samples 

D osim eter-external exposure 

C ryogenic separation and liquid scintillation counting 

Determ ination o f tritium in water 

Gross beta counting o f air filters 

Oxalate precipitation 

C obalt and nickel 

Gam m a analysis in water 

C aesium -phosphom olybdate-chloroplatinate m ethod 

Radioactive manganese (ASTM D 2039-69) 

Radioactive iron (ASTM D2461-69) 

Radioactive iodine distillation (ASTM D2334-68) 

Zircon iu m - niobium - 95 

Basic carbonate m ethod 

Radioactive barium (ASTM D 2038-68) 

Radioactive tritium (ASTM D 2476-69) 

Determ ination o f tritium in water 

Distillation m e th od -tritiu m 

C arbon -14—distillation to C a C 0 3 

Basic carbonate m ethod for saline water 

Radiostrontium in saline water 

Oxalate precipitation method 

TBP extraction (90Sr) 

D ifference m ethod (90Sr) 

Carbonate 14C by liquid scintillation counting 

I o d in e -131 by ion exchange and precipitation 

Reference m ethod - TBP extraction 

TC A precipitation m ethod - nitric acid separation 

Ion-exchange procedure - TBP extraction 

Batch ion -ex ch ange procedure - TBP extraction 

G am m a-spectrom etry on m ilk 

G am m a-spectrom etry o f soft tissue 

Radioactive iron (ASTM D 2461-69) 

T T A extraction method 

TBP extraction m ethod 

HDEHP extraction method



T ABLE II. DETECTION CAPABILITIES ASSOCIATED WITH A N A L Y T IC A L METHODS OF 

ENVIRONM ENTAL RADIOACTIVITY SURVEILLANCE 

4^ 

M edia 

and isotope 

Analytical 

method 

from Table I 

Sample size 

Minimum 

detectable 

levelsa 

Annual dose 

associated 

with MDL 

(m rem /a)k 

Assumption for dose m odel 

C ritical 

Annual intake0 

organ 

Air particulates: 

Gross beta E 300 m3 3 x 10"® p C i/m 3 Bone 7300 m3 

89Sr F 1200 m 3 5 x 10*3 p C i/m 3 0.0 2 5 Bone 7300 m 3 

90Sr F 1200 m3 1 x 10-3 p C i/m 3 0 .0 5 Bone 7300 m 3 

134Cs A 1200 m 3 1 x 10^ p C i/m 3 0.005 T otal body 7300 m 3 

137Cs A 1200 m 3 1 x 10-2 p C i/m 3 0.0025 T otal body 7300 m3 

140Ba-La A 1200 m 3 1 x 10"2 p C i/m 3 0 .0038 GI (LLI) 7300 m 3 

Air gases: 

131 j 

A 300 m 3 4 x 10* p C i/m 3 1.0 Thyroid 

1710 m 3d 

S hort'lived gases B Not applicable 20 m rem /a e 20 T otal body Not applicable 

36Kr C 1 m 3 1 p C i/m 3 0.0 0 2 Skin Not applicable 

3H (HTO) D 10-15 m l o f condensate 5 x 10"3 p C i/m 3 f 0.000013 Body tissue 7300 m 3 

Water: 

” • “ C o A 100 ml 20 p C i/litre 0 .3 2 h GI (LLI) 440 litres 

“ C o B 3 .5 litres 10 p C i/litre 0.082 GI (LLI) 440 litres 

“ C o B 3 .5 litres 10 p C i/litre 0.1 6 GI (LLI) 440 litres 

140Ba-La B 3. 5 litres 10 p C i/litre 0.41 GI (LLI) 440 litres 

H 

1 litre 

1.0 pC i/litre 

0.041 

I 

1 litre 

1.0 p C i/litre 

0.041 

3H J 4 .5 ml 200 p C i/litre 0.0 1 8 Body tissue 440 litres 

14C 

8°Sr 

50Sr 

K 10-15 ml 200 p C i/litre 0.018 

L 10-50 m l 400 p C i/litre 0.0 3 6 

M 200 ml 30 p C i/litre 0.031 Fat 440 litres 

S 500 ml 0.6 p C i/litre 0.0006 

N 1 litre 5 pC i/litre 1 .4 Bone 440 litres 

O 1 litre 5 p C i/litre 1 .4 

P 1 litre 5 p C i/litre 1 .4 

R 1 litre 5 p C i/litre 1 .4 

N 1 litre 1.0 p C i/litre 2 .7 Bone 440 litres 

O 1 litre 1.0 p C i/litre 2 .7 

P 1 litre 1.0 p C i/litre 2 .7 

Q 1 litre 1.0 pC i/litre 2 .7 

APPENDIX I

1M|137CJ g 1 litre 

134Cs C 3 .5 litres 

l3,Cs C 3 .5 litres 

61 Zn B 3 .5 litres 

MMn B 3 .5 litres 

D 

400 m l 

55Fe E 100 ml 

s9Fe B 3 .5 litres 

E 

100 ml 

131I B 3 .5 litres 

. F 100 m l 

T 

10 litres 

95Zr-N b B 3 .5 litres 

95Zr G 200 ml 

55Nb G 200 m l 



1 .0 p C i/litre 0 .0 3 T otal body 440 litres 

10 p C i/litre 0 .30 T otal body 440 litres 

10 p C i/litre 0.1 4 Total body 440 litres 

20 p C i/litce 0.0 5 4 T otal body 440 litres 

10 p C i/litre 0 .082 GI (LLI) 440 litres 

40 p C i/litre 0 .3 2 

20 p C i/litre 0 .0 2 Spleen 440 litres 

20 p C i/litre 0 .27 GI (LLI) 440 litres 

100 p C i/litre 1 .4 

10 p C i/litre 27 Thyroid 440 litres 

10 p C i/litre 27 

>.04 pC i/litre 0 .1 

5 p C i/litre 0.071 GI (LLI) 440 litres 

15 pC i/litre 0.21 

25 p C i/litte 0 .2 1 GI (LLI) 440 litres 

1 litre 

1 litre 

1 litre 

1 litre 

1 litre 

1 litre 

1 litre 

3 .5 litres 

3 .5 litres 

3. S litres 

5 pC i/litre 1 .2 Bone 365 litres 

1 p C i/litre 2 .3 Bone 365 litres 

10 p C i/litre 50 Thyroid 365 litres 

10 p C i/litre 0 .2 5 T otal body 365 litres 

10 p C i/litre 0.1 1 T otal body 365 litres 

APPENDIX I 

Shellfish (fish): 

MC o A 200 g 

60C o A 200 g 

134Cs A 200 g 

137Cs A 200 g 

65Zn A 200 g 

51Mn A 200 g 

59Fe A 200 g 

55Fe B1 100 g 

89Sr C 200 g 

D 

200 g 

90Sr C 200 g 

D 

E 

200 g 

200 g 

80 p C i/k g 0.027 GI (LLI) 18.25 kg 

80 p C i/k g 0 .054 GI (LLI) 18.25 kg 

80 p C i/k g 0 .1 T otal body 18.25 kg 

80 p C i/k g 0.046 T otal body 18.25 kg 

160 p C i/k g 0.018 T otal body 18.25 kg 

80 p C i/k g 0.027 GI (LLI) 18.25 kg 

160 p C i/k g 0.091 Gi (LLI) 18.25 kg 

20 p C i/k g 0.00028 Spleen 18.25 kg 

25 p C i/k g 0.2 8 Bone 18.25 kg 

25 p C i/k g 0 .2 8 

5. 0 p C i/k g 0 .5 5 Bone 18.25 kg 

5 .0 p C i/k g 0 .5 5 

5 .0 p C i/k g 0 .5 5 

Footnotes to Table II on next page.



4^ 

CT> 

Footnotes to T ab le II 

a T h e m in im u m d e te c ta b le le v e ls (M D L ) are p r a c t ic a l d e te c tio n le v e ls rather than th e o r e tica l d e te c tio n le v e ls . T h ese le v e ls are c h a ra cte ris tic o f the a n a ly tic a l p roced u re and 

the c o u n tin g in stru m en tation in u se. T h e M DLs listed assum e the fo llo w in g in stru m en tation: (1) low ba ck g rou n d b eta cou n ter; (2 ) standard g a m m a s c a n — 4 0 0 to 51 2 m u ltich 

a n n e l a n a ly ser — 4 x 4 - in c h N a l (T l) d e te c to r ; and (3 ) tritiu m -liq u id s c in tilla tio n c ou n ter. T h e d e t e c t io n lim it for a s p e c ific ra d io n u clid e b y g a m m a -s p e ctr o m e tr y is 

d ep en d en t u p on the qu a n tities o f oth e r ra d io n u clid e s p resen t in the sa m p le . T h e d e te c tio n lim its tested are those p r a c t ic a lly obta in ed w ith the c o n c e n tra tio n s and m ix tu res o f 

ra d io n u clid e s n o rm a lly en co u n te r e d w ith en v ir o n m e n ta l sa m p les. I f on ly a sin gle r a d ion u clid e is p resen t in a sa m p le to b e an a lysed by g a m m a -s p e c tr o m e tr y , th en the d e te c tio n 

lim its listed c o u ld p ro b a b ly b e r ed u ced b y a fa c to r o f 2 . T h e d e te c tio n lim its fo r s p e c ific n u clid e s w ou ld b e c o n sid e ra b ly g rea ter than those listed w h en c o m p lic a t e d m ixtu res 

are en co u n te r e d and in p a rticu la r w h en c e rta in con stitu en ts are present in r e la tiv e ly h ig h co n c e n tra tio n s. 

b T h ese v a lu es w ere ob ta in e d b y a sim p le ra tio re la tin g R adiation P rotection G u id es o f the F ed era l R ad ia tion C o u n c il to th e dose a s socia ted w ith these G u id e s. A ctu a l dose 

c a lc u la tio n s resultin g fro m s p e c ific e n v ir o n m e n ta l le v e ls should take in to con sid era tion a d d ition a l fa ctors rela tin g to pathw ays, in ta ke and oth er en v ir o n m e n ta l fa c to rs as 

ap p rop ria te. 

c Intake v a lu es assum e standard m a n qu a n tities or oth er referen ced valu es as follo w s: 

1 . 1 litre o f m ilk p er d ay for a 1 - y e a r - o ld c h ild . 

2 . 1 . 2 litres o f w ater p er d a y , a d u lt. 

3 . 20 m 3 o f air breath ed p er d ay for an a d u lt. 

4 . 4 . 7 m 3 o f air b ea th ed p er d a y for a 1 - y e a r - o ld c h ild . 

5 . 1 .8 7 kg fo o d con su m ed p er d a y for to ta l d ie t o f a teen a g er. 

6 . 50 g p er d a y o f sh ellfish . 

^ T h e an n u al in ta k e o f air is for a c h ild (a g e 1 y e a r ). In the case o f 131I, the c h ild thyroid is the lim itin g fa c to r . 

e CaF2:M n d o sim e te r e n ca p su la ted in 40K -fr e e glass or e q u iv a le n t. 

^ A ssu m in g tem p eratu re o f 75*F and 90^o r e la tiv e h u m id ity . 

8 T h e c r it i c a l orga n for 3 H g as m a y be the skin, d ep en d in g upon the state o f the 3H (gaseous or o x id e ) . T h e b o d y tissue is used as the m o st c o n serv a tiv e c a s e , 

k A ssum ed w orst c a se m ixtu re o f lOO^o 60C o . 

i P roced u re B un der sh ellfish is for a q u eou s solu tion s so that p relim in a ry sa m p le p reparation is n ecessa ry p rior to en terin g this p r o c e d u re . 

APPENDIX I



A N N E X II 

CRITICAL NUCLIDES, PATHWAYS AND POPULATION GROUPS, 

AND OTHER HAZARD ASSESSMENT APPROACHES 

INDIA 

Identification of critical nuclides, pathways and population groups 

in the neighbourhood of the Tarapur reactors [16] 

Critical nuclides 

In the early period of operation of Tarapur reactors 131I was the 

critical nuclide since it was the m ajor activity released to sea .and 

the seafood picked up the radioiodine. Since seafood in this region 

is consumed fresh, I becom es important even though it is short 

lived. 

By the end of 1970 and 1971 the activities of other isotopes 

especially that of 134+137Cs and 58+60Co increased in the radwaste 

releases. Radiocaesium levels were 25 to 30% and radiocobalt levels 

were 15 to 20%. Thus 131I, 134+137Cs and58+60Co became critical 

nuclides for exposure consideration from liquid waste discharges. 

Even though radiostrontium levels were within 2 to 3% of total, 

since Sr is a bone seeker, radiostrontium becom es one of the 

radionuclides of interest for exposure purposes. Other radionuclides 

are short lived and are not of interest biologically for population 

exposure, except 3H. The 3H released has been quite low even 

during 1971 and is insignificant for causing exposure. 

The air dust filter sam ples, taken on a m illipore filter paper 

( 0 . 22 /um pore size) and charcoal cartridge through which air has been 

filtered, did not show any significant activity above fall-out background 

in the vicinity of TAPS station during 1969-71, indicating 

that atmospheric release of particulates and radioiodines are not 

of significance for evaluation of population exposure. 

Even though the inert gas activity releases have gone up to 

580 mCi /s during 1971, since these inert gases are not taken up by 

biological system , they do not come into the diet. Noble gas active 

nuclides decay to stable end products without giving any problem 

of significant daughter product activity. Since the activity due to 

inert gases can cause direct radiation exposure to the public from 

the active gaseous cloud and also due to submersion, the dose in the 

47



4 8 APPENDIX II 

vicinity of TAPS site have been constantly measured with therm o 

luminescent dosim eters (TLD) installed at village centres in different 

directions from the site. The dosim eters were charged once in 

3 months and annual dose was evaluated by summing up the quarterly 

doses. The dose during 1968, 1969 and 1970 is in the natural 

background radiation level. 

Only during 1971 Akkarpatti village, which is about 1.8 km south 

of site, had about 7 mR and Ghivali village, which is 1.8 km north 

of site, had about 5 mR dose higher than normal background 

radiation. This higher than background dose during 1971 was seen 

during the month of June-July 1971 and at the same time power 

station stack releases were going up frequently to 500-580 m C i/s. 

Daily intake through seafood and critical group of population 

It has been seen that except seafood no other dietary item can 

contribute significantly to the daily intake from radioactivity d ischarged 

from Tarapur Power Station under normal conditions. 

Thus it is sufficient to consider the daily intake of seafood by the 

different groups of population in the Tarapur environment to evaluate 

the intake of the critical nuclide. The seafood intake of the main group 

of Tarapur population is taken from the diet survey data. 

Using the average nuclide concentration in seafood during 1970 

and 1971 from Tables III and IV, the daily intake of critical nuclides 

by the different groups of population has been evaluated. It has been 

found that on average only 75% of weight of fish is used in preparing 

food and 25% is discarded as non-edible. The data given in the 

present study concern the edible portion only. It is observed that 

fishermen in the TAPS environment, whose seafood intake is about 

3 times higher than that of other groups, have the highest intake of 

TAPS-released radioactivity. Thus they are the critical group of 

population for TAPS discharges. 


Analysis of alternative hazard assessment approaches [17] 

The critical pathway approach 

The critical pathway approach has as its basis a hazard evaluation 

(Table V), which uses predicted concentrations in the receiving 

water mass resulting from unit rates of introduction of radionuclides.



APPENDIX II 49 

TABLE III. AMOUNT OF CRITICAL RADIONUCLIDES IN THE 

DIETARY MATERIALS IN THE TAPS SITE VICINITY DURING 1968-1971 

M a in v a r ie tie s 

89+90Sr i34+‘ 37C s 131j 

C o 

D ie t ite m 

an d y e a r 

o f p r o d u c tio n ( p C i /k g o f ite m ) 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

R ice 19 6 8 5 . 6 ± 3 . 0 2 7 .0 ± 4 . 8 BDL BDL 

19 69 9 . 5 ± 3 . 8 2 8 .0 ± 5 . 8 BDL BDL 

1970 1 0 .5 ± 4 . 0 2 6 .5 ± 3 . 5 BDL BDL 

19 71 1 1 .8 ± 4 . 5 3 0 .5 ± 3 . 6 BDL BDL 

W h ea t 19 6 8 4 . 5 ± 3 . 6 3 8 .5 ± 4 . 6 BDL BDL 

19 6 9 5 . 2 ± 3 . 4 4 4 . 5 ± 3 . 8 BDL BDL 

19 70 5 . 8 ± 2 . 4 4 2 . 4 ± 3 . 5 BDL BDL 

19 71 6 . 3 ± 1 . 8 4 0 . 9 ± 9 . 9 BDL BDL 

L ea fy 1 9 68 1 2 .6 3 ± 4 . 5 1 9 .0 2 ± 5 . 8 8 9 .2 ± 2 2 .5 BDL 

19 69 8 . 6 4 ± 1 .6 1 6 .4 5 ± 3 . 5 BDL BDL 

1970 7 . 5 6 ± 2 . 6 2 2 .8 ± 4 . 5 1 0 1 .5 ± 2 5 .5 BDL 

19 71 8 . 3 ± 1 . 2 2 4 . 5 ± 9 . 9 1 5 0 .0 ± 3 1 .0 BDL 

V e g e ta b le s 

R oot and 19 6 8 4 . 3 0 ± 1 . 2 1 4 .3 ± 1 . 2 9 . 5 5 ± 2 . 2 BDL 

oth er 19 69 4 . 2 4 ± 1 .5 1 1 .5 ± 1 . 8 BDL BDL 

19 70 6 . 5 6 ± 2 . 4 1 2 .8 ± 2 . 3 1 6 .5 ± 3 . 8 BDL 

19 71 4 . 1 0 ± 1 .6 1 5 .3 5 ± 3 . 2 2 4 .6 ± 4 . 5 BDL 

1 9 68 6 . 5 ± 1 .6 2 2 .4 ± 3 . 2 7 . 5 ± 1 .2 BDL 

1969 8 . 8 ± 2 . 4 2 1 .3 ± 4 . 4 BDL BDL 

M ilk 

1970 9 . 2 ± 2 . 2 2 6 .7 ± 3 . 5 1 4 .4 ± 3 . 5 BDL 

1971 1 2 .2 ± 2 . 6 . 3 3 . 5 ± 4 . 5 2 2 .5 ± 4 . 8 BDL 

M u tton 19 68 8 . 4 ± 2 . 2 2 5 .2 ± 3 . 4 1 0 .3 ± 3 . 3 BDL 

(g o a t 1 9 69 7 . 6 ± 4 . 6 2 4 .5 ± 3 . 2 BDL BDL 

Fresh m e a t 

m e a t) 19 70 9 . 8 ± 2 . 4 2 8 .4 ± 3 . 6 1 5 .6 ± 2 . 8 BDL 

19 71 1 2 .2 ± 2 . 6 3 3 .5 ± 4 . 5 3 1 .8 ± 3 . 8 BDL 

C o a s ta l 19 68 BDL 1 8 .5 ± 3 . 7 BDL BDL 

Fish and c a t c h 19 69 BDL 1 7 .7 ± 4 . 5 BDL BDL 

se a fo o d 19 70 7 . 6 ± 2 . 2 3 9 .0 ± 2 6 .2 8 4 .9 ± 3 2 .2 . N e g lig ib le 

19 71 2 0 .6 7 ± 3 . 8 5 1 2 .1 ± 1 2 9 .5 5 0 8 .6 4 ± 2 4 2 .2 4 . 8 6 ± 2 . 9 

BDL■= B elow d e t e c t io n l im it for 1 k g s a m p le .



50 APPENDIX II 

TABLE IV. RADIOACTIVITY OF SEAFOOD IN THE VICINITY 

OF TAPS SITE DURING 1971 

D a te o f 

c o lle c t io n 

D e scrip tio n 

131j 89+9°sr 137+134q s 

(p C i/k g ) 

60~ C o 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

5 . 4 .7 1 R ib b on fish 

(T rich iu ru s 

sa vla) 

9 3 .0 ± 1 4 .7 BDL 3 6 .5 ± 5 . 8 BDL 

1 7 .4 .7 1 Prawns 2 0 0 9 .0 ± 1 7 6 .4 2 2 .7 ± 4 . 8 1 5 9 .0 ± 3 1 .0 8 . 6 ± 3 . 5 

1 7 .4 .7 1 C ro a k e r 

(O to lith e s 

argen reu s) 

3 3 1 .2 ± 3 7 .2 BDL 1 1 7 .0 ± 2 8 .0 BDL 

1 7 .4 .7 1 C ra bs 

5 2 1 .9 ± 7 9 .5 1 2 .6 ± 2 . 7 1 7 4 .0 ± 3 3 .0 BDL 

(S e y lla 

Serrata) 

1 2 .5 .7 1 Prawns 3 8 0 . 5 ± 2 8 .5 1 1 .4 ± 2 . 6 1 4 0 .1 ± 1 8 .9 5 . 7 ± 2 . 2 

6 . 7 . 7 1 C ro a k e r 4 1 0 . 0 ± 3 8 .0 3 8 .3 ± 4 . 3 1 5 3 0 .0 ± 1 0 .0 BDL 

6 . 7 . 7 1 Prawns 2 7 0 .0 ± 2 5 .0 8 5 .5 ± 6 . 7 2 1 8 0 .0 ± 1 1 0 .0 1 1 .8 ± 3 . 7 

7 . 7 . 7 1 C ra bs 60 3 1 0 .0 ± 3 4 .0 5 4 .5 ± 5 .7 6 9 0 8 .0 ± 3 1 0 .0 3 .2 6 ± 1 . 8 

1 1 .7 .7 1 Prawns 1 0 2 5 .0 ± 3 5 .5 3 3 .4 ± 2 . 7 1 2 9 8 .2 ± 7 2 .6 BDL 

1 1 .7 .7 1 C la m s 

1 6 7 0 .0 ± 1 2 0 .0 9 . 5 ± 2 . 5 8 3 0 .0 ± 3 . 4 BDL 

(M eretrix ) 

1 1 .7 .7 1 O ysters 1 5 0 .0 ± 1 1 .4 1 8 .4 ± 4 . 6 1 1 6 .0 ± 5 . 6 1 2 .4 ± 3 . 2 

3 0 .7 .7 1 Prawns 2 9 6 .0 ± 1 5 .4 1 5 .6 ± 3 . 8 3 8 5 .5 ± 1 4 .6 BDL 

8 . 9 . 7 1 B om b a y d u c k 

2 5 .5 0 ± 2 . 2 8 . 7 ± 2 . 6 9 5 .5 ± 4 . 5 6 . 8 ± 2 . 2 

(H a rp odon 

n eh ereu s) 

8 . 9 . 7 1 F u ll b e a k 

g a r fish 

(H em ira m p h u s 

8 4 .6 i 1 7 .2 BDL 1 0 2 .0 ± 1 8 .6 1 3 .5 ± 1 . 4 

g e o rg i) 

1 4 .1 0 .7 1 B om b a y d u ck 2 2 5 . 0 ± 1 5 .4 1 1 .6 ± 5 . 4 3 9 5 .0 ± 2 2 .5 BDL 

2 8 .1 2 .7 1 M a c k e r e l 

(R a stelleg er 

1 3 8 .0 ± 1 2 .4 8 . 5 ± 2 . 5 1 2 3 .0 ±8.8 1 5 .8 ± 5 . 2 

k anagu rta) 

A v e r a g e : 5 0 8 .6 4 ± 2 4 2 .2 2 0 .6 7 ± 3 . 8 5 1 2 .1 t 1 2 9 .5 4 . 86 ± 2 . 9 

BDL = B elow d e t e c t io n lim it for 1 k g s a m p le .




TABLE V. CRITICAL PATHWAY APPROACH TO DISPOSAL 

ASSESSMENT FOR AQUEOUS RADIOACTIVE WASTE 

Estim ated a c tiv ity le v e l in w ater a t equ ilib riu m from one cu rie per day 

& 

C o n cen tratio n factors for c r itic a l m a te ria ls 

A ctiv ity le v e ls in c r itic a l m a te ria ls 

& 

L o cal survey data 

♦ 

D a ily in ta k e /d a ily exposure 

& 

ICRP m axim u m perm issible d a ily in tak e/exp o su re 

I 

M axim um p erm issible d aily discharge rate 

These concentrations are used, together with suitable concentration 

factors, to derive concentrations for the material or materials 

likely to provide the greatest degree of human radiation exposure; 

then, from the known utilization of these m aterials, the perm issible 

concentrations of radioactivity are ascertained and, in consequence, 

the perm issible water concentrations and discharge rates. The 

vitally important aspect of such an exercise is the habits survey, 

because it is necessary at an early stage to establish the working, 

eating and recreational habits of the loca l population, and in certain 

instances those of populations at some distance from the contaminated 

area, in order to make quantitative estimates of food intake, or of 

hours exposed to external radiation. In this way rates of introduction 

compatible with acceptable dose limits for m em bers of the public 

may be established, or estimates of the dose resulting from uncontrolled 

contamination, e. g. weapon-test fall-out, may be made. 

The early results of monitoring in relation to potentially 

exposed groups allow the classification of situations into three 

principal types: 

(a) those where contamination of critical materials leads to 

a significant fraction of the ICRP dose lim it for m em bers 

of the public;



52 A PPEN D IX II 

(b) those where activity is not detectable, or at a very low 

concentration in critical materials but is easily measurable 

in indicator m aterials; and 

(c) those where activity is not detectable in any materials. 

The latter situation may still require a limited monitoring programme 

for what might be termed public relations purposes. The second 

category of situation can be observed through the medium of an 

indicator m aterial which is usually chosen for high reconcentration 

of potentially critical radionuclides. 

The first category requires continued study of the exposed 

population, because a given concentration of the critical nuclide in 

the critical material will not result in the same degree of radiation 

exposure for each member of that population. The eventual aim, 

therefore, is to isolate that group in the population whose habits, 

location or age lead to their receiving the highest doses. These 

people then become the critical group and the control limits are 

applied to the average of this group. In practice, great care is 

required in selecting this group and,in designing and modifying the 

monitoring programme to reflect accurately its radiation exposure 

and further surveys of the habits of the critical population are 

required from time to time. 

The specific activity approach 

This basic approach, descriptions of which appear in several 

publications, stems from a knowledge of the perm issible human organ 

or body burden for a particular radionuclide as laid down by ICRP 

(Table VI). This is then expressed as a specific activity in relation 

to the concentration of the stable nuclide of the same element in that 

organ or the body, e .g . p C i/g of element x. This specific activity 

becomes the limiting activity concentration for the water, on the 

assumption that if this concentration is not exceeded in the water, 

then it cannot be exceeded at any point in the food chain or in the 

critical organ in man. The rate of introduction of activity is set so 

that this ratio in the water is not exceeded. 

This approach is very attractive because it dispenses with the 

concentration factor data (required by the critical pathway system 

when carrying out the initial assessment) and is supposedly 

applicable regardless of the eating habits of the individual concerned, 

thus dispensing with the need for habits surveys. It is, of course, 

only applicable to food-chain evaluations, and in the application of




TABLE VI. SPECIFIC ACTIVITY APPROACH TO DISPOSAL 

ASSESSMENT FOR AQUEOUS RADIOACTIVE WASTE 

ICRP m axim u m p erm issible organ (body) burden o f rad ionuclid e 

I 

Organ (body) c o n ten t o f stable nuclid e 

M axim u m perm issible sp e c ific a c tiv ity in seaw ater 

& 

C o n cen tratio n o f stable e le m e n t in seaw ater 

M axim um p erm issible co n cen tra tio n o f rad ionuclide in seaw ater 

& 

Equilibriu m c o n cen tra tio n from u n it rate o f discharge 

M axim u m p erm issible rate o f discharge 

this approach to coastal sites care must be taken to ensure that 

external dose rates on nearby beaches due to the adsorption of radionuclides 

on sediments is not excessive. The approach has 

limitations with respect to elements where data on human stable 

nuclide concentrations are not available. Nor can it be applied to 

those cases where the critical organ for the radionuclide or radionuclide 

mixture is the gastro-intestinal tract. 

This method is m ore easily applied to sea disposal than to 

disposal into fresh water since the chem ical com position of seawater 

is m ore uniform. The use of the stable nuclide distribution of an 

element as an analogue for the radionuclide distribution involves 

several simplifying assumptions, most of which will lead to 

conservative rates of radionuclide introduction. However, the 

most important assumption is that of the relative biological availability 

of the stable and radioactive nuclides. The greatest variability 

of stable nuclide concentrations of trace elements is likely to be 

encountered in coastal waters, where the majority of waste disposal 

operations are undertaken. Furtherm ore, the limiting situation 

posed by most m ajor discharges of radioactivity relates to areas 

close to the point of release, where it is unlikely that the freshly . 

introduced radionuclide will rapidly assume the distribution of its



54 APPENDIX II 

stable counterpart in the receiving water m ass, due to differences 

in physico-chem ical states, which require time and therefore distance 

to resolve. 

Ultimately, this approach offers the possibility, at least so far 

as food-chain problem s in relation to sea disposal are concerned, 

of setting maximum perm issible concentrations for the water. We 

are some way yet from being able to attain this objective because 

many more data are required on trace element concentrations in 

seawater and on their variability in time and space, on the central 

problems of relative biological availability, and on the role of 

particulate matter and organic com plexes in the cycling of trace 

elements and their artificial radionuclides. Indeed, it is appropriate 

to sound a note of caution since recent evidence in relation to 55Fe, 

60Co and 65Zn, introduced to the marine environment from weapon-test 

fall-out, suggests that rather large differences in specific activity 

between the water and some elements of the biota can occur. 

However, this was foreseen, in the original consideration of this 

system , by the Isaacs Committee who allowed a reduction factor 

of 10 in permitted concentrations to account for preferential uptake 

of such complexed metal radionuclides. Even so, the factors 

suggested by the recent findings would need to be m ore of the order 

of 1 0 0- 1 0 0 0. 

N evertheless, this method does seem to offer perhaps the only 

sensible approach to the problem s encountered in assessing the 

marine contamination consequences of a project such as the use of 

nuclear explosives in the excavation of an A tlantic-Pacific interoceanic 

canal. Here, many neutron-induced and fission-product 

radionuclides can be shown to be below maximum perm issible 

specific activity prior to the time of release, due to very thorough 

mixing with stable nuclides from the geological matrix in which the 

explosion takes place. Since these will also presumably be in the 

same physico-chem ical states after such intimate mixing, their 

biological availability and ultimate reconcentration in foods and 

humans should be governed by the specific activity model. 

The consequences of this system for marine monitoring requirements, 

so far as they were considered by the Isaacs Committee at 

the time, involved the sampling of all marine foodstuffs and organisms 

of com m ercial importance and their analysis for radionuclides and 

stable nuclides to provide data on both the curie quantities and the 

specific activity. Thus, although only an initial requirement in 

that once the validity of the specific activity model for the particular 

situation had been demonstrated it could be considerably relaxed,



A PPENDIX II 55 

the scale of effort is considerably: greater than that involved in the 

critical pathway approach at the same stage. Ultimately, perhaps, 

monitoring could be reduced to the sampling and determination of 

those nuclides at or near maximum specific activity in either the 

m ajor m aterials or the receiving water m ass, but even then the 

analytical effort involved would be considerable. The establishment 

of a satisfactory specific activity model im plies that adequate control 

can eventually be exercised by demonstrating that the concentrations 

in the water are below maximum specific activity, but representative 

sampling of open coastal seawater is a very difficult task and 

involves the establishment of a sampling network that is extensive 

in both time and space.



AN N E X III 

DOSE E STIM A T E S 

IN TR O D U C TIO N [15] 

The estimation of the dose received by the population is based 

on the estimation of any dose received from external radiation and 

of the concentration of individual radionuclides in ingestion and 

inhalation pathways and the use of mathematical models to relate 

these concentrations to organ or whole-body doses. The estimated 

dose from inhaled or ingested radionuclides is then added to the 

measured or calculated dose from exposure to external radiation to 

give the total dose. 

Even with the most sensitive radiation detectors it is som etim es 

difficult to make measurements of the external radiation or the 

concentrations of radionuclides in environmental media that are 

attributable to discharges from a nuclear installation under normal 

operating conditions. The population doses are therefore m ore 

usually estimated from the known activities of radionuclides 

discharged and the postulated critical environmental pathways and 

reconcentration factors. W herever possible, such estimates should 

be compared with calculations based on environmental monitoring 

results. In some cases, however, the calculations based on 

measurements will only show that the population dose is less than 

some level representing the detection lim it of the measuring system. 

The models used for calculating the concentrations of radionuclides 

in the environment should be representative of the environmental 

and demographic characteristics of the area. The 

environmental characteristics include those relating to m eteorology, 

hydrology and pathways for exposure to external radiation and to 

internal exposure from inhalation and ingestion of water and food. 

The demographic characteristics include population distribution and 

eating, recreational and other appropriate habits. It may be possible 

to identify a hypothetical person who receives the maximum dose. 

This might be a person who lives at the area of maximum predicted 

ground-level concentration, or a person who eats food grown in the 

area of highest concentration or ingests or is otherwise exposed to 

contamination in an identified critical pathway. 

The demographic data should also permit the identification of 

the critical population group. The location of the critical group may 

be far from the responsible installation. 

56



APPENDIX III 57 

EXAMPLES OF REPORTED DOSE ESTIMATES 

India 

Estimated doses that might be received by persons in the neighbourhood 

of the Tarapur reactors [16] 

(a) 

Dose due to dietary intake 

Dose to the public due to the dietary intake is calculated as per 

the method adopted at Hanford. This is based on the dose factors 

calculated from ICRP standard man's maximum perm issible intake 

(MPI) value for the particular nuclide and corresponding annual dose. 

MPI is calculated from maximum perm issible concentration in 

water MPCWand water intake values. The perm issible annual dose 

taken is 0.5 rem /a for whole body and 3.0 rem /a for thyroid and bone 

as the critical organs. The dose factors mrem/MCi intake are 

given for the nuclides of interest in the present evaluation in Table VII. 

From these dose factors and the intake data the dose due to the 

radioactivity intake is evaluated. It has been seen that in seafood 

samples 134C s /137Cs ratio is about 0:65 and 90S r /89Sr is 0.1 and these 

ratios are used for evaluating dose from radiocaesium and radiostrontium. 

These doses evaluated |for the critical group (fishermen) 

for 1970 and 1971 are given in Table VIII. 

The dose factors in Table VII and doses in Table VIII are 

evaluated on the ICRP basis. As can be seen in the next section, 

the stable element intake at Tarapur is different from the ICRP 

TABLE VII. 

RADIATION DOSE FACTORS 

N uclides C r itic a l organ Dose fa cto r 

(m re m /(iC i in ta k e) 

Io d in e -131 Thyroid 1 8 6 0 .0 0 . 

C a e siu m -134 W hole body 6 9 .0 0 

C a e s iu m -137 W hole body 3 1 2 .0 0 

S tro n tiu m -89 Bone 3 7 4 .0 0 

S tro n tiu m -90 Bone 37 4 0 0 .0 0 

C o b a lt-60 W hole body 6 .2 3



5 8 A PPENDIX III 

TABLE VIII. DOSE TO FISHERMAN FROM DIETARY INTAKE 

OF CRITICAL NUCLIDES 

N uclides 

C ritic a l organ 

Dose during 1970 

(m rem ) 

Dose during 1971 

(m rem ) 

Io d in e -131 Thyroid 7 . 8 47 

C a e siu m -134 W hole body 0 .0 5 3 0 .6 9 

C a e siu m -137 W hole body 0 .3 6 4 . 8 

S tro n tiu m -89 Bone 0 .1 2 0 .3 5 

Strontium - 90 Bone 1 .2 3 .4 

C o b a lt-60 W hole body - 0 .0 0 1 

Dose values have a 25% standard error. 

value. The body weight of Indian standard man and water intake data 

are also different from those of ICRP. Thus dose given in Table VIII 

will be slightly different when these factors are considered. 

It can be seen from Table IX that direct dose due to airborne 

releases from the power station was only 5 to 7 mR during 1971 

and below detection during 1970. This was observed in only two 

villages and during the two months of June and July 1971. The dose 

received by the critical population group due to contaminated seafood 

is from the intake throughout the year and not over a small interval. 

Even though the dose due to fission gases could not be detected in 

the environment, the dose due to eating contaminated seafood, though 

very low, could be measured. In the Tarapur Environment the 

liquid radwaste - sea - seafood - man chain is the important exposure 

pathway for evaluation of population exposure from operation of the 

atomic power station. 

The critical pathway and critical population group in the case 

of accidental release may be different from the normally observed 

findings. Under accident conditions 131I release to atmosphere 

is prim arily expected and the critical food is then leafy vegetables 

and milk. The population group consuming the highest amount of 

milk and leafy vegetables would then become the m ost highly exposed 

group. In the event of an accidental release to the marine environment 

the critical pathway sea - seafood - man observed during 

normal operation would still apply.




TABLE IX. DIRECT RADIATION DOSE MEASURED WITH TLDs 

IN THE TAPS ENVIRONMENT 

V illa g e and d istan ce 

from TA PS site 

Dose 

(m R /a) 

1 968 1969 1970 1971 

1 . G h iv ali 

( 1 .8 km North) 

58 58 60 65 

2 . A kkarpatti 

( 1 .8 km South) 

62 60 61 68 

3 . Panchm arg 

( 2 .5 km East) 

58 61 60 59 

4 . Eudan 

( 2 .5 km NE) 

57 56 57 58 

5 . Pam tem bhi 

(5 km SE) 

56 58 57 58 

N ote: (i) S in ce there was no o p eration involving ra d io a ctiv e m a te ria ls, the 1968 dose rate values 

ca n be considered as background values in the d iffe ren t v illa g e s , (ii) Dose data have a S ’lo 

standard error. 

United Kingdom [18] 

Doses from CEGB discharges 

Exposure pathways for liquid discharges from three selected 

civil nuclear power stations are given in Table X. Typical 

exposures of the sm all population groups concerned (10, 50 or 100 

persons) are 1 m rem /a or less to whole body, except in the case 

anglers at Trawsfynydd, whose exposure is about 20 m rem /a. 

At five other stations exposure of the public is less than 0.5 m rem /a. 

The absence of any measurable contribution to dose from gaseous 

discharges is clear from the results of gamma-radiation monitoring 

in the vicinity of stations and of milk monitoring. There is no 

measurable contribution to dose to members of the public from solid 

waste accumulated at nuclear power stations.



TABLE X. EXPOSURE PATHWAYS FOR DISCHARGES FROM SELECTED CEGB 

NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS 

05 

o 

T y p ic a l ex p osu re 

S tation 

and c r it ic a l m a te ria l 

E xposed 

p o p u la tio n grou p 

D a ily con su m p tion 

rate or annual 

hours o f exposure 

E xposed organ 

Im p orta n t 

r a d io n u clid e s 

D eriv ed 

w ork in g 

lim it 

o f the 


co n c e rn e d 

P ercen ta g e 

o f ICRP 

dose lim it 

(m r e m /a ) 

B radw el] 

Oyster 

O y ster fish erm en 

75 g /d T o ta l body 65Z n (c r itic a l) 

29 0 0 p C i/g 0 . 3




No contribution to gonad dose from nuclear power stations 

exceeds a few man* rem s as an annual total. The total annual dose 

to the critical group of 100 anglers at Trawsfynydd, whose whole - 

body dose due to consumption of fish contaminated with 137Cs and 

Cs is estimated to be about 20 m rem /a (Table X), is a 2 man •rem s. 

The other stations in Table X contributed less than 0.1 man •rem s 

between them. It is possible that sm aller doses to larger populations 

nearby might contribute a few additional man •rem s per station. 

Exposure factors involved in the discharge of aqueous radioactive 

wastes from additional CEGB power stations are listed in 

Table XI and estimates of the radiation doses received by the 

population are given in Table XII. 

Doses from UKAEA discharges 

Upper limits to annual doses arising from radioactive liquid 

and gaseous waste discharges can be deduced from measured 

activities when expressed as percentages of DWLs in environmental 

materials. Most values do not exceed a few per cent and many are 

well below 1% of the DWL. The only values that regularly exceed 

10% are due to 106Ru in liquid discharges to sea from Windscale in 

Cumberland. Many aspects of the critical pathway have been 

extensively studied by Preston and Jefferies, who carried out 

surveys in distribution and consumption of laverbread during the 

years 1962-1967 and concluded that the average exposure of the 

critical group concerned (100 persons out of a total of some 26 000 

laverbread eaters) was about 600 m rem /a to the GI tract compared 

with the dose lim it of 1500 m rem /a. This was estimated on the 

conservative assumption that these exceptional consum ers regularly 

eat laverbread manufactured solely from Cumberland seaweed, 

whereas an average market dilution factor of 4.2, due to the in corporation 

of non-Cumberland seaweed, operated during the period 

of sampling. 

Other exposure pathways arising as a result of Windscale 

discharges are external radiation of fishermen from contaminated 

estuarine silt and fishing gear, and internal radiation of fishermen 

who eat locally caught fish. Table XIII gives parameters of interest 

for all four pathways and estimated exposures to the very limited 

numbers of persons (10 or 100) in each critical group. The most 

important group next to laverbread consum ers are fishermen who 

spend about 350 hours per year on estuarine silt and are estimated 

to receive 50 m rem /a whole-body radiation.



62 APPENDIX III 

TABLE XI. EXPOSURE FACTORS INVOLVED IN THE DISCHARGE 

OF AQUEOUS RADIOACTIVE WASTES 

S ite C r it ic a l m a te r ia l C r it ic a l e x p osu re c a te g o r y E xp osed grou p 

U n ited K in g d o m A t o m ic E n ergy A u th ority 

W in d s ca le Porphyra (la v e r b r e a d ) 

S ilt 

B eta d o se to GI tra ct 

G a m m a d ose to w h o le b o d y 

G e n e r a l p u b lic (Sou th W a les) 

F ish erm en 

W in frith Lob ster and c r a b flesh B eta d ose to GI tra ct L o c a l fish e rm e n an d f a m ilie s 

S p rin g field s S ilt G a m m a d ose to. w h o le b o d y D red g e rm en 

A ld e rm a sto n D rin k in g w a ter B e ta -g a m m a d ose to w h o le b o d y 

(s o m a tic and g e n e t ic h azard ) 

G e n e r a l p u b lic (G rea ter L on d on ) 

H a rw ell D rin k in g w a ter B e ta -g a m m a d ose to w h o le b o d y 

(so m a tic and g e n e t ic h a z a rd ) 

G e n e ra l p u b lic (G rea ter L on d on ) 

A m ersh a m D rin k in g w a ter B e ta -g a m m a d ose to w h o le b o d y 

(s o m a tic and g e n e t ic h azard ) 

G e n e r a l p u b lic (G rea ter L on d on ) 

D ou n rea y 

D etritu s 

B eta d o se to hands 

L o c a l fish erm en 

B each slu dge 


L o c a l fish erm en an d oth ers 

C h a p e lc ro ss 

S h rim p flesh 

B e ta -g a m m a d ose to w h o le b o d y 

L o c a l fish e rm e n and fa m ilie s 

Sand and silt 


S a lm o n fish erm en 

C e n tra l E le c t r ic ity G e n e ra tin g Board and Sou th o f S c o tla n d E le c t r ic ity Board 

B e rk eley 

S ilt 

G a m m a d o se to w h o le b o d y 

S a lm o n fis h e r m e n /R iv e r A u th ority 

w orkers 

Shrim p and sa lm o n flesh 


L o c a l fish e rm e n and f a m ilie s 

B ra d w ell O y ster flesh B eta d ose to GI tr a c t O yster fish e rm e n and fa m ilie s 

H in k le y P oin t 

Fish and sh rim p flesh 



S ilt 



D u n gen ess 

Fish flesh 



S ilt 


B ait d ig g e r s 

O ld b u ry 

S ilt 


S a lm on fis h e r m e n /R iv e r A u th ority 

w orkers 

Sh rim p and sa lm o n fle sh 



S iz e w e ll 

Fish and s h e llfish flesh 


L o c a l fish e rm e n and fa m ilie s 

Sand 



T raw sfyn yd d T rou t flesh B e ta -g a m m a d ose to w h o le b o d y L o c a l fish e rm e n an d fa m ilie s 

W y lfa 

Fish and sh ellfish fle sh 


L o c a l fish e rm e n an d fa m ilie s 

S ilt 



H unters ton 

Fish flesh 


L o c a l fish e rm e n an d fa m ilie s 

Sand 


S h ellfis h c o lle c t o r s




T A B L E XI ( c o a t . ) 

S ite C r it ic a l m a te r ia l C r it ic a l e x p osu re c a te g o r y E xp osed g rou p 

M in istry o f D e f e n c e (N a v y D e p a rtm e n t) 

C h a th a m R iver m u d /s ilt G a m m a d ose to w h o le b o d y G e n e r a l p u b lic (h o u seb o a t d w e lle rs) 

F a sla ne M u d /s ilt G a m m a d ose to w h o le b o d y B oatyard w orkers 

R osyth S ilt G a m m a d o se to w h o le b o d y D r e d g e rm e n 

Liquid discharges from Dounreay contaminate a variety of 

potential seafoods to a small fraction of the DWL, but the authorization 

is largely based upon the activity that collects upon salmon 

fisherm en's nets and the resultant dose to the hands of the fishermen 

handling these nets. During 1969 very little fishing was carried 

out, but monitoring of experimental nets in 1968 showed the average 

dose to the hands of fewer than ten fishermen during the 1968 fishing 

season to be about 70 mrem compared with a dose lim it of 3750 

mrem allocated to the fishing season. 

The critical group with respect to gaseous discharges is often 

infants who drink cow s' milk and measurements of activity in milk 

near Windscale indicate doses in 1969 not exceeding 30 mrem to 

mineral bone due to 90Sr and 3 m rem to whole body due to 137Cs, 

including the contribution due to fall-out. The critical group for 

krypton releases from the reprocessing plant at Windscale com prises 

the few mem bers of the population who live within about 1 km of the 

plant. A conservative calculation shows the upper limit of exposure 

of this critical population due to the 1970 UK power programme to 

be 4 m rem /a (skindose), and of a larger population of a few thousand 

within about 6 km to be 1-2 m rem /a (skin dose). Dose rates to 

gonads are about 1% of these values. 

Doses to m em bers of the general public due to burial of solid 

waste at Drigg and Ulnes Walton are negligible because the substratum 

is of clay and any water draining from the site runs into 

non-potable water courses. The amounts of waste disposed of into 

the Atlantic Deeps are too small to have an appreciable effect on 

the environment. 

The average dose rate due to 1®6Ru in the GI tract of the whole 

group of 26 000 laverbread eaters, whose consumption was about 1 0% 

of that of the critical group, was about 60 m rem /a during 1962-1967,



6 4 

APPENDIX III 

TABLE XII. ESTIMATES OF PUBLIC RADIATION EXPOSURE FROM 

LIQUID RADIOACTIVE WASTE DISPOSALS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM 

1970 [19] 

M a x im u m 

a , 

e x p osu re o f an 

A p p r o x im a te tota l 

S ite 

Pathw ay 

in d iv id u a l 

C7o o f ICRP 

p o p u la t io n g o n a d 

dose*5 

r e c o m m e n d e d 

(m a n •re m ) 

d o se lim it) 

U n ited K in g d o m A t o m ic E n ergy A u th ority 

H a r w e ll 1 

A ld e rm a sto n [■ D rin k in g w a ter < 1 1 000 

A m ersh a m 

J 

W in d s ca le P orp h y ra /la v e rb re a d 5 

0.3 

( t o c r it i c a l g rou p ) 

E xtern a l d ose 12 0.5 

Fish 1 

( t o c r it i c a l grou p ) 

150 

S p rin g field s E xtern a l d ose 

W in frith S h ellfis h 

C h a p e lc ro ss 

E xtern a l d ose 

« i 

< 0.01 

S h ellfis h 

« i 

< 0 .1 

D ou n rea y 

E xtern a l d ose 

(foresh ore) 

B eta d ose 

(fis h erm en ) 



0.4 < 0.01 

S h ellfis h « 1 < 1 

C e n tra l E le c t r ic ity G e n e ra tin g B oard 

B e rk e le y /O ld b u ry E xtern a l d ose < 0.3 < 0 .1 

F is h /s h e llfis h < 0 .1 < 0 .1 

B ra d w ell O y ster 0.1 0.002 

D u n gen ess E x tern a l d ose « 0.1 < 0 .1 

Fish « 0.1 < 0 .1 

H in k le y P oin t E xtern a l d ose 0.1 < 0.1 

F is h /s h e llfis h 0.2 < 1 

S iz e w e ll E xtern a l d ose « 0.1 < 0 .1 

F is h /s h e llfis h « 0.1 < 0 .1 

T raw sfyn yd d L ake fish 3 < 0.5 

South o f S c o tla n d E le c t r ic ity Board 

H u nterston E xtern a l d ose < 0 .1 < 0 .1 

F is h /s h e llfis h < 0 .1 < 0 .1



APPENDIX III 6 5 

T A B L E XII (con t. ) 

M a x im u m 

e x p o s u re 3 o f an 

A p p ro x im a te to ta l 

S ite 

P ath w ay 

in d iv id u a l 

(% o f ICRP 

p o p u la t io n g on a d 

d o se a 

r e c o m m e n d e d 

(m a n •re m ) 

d ose lim it) 

M in istry o f D e fe n c e (N avy D e p a rtm e n t) 

C h a th a m E x tern a l d ose



0 5 

TABLE XIII. EXPOSURE PATHWAYS OF WINDSCALE IRISH SEA RADIOACTIVE 

WASTE DISCHARGES 

T y p ic a l exp osu re 

C r it ic a l m a te ria l 

E xposed 


D a ily con su m p tion 

rate or annual 

hours o f exposu re 

E xposed organ 

R a d ion u clid es 

con trib u tin g 

t o exp osu re 

D e r iv e d 

w o r k in g 

lim it 

o f the 


c o n c e r n e d 

P ercen ta g e 

o f ICRP 

d ose lim it 

(m r e m /a ) 

Porphyra (seaw eed ) L a verb rea d c o n 

160 g la verb rea d 

GI tract 

106Ru (c r it ic a l), 

30 0 p C i /g 

6 0 0 a 

4 0 a 

sum ers in South 

(8 0 g seaw eed) 

(LLI) 

144C e 

(106Ru + 

c r it i c a l grou p 

W a les 

144C e ) in 

Estuarine silt 

Fish 

2 . 6 x 104 persons 

(c r it ic a l grou p 100) 

F isherm en 

(10 persons) 


350 h T o ta l b od y 95Z r , 55N b , 

25 g GI tract 

106Ru 

106Ru 

the 

sea w eed 

1 . 4 m r e m /h 50 10 

90 0 p C i/g 

2 

0 . 1 

APPENDIX III 

(10 0 persons) 

T o ta l bod y 

13,C s 

1 8 00 p C i/g 

0 . 5 

0 . 1 

Fishin g g ear 

Fisherm en 

500 h Hands I06Ru 

15 m r e m /h 20 0 . 3 

(10 0 persons) 

144C e 

a T h ese v a lu es assum e that th ere w as n o d ilu tio n o f C u m berlan d sea w eed w ith in a c tiv e sea w eed fro m elsew h e r e ; du ring the p e rio d o f m a rk et sa m p lin g ( 1 9 6 2 -1 9 6 7 ), on w h ich 

th ese v a lu es are b a sed , th ere w as an a v era g e d ilu tio n fa c to r o f 4 . 2 .



APPENDIX III 6 7 

TABLE XIV. MICROCURIE-DOSE FACTORS FOR CALCULATING 

ENVIRONMENTAL DOSES 

Isotope 

U nits o f m rem /fiC i intake 

Units o f 

% M PRI/(JCi in take 

GI tra ct a T o ta l b o d ya Thyroid a 

B o n e'3 

M axim um in divid ual 

z4Na 6 . 2 

1 .7 

. . 

32 p 

21 7 . 4 6 . 2 

51Cr 1 .2 - - - 

64Cu 4 . 6 - - - 

65Zn 9 .6 6 . 5 0 .1 2 

16As 77 - - - 

131j - - 1700 Adult - 

17 000 C hild 

239Np 19 - 

- 

R E +Y C 50 - - - 

24Na 6 . 2 

T y p ic a l R ichland Resident 

1.7 - - 

32 p 

21 7 . 4 - 19 

51C r 1.2 - - - 

64Cu 4 . 6 - - - 

65Zn 9 .6 65 - 0 .3 7 

76As 77 - - - 

131 j - - 1700 Adult - 

17 000 Child 

239Np 19 - 

- 

R E +Y C 50 - - - 

a M icro cu rie-d o se fa cto r: T h e dose in m rem th at 1 juCi o f an ingested rad ionuclide w ill d eliv er 

to a given organ e ith er over an in fin ite period o f tim e from an acu te in ta k e , or over a o n e- 

y e a r period when equ ilib riu m con d itions are m ain tain ed by a constan t d aily in ta k e . A ll 

rad ionuclides w ere considered to be in soluble form for com p u tation o f dose fa cto rs. It is 

reco g n ized that the dose lim it for the to ta l body is based on exposure to the gonads and red 

bone m arrow . T h e dose facto rs used here for the to ta l body assume a uniform d istrib u tion, 

k In the case o f bone the fa cto r is'exp ressed in per c e n t o f m axim u m perm issible rate o f in ta k e , 

i . e . 100°/o is equ iv a len t to the M PRI. 

c Rare earths plus y ttriu m .




United States of Am erica 

Estimated doses that might be received by persons in the neighbourhood 

of Hanford [20]: factors used for calculating radiation doses 

The critical organs of persons receiving radiation doses from 

environmental sources in the Hanford environs were known from 

experience to be the total body, bone, GI tract, and thyroid. Study 

and experience have shown that a m ajor portion (90 to 95%) of 

BONE 

Z rr 

SOURCE 

NUCLIDE FOOD, ETC. 

/•ALL OTHER 

-SEAFOOD 

- FISH 

"GAME BIRDS 

"MILK 

-M E A T 

-WATER 

- E X T 7 

ALL OTHER 

■ -SEAFOOD 

' m ilk 

'WATER 

-EXT. 7 

PER CENT OF STANDARD 

20 40 60 80 100 

500 mrem 

PER YEAR 

AEC-FRC 

170 mrem 

PER YEAR 

AEC-FRC 

-ALL OTHER 

-WATER 

E3S3-EXT7 

500 mrem 

PER YEAR 

AEC-FRC 

giHBHHm--VEGETABLES 

HIM III I I I I 

MILK 

-W A TE R 

500 mrem 

PER YEAR 

AEC-FRC 

FIG . 1. Estim ated doses to th e A verage Richland Resident, 1969.




radiation doses in the Hanford environs are contributed by a relatively 

few radionuclides: 24Na, 32P, 51Cr, 64Cu, 65Zn, 76As, 131I, 

239Np and rare earths plus yttrium fraction. To ease the calculation 

of the radiation dose contributed by each of these radionuclides to 

the various critical organs, a table of factors based on the organ 

dose received from a unit intake (1 jtiCi) of each specific radionuclide 

was prepared (Table XIV). The parameters set forth in ICRP 

Publication No. 2 and in the FRC Reports were used in preparing 

this table. Many of these factors were tabulated previously by 

Vennart and Minski and published'in the British Journal of Radiology. 

NUCLIDE 

SOURCE 

FOOD, ETC 

PER CENT OF STANDARD 

20 40 60 80 100 

1500 mrem 

PER YEAR 

A EC-FR C 

500 mrem 

PER YEAR 

AEC-FRC 

, ALL OTHER 

-EGGS 

^ O f r u it&veg 

: \MILK 

MEAT 

"FISH 

-WATER 

- EXT. y 

1500 mrem 

PER YEAR 

A EC -FR C 

1500 mrem 

PER YEAR 

AEC-FRC 

FIG . 2. E stim ated doses to th e M axim um In d ivid ual, 1969.




The maximum permissible rate of intake (MPRI) of boneseekers 

for individuals was taken as one-tenth the product of the 

maximum permissible concentration (MPC) in water for a given 

radionuclide, as recommended by the ICRP for continuous occupational 

exposure, and the rate of water intake as given by the ICRP 

for the standard man (2.2 litres/d). In the case of 32P the MPRI 

is 16 mCi/a for the Maximum Individual. The MPRI for an average 

of the exposed population (the Typical Richland Resident) was taken 

to be one-third of the MPRI for individuals, of 5.3 /uCi/a for 32P. 

Computation of the dose received by the thyroid gland was 

related to FRC intake guides recommended for 131I. The top of 

Range II (100 pCi/d) was rounded off by the FRC from approximately 

80 pCi/d, which if sustained over a one-year period, would result 

in a dose of approximately 500 mrem to a 2 g thyroid based upon 

current ICRP dose calculation factors. Using 80 pCi/d (0.029 /iCi/a) 

intake of 131I as a basis, the corresponding intake-dose factor was 

calculated to be 17 000 mrem per /uCi 131I ingested. 

T able X IV summarizes the factors used in calculating radiation 

doses from environmental sources. Figures 1 and 2 show the 

composite radiation doses for the average Richland resident and the 

M axim um Individual for 196 9, as given in the annual environm ental 

reports.



APPENDIX IV 

EXAMPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING 

PROGRAMMES 

ARGENTINA 

Environmental monitoring in the neighbourhood of the 

Atucha Nuclear Power Station 

1. Introduction 

The purpose of the environmental monitoring programme 

described below is to check that the Basic Safety Standards and the 

ICRP recommendations are being properly observed as regards 

exposure of the public during normal operation of the power station. 

Monitoring is not an end in itself, but is merely a technique 

employed in radiological protection. An essential component of 

the monitoring programme is, therefore, that the results should be 

interpreted in the light of the ICRP recommendations. The latter 

recommendations include 'dose-equivalent limits' and radionuclide 

'uptake lim its', and these can be used in interpreting the monitoring 

results. 

Many of the measurements performed in a monitoring programme 

cannot be expressed directly in terms that are comparable with the 

recommended ICRP limits. To interpret these results one needs 

to use an 'exposure model', which establishes a quantitative relation 

between the measured quantities and the resulting dose-equivalents 

of radiation. The expression 'Derived Working Limits' (DWL) 

describes those values of the monitored quantities that correspond 

in the exposure model to the dose limits recommended by ICRP. 

In view of the 'super-safe' hypothesis applied in selecting the 

'exposure model1, observance of the DWL values gives the virtual 

certainty that the recommended ICRP dose limits are observed as 

well. 

It should be stressed, nevertheless, that environmental monitoring 

is not in itself sufficient to ensure adequate protection of the 

public. This type of monitoring should be accompanied by suitable 

'monitoring of release', in order to be able to estimate the resulting 

doses in cases where the environmental levels are difficult to 

measure or to distinguish from radioactive fall-out. 

71



72 APPENDIX IV 

2. D e riv e d W ork in g L im its . M eth od ology 

The Derived Working Limits for routine environmental monitoring 

at Atucha were determined by the methods indicated below, 

which will be described in greater detail in another document. 

2.1. DWL for the contamination of foodstuffs by one 

radionuclide 

In the case of a standard man, not exposed to external radiation, 

and consuming only one type of contaminated foodstuff, the DWL=IL/g, 

where IL is the uptake limit and g the annual amount of the foodstuff 

consumed. Obviously, the dose resulting from consumption of a 

foodstuff with a concentration C over a period of one year will give 

a dose commitment of (C/DWL) XDL, where Dl is the corresponding 

dose limit. 

2.2. DWL for the case of irradiation due to contamination of 

various foodstuffs and to external radiation, in both 

cases by one radionuclide 

Let the concentration of the radionuclide in each foodstuff be 

termed Q and the external radiation dose to the organ R. The 

dose limits are not exceeded if 

If the concentrations and external dose are equal to their respective 

DWL values, the expression is equal to one. The equation can 

be solved for a given DWL if the relations between the concentrations 

(and the external dose) are known. This is the case when all 

exposure pathways have a common precursor compartment in the 

'exposure model1. If the concentration in this precursor is Ca, 

Fai is the transfer parameter to the foodstuff i, and FaR is the 

transfer parameter to the external dose, then we have



APPENDIX IV 73 

T he D W L fo r a g iven fo o d s tu ff K is th e r e fo r e given by 

DWW = 

K 

__ F aK______ 

J_ ) F, g. + ZaR 

IL L ai gl Dl 

2.3. DWL for the case of a mixture of radionuclides 

In the case of a mixture of various radionuclides summations 

similar to those mentioned under section 2.2 must be carried out 

for each critical organ. It must be realized that if three or more 

critical organs receive important fractions of their respective dose 

limits, the irradiation must be regarded as 'whole body'. 

If the mixture has a fraction of activity p. from nuclide j, the 

following relation holds for each critical organ 

where Wj is the DWL for the case of the isolated nuclide, as in 

section 2.2. The above equations (one for each critical organ) 

form a set from which the smallest DWLj values are selected. 

2.4. 'Exposure model' and parameters employed 

The 'exposure model' employed does not include the input or 

the primary dispersion process. It is based on a compartment 

common to all irradiation pathways (air in the case of stack releases 

and water in the case of river releases). 

Figure 3 describes the model for the case of atmospheric 

releases. Depending on the particular radionuclide, the critical 

organs may be: thyroid, haematopoietic tissue, lung, gastrointestinal 

tract, gonads, or 'whole-body'. Also, the critical organs 

can be those of 'standard' adults or of children, depending on the 

radionuclide and the pathway involved. Figure 4 represents the 

model for aqueous releases. Both'models were used in the 'timeindependent' 

form, i.e . in the state of dynamic equilibrium. The 

values obtained are also valid in the case of single releases, if 

interpreted as time integrals and 'committed doses'.



74 A PPEN D IX IV 

FIG. 3. A tm o s p h e r ic re le a s e m o d e l. 

FIG. 4. A q u e o u s r e le a s e m o d e l. 

The parameters were obtained in experimental work, in studies 

related to fall-out measurements and, in some cases, from the 

literature. In particular, the rate of deposition of aerosols was 

taken as 3 X 10"3 m /s, based on studies of the mean annual values 

in low-altitude releases. The Argentine data contributed to UNSCEAR 

during the last ten years were used to obtain factors for transfer to 

90 i ^7 

the diet (double-parameter formula for Sr and Cs, and timeintegral 

method for 1311). The factors for transfer of 90Sr to man 

were derived from the work "Radiostrontium in man, as a function 

of age" (CNEA 322), replacing the dosimetric factor for whole bone 

by that for marrow (which was found to be the critical organ). 

The composition assumed for the releases was that indicated 

in the Atucha Safety Report with the addition of values representative



APPEN D IX IV 75 

of the type of fuel involved. Account was also taken of the potential 

contribution of a further power station at Atucha, which would somewhat 

change the composition. 

The Derived Working Limits obtained with these models and 

parameters are independent of the way in which the releases are 

made from the power station, since they relate to the 'blank 

organism' and its critical organs. 

3. Derived Working Limits for Atucha 

Figure 5 summarizes the DWL values obtained for the area 

near the Atucha Nuclear Power Station, with reference to stack 

releases. The values indicated refer to levels caused by operation 

of the power station. The radioactive fall-out (and the natural 

radiation background in the case of external exposure) make an 

additional contribution to the measurements indicated, and this 

had to be taken into account in analysing the monitoring results. 

In the case of aqueous releases the critical radionuclides are 

37Cs and 6°Co. Figure 6 gives the corresponding DWL values, 

which take into account the proportion of these nuclides in the 

liquid effluents. 

In this case, too, the values refer to the levels resulting from 

operation of the power station, in addition to those due to radioactive 

fall-out. 

4. Sampling and interpretation 

For the sampling of material suspended in the air it is recommended 

that fixed collection stations be established at five positions. This 

distribution takes account of points where values are likely to be 

high or the population dense. These collection stations should carry 

out filtration of aerosols (samples of several thousand m ) and 

collection of tritiated vapour. For 131I sampling use can be made 

of carbon filters, but this sampling is not considered essential. 

As regards the noble gases, it is advisable to measure these in 

conjunction with other contributors to the external gamma exposure. 

The optimal sampling frequency is weekly, but depending on the 

capacity of the equipment other intervals are acceptable. 

For measuring the external exposure it is recommended that 

four integrating dosimeters (films, glasses, or preferably TLD) 

should be placed 1 m above the ground at the positions mentioned



76 APPENDIX I V 

AIR 

90 Ṡr 1.1 X 10K C i/ m 3 

137Cs 1.4 x id 13 Ci/m3 

131 | 1.2 x ifl12 Ci/m 3 

106Ru 1.7x 10'3 C i/ m 3 

3h 1.6 x 107 Ci/m3 

N O BLE G A S E S 1.5 xlO1 

(C i-M e V / m 3)(7 ) 

D EPO SITIO N RATE 

(C i/m 2-d ) 

90Sr 2.9 x10'12 

137Cs 3.6 x io " 

1311 3.1 1010 

106 Ru 4.4




FIG . 6. DWL values f o r 60Co and 137 Cs in the ca se o f aqueous re le a se . 

in 4.1, so that one set can be read every quarter and one every year. 

It is also recommended to take measurements once a week with a 

portable scintillometer (scale in fJR/h). 

Samples of milk should be taken every month at four positions 

for determining I, and every quarter for other nuclides. Fallout 

samplers should be positioned at the air-sampling points; 

samples should be taken corresponding to periods of one month. 

Once a year a soil sample should be analysed (the top 5 cm) to 

measure the accumulated deposition. Weekly samples of river 

water should be taken about 100 m downstream from the discharge 

pipe. 

Every quarter sediment samples should also be taken in the 

water sampling zone. In.addition, measurements should be made 

with a scintillometer (graduated in /uR/h) once a month along the 

bank (several hundred m) and at the Club de Pesca. 

From time to time samples should also be taken from grown 

plants and pasture land up to a distance of 3 km from the power 

station, and fish samples should be taken at Zarate. 

The analytical results obtained (for the nuclides included in 

Figs 5 and 6) should be compared with the corresponding DWL 

values and the value f = measured value/DWL should be recorded. 

If this fraction is more than 10%, the sampling should be.repeated 

and if the result is confirmed, the release records should be 

examined. If f is close to unity, the waste processing procedures 

should be re-examined or the release limits reset.



7 8 APPENDIX IV 

It must be emphasized that observance of the 'dose limits' 

is not enough to ensure adequate radiological protection. The 

ICRP recommends that the competent authority should limit releases 

to the environment to values below the 'radiological capacity' (i. e. 

to that release which corresponds to the dose limits). This derives 

from the concept of 'as low as is reasonably possible' (ICRP No. 22) 

and also allows for further installations, which should not be penalized 

as to their protection costs. It is thus possible to define a 

protection factor P = authorized release/radiological capacity, which 

must also be taken into account in monitoring. The working limits 

multiplied by this factor, DWL XP, are called Authorized Working 

Limits (AWL). Environmental monitoring should show that these 

AWL values are being observed. 

COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 

Environmental monitoring programme of the Ispra Establishment 

1. Radioactive effluents of the Ispra Establishment 

The Ispra Establishment of the Joint Research Center of the 

European Communities covers an area of about 1.5 km and includes 

few large installations and several laboratories (see Fig. 7). The 

main facilities are three nuclear reactors (Ispra-1, ECO and 

ESSOR), a hot laboratory for metallurgical studies of irradiated 

materials (LMA) and radiochemistry and radiobiology laboratories. 

The operation of these installations involves the production of radioactive 

wastes, part of which is released into the environment 

directly (gaseous effluents) or after decontamination treatment 

(liquid effluents). The solid wastes deriving from the latter process 

as well as from other operations are sealed into suitable containers 

(tar or concrete) and stored on the soil or buried into pits filled 

with concrete. 

The radioactive liquid effluents produced at the various facilities 

are sent to a treatment station, where they undergo a decontamination 

process and then are released into the sewer system of the 

Establishment. The volume of these effluents fluctuates around 

2000 m3/a and the overall activity ranges from a few tens to a few 

hundreds of mCi/a, mainly due to 137 Cs, 60Co and 90Sr. The 

discharge is not continuous and consists of 20 to 40 single release 

operations per year.



A PPEN D IX IV 79 

FIG. 7. M ap o f th e Jo in t Research C e n ter Ispra Establishm ent (Ita ly ). 

Most of the activity of the gaseous effluents is due to 41A r, which 

is released from the stacks of the Isp ra -1 reactor and of the ESSOR 

reactor (~ 10 000 C i/a each). Both installations release also some 

hundreds of C i/a of tritium. The m etallurgical laboratory (LMA), 

131 

which is planned to operate in the future, will release I (order 

of magnitude 100 m C i/a) and 85Kr (negligible activity).




2. C h a r a c te r is tic s o f the en viron m en t 

The liquid effluents of the sewer system flow into a brook 

named Novellino (mean flowrate 0.3 m3/s ; range 0.15- 1 m3/s), 

which in turn flows into Lake Maggiore after a course of about 

1500 m (see Fig. 8). This brook also receives most drainage water 

from the territory of the Establishment. The Novellino water is 

not used by the inhabitants of the zone, on the contrary, the waters 

of Lake Maggiore and of its only effluent, the River Ticino, represent 

remarkable resources for food production: both for the fishing 

activities and the latter, in addition, for the irrigation of a large 

agricultural area in the districts of Milano, Novara and Pavia. 

The water supply to the Ispra Establishment and to the attached 

residence is through a line and pumping station located on the shore 

of Lake Maggiore near the Ispra port. This is the only case in 

which Lake Maggiore water is used for drinking. 

The economy of the region is principally based on industry 

and agricultural production is consequently very limited and fills 

only a small part of the local needs. An analysis of the environs 

of the Establishment (a 10 km radius area) has shown the following 

surface distribution: Uncultivated 40%; sown 15%; pasture 20%; 

orchard 5%; woods 20%. In the same zone the number of bovine 

animals is about 6000 (of which 3500 lactating); they are fed almost 

entirely with local fodder. The daily milk production ranges between 

20 000 and 25 000 litres and is used about 50/50 for direct consumption 

(distribution by the milk supply stations of Gallarate and 

Varese) and for the production of cheese. The principal agricultural 

products of the zone are maize, potatoes, wheat and rye. 

The population density in the region is high: about 300 persons/km 

2, including also the area of the lakes. The distribution 

of the population in the surroundings of the Establishment is shown 

in Fig. 9. 

The meteorological profile of the zone, located at th.e foot of 

the Alps and including some lakes, may be outlined in the following. 

Rain is pretty high (about 1600 mm/a), particularly in spring and 

autumn, showers are frequently recorded in the summer months. 

Winter is normally dry and sunny, with fog occurring during the 

night and occasionally during the day. The absolute humidity of the 

air is high in summer, the relative humidity is high in winter, 

though several very clear and windy days cause it to drop to very 

low values (fohn). On most days and especially on sunny summer 

days a regular wind pattern is recorded, with mountain breeze



APPENDIX IV 

FIG. 8. 

M a p o f the z o n e w ith in d ic a t io n o f sa m p lin g p o in ts.




blowing from NNW and valley breeze from SSW; fohn blows from the 

Northern directions and the Atlantic perturbations come from NNW. 

The wind rose recorded at the Observatory of the Establishment 

shows a dual symmetrical distribution. Figure 10 reports the 

percent frequency of the six categories of atmospheric stability 

according to Pasquill, associated with the corresponding wind 

directions. It will be remarked that category D prevails in the 

northern directions, whereas the unstable categories are generally 

associated with valley breeze from SW. 

On the basis of the radionuclides present in the effluents and 

of the characteristics of the environment, the principal critical 

pathways of exposure have been identified as given in Table XV.



APPENDIX IV 

FIG. 10. 

W in d rose and a sso c ia te d s ta b ility c a te g o r ie s (m e a n o f t h r e e - y e a r o b se rv a tio n s).




TABLE XV. 

1SPRA - PRINCIPAL CRITICAL PATHWAYS 

Critical 

radionuclides 

Critical pathways 

Critical population groups 

Gaseous effluents 

41 Ar Atmosphere Cadrezzate residents 

131 I Atmosphereherbage-milk 

Cadrezzate infants 

Liquid effluents 

90Sr 

137 _ 

Cs 

Lake Maggiore 

water-drinking 

water 

Lake Maggiore 

water-fish 

Joint Research Center 

residents 

Families of the professional 

fishermen 

3. Actual status of the monitoring network 

Control of the gaseous effluents is carried out through (1) 

measurements performed at the emission sources (reactor stacks) 

for the evaluation of the quality and quantity of the activity released; 

and (2) measurements performed (after dilution) in the environment. 

The latter are carried out by means of a network of monitoring stations 

located along the fence of the Establishment as well as in some 

neighbouring villages and equipped with all or part of the following 

material: a device for the collection of atmospheric dust on paper 

filter and of radioiodine on activated charcoal; a device for the 

measurement of the exposure rate with telemetering and recording; 

a thermoluminescence dosimeter for the measurement of the integrated 

exposure; and a pot for the collection of the deposited matter. 

In addition to the station network there is a mobile unit equipped 

with a system for the collection on filters of atmospheric dust and 

for the measurement of its radioactivity; a scintillation counter,




MONVALLE 

MILK 

GRASS 

© BREBBIA © BREBBIA 

© CADREZZATE © CADREZZATE 

( D ISPRA 0 ISPRA 

© OSMATE © MONVALLE 

© OSMATE 

© TAINO 

DRINKABLE AND 

UNDERGROUND WATERS 

© J.R.C. RESIDENCE 

© CASCINA CASELLO 

© „ CASE NUOVE 

© „ BARAGGIOLA 

® „ ANTONIETTA 

FIG . 11. S am p lin g netw ork. 

with multichannel analyser, for the identification and measurement 

of gamma emitters; and material for electrical supply,, individual 

protection, sampling, radiocommunication, portable monitors. 

Control of liquid effluents is carried out through measurements 

performed directly on the effluents before release and measurements 

performed (after dilution) in the environment. These include



T A B L E X V I. SU M M A R Y O F SAM PLIN G AND M E A SU R E M E N T S 00 

C75 

Frequency 

M a te ria l 

S a m p lin g point 

Sam p le 

quantity 

Frequency o f 

sam pling 

A nalysis perform ed on 

th e sam p le 

o f an alysis 

(sin g le or 

pooled 

sam p les) 

A tm osp h eric 

dust 

10 m o n ito rin g 

stations 

500 m 3 D aily Gross b eta and alpha ra d io a c tiv ity 

G a m m a -sp ectro m etry 

90 Sr, 137 Cs and 239 Pu d eterm in atio n s 

■Daily 

M onthly 

M onthly 

D eposition M o n ito rin g statio n s 0 .2 m 2 In case of 

em erg en cy on ly 

- - 

4 m 2 

(1 point) 

M onthly G a m m a -sp ectro m etry , 

90Sr, 137 Cs and 239 Pu d eterm in atio n s 

Air M onitorin g stations - M onthly D eterm in a tio n o f the exposure by 

th e rm o lu m in escen ce dosim eters 

M onthly 

M onthly 

M onthly 

APPENDIX IV 

Su rface w aters Lake M ag g io re 5 litres M onthly Gross b eta and alpha a c tiv ity M onth ly 

20 0 litres M onthly G a m m a -sp ectro m etry 

90 Sr d eterm in atio n 

Q u arterly 

A nnual 

River T ic in o 1 litre D aily 90 Sr d eterm in atio n A nnual 

River A cqua N era 1 litre T w ice a w eek Gross b e ta and alp ha a c tiv ity M onthly 

Brook N o v ellin o 1 litre Continuous and 

proportional to 

th e flow 

Gross b eta and alpha a c tiv ity 

G a m m a -sp ectro m etry 

90 Sr and 226Ra d eterm in atio n s 

D aily 

Q u arterly 

Q u arterly 

D rinking w ater J .R .C . R esid en ce 1 litre D aily Gross b e ta and alpha a c tiv ity 

90 Sr d eterm in atio n 

M onthly 

A nnual

T A B L E X V I (con t.) 



F req u en cy 

M a te ria l 

Sam p lin g point 

S am p le 

quantity 

Freq u en cy of 

sam p lin g 

A nalysis p erform ed on 

th e sam p le 

o f an alysis 

(sin g le or 

pooled 

sam p les) 

Underground T h re e w ells o n -site 50 litres Q u arterly G a m m a -sp e c tro m e try Q u arterly 

w aters 

Four w ells o ff-s ite 5 litres M onthly Gross b e ta and alp h a a c tiv ity M onthly 

Bottom 

sed im en ts 

Brook N o v ellin o 

and Ispra Bay 

1 kg Q u arterly G a m m a -sp ectro m etry Q u arterly 

S o il A bout 20 points 2 kg O c c a sio n a lly G a m m a -sp e c tro m e try 

90 Sr and 137Cs d eterm in atio n s 

Grass 6 points 2 kg M onthly 

G a m m a -sp e c tro m e try 

(A p ril-O c to b e r) 90Sr d e term in a tio n 

O c c a sio n a lly 

M onthly 

A n n u al 

APPENDIX IV 

M ilk 4 lo c a l dairies 2 litres W eek ly G a m m a -sp e c tro m e try 

90Sr d eterm in a tio n 

M onthly 

B i-m o n th ly 

Fish Lake M aggiore 2 kg Q u arterly G a m m a -sp ectro m etry 

90 Sr d e term in a tio n 

Q u arterly 

A nnual 

Liquid 

T re a tm e n t station 2 litres B efore e a ch 

Gross b e ta and alp h a a c tiv ity , 

On each 

ra d io a c tiv e 

re le a se 

g a m m a -sp e c tro m e try , 

sam p le 

efflu en ts 

rad io n u clid e d eterm in atio n s 

oo 



88 A PPEN D IX IV 

the continuous monitoring at the station located on the brookNovellino 

(see Fig. 8) and the determinations on surface water samples 

collected in the zone (Lake Maggiore, River Ticino). 

The monitoring programme includes also: determination of 

soil radioactivity, carried out in a score of locations within 15 km 

of the Establishment; measurement of the activity in the bottom 

sediments of the brook Novellino and of the Ispra bay of Lake 

Maggiore; and follow-up of the contamination of some agricultural 

products (grass, milk) and of fish (see Fig. 11). 

Because of the presence on site of an installation for the treatment 

and storage of radioactive solid wastes, underground waters 

are also monitored by means of samples collected in wells located 

both inside and outside the Establishment (see maps in Figs 7 and 11). 

Table XVI provides a summary of the sampling and measurements. 

4. Emergency monitoring 

In the event of an accidental release of radioactivity into the 

environment, an emergency plan has been developed in co-operation 

with the national and local authorities. In such a case a monitoring 

control centre is activated. This is located in a room equipped with 

communication systems and where all the data and alarms from the 

telemetering monitoring stations are centralized. 

On the basis of the meteorological information, vehicles equipped 

with a radio unit and portable instruments are sent along preestablished 

routes to selected monitoring points in the sector (or 

sectors) likely to include the contaminated area. The equipment 

carried by the vehicles allows the collection and field measurements 

on air, vegetation and milk samples and the direct evaluation of the 

radioactivity deposited to the ground. 

The standard equipment consists of a battery-operated high 

volume air sampler with paper and charcoal filters, a singlechannel 

Nal(Tl) gamma monitor, large area alpha and beta scintillation 

detectors, a portable ionization chamber for exposure measurements, 

tools for sample collection, and individual protective clothing. 

5. Criteria on which the programme is based 

The programme for the radioactivity monitoring in the environs 

of the Ispra Establishment is conceived to achieve various objectives, 

the relative importance of which may change. A detailed




description of the criteria used for the definition of the programme 

has been given elsewhere [21], The main objective is, of course, 

the determination of the dose to which the population is exposed or, 

at least, the evaluation of the upper limit of such a dose, to comply 

with the regulations issued by the competent authorities. Other 

objectives are the improvement of the knowledge in the field of 

radiation protection and the establishment and maintenance of good 

public relations with the population of the zone. A further scope 

is that of keeping in operation men and materials to face possible 

emergency situations. 

Within the limits posed by the practical means, the programme, 

through a careful choice of materials and measurements, aims at 

evaluating for the individual radionuclides the activity released, the 

successive dilution in the main environmental media (air and water) 

and the possible accumulation in particular materials. This involves 

a larger number of measurements than would be sufficient to achieve 

the principal objective of the monitoring programme. However, the 

information thus collected is often very useful in providing a better 

knowledge both of the local situation and, more generally, of the 

mechanisms involved in the transfer of the radionuclides to man. 

Moreover, it has been judged useful to maintain some other measurements, 

in addition to those concerning the critical pathways and 

groups, with the aim of keeping a check on the absence of unexpected 

contamination due to the Establishment. 

CZECHOSLOVAKIA 

Monitoring pitwater from mines for radioactive ores 

In mining radioactive ores in various districts it is necessary 

to drain off the pitwater, which usually contains variable amounts 

226 210 

of natural radioactive substances, especially Ra, Pb and 

uranium. The release of pitwater into surface waters is preceded 

by decontamination. According to the regulations previously valid, 

the volume activities (concentrations) of radionuclides in waste water 

should not exceed the maximum permissible concentrations laid down 

at that time for drinking water, or ten-fold higher values in the case 

of special approval of the local hygiene authorities. At present the 

Czechoslovak regulations postulate, as a criterion (upper limit) 

for the release of radioactive substances into the environment, the 

dose limits for members of the public (values recommended in




ICRP Publication No. 9) related to the average exposure of the 

critical group of the population. At the same time, however, it is 

required that exposure of the population be maintained at the lowest 

achievable level, i. e. that the amount of radionuclides introduced 

into the environment should be as small as possible. 

An investigation into the ways the population uses the rivers 

in individual localities (riversides) disclosed that the highest 

exposure must be expected in the population group using water 

from percolation wells situated near the rivers for drinking, cooking 

and sprinkling the gardens where they grow vegetables and fruit 

for their own use. The other ways of exposure (consumption of 

fish from the rivers, bathing, etc. ) turned out to be substantially 

less significant. 226Ra proved to be the critical nuclide because of 

its substantially higher representation in the mixture of the nuclides 

released and its significantly higher radiotoxicity. 

On the basis of data on consumption of the mentioned foods and 

drinking water obtained by local investigations and of data, on the 

mixing of pitwater with river water, amounts of 226Ra were derived 

that, when released into rivers in individual localities, would not 

result in exceeding of the dose limits in the given critical group 

of the population. In assessing the admissible amounts; the intake 

rate of the nuclide was assumed to be continuous and constant. 

Further, it was assumed that the volume activities of 226R.a in water 

of the percolation wells and in the river will not differ, and that in 

the case of irrigation of vegetables and fruit with these waters the 

established Ra content will be increased ten-fold at most. This 

assumption was, among others, based on the results of the experimental 

growing of vegetables in the tailing pond of a radioactive 

ore mill. As a result of decontamination, the volume activities 

226 

of Ra in the released pitwater are substantially lower than the 

values derived from the dose limits according to the abovementioned 

procedure. A series of technological processes is used 

to decontaminate the pitwater, especially cation exchangers in 

natrium cycle and coprecipitation with solutions of BaCl2 and 

A12(S04)3 with a high decontamination efficiency. 

To check on the adherence to the derived limits and to the 

requirements of the regulations on radiation protection a system 

was elaborated of effluent monitoring and environmental monitoring, 

the components of the system being given in Table XVII. 

Participating in the realization of the system were the waste 

producer (the mining organization), mainly in monitoring pitwater 

including checking the effectiveness of decontamination, the Hygiene



APPENDIX I V 91 

T A B L E X V II. M ONITORING SY STEM IN R A D IO A C T IV E 

P IT W A T E R R E L E A S E 

V ectors or 

in d ices 

R e la tiv e sam p ling 

frequ en cy 

L o catio n o f sam p ling 

Pitw ater 

(b e fo re and after 

d eco n tam in atio n ) 

D a ily cu m u la tiv e 

sam ples 

S u rface w ater 1 - 4 tim es S eries o f sam p ling points 

per m onth 

up and dow nstream 

Bottom sedim ents Q uarterly S eries o f sam p lin g points 

up and down stream 

A qu atic b io ta Y e a rly or S eries o f sam p ling points 

( e . g . fish , a lg a e , 

quarterly 

up and down stream 

reed ) 

W ater of 1 - 4 tim es Location of 

p erco la tio n w ells per m onth exp ected c r itic a l 

groups 

V eg etab les from T im e of L o cation o f e x p ected 

irrigated soil gathering c r itic a l groups 

Service and the Water Economy Inspection. Some components of 

monitoring, such as follow-up of radioactivity of fish, algae, and 

other aquatic plants in rivers, are directed towards verification 

of the importance of other ways of exposure than those expected to 

be critical, or towards gaining generally valid information. 

2 26 210 

In the collected samples Ra and occasionally also Pb 

and 210Po are determined. 

The review is based on the work done in the Institute of Industrial 

Hygiene in Uranium Industry, Pribram-Kamenna.




FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY 

Environmental monitoring at the Kernforschungsanlage 

Julich GmbH [22] 

1. General comments 

As a departure from the earlier annual reports on environmental 

monitoring at the Julich Nuclear Research Establishment (KFA), in 

which all the individual radioactivity values were presented, only 

mean values will be presented in future, except in cases of significant 

rises in the environmental radioactivity level or of investigations 

carried out for special reasons. The individual radioactivity 

values will continue to be presented in the quarterly reports 

prepared for the information of the supervisory authorities of the 

province of North Rhine-Westphalia (Nordrhein-Westfalen) and the 

interested organs of the Federal Ministry for Education and Science. 

When there is an unusual rise in the radioactivity level (especially 

when the reference levels — 'alert', 'pre-alert' and 'scientific 

interest' — laid down by OECD are exceeded), this information 

is transmitted direct to the Federal Ministry for Education and 

Science (which passes it on to NEA) and to the competent provincial 

body. 

As the Annual Report for 1970 described in detail the objectives 

of the environmental monitoring activities, the measurement programme, 

the methods employed and the measurement procedures, 

the present report is confined to a description of the modified 

measurement programme and a discussion of the 1971 results. 

2. Measurement programme 

The environmental monitoring measurement programme was 

revised in collaboration with the Interministerial Committee of the 

Supervisory Authority (Tables XVIII-XX). The earlier measurement 

programme was for historical reasons based on the establishment 

of a zero level and the measurement of bomb fall-out. When 

the measurement programme was revised, due account was taken 

of new measurement procedures, of experience pointing the way to 

greater environmental monitoring efficiency, and of the principle 

of combining amount received and emission monitoring. On 1 January 

1972, the measurement programme in operation since 1 April 1971




will undergo some further modification, which has again been 

decided upon by the Interministerial Committee and which will be 

discussed in the next annual report. 

The new version of the measurement programme takes into 

account the principles set forth in ICRP publication No. 7, according 

to which special attention should be paid in environmental monitoring 

to the critical nuclides, whose emission constitutes the greatest 

hazard for the critical population group via the critical pathway. 

Accordingly, besides improvements (some of them introduced 

earlier) with regard to the overall monitoring of alpha and beta 

activity for the purpose of determining individual nuclides, general 

gamma-spectrometric measurements with Ge(Li) detectors have been 

included in the programme where appropriate. The most important 

addition to the measurement programme is the monitoring of "31I, 

which can be a critical nuclide for most of the emitters at KFA both 

during normal operation and in the event of an incident. The individual 

modifications of the measurement programme are indicated 

below: 

(a) Monitoring of air (Table XVI) 

The electrostatic collection — for one hour on working days — 

of air dust samples, which does not yield representative results, 

and the parallel measurement of environmental radiation with an 

ionization chamber were discontinued and the radiochemical 

analysis of precipitation confined to the determination of the annual 

values for 89 Sr and 90 Sr (because of the relatively short half-life 

of 89Sr, the annual value for this nuclide is determined on the basis 

of four quarterly samples). It was possible to discontinue the other 

expensive radiochemical analyses thanks to the gamma-spectrometric 

determination of the individual nuclides with a Ge(Li) detector and a 

2048-channel analyser. Air-monitoring activities were extended to 

include the measurement of the alpha activity of the precipitation in 

the Outer monitoring ring. 

(b) Monitoring of water (Table XVII) 

The water monitoring programme was extended to include mud 

from the main drain. The sampling of ground water and drinking 

water at a number of gauge pipe locations, water works and industrial 

sites was discontinued. The monitoring of drinking water was extended 

to include the KFA waterworks;



co 

T A B L E X V III. 

1971 M E A S U R E M E N T P R O G R A M M E F O R TH E M O N ITO R IN G O F A IR 

S u b je c t o f 

m ea su rem en ts 

M easured 

v a ria b le 

S a m p lin g or 

m ea su rem en t points 

C od e 

N u m ber o f 

p oin ts 

M easu rem en t 

fre q u e n c y 

A n n u a l n u m ber 

o f sa m p les 

(m easu rem en ts) 

M easu rem en t p roced u re 

S h ort- an d lo n g - liv e d 

beta a c tiv it y ; d e c a y 

beh a v iou r 

C en tra l a ir-m o n ito r in g 

p oin t 

Inner m o n itorin g rin g 

D 0288 MP 

D 0288 M l - 6 

7 

C on tin u ou s 

m ea su rem en t 

7 x con tin u ou s 

(2 1 x con tin u ou s) 

S tep filte r system w ith 

lo n g -ra n g e transm ission 

o f m ea su red valu es 

In th e exh au st gas trail 

A erosols 

A lp h a a c tiv it y ; 

b eta a c tiv it y 

fro m th e em ission 

sou rces (c a r -b o r n e 

As requ ired As requ ired As req u ired 

Step filte r sy stem and 

e le c tro s t a tic sa m p lin g 

eq u ip m e n t) 

G a m m a sp ectru m 

G a m m a dose 


p oin t 

C e n tra l a ir-m o n ito r in g 

p oin t 

Inner m on ito r in g rin g 

D 0288 MP 1 

D 0288 MP 

7 

D 0288 M l - 6 


sa m p lin g ; w e e k ly 



m e asurem en t 

12 


(1 4 x con tin u ou s) 

L a rg e-a rea filte r in g 

(1 0 4 m 3); s e m ic o n d u cto r 

sp e ctro m e tr y w ith G e(L i) 

d e te c to r 

T w o release coun ters 

w ith o v e rla p p in g ran ges; 

lo n g -ra n g e transm ission 

o f m easu red valu es 

APPENDIX IV 

R adiation 

C e n tra l a ir-m o n ito r in g 

p oin t 

Outer m o n itorin g rin g 

D 0288 MP 

D 0288 P l - 4 

5 




(5 x con tin u ou s) 

S h ield ed g a m m a -s e n s itiv e 

rele a se cou n ter 

ba ck g rou n d 

Beta + g a m m a pulse 

rate 


poin t 

Outer m on ito r in g rin g 

D 0288 MP 

D 0288 P l - 4 

5 




(5 x con tin u ou s) 

N o n -s h ie ld e d b e ta + g a m m a - 

sen sitiv e rele a se coun ter 

B eta + g a m m a and 

g a m m a pulse rate 

In th e exhaust gas trail 

fro m th e em ission 

sou rces (c a r -b o r n e 

coun ters) 

N o n -s h ie ld e d and 

As requ ired A s requ ired As requ ired sh ield rele a se 

cou n ter

T A B L E X V III (con t.) 




m easu rem en ts 

M easu red 

varia b le 


m ea su rem en t p oin ts 

C o d e 

N u m b er o f 

points 

M e a su re m e n t 






A lp h a and beta 

C o lle c t io n w ith H ibern ia 

a c t iv it y en terin g 



fu nn el (5 0 0 c m 2); sep arate 

D 0388 P l - 4 

th e s o il; s p e c ific p oin t 5 s a m p lin g ; w e e k ly 

m ea su rem en t o f the 

(5 2 0 ) 

alp h a and beta O uter m on itorin g rin g D 0388 MP m ea su rem en t in solu b le (filte r e d ) and 

a c tiv it y 

solu b le (e v a p o r a te d ) fra ction s 

C o lle c t io n w ith la rg e -a r e a 

P r e cip ita tio n 

G a m m a 

sp ectru m 

H ot 

p a rticles 


p oin t 


p oin t 

C on tin u ou s fu nn el (1 m 2); s e m i 

D 0388 MP 1 s a m p lin g ; w e e k ly 52 c o n d u c to r s p ectrom etry o f 


the e v a p ora tion residue 

w ith G e(L i) d etector 


A u tora d iogra p h y w ith 

D 0388 MP 1 

sa m p lin g ; w e e k ly 

52 

a d h esiv e p la tes 


APPENDIX IV 


C o lle c t io n w ith la r g e -a r e a 

s oSr a c tiv it y ; 

90 Sr a c tiv it y 


p oin t 

D 0388 MP 1 

sa m p lin g ; 

quarterly 

4 

fu nn el (1 m 2); r a d io c h e m ic a l 

sep a ra tion ; lo w - le v e l 



3 H a c tiv it y 


p oin t 


D 0388 MP 1 sa m p lin g ; w e e k ly 

52 


C o lle c t io n w ith H ibern ia 

fu n n el (5 0 0 c m 2); 

m ea su rem en t in liq u id 

s c in tilla tio n coun ter 

co 

cn



CO 

0 5 

T A B L E X IX . 

1971 M E A S U R E M E N T P R O G R A M M E F O R THE M O N ITO R IN G O F W A T E R 



M easu red 

v a r ia b le 



C o d e 

N u m ber o f 

points 

M easu rem ent 

freq u en cy 





D ir e ct sa m p lin g (w ith d re d g e r - 

A lp h a a c t iv it y ; 

be ta a c t iv it y ; 

40K a c tiv it y 

M ain drain o f KFA; 

River Rur at Selhausen; 

R iver Rur at A lten bu rg; 

River Rur at K em p en 

D 0488 P 27 

D 04 88 P 25 

D 04 88 P 26 

D 04 88 P 23 

4 


sa m p lin g ; w eek ly 


2 0 8 

(6 2 4 ) 

ty p e s a m p le r) fro m th e tribu tary; 

.m ea su rem en t o f the eva p o r a tio n 

resid u e (su rfa c e evap ora tor in a 

m eth a n e flo w cou n ter; f la m e - 

p h o to m e tr ic d eterm in a tion o f 

th e p otassiu m co n c e n tra tio n ) 


1311 sep aration b y is o to p ic 

S u rfa ce 

w aters 

131I a c t iv it y 

3H a c tiv it y 

M ain drain o f KFA D 04 88 P 27 1 sa m p lin g ; w e e k ly 

52 e x c h a n g e ; lo w -b a c k g ro u n d 



M a in drain o f KFA; D 04 88 P 27 


R iver Rur at Selhausen; D 04 88 P 25 

M easu rem en t in liq u id 

4 sa m p lin g ; w e e k ly 

156 

R iver Rur at A lten bu rg ; D 04 88 P 26 

sc in tilla tio n coun ter 


River Rur at K em p en D 04 88 P 23 

APPENDIX IV 

S h o r t-liv e d 

b e ta a c tiv it y 

M a in drain o f KFA; 

R iver Rur at A lten bu rg 

D 0488 P 27 

D 04 88 P 26 

2 

M on th ly ; 

ran d om 

sa m p lin g 

2 4 

M easu rem en t o f c o -p r e c ip it a t e d 

prep a ra tion s in a la rg e -a r e a 

flo w coun ter 

G a m m a sp ectru m M a in drain o f KFA D 04 88 P 27 1 


sa m p lin g ; w ee k ly 

m easu rem en t 

52 

S e m ico n d u ct o r sp ectrom etry 

w ith G e(L i) d e te c to r (b e a k e r ) 

S a m p lin g fro m s ed im en ta tion 

tanks in th e w ater flo w ; 

Beta a c t iv it y ; 

M ud . . 

40K a c t iv it y 

M a in drain o f KFA; 

R iver Rur at Selhausen ; 

R iver Rur at A lten bu rg 

D 04 88 P 27 

D 04 8 8 P 25 

D 04 88 P 26 

3 



qu a rterly 


12 

(2 4 ) 

m e c h a n ic a l prep a ra tion ; 

m e a su rem en t o f the beta a c t i 

v ity w ith a la rg e -a r e a flo w 

cou n ter; f la m e -p h o to m e tr ic 

d e te r m in a tio n o f the p otassiu m 

c o n c e n tra tio n



T A B L E X IX (con t.) 



M easu red 

v a r ia b le 



C o d e 


points 







M ud 

( c o n t .) 


M ain drain o f KFA; 

River Rur at Selhausen; 

R iver Rur at A lten bu rg ; 

D 0488 P 27 

D 04 88 P 25 

D 04 88 P 26 

3 

•Con tin u ou s 


qu a rterly 


12 

S e m ico n d u cto r sp ectrom etry 

w ith G e(L i) d e te c to r (b e a k e r ) 

B io lo g ic a l 

m a te ria ls in 

su rfa ce w aters 

(p la n ts, 

p la n k ton , 

seston ) 

G rou nd 

w a ter 

Beta a c tiv it y ; 

40 K a c tiv it y ; 

90 Sr a c t iv it y 

B eta a c t iv it y ; 

40 K a c tiv it y 

River Rur at U n term au - 

b a ch ; 

River Rur at Krauthausen; 

River Rur at Ju lich 

G roundw ater gau ge 

pipes 16 , 17,. 19 and 

25 "A V R II" 

D 0488 P 28 

D 0488 P 21 

D 0488 P 2 2 

D 0588 P 38 

3 9 , 4 0 , 4 9 , 50 

3 

5 

A t a p p rop riate 

tim e s o f th e year 

Q u a rte r ly ; 

ran d om 

sa m p lin g 

1 0 -1 5 

(3 0 -4 5 ) 

2 0 

(4 0 ) 

Dry ashing; m ea su rem en t o f 

th e b e ta a c tiv it y o f th e ash 

w ith en d -w in d o w d e te c to r; 

fla m e -p h o to m e tr ic d e te r m i 

n a tion o f th e 40 K c o n c e n tra tio n 

Sa m p les ta ken b y p u m p in g fro m 

g a u g e p ip es; m easu rem en t o f 

th e e v a p ora tion residue (surfa 

c e eva p ora tor) in a m eth a n e 

flo w cou n te r ; fla m e - p h o t o - 

APPENDIX IV 

m e tr ic d eterm in ation o f the 

pota ssiu m c on cen tra tion 

Ju lich w a ter works; 

H am b ach w ater works; 

D 0588 P 31 

D 05 8 8 P 32 

2 

Q u a rterly; 

ra n d om sa m p lin g 

8 

(2 4 ) 

S a m p lin g o f natural w ater fro m 

su rfa ce w e lls; m ea su rem en t o f 

A lp h a a c t iv it y ; 

e v a p o r a tio n residue (su rfa ce 

b e ta a c t iv it y ; 

ev a p o r a to r) in a m eth a n e flo w 

D rin kin g 

w a ter 


W a ter works o f KFA 

D 0588 P 76 

1 

M on th ly ; 

ran d om sa m p lin g 

12 

(2 4 ) 

co u n te r ; fla m e -p h o to m e tr ic 

d eterm in a tion o f th e p otassiu m 

co n c e n tra tio n 

S h o r t-liv e d 

b e ta a c tiv it y 

W ater works o f KFA D 05 88 P 76 1 

M on th ly ; 

ran d om sa m p lin g 

12 

M easu rem en t o f c o -p r e c ip it a t e d 

p rep aration s in a la r g e -a r e a 

flo w cou n ter 

CD



CO 

00 

TABLE X X . 1971 MEASUREMENT PROGRAMME FOR THE MONITORING OF SOIL, FLO RA 

AND AGRICU LTU R A L PRODUCTS 

S u b je ct o f 

m easu rem en ts 

M easu red 

v a r ia b le 

S a m p lin g p oin ts for 

c o m p o s ite sam ples 

C o d e 

Num ber o f 

points 

(co m p o s ite 

sam p les) 









J u lich , G ut Lorsbeck 

S tettern ich , Haus 

L in d en b erg 

H a m b a c h , w aterw orks 

D 07 88 P 61 

D 0788 P 62 6 

(2 ) 

D 07 88 P 60 

Q u a rterly 

8 

(1 6 ) 


(8 ) 

W e lld o r f, G ustener H of 

90Sr a c tiv it y 

B eta a c tiv it y ; 


H o lle n , Burg H ollen 

H a m b a c h , Burg O b b e n - 

d orf 

J u lich , G ut M ariaw a ld 

D 07 88 P 66 

D 0788 P 64 

D 0888 P 71 

6 

(1 ) 

5 

(1 ) 

A n n u a lly 

Q u a rterly 

1 

(1 ) S a m p lin g d ep th 2 0 c m for a rab le 

s o il, 5 c m for pasture an d forest 

s o il; m e c h a n ic a l prep a ra tion ; 

(8 ) 

m ea su rem en t o f the beta a c tiv it y 

w ith a la r g e -a r e a flo w cou n te r ; 

4 

fla m e -p h o t o m e t r ic d eterm in a tion 

APPENDIX IV 

W e lld o r f, Rossler H of 

D 0888 P 70 

(4 ) 

o f th e p otassiu m co n c e n tra tio n ; 

Pasture soil 


N ie d e r z ie r , H of M oes 

S elg ersd orf, H of Ritz 

K ir ch b e rg , H of Langen 

D 0888 P 79 

D 0888 P 74 

5 

(1 ) 

A n n u a lly 

1 

(1 ) 

s e m ic o n d u cto r sp e ctro m e tr y w ith 

a G e(L i) d e te c to r (b e a k e r ); c h e m ic a l 

sep aration o f ra d iostron tiu m from the 


a lk a lin e earth grou p an d lo w - 

4 

b a ck g rou n d m ea su rem en t 

Beta a c tiv it y 


2 

(1 ) 

Q u a rterly 

(8 ) 

4 

Forest so il 


S tettern ich , Staatsforst 

H a m b a c h , Grosser Forst 

D 0788 P 63 

D 0788 P 69 

(4 ) 


2 

(1 ) 

A n n u a lly 

1 

(1 )

T A B L E X X (con t.) 





M easu red 

va r ia b le 

S a m p lin g p oin ts for 

co m p o s ite sam ples 

C ode 


poin ts 

( c o m p o s it e 

sa m p les) 



A n n ual n u m ber 




Beta a c tiv it y 


B im on th ly 

A p r il-O c to b e r 

4 

(8 ) 

S a m p lin g fro m 1 -2 m 2 o f pasture 

s o il su rfa ce ; dry ashing; m ea su rem 

e n t o f the b e ta a c tiv it y w ith an 

Grass G a m m a sp ectru m As for pasture so il 

5 

( 1 ) 

E very 14 days 

14 

(1 4 ) 

p h o to m e tr ic d eterm in a tion o f the 

p ota ssiu m c o n c e n tra tio n ; c h e m ic a l 

sep a ra tion o f ra d iostron tiu m an d 

lo w -b a c k g r o u n d m ea su rem en t; 

M ilk 

9®Sr a c tiv it y 




1311 a c tiv it y 

A s for pasture so il 

Ju lich dairy 

6 

(2 ) 

6 

(2 ) 

6 

1 

A n n u a lly 

(1 ) 

M on th ly 

24 

c o m p o s ite sa m p les 

(4 8 ) 

15 

(1 5 ) 

E very 14 days 

A p r il-O c to b e r 90 

(9 0 ) 

g a m m a -s p e c tr o m e tr ic m ea su rem en t 

o f th e dry su bstan ce in th e bea k er 

w ith a G e(L i) d e tector 

E v a p ora tion and dry ashing; 

m ea su rem en t o f th e b eta a c tiv it y 

w ith an e n d -w in d o w cou n te r ; 

fla m e p h o to m e tr ic d e te r m in a tio n o f 

th e p ota ssiu m c o n c e n tra tio n ; r a d io 

c h e m ic a l sep aration o f io d in e or 

stron tiu m an d a n t i -c o in c i d e n c e 

APPENDIX IV 

m ea su rem en t; g a m m a -s p e c tr o m e tr ic 

90 Sr a c tiv it y 

6 

(2 ) 

A n n u a lly 

2 

(2 ) 

m e a su rem en t o f th e liq u id m ilk in 

th e b ea k er w ith a G e ( U ) d e te c to r 

D ry ashin g or o x id a tiv e w e t ashing; 

B eta a c tiv it y ; 

m ea su rem en t o f th e b e ta a c tiv it y 


w ith an en d -w in d ow c o u n te r ; f la m e - 

F ie ld crops 

As for arab le so il 6 A t harvest tim e 

6 -1 2 

(1 8 -3 6 ) 

p h o to m e tr ic d e te r m in a tio n o f the 

potasssiu m c o n c e n tra tio n ; g a m m a - 


s p e c t r o m e tr ic m ea su rem en t o f the 

dry su bstan ce in th e b ea k er w ith a 

G e (L i) d e te c to r 

co 

CO




(c) 

Monitoring of soil, flora and agricultural products 

(Table XVIII) 

This is the measurement programme that has been extended 

most. As the critical pathway for the uptake of I as critical 

fission product is generally milk consumption, special importance 

had already been attached to monitoring of the food chain pasture 

soil- grass-milk. The number of farms under surveillance was 

increased to five and the Julich dairy was included in the measurement 

programme, an agreement having been reached with it whereby 

samples of the milk supplied by the approximately 40 farms situated 

within 4 km of KFA are made available for analysis. The special 

importance attached to the monitoring of grass and milk is indicated 

by the fact that measurements are carried out every 14 days during 

the grazing season, by the gamma-spectrometric determination of 

individual nuclides in composite samples and, above all, by the 

■I o i 

radiochemical determination of I in individual milk samples. 

Environmental Monitoring Programme of the Karlsruhe 

Nuclear Research Center 

Environmental monitoring of the Karlsruhe Nuclear Research 

Center is conducted in accordance with the programme approved 

in February 1969 by the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs of 

Baden-Wurttemberg [1]. 

The programme comprises two parts: I. Direct measurement 

of radiation; and II. Measurements of activity. While Part I is 

concerned with the evaluation of possible hazards to man caused by 

external irradiation effects, and with the determination of dose 

values, Part II covers the assessment of a possible incorporation 

hazard to man by determination of the content of radioactivity in 

several media taken in by man directly or indirectly. Tables XXI 

and XXII present a rough sketch of the monitoring programme. 

Apart from the routine programme additional surveillance 

measurements are made at special events, e. g. air humidity 

tritium measurements at routine changes of fuel elements in the 

heavy-water moderated research reactor FR 2.




T A B L E X X L 

D IR E C T M E A SU R E M E N T O F RA D IA TIO N 

Monitoring system Measured quantity Evaluation 

Number o f 

measuring points 

GM field stations 

Detectors: 

BZ 120 

Continuous scaling 

o f detector pulses; 

interrogation of 

binary coded scaler 

(6 + y)"lev el; 

Mean pulse rate 

between interrogations 

Monthly average 

o f count rates of 

daily interrogations 

and m inim um / 

maximum interrogation 

values 

8 

contents by 

telephone 

GM monitor system 

for site monitoring 

Detectors: 

y-dose rate 

Reporting only 

when warning or 

alarm threshold is 

exceeded 

BZ 120 or 

Valvo 18529 with 

energy compensation 

filter 

Warning threshold 1 mR/h 20 

Warning threshold 100 mR/h ■ 5 

GM monitor system 

for WAK site 

monitoring 

Detectors: 

BZ 120 

without energy 

compensation filter 

(0 + y)-radiation 

level 

Reporting only 

when monitoring 

threshold is 

exceeded 

6 

Monitoring threshold at 10 times the background Ro 

(R




TABLE XXII. 

MEASUREMENTS OF ACTIVITY 

Surveyed m edium M easured quan tities Sam p lin g 

Num ber of 

sam p ling points 

A erosol conten t in 

L o n g -liv ed a - and 

T w ice a w eek w ith 

2 

th e air 

0 -a c tiv ity 7 d after 

fix e d sep arate filters 

sam p lin g 

a - a c tiv ity 5 d after 

Continuous w ith step 

1 

sam p lin g , 0 -a c tiv ity 

filte r band aerosol 

5 - 6 h a fter sam p lin g 

m onitor 

P recip ita tio n 

Gross a - and 

Sam p lin g two w eeks 

3 

0 -a c tiv ity 

w ith H ibernia 

funnels 

T ritiu m a c tiv ity 

Sam p lin g two w eeks 

3 

w ith H ibernia 

funnels 

Plutonium a c tiv ity 

Sam p lin g one m onth 

2 

w ith w et c o lle c tin g 

pans a and H ibernia 

funnels 

Surface w ater T ritiu m a c tiv ity C ontinuous 1 

Ground and 


W eek ly , 

1 

drinking w ater 

0 - a c tiv ity (w ithout 

every 3 m onths, 

40 K after som e 7 d) 

every 6 months 

1 

Mud 

L o n g -liv ed o r and 

M onthly 


sam p ling 



sam p lin g and 

plutonium a c tiv ity 

Every 3 months 1 

1 .1 5 m 2 c o lle c tin g su rface; p erm an en tly fille d to a le v e l o f 2 cm o f d istilled w ater. 

O verflow into c o lle c tin g v essel. M onthly w ater volu m e up to 150 litre s.




T A B L E X X II (con t.) 

Surveyed m edium M easured q uan tities Sam p lin g 

Num ber o f 

sam p lin g points 

Plankton 


6 -a c tiv ity a fter som e 

7 d and plutonium 

a c tiv ity 


Fish 

L o n g -liv ed 0 -a c tiv ity 

a fter som e 7 d 

(w ithout 40 K) 


A q u atic plants 


after som e 14 d 



Flora 

Forage 


after som e 14 d 



Predom in. pine 

n eed les 

Plutonium a c tiv ity Every 3 months 5 

JAPAN 

Selected monitoring programmes 

The Tokai-Oarai area is one of the centres of nuclear research 

and development in Japan. It is located about 150 km North-East 

of Tokyo. There are about 15 nuclear power and other reactors in 

the area together with fuel fabrication and reprocessing plant and 

nuclear research establishments. Tables XXIII and XXIV give 

details of the monitoring programmes in the Tokai-Oarai and 

Tsuruga-Mihama-Takahama areas. 


Monitoring programmes conducted by selected establishments 

Tables XXV to XXVIII present basic information on the monitoring 

programmes of four selected nuclear establishments: The 

Radiochemical Centre Amersham, the Bradwell and Trawsfynydd



TABLE XXIII. ALLOTMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF ENVIRONMENT MONITORING 

IN THE TOK AI -OAR AI AREA 

Allotment and No. of stations 

Instruments and 

Tokai area 

Oaral area 

No. of 

Remarks 

Items 

Particulars 

frequency o f measurement 

stations 

Com. Dai- 

Hygienic 

Mito 

office 

JAERI PNC JAPCO Lab. 

JAERI PNC Lab. NIRS 

Monitoring station (continuous) 11 4a 2 3 2a 6b a Centralized surveillance, 

Alpha, beta, gamma measurement 

k Telemetering o f data only 

Monitoring post (continuous) 32 16 5 10 1 

Air dose from 

Surveymeter 

33 5 

10 18 Scintillation surveymeter 

Dose rates 

gamma rays 

(1 survey/month) 

(1/3 

months) 

Monitoring car 54 9 

12 

33c c Continuous measurement during 

(2/a) 

d /a ) 

(4/w eek) running, JAERI, PNC and Mito office-, 

one vehicle each 


Integrated 

dose 

Monitoring point 

(film badge and TLD: every 3 months 

glass dosimeter: every 6 months) 

75 15 20 20 20 

Airborne dust 

Continuous measurement 7 4d 1 2d Gross beta measurement, nuclide 

analysis as occasion demands 

^ With monitoring stations 

Measurement at regular intervals 23 5 18e Gross beta measurement, 

nuclide analysis as occasion demands 

e With monitoring car 

Fall-out 

Deposits One measurement/month 4 1 1 1 1 Gross beta measurement, 


Precipitation Every precipitation 4 1 1 2 Ditto



T A B L E X X III. 

(c o n t.) 


Items 

Particulars 


frequency of measurement 

No. o f 

stations 

Tokai area 

Oarai area 

Remarks 

Com. 

Dai- 

Hygienic 

Mi to 

JAERI PNC JAPCO 

Lab. 

ich JAERI PNC 

Lab. 

NIRS 

office 

Rice Harvest time 6 1 1 1 3 

Gross beta measurement, 


Environmental 

samples 

Discharge 

Marine 

samples 

Vegetables Spinach, Chinese cabbage 

1 1 1 2 Ditto 

(2 measurements/a) 

Grass 

JAERI (2 measurements/a) 

5 1 1 1 2 Ditto 

Hygienic Lab. (4 measurements/a) 

- 

Milk Same as grass 1 1 1 4 Ditto 

Cross beta 4 4 5 Ditto 

20 4 6 

Surface One 

soil 

measurement/a Nuclide 

6 2 2 2 

analysis 

Monthly mean concentration 

29 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 10f 1 8f Gross beta measurement, 

(4 measurements/month) 


Drain 

f One measurement/month 

Soil near outlet 

9 3 2 1 1 1 1 Gross beta measurement, 



Seawater Two measurements/a 10 2 1 1 1 4 1 Ditto 

Bottom soil Two measurements/a 2 1 1 1 1 Ditto 

APPENDIX IV 105



T A B L E X X III. (c o n t.) 


Items 

Particulars 

frequency o f measurement stations Tokai area Oarai area 

Mito 

Remarks 

Hygienic 

Daiich 

JAERI PNC N1RS 

Lab. 

JAER1 PNC JAPCO Lab. 

Flatfish 

4 1 1 1 1 Gross beta measurement, 



Young of sardines 

5 1 1 1 1 1 Ditto 


samples organisms Algae 

3 1 1 1 Ditto 


Shellfish 

3 1 1 1 Ditto 


Shinkawa - river water 

5 3 1 1 lg ^ Sampled at one point at each of 


Nakagawa and Kujigawa Riven 


River and pond water 

Shinkawa-river bottom soil 


Akogigaura-pond water 


Hinuma-pond water 


5 3 1 1 Gross beta measurement, 


1 1 Ditto 

4 Ditto 

1 2 1 

Drinking water Wellwater and tapwater 6 1 1 3 1 Ditto



TABLE XXIV. ALLOTMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING 

IN THE TSURUGA-MIHAMA-TAKAHAMA AREA 

Allotment and No. o f stations 

Items 

Particulars 


frequency o f measurement 

No. of 

stations 

Tsuruga Mihama Takahama 

Remarks 

JAPCO 

Hygienic 

Lab. 

KEPCO 

Hygienic 

Lab. 

KEPCO 

Hygienic 

Lab. 

Monitoring station 

(continuous) 

8 3 1 4 Air dose from beta and gamma rays, 

dust sampler, iodine monitor 

Air dose 

from gamma rays 

Dose rates 

Monitoring post (continuous) 22 2 13 7 Air dose from gamma rays 

Surveymeter 18 9 9 Scintillation surveymeter 

Airborne dust and 

radioactive iodine 

Fall-out 

Environmental 

samples 

Monitoring car 

2 

1 

With scintillation monitor, scintillation 

(3 measurement/month) 

(Vehicles) 

(Vehicles 

surveymeter and dust sampler 

Integrated Monitoring point 86 9 8 32 3 25 9 Film badge and TLD, 

dose 

1 reading/3 months 

Continuous measurement 7 3 2 2 JAPCO iodine monitors operated only 

on rise o f gamma-ray dose rate 

One measurement/month 1 1 Gross beta measurement, 

Deposits 


Precipitation Every precipitation 1 1 Ditto 

Rice Harvest time 1 Ditto 

2 1 

Vegetable Radish, spinach 

1 2 1 Ditto 

1 


Plant 

Pine needles, pasania 

5 3 1 1 Ditto 


Milk One measurement/2 months 1 Ditto 

Cultivated and uncultivated 

4 Ditto 

4 1 1 

Surface 


soil 

Soil bed 

4 1 1 Ditto 


APPENDIX IV 1 0 7



T A B L E X X IV . (c o n t.) 

Allotment and No. o f stations 

Tsuruga Milhama Takahama 


No. of 

Item s 

Particulars 

Remarks 

frequency o f measurement stations 

Hygienic 

Hygienic 

Hygienic 

JAPCO 

KEPCO 

KEPCO 

Lab. 

Lab. 

Lab. 

Drain water 

1 1 1 1 Gross beta measurement, 

Drain water and soil 

(4 m easurem ents/a) 


Soil near drain 

1 1 3 Ditto 

(4 m easurements/a) 

Seawater One m easurem ent/3 months 9 2 2 2 Ditto 

Bottom soil Two measurements/a 4 1 1 1 1 Ditto 

"Chinu", horse mackerel, 3 2 1 Hygienic Lab. and KEPCO; 

octopus, flatfish 

2 m easurem ents/a. 

Gross beta measurement, 


Marine samples 

Algae 2 1 1 Gulfweed: 4 m easurem ents/a, Seaweed, 

Wakame and Nemacyslus desipinies: 

Marine 

1 m easurem ent/a, 

organisms 

gross beta measurement, 



Shellfish 4 1 1 1 1 1 Mytilus edulis; 4 m easurem ents/a, Turbo; 

1 m easurem ent/a, 

gross beta measurement, 


River and pond water 

River water 


Spring water 


5 1 1 2 1 Gross beta measurement, 

1 1 Ditto 


Drinking water 

Tap water 


W ell water 


2 1 1 2 1 Ditto 

1 1 Ditto



T A B L E X X V . 

R A D IO C H E M IC A L C E N T R E A M E R SH A M 

M a te ria l Sam p lin g frequency Sam p lin g lo c a tio n A nalysis 

1. Routine M onitoring C onducted by the Establishm ent 

W ater B atch sam pling as required Various h old in g and d elay tanks 

on site 

D eterm in a tio n o f to ta l alp h a, to ta l b e ta 

a c tiv ity , 226Ra, 90Sr and tritiu m 

a cco rd in g to th e n atu re o f th e work in 

th e p a rticu la r buildings co n trib u tin g to 

th e efflu e n t b atch 

M ilk F ortnightly Four farm s w ithin th re e m ile s o f 

the s ite 

M ilk bulked and sin g le sam p le ch eck ed 

for 1311 

2 . M onitorin g C onducted by the D epartm ent o f th e Environm ent 

Liquid e fflu e n t Random Establishm ent As ab o v e 

Liquid input, 

output; 

D aily sam ples bulked Sew age works T o ta l alp h a, to ta l b e ta a c tiv ity plus 

ch e ck s on s p e c ific n u clid es 

dried sludge 

liq u id sludge 

W ater 

D a ily sam ples bulked for 

1 m onth 

Th am es drinking w ater in takes Fu ll iso to p ic analysis at le a st an n u ally ; 

m o re restricted an alysis m onthly 

APPENDIX IV 109



T A B L E X X V I. 

C E G B N U C L E A R P O W E R ST A T IO N B R A D W E L L 

M a te ria l S a m p lin g frequ en cy Sam p lin g lo ca tio n A nalysis 

Fish M onthly B lack w ater Estuary T o ta l beta 

Oysters M onthly Tw o oyster beds at about -3 and 

5 m iles from station 

Includes 65Z n , llornAg 

T o ta l b eta a c tiv ity 

Seaw eed Q u arterly Shore, about g m ile upstream " T o ta l b eta a c tiv ity plus g am m a sp ec, sca n 

S ilt Q u arterly 3 points: one upstream , one 

M ilk 

Fortn ightly sa m p le tak en 

from m ilk on day o f 

c o lle c tio n 

Portion bulked by zones, 

rem ain d er bulked by farm s 

o v er quarterly period 

dow nstream , one near site 

1 farm in in n er zone ( 0 - 2 m ile s) 

5 farm s in m id d le zone ( 2 - 5 m ile s) 

4 farm s in outer zone ( 1 5 -2 0 m iles) 

T o ta l b e ta a c tiv ity , g am m a sp ec, scan 

plus g am m a d o se -ra te ov ersam p lin g point 

131 j 

90(, 89 ,, , . 1 3 7 „ 

Sr, Sr, c a lc iu m , Cs 


S o il co res 

Every fiv e years for c o m p le te 

c y c le 

Inner and m id d le zone farm s 

T o ta l b eta a c tiv ity plus g am m a sp ec, scan 

T a ck y 

shades 

2 m onthly Four in n er sites (2 shades per site) 

Four outer sites (2 shades per site) 

G am m a s p e c .s c a n on un treated shades. 

Hard and soft b e ta a c tiv ity on ashed 

sam ples (d iffe re n tia ted by absorber 

p en etratio n )




nuclear power stations of the CEGB, and UKAEA Windscale. In the 

case of the Radiochemical Centre Amersham the discharge of 

liquid radioactive waste to the River Thames is indirect, the actual 

discharge being initially to the local sewers passing to the Maple 

Lodge Sewage Disposal Works. Liquid effluent from the latter 

discharges into the River Colne, which joins the Thames above 

London's waterworks. 

Monitoring program m es conducted by the Fisheries Radiobiological 

Laboratory, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food [23T 

In the United Kingdom there are now seventeen sites in whose 

environments the laboratory has program m es for monitoring 

radioactive wastes. Although the discharges from some sites — 

particularly power stations — are sim ilar in both content and 

com position, no two situations are identical. This is a reflection 

of the diversity of the environmental factors which are involved, 

and the monitoring requirements vary accordingly. 

Monitoring schem es in practice 

The degree of radiological exposure from discharges in the 

United Kingdom varies considerably; the maximum at present is 

from Windscale discharges, and at the other end of the scale it is 

unmeasurable by any method even for som e sites discharging 

substantial quantities of radioactivity. The application of the 

principles discussed above can be illustrated by practical examples, 

which can be divided into three categories according to the degree 

of public radiation exposure. 

(A) Where exposure is either a significant fraction of the 

derived working lim it or can at least be estimated directly 

because critical m aterials are measurably contaminated 

(B) Where a quantitative estimate can be made only by 

referring to indicator m aterials, contamination of critical 

m aterials being below detectable levels 

(C) Where no quantitative estimate can be made by any 

method, radioactivity from the discharge being undetectable 

in any environmental m aterial. 

(A) Exposure measurable by sampling critical m aterials 

This category applies particularly to m ajor discharges such 

as those from the fuel reprocessing plants at Windscale and



T A B L E X X V II. C E G B N U C L E A R P O W E R STATIO N T R A W S F Y N Y D D 

M a te ria l Sam p lin g frequ en cy S am p lin g lo ca tio n A nalysis 

Fish 

(trout and perch) 

M onthly Lake T o ta l alp h a, to ta l b e ta a c tiv ity , 

g a m m a sp ec, scan w ith ev alu atio n s o f 

137C s, 134Cs 

W ater 

W eek ly sa m p le bulked over 

one m onth 

C old lagoon and h ot lagoon T o ta l alp h a, to ta l b eta a c tiv ity , 

g a m m a spec scan w ith e v a lu a tio n o f 

C s, 134Cs 

Mud and p eat Q u arterly Lake bed T o ta l alp h a, to ta l b e ta a c tiv ity , 

g a m m a sp ec scan w ith ev a lu a tio n of 

137C s, 134Cs 

Moss 

(F o n tin alis) 

Q u arterly 

Tw o points o f bank o f stream 

flow ing out o f la k e 

T o ta l alp h a, to ta l b e ta a c tiv ity , 

g a m m a sp ec, scan 


M ilk 

F ortn ig h tly sa m p le taken 

from m ilk on day of 

c o lle c tio n 

Portion o f m ilk from each 

farm in in n er zone 

in d iv id u a lly analysed. 

M id d le zo n e bulked prior to 

1311 an aly sis, outer zone 

bulked prior to 131I 

an aly sis, rem ain d er 

b ulked by farm s over 

q u arterly period 

4 farm s in inner zone ( 0 - 2 m ile s) 

4 farm s in m iddle zone ( 2 - 5 m ile s) 

4 farm s in outer zone ( 1 5 -2 0 m ile s) 

131 j 

90Sr, 89Sr, c a lc iu m , 137Cs



T A B L E X X V II. 

(con t.) 

M a te ria l S am p lin g frequency Sam p lin g lo c a tio n A nalysis 

S o il co res 

Every four years for co m p le te 

Inner and m id d le zone farm s 

T o ta l b e ta a c tiv ity , g am m a s p e c .s c a n 

c y c le 

T a c k y 

shades 

Tw o m onthly 

Sev en in n er sites, four c o n tro l 

(outer) sites 

G a m m a sp ec, scan on un treated shades, 

hard and soft b e ta a c tiv ity on ashed 

sam p les (d iffe re n tia ted by absorber 

p en etratio n ) 

APPENDIX IV 113



T A B L E X X V III. 

B N F W IN D SCALE 

M a te ria l S am p lin g frequ en cy Sam p ling lo c a tio n A nalysis 

Seaw eed 

(Porphyra) 

Fortnightly in v ic in ity o f p ip e -lin e 

Q u arterly at m o re d istant points 

5 points 0 -7 m ile s along C u m b erlan d 

coast 

3 points 6 -2 8 m iles 

Fish Tw o m onthly Offshore b etw een S t. Bees Head 

S e a bed mud 

V aries with d ista n ce from p ip e -lin e 

betw een every 3 m onths and 

annually 

and Ravenglass 

Solw ay Firth to M illo m 

(m in im um o f 9 positions) 

Includes 1C6Ru, lAAC e , 95Z r / , 5Nb, 

48Sr and alp h a a c tiv ity 

Includes 106Ru, 137C s, s°Sr, 144C e 

and to ta l alpha a c tiv ity 

Includes to ta l b e ta a c tiv ity , 106Ru, 

I44C e , 95Z r / 5Nb, 137C s, 134C s, 

103Ru, and alp ha a c tiv ity 

Sh ore silt W hen deposited L o ca l beaches G am m a and b e ta dose rates 

Estuarin e mud 

bank silt 

Q u arterly Eskm eals, Ravenglass G am m a and b eta dose rates 

S ilt sam p les ta k e n , analysis in clu d es 

, , . . 1 0 6 „ 1 4 4 „ 

to ta l b e ta a c tiv ity , Ru, C e , 

95Z r/95Nb and 137Cs 


S ea w a te r V a ria b le V icin ity o f p ip e -lin e , S e a s c a le , 

Braystones plus m o re extended surveys 

Includes 106Ru, 137Cs and 90Sr 

M ilk 

D a ily sam ples bulked over a 

fortnight and c o lle c te d 

Fortn ig h tly sam p les o f m ilk 

produced on day o f c o lle c tio n 

F iv e farm s w ithin 1 -5 m ile s 

F iv e farm s 2 - 4 m ile s 

Tw o referen ce farm s at 20 m ile s 

90Sr, 89Sr, c a lc iu m 

137 Cs 

131 j 

G rass, root m a t, 

so il 

A nnually 

From m ilk producing farm s ab ove 

9 Op , . 137_ 106 

Sr, c a lc iu m , C s, Ru, 

55Z r / 95Nb 

R ain w ater M onthly (4 points on site) 

1 point 2 m ile s from site 

1 point four m ile s from site 

In clu d es 90Sr, ^ S r, 137C s, i34Cs 

(10SRu, 239Pu)



APPENDIX IV 1 15 

Dounreay. Contamination of critical m aterials is also easily 

measurable at Bradwell and Trawsfynydd nuclear power stations, 

even though radiological exposure is lower than for Windscale. 

These examples are among the best for monitoring schem es, and 

those for the power station discharges illustrate two quite different 

environments, the discharges being made to saline water from 

Bradwell, and to fresh water from Trawsfynydd. 

UKAEA W indscale,'Cumberland 

This site contains the principal facilities of the United Kingdom 

Atomic Energy Authority for reprocessing spent fuel, and waste 

from .this plant is effectively responsible for the whole of the radioactivity 

in the effluent; the reactor operations of the Calder Works 

and the AGR development make nonsignificant contribution. Effluent 

com position has been discussed by Howells and, though it is com plex 

and subject to variations, four nuclides dominate the control 

situation — ruthenium-106, zirconium -95/niobium -95 and, occasionally, 

cerium -144. 

Critical group of laverbread consumers 

The critical group are eaters of laverbread, a foodstuff manufactured 

from the edible seaweed of the genus Porphyra and eaten 

in South Wales. The critical nuclide is ruthenium-106, although 

ceriu m -144 som etim es occurs to an extent which is just significant; 

it is then also considered. The critical organ is the GI tract, and 

exposure to other organs from the combination of radionuclides is 

relatively small. 

The seaweed is harvested regularly over m ore than 30 m iles of 

the Cumberland coast and concentrations of radioactivity in it are 

significant over this whole area. The relative importance of 

different collection centres varies: in an unpredictable manner and, 

because of this, a chain of eleven sampling points is maintained 

which spans all the important collection areas. Measurements 

from these samples are sufficient to predict concentration elsewhere, 

and the relationship between discharge rate and concentration of 

ruthenium-106 in Porphyra has been well established by this type 

of monitoring during recent years^ 

Samples are collected at monthly intervals, and analysis, 

prim arily for ruthenium-106, zirconium -95 and niobium-95, is 

carried out by gam m a-spectrom etry. Cerium-144 can be detected



116 APPEN D IX IV 

TABLE XXIX. RADIOACTIVITY IN Porphyra SEAWEED SAMPLED 

IN THE VICINITY OF WINDSCALE, 1967-68 

D istan ce from 

C o n cen tratio n o f rad io a ctiv ity 

Sam p lin g point p ip e -lin e (p C i/g (w et)) 

(m iles) 95Z r /95Nb i°6Ru 144C e 

St. Bees 6 . 2 North 23 59 8 .4 

Nethertow n 3. 5 North 60 119 13 

Braystones North 2. 3 North 76 149 21 

Braystones South 1. 2 North 203 249 66 

S e lla fie ld (p ip e -lin e ) 0 41 116 14 

S e lla fie ld (B a ile y bridge) 0. 9 South 52 146 23 

S e a sca le 1. 9 South 50 127 18 

Drigg 3 . 5 South 28 89 11 

Eskm eals 8 . 9 South 22 60 7. 0 

G utterby 12. 5 South 23 43 6 .3 

W alney 24. 0 South 10 22 5 .0 

by this means when concentrations are radiologic ally significant. 

At low er concentrations a chem ical separation is needed, followed 

by beta counting; in such circum stances, in view of its minor contribution 

to the total radiation dose, a quarterly bulk at a few selected 

positions is quite adequate. Recent measurements of these radionuclides 

are shown in Table XXIX. 

Sub-critical group of Ravenglass Estuary fishermen 

For m ost waste disposals habits surveys by the laboratory 

have confirmed that the circum stances of the critical group are 

such that exposure of all other groups is on such a very much 

lower scale that, if discharges are controlled to ensure safety of 

the critical group, then all other groups will automatically be safeguarded 

to a higher degree. However, there exists a group affected 

by Windscale discharges that is only just sub-critical to the group 

of laverbread eaters, and a small monitoring program me is undertaken 

to keep this situation under review.




The exposure pathway is that of adsorption of radioactivity by 

silt, which is trapped in the Ravenglass Estuary. The result is an 

external dose rate to salmon fisheirmen working on the mud flats, 

and only gamma radiation is important. Consequently, the m onitoring 

for radiological purposes is simple and consists of in situ 

instrumental measurement at selected appropriate positions at 

monthly intervals. Application of the data is also straightforward, 

and a mean dose rate averaged on an annual basis is used with an 

occupancy factor obtained from habits surveys to estimate the actual 

dose received. This estimate is com pared with ICRP Recom m endations 

on acceptable lim its, and in this way it can be demonstrated 

that the maximum dose received in 1967-68 was 14% of the derived 

working lim it. This is as calculated for the person who is spending 

the maximum time for any m em ber of the group in the contaminated 

area; identification of the habits of the average m em ber of the 

group is not possible since the group is too small. Measurements 

have also been made to show which radionuclides are critical in this 

exposure pathway and so indicate which of the radionuclides d ischarged 

need close attention if the effluent com position varies. 

Under the present conditions, zirconium -95/niobium -95 and 

ruthenium-106 are of almost equal importance. The value of the 

measurements is that, though they are not necessary to demonstrate 

that the situation is radiologic ally safe, they show that if the 

zirconium -95/niobium -95 fraction were to increase, the dose-rate 

to this currently sub-critical group would increase, with negligible 

change in the dose-rate to eaters of laverbread. 

Exposure of other m em bers of the public 

Experience gained as use of the Windscale site has developed 

over almost two decades has shown that, though other exposure 

routes exist, no routine surveillance of them is necessary because 

the degree of exposure is relatively so small compared with that 

from eating laverbread. These minor pathways include local fish ermen, 

who eat locally caught fish and handle nets and other fishing 

gear, and those who harvest seaweed for despatch to South Wales, 

who are subject to external radiation only. Approximate relationships 

between the discharge rate of the important radionuclides 

and these minor effects have been established which can be used 

to predict variations in the degree of exposure with sufficient 

accuracy when the effluent com position changes. F or instance, the 

principal radionuclides present ini plaice fished from the vicinity




of the discharge point are caesium -134 and -137 and ruthenium-106, 

with sm aller amounts of strontium-90. The maximum degree of 

exposure to fishermen from eating this fish is less than 0.2% of the 

derived working limit. 

Bradwell nuclear power station 

This was one of the first com m ercial nuclear power stations in 

the United Kingdom and is now well established, although the effluent 

com position has not yet quite reached equilibrium. The Blackwater 

Estuary, which receives low -level liquid radioactive waste from 

the station, is well known for its oyster fisheries, whose operation 

sets a practical lim it on discharges. 

The critical group for this discharge is to be found among the 

oyster fishermen them selves, who eat the local product in larger 

quantities than anyone else. This is a common feature of critical 

groups where locally caught fish or shellfish is the critical material. 

Other potential exposure routes are of trivial significance: no 

other shellfish or fish is collected in important quantities, and use 

of the foreshore is insufficient to make external exposure important. 

The critical radionuclide for oyster consumption is zin c-65, although 

others are detectable to a sm aller but just significant extent — 

particulary cobalt-6 0, iron-55 and phosphorus-32. This is a cla ssic 

case of a minor constituent of the discharge being the critical radionuclide 

due to a very high reconcentration factor — in this case 105. 

Basic monitoring to establish that control of discharges is 

adequate requires a minimum of effort and consists principally of 

monitoring the critical material, oysters, for zinc-6 5. Two species 

of oyster are farmed in the estuary, one of Portuguese origin 

(C rassostrea angulata) being cultivated in addition to the native 

species (Ostrea edulis). Research has shown that the highest con 

centrations of zinc-6 5 and also other radionuclides in oysters are 

found at the nearest com m ercial bed to the power station, where 

only the native species is cultivated. Higher concentrations are 

assimilated at a second site of special layings in the immediate 

vicinity of the outfall on the B arrier Wall, but these oysters are not 

sold for human consumption; they were laid for the deliberate 

purpose of indicating the maximum conceivable concentration in 

any oysters in the estuary. The site is very poor for maintaining 

oysters in a healthy, growing, condition and layings cannot be left 

long enough to attain biological equilibrium with zinc, but experience 

has shown that the basic aim of the layings is regularly achieved.




Both sites are sampled quarterly for the native species, the 

Portuguese species also being collected at the B arrier Wall position. 

Routine analysis consists of a gross beta assay followed by gammaspectrom 

etry for zinc-65, which also shows the presence of some 

other nuclides. At the present low degree of contamination the 

gross beta assay is predominantly due to natural radioactivity — 

potassium-40 — although phosphorus-32 has made a significant 

contribution on occasions, particularly in B arrier Wall samples. 

Specific analysis has to be made by chem ical separation to verify 

the importance of most of the various radionuclides present, 

although much of the information has been produced prim arily for 

the laboratory's radioecological research program me in the estuary. 

Trawsfynydd 

This nuclear power station occupies a unique position in the 

United Kingdom since it is the only such unit discharging its low - 

level radioactive waste to fresh water — Lake Trawsfynydd — 

which is also the source of the station's cooling water. This has 

posed new environmental problem s in waste control, although the 

principles of application are the s!ame as those for sites discharging 

their liquid wastes to saline waters. 

The critical route to public exposure is by consumption of fish 

from Lake Trawsfynydd, which thus involves only internal exposure. 

At the present stage in the station's operational history the critical 

radionuclides are caesium -137 and caesium -134, to the extent that 

all others have so far been of trivial significance, although the 

situation could still change since the station has not yet reached 

operational equilibrium. However, work by Preston, Jefferies and 

Dutton has shown that reconcentration factors for the caesium 

isotopes are very large (about 4 X 103), so that they are likely to 

remain the critical radionuclides unless the relative discharges of, 

for instance, phosphorus-32 (which displays sim ilarly high r e 

concentration factors) should increase considerably. 

The lake is noted for trout, which is the principal species fished, 

but a small minority of the critical group, who are essentially local 

anglers and their fam ilies, eat perch. Both species are normally 

sampled at quarterly intervals and specific analysis for caesium 

isotopes is the m ost important measurement, although a gross 

beta assay is carried out as a routine. This would easily show 

any significant quantities of beta emitters such as phosphorus-32.




TABLE XXX. RADIOACTIVITY IN FISH IN LAKE TRAWSFYNYDD, 

1967-68 

S p ecies 

1 3 4 _ Cs 

R ad ioactiv ity 

(p C i/g (w et)) 

137Cs 

Trout 0 .7 5 .9 

Perch 1 .8 17 

W eighted m ean 1. 0 8 .7 

The maximum consumption rate has been estimated at 100 g/d 

from habits surveys, which have in addition formed the basis for 

identifying the critical group and other important factors. Unlike 

a marine or estuarine site, there is little possibility of an external 

dose-rate problem ; farmland is not periodically flooded in such a 

way that significant contamination of working areas could occur. 

Concentrations of caesium radionuclides in fish in 1967-1968 are 

shown in Table XXX. No attempt has been made to identify an 

average rate for the critical group since it is relatively small, 

and this estimate of 2.5% of the derived working lim it is therefore 

an overestimate of that which the average member has received. 

(B) Exposure assessable only by sampling indicator m aterials 

The value of critical materials is m ost readily appreciated 

during the early years of operation of a site. Discharge rates tend 

to build up slowly, and the laboratory is currently surveying several 

sites where it appears that, though potentially critical m aterials are 

not measurably contaminated at present, this may not remain so 

indefinitely. In these circum stances the most useful and econom ic 

development of effort consists of adding an indicator material to 

the sampling program me whilst maintaining a small survey of 

potentially critical m aterials, and analysing the indicator material 

for specific radionuclides known to be present in the waste d ischarged. 

Part of the monitoring scheme is common to sites in 

category (C) in that, in the early period of operation of a site, the 

local public may naturally be somewhat anxious, and a limited 

program me is needed to reassure them.




Indicator materials chosen by the laboratory are usually species 

of seaweed and thus not all environments are amenable to monitoring 

in this way. F or instance, barren shingle beaches, such as those 

around Sizewell, Suffolk, do not provide the conditions necessary for 

seaweeds to grow. Fortunately, such areas are relatively rare and 

there is sometimes a range of seaweeds from which to choose. The 

essential requirements of an indicator m aterial are that it should 

be a sedentary species and exhibit high reconcentration factors. 

Most commonly found seaweeds exhibit useful concentration factors 

for a number of radionuclides found in discharges. The Fucus weeds, 

particulalry F. vesiculosus, F. serratus and F. spira lis, grow in 

profusion on many parts of the coasts of the United Kingdom and 

readily concentrate zinc-54, iron-55, cobalt-60, zirconium -95/ 

niobium-95, ruthenium-106 and iodine-131. It is from this group 

of seaweeds that sampling m aterials for indicator monitoring 

program m es are normally chosen. 

The best example of use of an indicator material in the laboratory's 

work in this present context is provided by the seaweed 

F. vesiculosus in the vicinity of Hinkley Point, Somerset. This 

station has been at power since 1965 and discharge rates so far 

have been low, no contamination having been detected in any of the 

potentially critical m aterials. Locally caught fish and shrimps are 

the most important in this respect, and also the foreshore which 

might becom e contaminated by gamma-emitting radionuclides and 

could thus, as a working area of fisherm en, give rise to external 

exposure. During 1968 traces of zinc-65, iron-55 and cobalt-60 

were detected in the weed. 

These data can be used to make a quantitative estimate of 

exposure of the critical group if values of appropriate concentration 

factors in both critical and indicator m aterials are known. The 

seaweed concentrations indicate concentrations in the local water 

m ass, from which the actual concentrations in critical m aterials 

can be calculated. Consequently, this procedure is not lim ited to 

radionuclides found in the indicator m aterial and concentrations of 

any constituent in the critical material can be estimated within 

reasonable lim its if full data are available on the com position of the 

effluent being discharged. 

From recent data it appears that at Hinkley Point, Somerset, 

the critical nuclide will probably be phosphorus-32 if the present 

discharge regim e is maintained, with minor contributions from 

chrom ium -51, caesium -137 and antimony-124. This is the first 

indication of the identity of the critical radionuclide and though the




maximum degree of radiological exposure is trivial at this stage, 

equivalent to a m ere 0.07% of the derived working lim it, it marks 

an important step in environmental measurements. A sim ilar series 

of calculations can be carried out for contamination of beach material, 

for which the only important nuclides are caesium-137 and -134. 

The maximum conceivable exposure by this route is even less than 

by consumption of fish and shrimps, at 0.02% of the derived working 

limit. 

(C) Exposure not measurable by any method 

Dilution of discharges from some sites is so large compared 

with the quantities of radioactivity involved that it can be predicted 

with confidence that no environmental material will be measurably 

contaminated. Although there may be little or no scientific need to 

carry out any environmental monitoring, a limited program me is 

generally undertaken, at least in the early period of operation of a 

site, prim arily to allay public fears. Ultimately, the program m es 

can be contracted, and if this situation of no measurable contamination 

persists after the station has reached operational equilibrium, it 

will be possible to dispense with monitoring altogether, leaving any 

occasional checks to the operator. 

A good example of this type of site is provided by the nuclear 

power station at Dungeness, Kent. Radiological exposure is not 

measurable by any method, direct or indirect, but monitoring is 

still designed on the critical path model which provides the only 

meaningful and scientific basis for expressing results. Detectable 

contamination is not necessary before potential critical routes can 

be identified. Two groups of the public would be important in this 

way — fishermen and bait-diggers — and the monitoring program me 

is designed to cover their habits. Plaice and whelks are sampled 

at approximately quarterly intervals subject to seasonal availability, 

and a simple total beta assay is sufficient to show that no artificial 

radioactivity is present. Occasionally, samples are analysed by 

gam m a-spectrom etry to confirm that no radionuclides are being 

m issed by the m ore simple beta analysis. Bait-digging for lugworm 

is a regular occupation on the beaches to the east of the 

power station and the potential critical effect would be external 

gamma radiation exposure resulting from adsorption of radioactivity 

on to the fine sand in this area. To cover this pathway gamma d oserate 

measurements are made at selected points from half a m ile to 

four m iles from the discharge point. Measurements have so far




revealed nothing but natural radioactivity, principally of cosm ic 

origin. A series of measurement positions is adopted, prim arily 

so as to have a basis for proving whether any apparent contamination 

could be attributed to the station. This would only be so if m easurements 

were made at quarterly intervals during the first three years 

of operation of the station, after which they were reduced to the 

present rate of two surveys per year, which reflects the expected 

trend in a situation of this type. 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 

Typical surveillance program m es [24] 

Environm ental m onitoring around fa cilities handling uranium 

Tsivoglou [25] has described the environmental monitoring 

program me around a uranium m ill in Colorado. Little airborne 

wastes are generated at this m ill since waste gases from furnaces 

and other equipment are generally scrubbed to rem ove particulates 

before release to the atmosphere. Samples of river water and 

sediment are collected from the river where the liquid wastes are 

discharged. Water samples upstream and downstream of the mill 

are taken by means of a pump and tim er set to deliver a small 

volume of water every 15 minutes to a large collection bottle. 

Samples are rem oved weekly and either analysed weekly or com 

posited for monthly analysis. Analysis is principally for radium-226 

and uranium, although analyses for 210Pb, Th and Po have been made 

on a few samples. Sediment samples are analysed for 226Ra and 

gross alpha activity. Radium-226 was determined by the radon 

emanation technique, uranium by fluorom etric procedure and gross 

alpha activity with an internal proportional counter. 

Quantities of uranium are released to the atmosphere from 

several stacks of the Springfield Works (a fuel fabrication plant) 

near Preston, Lancs, UK [26]. Traces of the released uranium may 

deposit on vegetation grazed by cattle. Since uranium ingested by 

cows is not transferred to their milk, the main criteria is protection 

of the health of the animals rather than human radiation exposure. 

Samples of bovine faeces were collected twice during 196 9 from four 

farms close to the Springfield site and from a central farm several 

m iles away.3 In all but one case samples contained 5 /Ltg of uranium 

3 T h e sam p ling o f bovine fa eces began in 1962. T h e c o n ten t o f uranium was g en era lly in 

the range 0 - 5 ppm above re fere n ce sam ples tak en at a d istan ce o f about ten m ile s.



TABLE XXXI. TYPICAL ENVIRONMENTAL SURVEILLANCE PROGRAM FOR A NUCLEAR 

POWER PLANT 

V ecto rs or in d ices R e la tiv e frequ ency A nalyses Sam p lin g lo ca tio n s 

S u rfa ce w ater 

R eceiv in g w aters 

o f th e fa c ility 

Bottom sed im en ts 

Ground w ater 

A ir: 

(a) In h a la tio n 

(b) Im m ersio n 

C ontinuous co m p o site or w eekly 

grab 

S em ia n n u a lly 

As a p p lic a b le (usually quarterly 

or annually ) 

H ig h -v o lu m e sam p les o cca sio n a lly 

L o w -v o lu m e sam p les d aily or w eekly 

D osim eters ch an ged m onthly 

Gross b e ta and g a m m a scans, 

period ic analysis for 3H with 

frequency a fu n ctio n o f the 

lev els m easured 

Gross b eta and g am m a scans 

Gross b e ta and g a m m a scans 

Gross b e ta and g a m m a scans 

o f filters and cartrid ges 

Integrated dose due to n o b le 

gases by ap p rop riate read er 

d ev ice 

S tream 

— ab ove and below the 

fa c ility ; reserv oir, bay, la k e — 

n earest sh o re lin e ; 

any nearby 

d o m estic w ater suppliers using the 

re c e iv in g w aters as a raw w ater source 

N ear re a c to r’s o u tfa ll or ab ove and 

b elow th e o u tfa ll i f th e re ce iv in g 

w ater is a stream 

Supplies w ithin 5 m ile s o f th e fa c ility 

Populated areas w ithin 5 - 1 5 m iles 

o f th e fa c ility 


M ilk 

M onthly 

Q u arterly 

G a m m a-sp ectru m analysis 

for 131I 

89Sr and 90Sr or to ta l Sr by 

b e ta analysis 

D airy herds w ithin 1 0 -1 5 m ile s o f 

th e fa c ility 

D airy herds w ith in 1 0 -1 5 m ile s o f 

th e fa c ility 

A q u a tic b io ta 

V a ria b le 

G am m a-sp ectru m analysis 

for sele cted rad ionuclides 

N ear th e re a cto r's o u tfa ll or above 

and below i f re ce iv in g w ater is. a stream 

Food crops and 

oth er v e g e ta tio n 

S easo n al 

tim e ) 

(b e fo re or at harvesting 

G am m a-sp ectru m analysis 

W ith in a 1 0 -1 5 m ile s radius o f the 

f a c ility 

S o il 

A nnually 

Sr and 

Cs or gross b eta 

P rev ailin g downwind d irectio n in 

n earest a g ricu ltu ra l areas



APPENDIX IV 1 25 

per gram of dried sample or less. The one exceptional sample 

contained 30 /jg U /g sample. The lim it derived on the basis of the 

chem ical toxicity of uranium is 220 jug U /g. 

Nuclear power reactors 

The Bureau of Radiological Health of the US Public Health 

Service has published several reports discussing monitoring program m es 

in place around existing power reactors [27-29] . Table XXXI 

below is extracted from one of their reports and sum m arizes a 

typical environmental surveillance program m e for power reactors. 

A programme sim ilar to that described in Table XXXI was 

recommended by the World Health Organization for surveillance 

around nuclear reactors and fuel processing plants. The main 

difference was the additional recommendation o f 3H, U and Pu 

analysis in samples of water and sediments. 

Description of the existing or planned environmental monitoring 

program m es at nuclear power sites are available through public 

documents filed with the Atomic Energy Com m ission or in some 

instances through open literature reports [30-32]. Environmental 

monitoring of ports and facilities for nuclear powered naval vessels 

was discussed iji a recent issue of Radiological Health Data and 

Reports [33]. 

Nuclear fuels reprocessing plants 

NFS Plant, New York 

The Nuclear Fuels Services plant in West Valley, New York, 

is the first private facility for reprocessing power reactor fuels 

in the United States. Two complementary environmental surveillance 

program m es are in operation around the site, one is maintained by 

the operator of the plant and one by the New York State Health 

Department. The plant is designed to process one ton per day of 

reactor fuel of 20 000 M W -d /t exposure. The plant operating 

license lim its the discharge of 131I to 3 C i/a and noble gases, 

essentially all 85Kr, to 10 juCi/a. 

About 40 000 gallons per day of liquid effluent are released 

through a series of ponds and lagoons and eventually into a nearby 

creek. Sampling is perform ed daily for gross alpha and beta analysis 

and weekly for isotopic analysis. Low concentrations of 58Co, 60Co,




9(&r, 95Z r -95Nb, 103Ru, 106Ru and 137Cs are present in the effluent. 

If necessary, the effluent can be tem porarily detained in the ponds 

or diverted to storage and/or treatment facilities. 

Both the plant operator and NYS Health Department collect 

samples of air, water and milk in the vicinity of the site. During 

the preoperational period the NY State Health Department collected 

and published detailed data pertaining to population, surface water 

supplies, agriculture, stream biota, and livestock within a 25-m ile 

radius of the plant site [34]. Background radiation levels were 

also measured in a pressurized ion chamber at about 30 locations 

during the preoperational environmental programme [35] . 

Two soil samples were collected and analysed for gross gamma 

activity at each of four locations on the plant site at a 12-month 

interval. 

Milk samples were collected from six farms and analysed for 

gross gamma activity and for several fission products. Low concentrations 

of the fall-out nuclides 89Sr, 90Sr and 137Cs were detected 

in nearly all milk samples. Surface water samples were collected 

from numerous streams near the plant site and analysed for gross 

gamma, fall-out nuclides, uranium and radium. Only rarely were 

positive measurements obtained. Sampling sites were also 

established for drinking water, bottom mud, fish and air samples. 

After operation of the plant for a few years, the Northeastern 

Radiological Health Laboratory of the USPHS (now part of EPA) 

perform ed a special survey of the NFS plant environs [36]. 

Samples of milk, drinking water, fish, and deer were collected and 

analysed fo r 3H, 60Co, 90Sr, 106Ru, 134Cs and 137Cs. Measurements 

of 85Kr in air were also made. The study concluded that "the 

presence of Nuclear Fuels Services ... did not significantly increase 

the radiation dose to the 'typical individual' in 1968 above that due 

to fallout and natural radiation". 

Environmental surveillance at the Hanford Project 

The US AEC Hanford project is a com plex of production reactors, 

fuels fabrication and reprocessing plants, and research facilities. 

The eight older plutonium producing reactors, now shut down, utilized 

a once-through cooling system. Columbia River water was passed 

through the reactors, then into delay ponds and finally back into 

the river. The effluent contained fission>products and neutron 

activation products.




Atmospheric releases from the fuel reprocessing plants included 

131I and some particulate material, principally 106Ru. Liquid effluents 

from the separations plants are not released directly to portions of 

the environment accessible to the public. High-level wastes are 

stored in tanks. Medium level wastes are released to the ground 

where all the radionuclides except 3H and 106Ru are effectively 

retained by the soil, which is up to 400 feet thick above the groundwater. 

Low concentrations of these two nuclides can be measured 

in groundwater, which migrates very slowly towards the Columbia 

River. The environmental surveillance program me at Hanford 

reflects the past need to monitor potential pathways of exposure 

from both the reactor effluents discharged to the river and the 

reprocessing plants' effluents released to air and ground. 

Table XXXII sum m arizes the types and frequency of sampling and 

analysis perform ed during 1969 and 1970. 

Manpower and laboratory requirements 

The operation of a surveillance program me em braces a number 

of activities from designing the survey, directing the survey, 

collecting samples, and analysing sam ples, to interpreting the data 

obtained. Professional advice from many sources may be required 

during the planning phase and at least one professionally trained 

scientist is needed to supervise the program me initially. The 

scientist in charge of the survey should have an understanding of, 

and access to advisors in, sampling techniques, operation and 

maintenance of counting equipment, chem ical analyses, statistical 

evaluation of data, and general health physics. 

The number of supporting technical staff needed will depend a 

great deal upon the magnitude and scope of the survey. It is generally 

found that someone with the equivalent of a high school education 

can carry out the routine procedures used in environmental survey 

work. Training is essential, however, if samples from the field are 

to be properly collected and analysed according to specialized 

procedures. 

The equipment and laboratory facilities required vary according 

to the scope of the survey. The measurement of gross activity 

requires the usual facilities of a small chem ical laboratory supplemented 

by relatively simple counting devices. Analysis for specific 

nuclides will normally not require other than conventional laboratory 

equipment, but it is expensive in time. Further, the sensitivity of




TABLE XXXII. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING PROGRAMME 

AT HANFORD 

Item Frequency A nalysis 

Effluents 

Gaseous 

Liquids: 

Released to riv er 

Released to ground 

Environm ental m ed ia 

Air 

Su rfa ce w ater 

San itary w ater 

Ground w ater 

M ilk 

Fish 

G a m e birds 

O ther foodstuffs 

Sh ellfish 

Extern al dose 

Continuous 

W eek ly 

Continuous 

Batchw ise or daily 

W eek ly /b i - w eekly 

M onthly co m p o site 

Q u arterly co m p o site 

(T o ta l 4 2 lo catio n s) 

W eek ly to quarterly 

(3 lo catio n s up and dow n-stream 

o f P ro ject) 

W eek ly /m o n th ly 

(3 lo catio n s) 

M onthly to sem i-a n n u a lly 

( ~ 180 w ells) 

W eek ly /m o n th ly 

Q u arterly 

(4 farm s, 3 c o m m e rc ia l sources) 

S em i-m o n th ly 

M onthly co m p o site 

Seaso n ally 

M onthly / qu arterly /seaso n a lly 

(Farm s and lo c a l stores) 

M onthly 

(one lo catio n ) 

S em i-w e ek ly 

(tw o lo catio n s) 

M onthly 

(5 8 lo catio n s) 

P a rticu la te and halogens 

Isotopic 

Gross a ctiv ity 

Isotopic 

Gross b e ta , alpha, 131I 

G am m a scan 

9 0 - 239_ 

Sr, Pu 

Isotopic — frequency varies with 

nu clid e 

Isotopic — frequ ency varies with 

nuclid e 

Gross B eta, 3H, 

N itrate ion — frequ ency varies 

with lo catio n 

131I, G am m a scan 

90Sr 

32 P 

G am m a scan 

32 „ P, gam m a scan 

3ZP, gam m a scan , 90Sr, 

frequency and s p e c ific analyses 

vary with both food and lo c a tio n 

32P, gam m a scan 

Ion cham bers 

TLD



APPENDIX IV 1 2 9 

T A B L E X X X II. 

(con t.) 

Item Frequency A nalysis 

Ground deposition M onthly Portable survey 

(4 9 co n tro l points) m eters 

M onthly 

(p lan t roots) 

S em i-a n n u a lly 

(fix e d flig h t patterns out to 

2 0 0 m iles from P ro ject) 

C a r-b o rn e s cin tilla tio n cou n ter 

A eria l survey s c in tilla tio n counter 

the counting equipment generally needs to be greater than if, for 

example, only gross beta activity is measured. Time may be 

saved by making use, when possible, of gam m a-ray spectrom etry. 

Summary 

The scope of environmental surveillance at a particular facility 

will depend upon the type and extent of nuclear operations carried 

on within it. Where preliminary surveillance indicates that the 

public exposure resulting from the discharge of wastes to air and 

water will be only a small fraction of the dose lim its, environmental 

surveillance might be drastically reduced. The objectives of radiological 

control can then be met by occasional checks on the discharge 

rates or on environmental media where cumulative effects or 

reconcentration of the effluent radionuclides is suspected. 

For radionuclides of long half-life infrequent sampling (quarterly 

or even annually) is sufficient, unless there are rapid fluctuations 

in the discharge rates or a m ajor change in the environmental conditions. 

Nuclides with relatively short half-lives can be sampled 

at intervals of two to three half-lives. Of course, supplemental 

samples should be taken if results show any significant or unexpected 

increase. 

Advantage should be taken of data gathered by nation-wide 

surveillance networks established for measuring worldwide fall-out. 

In addition, data resulting from effluent monitoring at the facility 

should be utilized in the planning of new or revised surveillance 

program m es. The prim ary aim being to keep the number of samples 

and analyses to the minimum necessary to ensure adequate control.




The resu lts of the su rveillan ce program m e should som ehow be 

relatable to assessm ent of the radiation d oses receiv ed by person s 

in the vicinity of the plant. 

REFERENCES 

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, IAEA/WHO/FA O/ILO Manual, Planning for 

the Handling o f Radiation Accidents, Safety Series No. 32, IAEA, Vienna (1969). 

INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION, Publication 9, 

Pergamon Press, Oxford (1966). 

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Environmental Monitoring in Emergency 

Situations, Safety Series No. 18, IAEA, Vienna (1965). 

BARRATTA, E. J ., PARKS, D. C . , MOELLER, D. W ., An Environmental Surveillance 

Laboratory for Radiochemical Analyses, USPHS Publ. No. 999-RH-7, US Govt. Printing 

Office, Washington, D. C. 

KAMATH, P. R. , The Environmental Radiation Surveillance Laboratory, WHO, Geneva (1970). 

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Rapid Methods for Measuring Radioactivity 

in the Environment, (Proc. Symp. Neuherberg, 1971), IAEA, Vienna (1971). 

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, Methods o f Radiochemical Analysis, W HO/FAO/ IAEA, 

Geneva (1966). 

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Reference Methods for Marine Radioactivity 

Studies, Technical Reports Series No. 118, IAEA, Vienna (1970). 

USAEC HEALTH AND SAFETY LABORATORY NEW YORK, Manual o f Standard Procedures, 

New York (1957, revised annually). 

SUSCHNY, O. , The Measurement of Atmospheric Radioactivity, Technical Note No. 94, 

WHO, Geneva (1968).' 

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, IAEA Services and Assistance, IAEA, 

Vienna (1973) 26. 

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, "International Standards for Drinking Water", Third 

Edition, Geneva (1971). 

UNITED NATIONS SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE ON THE EFFECTS OF ATOMIC RADIATION, 

Rep. A /AG 82/R. 268, Annex A, Environmental Radiation (1971). 

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Manual on Environmental Monitoring for 

Normal Operations, Safety Series No. 16, IAEA, Vienna (1965). 

Based on USEPA, Environmental Radioactivity Surveillance Guide, Rep. ORP/SID 72-2. 

Dispersal and Uptake o f Radioactive Elements in the Tarapur Environment, Rep. BARC-644, 

India (1972). 

PRESTON, A ., Environmental Contamination by Radioactive Materials (Proc. Seminar 

Vienna, 1969), IAEA, Vienna (1969) 309. 

Disposal of Radioactive Wastes Arising in the United Kingdom from the Peaceful Uses of 

A tom ic Energy, Rep. NRPB-R1 (1971). 

MITCHELL, N. T . , Radioactivity in Surface and Coastal Waters o f the British Isles 1970, 

Rep. FRL8 (1971). 

Criteria Used to Estimate Radiation Doses Received by Persons Living in the Vicinity of 

Hanford: Interim Report No. 2, Rep. BNWL-1019, UC-41 (1969). 

G. Fis. Sanit. Prot. Riadiaz, 13 (1969) 215-18.




[22] Umweltradioaktivitat der Kernforschungsanlage Jiilich im Jahre 1971, Zentralabteilung 

Strahlenschutz, Zst-Nr. 0157 (1972). 

[23] MITCHELL, N. T . , "Monitoring of the aquatic environment of the United Kingdom and 

its application to hazard assessment", Environmental Contamination by Radioactive 

Materials (Proc. Seminar Vienna, 1969), IAEA, Vienna (1969) 449. 

[24] SOLDAT, J .K ., Environmental Surveillance o f a Nuclear Facility, Rep. BNWLSA-3786 (1971). 

[25] TSIVOGLOU, E.C. , "Environmental monitoring around a uranium m ill in the USA", 

Manual on Environmental Monitoring in Normal Operation, Safety Series No, 16, IAEA, 

Vienna (1966) 63-70. 

[26] WRAY, E. T. , Ed., Environmental Monitoring Associated with Discharges o f Radioactive 

Waste During 1969 from USAE Establishments, UKAEA Rep. AHSB (RP)R 105 (1970). 

[27] WEAVER, C. L ., HARWARD, E. D. , Surveillance o f nuclear power reactors, Public Health 

Reps, 82 (1969) 899-912. 

[28] BRINCK, W. L. , HARWARD, E. D ., CHISSLER, R. I . , "Programs for environmental 

surveillance around nuclear power plants", Environmental Surveillance in the Vicinity of 

Nuclear Facilities (REINIG, W .C ., Ed.); Proc. Symp. Augusta, 1968), Charles C. Thomas 

Publisher, Springfield (1970) 46-54. 

[29] KAHN, B. , et al. , "Radiological surveillance studies at a boiling water nuclear power 

reactor", Environmental Aspects of Nuclear Power Stations (Proc. Symp. New York, 1970), 

IAEA, Vienna (1971) 535-48. 

[30] LEWIS, L. , "Environmental monitoring for nuclear power plants - A utility health 

physicist’s viewpoint", presented Southeastern Electric Exchange, Engineering and 

Operation Division Conf. Atlanta, 1968, Duke Power Company, Charlotte, N .C . 

[31] CLARK, B. W ., Description o f the Environmental Monitoring Program for the Monticello 

Nuclear Generating Plant near M onticello, Minn., Revised June 1, 1969, Northern States 

Power Company, Minneapolis, Minn. (1969). 

[32] OYEN, L. C. , "Development of the Quad-Cities nuclear power station environs-monitoring 

program", presented ASME Winter Meeting, Los Angeles, Calif. 1969. 

[33] MILES, M. E. , MANGENO, J.J., BURKE, R. D. , Environmental monitoring and disposal of 

radioactive wastes from U. S. Naval nuclear-powered ships and their support facilities, 1970, 

Radiol. Health Data Reps 12 (1971) 235-44. 

[34] DIVISION OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SERVICES, Western N. Y. Nuclear Service Center, 

Preoperational Environmental Study-Preliminary Report, NY State Health Dept. (1962). 

[35] DIVISION OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SERVICES, Western N .Y . Nuclear Service Center, 

Preoperational Environmental Survey, NY State Health Dept. (1964). 

[36] SHLEJEN, B. , An Estimate of Radiation Doses Received by Individuals Living in the Vicinity 

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