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Climate . Animal Production System Plantation [ Soils Crop Environment -1 - - [Feed Resource Limitations Desired Forage Opportunities for Forage Improvements Improvements I Proposed Use and Management Ideotype Figure 1. Steps in establishing selection criteria. THE ENVIRONMENT A detailed description <strong>of</strong> the environment <strong>of</strong> the target area is needed. This includes climatic data such as temperature range, amount and distribution <strong>of</strong> rainfall, length <strong>of</strong> dry season and an estimate <strong>of</strong> the likely rainfall variability, and soil data such as soil type, texture, water holding capacity, pH and soil nutrient status. In order to provide a general picture <strong>of</strong> the environmental conditions encountered in rubber and coconut producing areas, a summary <strong>of</strong> the distribution and growth requirements <strong>of</strong> these two plantation crops has been extracted from Purseglove (1968 and 1972). Rubber is grown at low altitude in the humid tropics between latitudes 15'N and 10°S. Rainfall is usually in excess <strong>of</strong> 1900 mm per year and good rubber yields can only be achieved in areas with no or only a short dry season. While it is grown on a wide range <strong>of</strong> soils <strong>of</strong> pH 4-8, rubber is <strong>of</strong>ten found on acidic soils <strong>of</strong> low fertility. Coconuts are grown between latitude 20'N and 20'S at altitudes <strong>of</strong> less than 300 m. Coconut distribution is usually confined to a coastal belt, although it occurs on a wide range <strong>of</strong> soils <strong>of</strong> pH 5 to 8. It is <strong>of</strong>ten found on neutral or slightly alkaline soils. Annual rainfall in coconut producing areas varies from 1270-2550 mm and many <strong>of</strong> these areas have a short dry season. The light environment under rubber plantations (which is similar to that encountered under oil palm) is very different from that under coconuts. The following 5
light transmission levels refer to integrated photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) values, measured between 1100 and 1300 h on sunny days. Light transmission under convcntionally planted rubber is very high after planting ( > 80%) and remains relatively h;gh for the first 2 years. Light levels decrease sharply between the third and the fifth to seventh year, when it drops to 10 to 20%. Light transmission then remair.f low until the plantation is at least 20 years old. After that, light levels may increase again as wind damage and disease thin the tree stand. The rate <strong>of</strong> decline <strong>of</strong> light levels will vary with factors such as tree clone, planting distance and soil fertility. In coconut plantations, the light transmission is high at planting (> 80%), decreases to below 5070 between years 5 and 10, and then increases steadily (60 to 80%) as the age <strong>of</strong> the stand increases. As the life span <strong>of</strong> coconuts is much longer (>75 years) than that <strong>of</strong> rubber (25 to 30 years), the potential for sustained forage growth under older coconut is considerable. The light transmission quoted here occurs under the tall variety <strong>of</strong> coconut trees; light levels under hybrid varieties are much lower, but follow a similar pattern. CURRENT FARMING SYSTEM The emphasis here is on the animal production system, but the integration <strong>of</strong> animal production into the whole farming system is <strong>of</strong> importance. Often crop residues and by-products constitute a large proportion <strong>of</strong> the available animal' feed, at least during parts <strong>of</strong> the year. Major differences in animal production systems exist between small holders and estates. This relates to factors such as the intensity <strong>of</strong> land use, management level, animal type, herd management, feeding system, fertilizer inputs, and also to attitudes to animal rearing and adoption <strong>of</strong> new technology. For example, while estates <strong>of</strong>ten operate extensive grazing systems, small holders are likely to either tether animals or use cut and carry feeding. Completely different types <strong>of</strong> forage species are needed for these varying needs, and concentration on one or the other system would simplify selection criteria drastically. The availability and cost <strong>of</strong> labor are also impoitant factors, as this affects animal management and pasture establishment options (e.g. viability <strong>of</strong> vegetative plantings). New forageg need to fit into existing farming systems, and need to be appropriate for the economic and cultural realities <strong>of</strong> the particular system. FEED RESOURCE LIMITATIONS Once the target farming system has been identified, the current feed resources need to be examined. What are the current I1. itations in forage supply? Is there a certain period during the year in which forages are limiting? Is it the quantity or the quality <strong>of</strong> forages which limits animal production? Answers to these questions will help to focus the evaluation on particular species. If there is a feed shortage during the dry season, then drought tolerant species or feed banks (e.g. tree legumes) may be needed to overcome this limitation. As most rubber and coconut areas are situated in environments with no or only short dry seasons, a relatively even forage supply is ensured. If forage quality is limiting animal production (as expressed in low daily weight gains), then legumes need to be included in the feed supply. Since detailed knowledge about the nutritive value (e.g. proportion <strong>of</strong> protected proteins) exists for some legume species, the inclusion <strong>of</strong> particular nutritive value requirements should be part <strong>of</strong> the selection criteria (e.g. to be usffi as a supplement with a low quality roughage such as rice straw). If overall stocking rate is low, higher yielding species may be able to increase the carrying capacity <strong>of</strong> the farm. The varying nutritional requirements <strong>of</strong> 6
Page 1 and 2: Proceedings <stron
Page 3 and 4: INTEGRATED TREE CROPPING AND SMALL
Page 5 and 6: Page Health Animal health research
Page 7 and 8: FOREWORD Prompted by the need for f
Page 9 and 10: INTRODUCTION LUis C. INIGUEZ AND MA
Page 11 and 12: Session I The Environment
Page 13: y the plantation crop, and (iv) a d
Page 17 and 18: In coconut plantatiops, opportuniti
Page 19 and 20: MANAGEMENT OF FORAGES FOR ANIMAL PR
Page 21 and 22: The ability to regenerate leaf area
Page 23 and 24: old rubber trees. The production <s
Page 25 and 26: The availability of</strong
Page 27 and 28: Forage Management In view o
Page 29 and 30: (Table 5). However, MARDI, in a rec
Page 31 and 32: Felizardo, B.C. 1972. Response <str
Page 33 and 34: LEGUME TREES AS ALTERNATIVE FYEED R
Page 35 and 36: PRODUCTION ASPECTS OF FODDER SHRUBS
Page 37 and 38: fibre. The Ca:P ratio in Ficus cuni
Page 39 and 40: Capital is other limiting factor fo
Page 41 and 42: Devendra, C. 1979. Malaysian feedst
Page 43 and 44: METHODOLOGIES FOR EVALUATING FORAGE
Page 45 and 46: Plant Profiles a)
Page 47 and 48: Relative available soil n isture (R
Page 49 and 50: I = maximum possible growth when no
Page 51 and 52: Sites Site selection To properly ev
Page 53 and 54: " Disease Rating: Unidentified dise
Page 55 and 56: in Table 2. Care must be exercised
Page 57 and 58: growth in the slower growing plots
Page 59 and 60: SOIL CHARACTERISTICS AND SUITABILIT
Page 61 and 62: Table I. Ach Soil types and land ar
Page 63 and 64: L' Table 2. Chemical properties <st
Page 65 and 66:
Structure Despite being fine-textur
Page 67 and 68:
0.6 Water Content cm3/cm 3 0.55 o 0
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less and aluminum saturation is up
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tion exceeds 45%. Maximum root grow
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FiSa'e 5a. Figure 5b. 64 10-0 10 5-
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Depth, cm Table 11. A comparison <s
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* neutralization of</strong
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Accession (CIAT No.) Brachiaria dec
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Table 14. Chemical analysis <strong
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Competition that forages of
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Table 16. Nutrient uptake by the pr
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- H p0H Ca+Mg (meq/lOOg) 7- e 0 2 4
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REFERENCES Anderson, M.A. and P.M.
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ASSESSMENT OF THE THERMAL ENVIRONME
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The modes of heat
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Measurement of the
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and ventral surfe, and an area midw
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Table 3. Physiological responses <s
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The ability of she
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Session II Research Aspects on Anim
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METHODOLOGIES IN THE NUTRITION AND
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Considering the very high productiv
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In areas of unifor
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Table 3. Effects of</strong
Page 113 and 114:
Locally-made salt blocks (Sanchez a
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Pond, K.R., J.M. Luginbuhl, J.C. Bu
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these animals is influenced by bota
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Recent studies on PKC using an arti
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of nutrients to ex
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Rumen Bacteria The rumen contains a
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used as a previous study reported b
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RUMEN BAG TECHNIQUE As mentioned in
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However, the negative effects <stro
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REFERENCES Abdullah, N. 1986. In vi
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Lowe, S.E., M.K. Theodorou and A.P.
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SHEEP GRAZING TO MANAGE WEEDS IN RU
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Description of Tec
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6• 5 4 3 2 Dry Matter, kg/ha/yr
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Free grazing sheep spent considerab
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SHEEP PRODUCTIVITY FOR MUTTON PRODU
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adapiability than the other breeds
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Table 2. Apparent influence <strong
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" Malin ewes mated to exotic rams e
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FPI = (litter size x lamb survival
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included in the selection criteria.
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Choice of Breeding
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* Stabilizing of i
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Sustainability of
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Patnayak, B.C. 1989. Sheep producti
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There arc two basic considerations
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In spite of the ap
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from 201 to 232 days (Iniguez et al
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carry and grazing in the plantation
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Table 2. Diallel cross involving lo
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Basic assumptions are usually: E u
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where: p , m, and d are a general m
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Note that the lower block diagonal,
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EVALUATION OF POTENTIAL FOR HAIR SH
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White Virgin Island This breed is f
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Table I. Performance of</st
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The three hair breeds that can now
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(wool or hair) that have had an opp
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Bradford, G.E. 1990. Breeding sysce
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ANIMAL HEALTH RESEARCH REQUIREMENTS
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meat, decreased weeding expenditure
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increase in livestock numbers would
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Experiment 2 This is designed to mo
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* It was also observed that sheep w
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* evaluate the efficacy of<
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Beriajaya and P. Stei'enson. 1986.
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of the blood-sucki
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MEASURES TO REDUCE PARASITE INFESTA
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Session III Socioeconomic Aspects,
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ASPECTS OF ON-FARM RESEARCH METHODO
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availability of fo
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If the on-farm research is designed
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EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION ENCOURAGES
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,f rsearch and attempted, through r
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have used a wide variety of
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Cernea, M.M., J.K. Coulter and J.F.
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Young (1984) and Young and Fendeis
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a LP algorithm to derive a set <str
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The expected gross margin may be ca
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Soedjana, T.D. 1985. Risk efficient
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LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION ASPECTS IN IND
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Evidence to support the idea <stron
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1600 Price, Rp/kg 1500 -B-Nominal -
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Indonesian Government Livestock Pol
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Table 7. Live retail sheep prices i
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Intensification of
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Mahyuddin, M.D. and M. Mustapha. 19
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SYSTEM AWARENESS A production syste
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Canopy development model CA = ir r
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where WA is the weeding area in the
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Botanical Components KI K 2 K 3 For
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different tree ages. Decisions on t
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Graham, N. McC., J.L. Black, G.J. F
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EDUCATION Commercial agriculture in
Page 261 and 262:
practical terms. The writers feel t
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NETWORKING ASPECTS IN RESEARCH DEVE
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For instance, through networking, i
Page 267 and 268:
Sanchez, M. 1990. Rotational grazin
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PROSPECTS FOR SHEEP HUSBANDRY AND S
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advanced technology and management
Page 273 and 274:
While small ruminants are usually i
Page 275 and 276:
In general, livestock's contributio
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CONCLUSIONS " The NES project has t
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undergrowth in rubber plantations c
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Extension activities RISDA uses she
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program (reproduction and genetic i
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Of the 55 million population, over
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"Kelantan" sheep. The wool color is
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Feeding Management Table 9. Feeding
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Besides constraints from the low nu
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INTEGRATED TREE CROPPING AND SMALL
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The sheep population in the country
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Table 4. Seasonal responses <strong
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T E1 A NI Smallholder Farmer Cooper
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Phase L Selection of</stron
Page 303 and 304:
REFERENCES Abilay, T. 1985. The Nat
Page 305 and 306:
are many factors that have contribu
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Table 1. Performance indices <stron
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Agricultural By-products and Residu
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CONCLUSION Commercial sheep product
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ROUNDTABLE DISCUSSIONS Following th
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The group considers that the areas
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Fauderconservation Past attempts at
Page 319 and 320:
Methods for Measuring Feed Quantity
Page 321 and 322:
inheritance of a t
Page 323 and 324:
" Flock health programs should be d
Page 325 and 326:
Research Priorities Research ia soc
Page 327 and 328:
* Students should always be encoura
Page 329 and 330:
List of Participan
Page 331 and 332:
Nitis, I.M. Profes
Page 333:
AUTHOR INDEX Abdullah, Norhani 115,
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